6.5 X 11 Double Line.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-60046-0 - The Politics of Italy: Governance in a Normal Country James L. Newell Index More information

Index

Note: Page numbers in italic refer to Figures; those in bold refer to Tables and Appendix; those in bold italic refer to Boxes

Abbas, Ferhat, Algerian nationalist Badoglio, Marshal Pietro 22, 23 leader 344 Banfield, Edward 156 accountability, of independent authorities social capital study 155–6 137, 138 Bassanini Laws (1997) 93, 103, 132 Acerbo Law 19 behaviouralism 145, 146 Achille Lauro cruise ship 162, 336 Berlin Wall, fall of (1989), actions, of individuals 147, 177 nn. 1 effect on Italian politics 9, 31 administrative justice 305, 316 n. 17 see also Cold War agencies (para-statali) 100–2 Berlusconi, Silvio 1, 37, 348, 349 autonomous administrations and 2001 elections 39, 348 (amministrazioni autonome) 101 2001 government 75 enti pubblici 101 and 2006 elections 239 executive 135–7, 136 and 2008 elections 73, 243–5 new (1997) 132 2008 government 97, 247 state holding companies 101 ambition and populism 73, 78 n. 11 Agip petroleum company 343 appointment of ministers 56 agriculture, and Confindustria 184 Common Agricultural Policy 330, 330 and constitutional reform 69, 70, 72 in south 15 corruption charges 161–3 Albania, crisis (1997) 105, 329 and Craxi 36, 196 Algeria 344 and EU 338, 339 Alleanza Nazionale (AN) see National and foreign policy 348–9 Alliance and Forza Italia 35–7, 36–7, 174, 223–5 Amato, Giuliano, Prime Minister 34, 300 international reaction to election (2001) 348 fourth government 39 judicial investigations 68, 70 ‘amoral familism’ 155, 156, 178 n. 6 as Prime Minister (1994) 37, 44, 58, 78 n. 5 Andreotti, Giulio, and trade unions 187 and Caltagirone brothers 197 see also Casa delle Liberta` life senator 60 Bologna, PCI rule in 64 anti-communism 26, 234 Bonomi, Ivanoe, Prime Minister 23 as central component of Fascism 20 Bosnia, crisis (1992-95) 328 and fall of Berlin Wall 31 Bossi, Umberto, Northern League 37, 41, and foreign policy 331 174, 243 US support for 332 Bretton Woods system, end of 266 see also Italian Communist Party Britain, and Italian unification 12 anti-fascism 152 budget, annual, anticipated reactions, law of 181, 182 and Finance bills 129 Arab nationalism 343, 344 planning document 130 Arab-Israeli conflict 342 reform of procedure 130–1 Austria 348 see also Finance Law Austro-Hungarian Empire 11 bureaucracy 125–9 Autonomia operaia, extremist group 199 administrative reorganisation 132–4 Avanti!, Socialist party newspaper 20 and appointment of senior officials 127–8 Azienda sanitarie locali (ASL) 301 and executive 121

373

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Index

bureaucracy (cont.) centre-right parties, and executive control over budget 128–9 and 2008 elections 243 independence 110 and church attendance 232 and interest groups 110, 193 ‘coalition makers’ 222–5 legalism in 124 coalitions 212–13 party patronage in 28 effect of return to proportional and policy implementation 110 representation on 213, 225 power of 110 ideological heterogeneity 218–220 power to reorganise 126 see also National Alliance (AN); Christian reform of administration (1980s) 129–35 Democratic Party (DC); Forza Italia reform of senior appointments 134 (FI); La Destra; Northern League (LN); relationship to Parliament 135–8 Democratic Party (PD); People of terms and conditions of employment Freedom (PdL); Union of Christian 126, 131 Democrats (UDC) Weberian principles of 137 CGIL trade union confederation 184, 187 ‘bureaucratic capture’, of ministers Chamber of Deputies 59 100, 121 2001 elections 236 elections to 59 cabinet see Council of Ministers Charles Albert, king of Piedmont 11 Calamandrei, Piero, jurist 52 Chiaromonte study (Banfield) 155–6 Caltagirone brothers 197 Chiti, Vannino 74 Camera dei Fasci e delle Corporazioni 20 Christian democracy 218 candidate-centred campaigning 226, 226 Christian Democratic Centre-Christian Casa delle Liberta` coalition 212 Democratic Union (CCD-CDU) 2001 election 38, 39 38, 212 2006 election 1 Christian Democratic Party (DC) 24, 25, 27 see also Berlusconi, Silvio alliances 26 Cassese reforms (1993) 131 and Coldiretti 190 Catholic Church, and democratic patriotism 151 challenge to democracy 203–5 fear of leftist parties 64, 234 and confessional state 203 and legislature 111 declining influence 205 and Northern League 31 influence on electoral participation 16, prime ministers 122 18, 204 privileged relations of Church influence in party politics 206 with 202 as interest group 202–7 regional support 229 Lateran Pacts (1929) 204 role in coalitions 191 legacy of confessional state 203–5 successor parties 42, 212 membership 206 Christianity, as social identity 218 and moral controversies 205 Central Intelligence Agency (USA) 105 obstruction to unification 16 Ciampi, Carlo Azeglio, political influence 30 and 1993 protocollo 186 present role 205–7 life senator 60 social welfare role 206 and national patriotism 152 and voting behaviour 229, 231–4, 233 as President 57, 59, 78 n. 6 Catholic People’s Party 19 Prime Minister 35 Cavour, Camillo di 14 circoscrizioni (municipal subdivisions) 94 and Garibaldi 13 CISL, Catholic trade union confederation and Unification 11–13 185, 187 centre-left parties, civil rights 285 and 2006 election 236–40 and judicial policy 304–14 ‘coalition makers’ 220–2 and judicial system 306 coalitions 213–16 class, and voting behaviour 230, 232 ideological heterogeneity 217–18, 218 clientela, privileged relations with agencies 193 primary elections 222, 223 clientelism 28, 30, 86, 87, 157–9 see also Green Party; Italy of Values (IdV); and corruption 31 Italian Socialist Party (PSI); Left and emergence of Northern League 31 Democrats (DS); Margherita; Party of and interest groups 196 Italian Communists (PdCI); Radicals; and systemic corruption 32 Communist Refoundation (RC);Union of ‘virtuous’ 159 Democrats for Europe (UDEUR); Unione coalition governments, centre-periphery relationship 86–95 2006 government 240–2 impact of party politics on 86–9 and policy-making 125

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veto players in 117 implementation problems 64 and weakness of prime ministers 75 institutional arrangements 53–54 coalition instability 216–25 and national integration 151 absence of ‘coalition makers’, and passage of legislation 28 centre left 220–2 pressure for reform 40, 64–8 centre right 222–5 provision for amendment 53–5, 194 centre-left ideological heterogeneity 217–18 Constitutional Court 53, 64, 306 centre-right ideological heterogeneity and 1998 reforms of code of criminal 218–220 procedure 312 fragmentary character 216–17 ‘binding interpretations’ 194 leadership 221, 226 and policy-making 194 precariousness of governments 26, 28, powers of 61, 194 74–5, 116–17 and regional legislative powers 83 coalitions 212–16 ruling on economic and social rights 52 centre-left 213–16 constitutional reform 46 n. 7 centre-right 212–13 1994 election and aftermath 67–8 second republican period 40 1999 reforms 82 and ‘third force’ parties 237 2001 (on distribution of responsibilities) 93 at Unification 16 Berlusconi’s attempt (2005) 72 Cold War 322–3, 350 and emergence of Northern League 66 and exclusion of extremes 26 failure of Commission (1996) 69–71 ideological divide 25, 173 future of 72–6 post-Cold War period 324–5 need for majority support of legislators 69 US nuclear umbrella 332–5 notion of regime transition 66 Coldiretti, peasant proprietors’ organisation pressure for 40, 64–8, 72 25, 190 public dissatisfaction 65–6 collective responsibility, of cabinet 56 risks of 74 Colombo, Emilio, life senator 60 and sub-national units 81 Comitato Nazionale per la Valutazione del contractualism 138 Sistemo Universitario 276 Cordero di Montezemolo, Luca, president Commission for Constitutional Reform of Confindustria 184 (1996), 42, 68 corporatism 182 failure of 69–71 as central component of Fascism 20 obstacles to reform 68–9 corruption 32–3 Committee for National Liberation (CLN) 23 and ‘Mani pulite’ investigations 32, 160 committees, role in Parliament 28, 111, 190 and clientelism 31 Communist Refoundation (Rifondazione definitions 164 Comunista, RC) 31, 41, 214, 215, 217 and interest groups 196 Communist/Socialist CGIL trade union Mafia 164–7 confederation 185 political 159–63 communitarianism 218 relative position of Italy 163–4 company law 278–80 revelations after 1992 election 9 ‘concertation’ (decision-making through Corte dei Conti (Public Audit Office) 306 consensus) 185, 186–9 Cortemaggiore, oilfield 343 concurrent powers 63 Cossiga, Francesco, President 59, 60 confessional state, Cotonou Agreement (2000) 330 legacy of 203–5 Council of Ministers (Consiglio dei Ministri) nature of 203 56, 96 Confindustria (employers’ organisation) 184 appointment of ministers 56, 58 and Ministry of Industry and Commerce collective responsibility 56 184, 193 Council of State, appeals to 305 Consiglio Superiore della Magistratura see Court of Cassation (Corte de Cassazione) 61, High Council of the Judiciary 305, 306 Constituent Assembly (1946-47) 50, 74, 111 role of 307 constitution, Piedmontese 16, 80 ruling on economic and social rights 52 Constitution (1948) 24–5, 50–63, 74, 75, 76–7 Craxi, Bettino, Prime Minister 35, 162, 335 Article 111 312–13 and Achille Lauro affair 336 Article 112 309 and Berlusconi 36, 196 and budgetary decision-making 128 corruption allegations 161 division of political authority 56–61, 111 and Ligresti 197 effect of European integration on 55, 195 power of 122 geographical distribution of authority and public dissatisfaction with 61–3, 81 government 65, 66

375

Index

crime rates 166 constraints of election promises 272 criminal justice 305 constraints of EMU 266–7 1988 reform of code of criminal and European integration 263–9 procedure 312 macroeconomic response to EU Crispi, Francesco, Prime Minister 99 constraints 270–2 CSM see High Council of Judiciary microeconomic measures 272–80 Cuccia, Enrico 197 scope of 253–4 Curcio, Renato 200 economy, custody laws, preventative 32, 310–11 and 2006 administration 241 adaptation to change 262 D’Alema, Massimo, Prime Minister 39 Central and North-East (‘Third Italy’) 169–70 Commission for Constitutional Reform 70 ‘decline thesis’ 256, 260 D’Amato, Antonio, president of arguments against 259–62 Confindustria 184 arguments in favour 256–9 de Gasperi, Alcide, Prime Minister 24 EC Excessive Deficit Procedure 269 de Nicola, Enrico, as head of state (1946) 50 and European Stability and Growth Pact decentralisation, 267–9 Northern League and 66 growth of public debt 102, 257, 263, recent legislative changes 93–4 267–9, 270 sub-national government 80–1 and ‘new economy’ 273 decision-making, unpredictability in 196 privatisation 270 decolonisation 322–3 regional inequalities 90–4, 255, 256 democracy, size 254–5 cultural preconditions 148 small and medium-sized firms 167, 168, 263 and interest groups 180–3, 195–7 structural dependence of state 254 perceived shortcomings in Italy 173 underground 287, 290 perception of Italy as anomalous 2 at Unification 11, 15 role of elections 210–11 education and training 257, 263 Democratic Left (Sinistra Democratica, SD), implementation and impact of reforms break from DS 243 274–6 Democratic Party of the Left (Partito as microeconomic policy 272–6 Democratica della Sinistra, PDS) 31, 41 Moratti reforms (2004/5) 273–4 Democratic Party (Partito Democratico, PD) 73 Egypt 343 2008 elections 241, 242 Einaudi, Luigi, President 78 n. 6 Democratici 42, 214 elections 210–11 Democratici di Sinistra (SD) see Left Democrats 1921 general 19 Democrazia Europea (European Democracy, 1946 Constituent Assembly 24 DE) 212 1948 general 25 Department for Implementation of the 1992 general 9 Government’s Legislative 1994 general 35, 67–8 Programme 96 1996 general 37 Department for Judicial and Legislative 2001 general 38, 39, 66, 213, 230, 236, Affairs 96 237, 238 deregulation (delegificazione) 118 2004 European 215, 224, 225 Di Pietro, Antonio, Italia dei Valori 73, 214, 2005 regional 75, 225 216, 242 2006 general 1, 5 n. 1, 236–40, 244, 247 Dini, Lamberto, Prime Minister 37, 187 2008 general 73, 240–6, 244, 247 distretti giudiziari (judicial districts) 305 factors in 211–12 Draghi Law (1998), company law reform 279 Mafia influence 167 mayoral (1993) 35 economic growth, and vote for coalition over party 240 1980s 65 see also referenda; voting behaviour and demand for health services 292 electoral law 225–8 GDP 255 1993 changes 34, 43, 55, 89, 213, 216 post-war 30, 169 2005 (return to proportional rates 259 representation) 225–8 economic indicators, local reforms 35 comparison with competitors 261 national reforms 33–5 and population growth 260 single member, simple plurality 33, 213 economic policy, system for Chamber of Deputies 227, 352–5 available instruments 262–3 system for Senate 33, 227, 355–7 budgetary controls over expenditure 271–2 employment rates 273, 274, 282 n. 10, 300

376

Index

ENI state holding company 342, 343 relationship to bureaucracy 121 environment, as quality of life issue 236 relationship to legislature 108–10, 111 environmental movements 202 see also policy-making environmentalism 218 executive agencies 135–7, 136 euro, expenditure, adoption of (1999) 39, 43, 102 budgetary controls over 271–2 introduction 268 components 272, 286 European Atomic Energy Commission exports 259 (Euratom) 327 European Central Bank 266, 281 n. 5 Falcone, Giovanni, murder of 168 European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) family, role of 286 326, 327 Fanfani, Amintore, general secretary of DC 88 European Convention on Human Rights 313 Fascism 18–25, 45 European Council, Lisbon (2000) 295 aftermath of 22, 23–5 European Defence Community (EDC) 326, 327 antecedents 19 European Economic Community (EEC) and civil service 128 326, 327 legacy of 22, 150 European Exchange Rate Mechanism, Italian local government under 81 exit (1992) 131 loss of power 21 European Union 320, 321 Mussolini and 20 and Albania 329 seizure of power 19 and Bosnia 328 Fascist Party 20 Common Agricultural Policy 330, 330 Fazio, Antonio, Governor of Bank of Italy 278 Common Foreign and Security Policy 328 federal states, type 61 and constraints on economic policy 263–9 federalism 62, 62 and convergence criteria 101, 102, 265 Northern League’s demands 42, 66 European Monetary Union 102, 103, 263, Federation, centre-left alliance 215–16, 221 264, 265–6 Ferri, Enrico, MEP 28 effect of integration on Constitution 55, 195 Festa della Repubblica (2 June) 152 effect of membership on Italian state Fiamma Tricolore 213 103–4 Finance Law 130 foreign policy 329–30, 336, 338–9, 341 and annual budget 129 and growth of independent authorities 135 Finance Law (1988) 131 Italian presidency 349 Finance Law (1994), and Cassese reforms 131 and Kosovo 329 Finance Law (1998) 303 and NATO 325, 326 Finance Law (2001) 271, 303 pensions 299 Finance Law (2004) 303 and pressure on welfare policy 295 Fini, Gianfranco, AN leader 213 and qualification for membership of single 2008 elections 243 currency 43, 102, 186 ‘flanking organisations’, Coldiretti 25 as regional security complex 325 foreign policy, single market 264 American influence 332–3, 335–6 Stability and Growth Pact (1997) 103, and Arab world 343–5 267–9, 281 n. 6 Cold War objectives 331–6 traditional security issues 325–9 degree of success 345–50 and United States 328 of Enrico Mattei 342–4 exclusive powers 63 Europeanism 339, 350 executive, Mediterranean 341–2 and appointment of senior officials 127–8 military support for US 332 constitutional powers of 56 personalisation of 348–9 and control of budget 126, 128–9 popular views on 340 ex-ante instruments of parliamentary shift in 339–41 control 119 since Cold War 336–41 ex-post instruments of parliamentary US nuclear umbrella 332–5, 346 control 120 US–Italian intelligence cooperation 333–5 influence of interest groups 191 Forza Italia (FI) 218 limits on powers of 112–14, 117, 119 and ‘Alliance for Good Government’ with new divisions of labour with legislature MSI 37 118–21 and Berlusconi 35–7, 36–37, 222–5 and parliamentary majority 53 and Casa delle Liberta` coalition 212 and party system 114–17 characteristics 36 powers over bureaucracy 125–9 emergence of 174–5

377

Index

Forza Italia (FI) (cont.) High Council of the Judiciary (Consiglio and ‘Freedom Alliance’ with Northern superiore della magistratura, CSM) 61, League 37 64, 306 ideology 220 House of Freedoms see Casa delle Liberta` France, occupation of Italy (1796–1815) 11 franchise, illiteracy 16 1882 extension 18 IMF (International Monetary Fund) 1912 extension 18 105, 322 1919 universal male suffrage 18 Income of Last Resort (Reddito di ultima at unification 16 instanza) 303 free-riding, defined 170, 172 independent authorities 135–7, 136 freedom, concept of 17 industrial districts 169 French Revolution, co-operative relations between firms 170 and the confessional state 203 industrial relations 185–6 legacy of 92 1993 protocollo 185–6 Friuli-Venezia Giulia, special statute region collective bargaining 185, 186 81, 82 concertation 185, 186–9 see also trade unions G8 summit, Genoa (2001) 104, 198 industrialisation, Garibaldi, Giuseppe 10, 13 of North 15 Gasparri Law 78 n. 6 and social change 94 generalised reciprocity 160, 171, 172 industry, Gentiloni, Count 18 and company law 278–80 Germany, competition from NICs 259, 261 Bismarck’s welfare provision 285 enterprise finance 278 and origins of EU 326 microeconomic policy 276–80 ‘Giovine Italia’ (‘Young Italy’) movement 14 ownership and control structures 277 girotondi demonstrations 162 structure 258–9 giudice dell’udienza preliminare (judge of the ‘Third Italy’ (Central and North-East preliminary hearing, GUP) 305, 309 Italy) 167 giudice di pace (justice of the peace) 305, value added, of manufacturing sectors 258 316 n. 13 see also small and medium-sized firms Gladio, secret military organisation 104–5 information technology, in education globalisation 79, 109 reforms 275 effect on welfare policy 295 institutional groups 182 and supra-national problems 110 institutions 146 governance, concept of 79 and behaviouralism 145, 146 government, constitutional arrangements 53–54 centre-periphery relationship 86–7 low levels of trust in 150, 165 checks and balances 139 and structures 49 financial transfers to municipalities 89, 90 interest groups, institutions and structures 49 and clientelism 196 ministries and departments 95–100 and corruption 196 sub-national government 80–1 definition 180 governments, and democracy 180–3, 195–7 Berlusconi’s 2008 administration 97 impact of 181 precariousness of 26, 28, 74–5, 116–17 influence on bureaucracy 110, 193 see also Berlusconi, Silvo; coalition influence on executive 191 governments; Prodi, Romano influence in judicial system 193–5 Green Party 31, 42, 202, 215 influence on Parliament 189–91, 207 institutional 182, 207 Hapsburg, House of, as rulers in Italian states 11 and legislation 109 health service 300–2 nature of activities 181 assessment of reforms 302 political role of 181 challenges of efficiency 291 pressure groups 192 free of charges 293 promotional 182, 197–9 growing demand 292–3 protective 182, 197 national (1978) 257, 285 and social capital 179 second reform (1992) 300–2 Interior Minister, post of 57 separation of tax and spending decisions international organisations 320 291–2 membership of 102–5 third reform (1999) 302 see also supra-national organisations

378

Index

international state system 318, 319–20 proposed reforms 69 development of 320–5 public debate on 308–9 Italy’s place in 325 and rights 306–11 predatory behaviour by states 319 roles of judge and prosecutor 308, ‘regional security complexes’ (RSCs) 324–5 309, 312 Iraq war (2003) 339 structure and functioning 305–6 Israel, relations with 344 treatment of prisoners on remand 32, Istituto nazionale per la valutazione del 310–11 sistema di istruzione (INVALSI) 274 judiciary, Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale constitutional reform and 68 (IRI) 101 constitutional status 60–1 Italian Communist Party (Partito Comunista corruption in 32 Italiano, PCI) 23, 25, 27 growing constraint on government 194 in Constituent Assembly 51 independence 307, 313, 314 end of 31 influence of interest groups 193–5 exclusion from government 26, 64 role in policy-making 53 legislative responsibility 28, 111, 115 see also High Council of the Judiciary and national integration 151 and political corruption 32 Kosovo, crisis (1998-99) 329 in regional government 64 relations with protest groups 202 La Destra, 2008 elections 243 strength of 104 labour market, rigidity 256 successor parties 41 labour productivity, education variation in regional support 229 and 273 Italian Democratic Socialists (SDI) 215 laissez-faire, in liberal economics 17 Italian Liberal Party (PLI) 27 Lasswell, Harold 180 Italian People’s Party (Partito Popolare latifondi, landholding system 15, 46 n. 2 Italiano, PPI) 42, 70, 214 Lauro, Achille, mayor of Naples 88, 88 Italian Renewal party (Rinnovamento laws of delegation 117 Italiano, RI) 42, 214 leaders, populist 173 Italian Republican Party (PRI) 27 League of Democracy 14 Italian Social Democratic Party (PSDI) 28 Lebanon 347 Italian Social Movement (MSI) 26, 27, 35, Left Democrats (Democratici di Sinistra, DS) 38, 41 41, 70, 215, 217 see also National Alliance as coalition maker 220 Italian Socialist Party (PSI) 23, 28 merger with Margherita 241 in Constituent Assembly 51 and Olive-tree Alliance 39 demands for constitutional reform 65 primary elections 223 successor parties 42 left libertarianism 199, 219 and World War I 20 legislation, Italian Somaliland 323 abolition of secret final vote 114 Italian state, drafting 111 birth of 9 and interest groups 109 see also Italy; republican period; state laws of delegation 117 Italy, planning 114 empire 322, 323 powers to initiate 112 and EU foreign policy 338–9 proliferation of 120 normality of politics 1–3 resulting from social protest 199 place in global order 325 success of government bills pre-unification 10–11, 12, 46 n. 1 117, 118 presidency of EU 349 legislative process 113 unification 11–18 legislative programmes, lack of and United Nations 337–8 coherence 26 Italy of Vaules (IdV) 73, 214, 216 legislature see Parliament Leone, Giovanni, President 78 n. 4 judicial policy 304–14 Levi-Montalcini, Rita, life senator 60 Law 313 Liberal regime (1861-24) 10–18, 45 reforms 312–14 liberalism, doctrine of 17 judicial system, Liberta` d’Azione 213 delays in proceedings 308, 311, 316 n. 16 libertarianism 218, 219 nature of 307–9 Libya 345 obligations on public prosecutors 309–10 Ligresti, Salvatore 197

379

Index

local government, municipalities (comuni) 81, 84–6, 92 amalgamations 93 1993 reforms 34, 43, 55, 89 changes in 44, 93 administrative responsibilities 84 and electoral reform 35 consortia and co-operation 93 instability in 87 financial resources 85, 89–90 Mafia infiltration 166 institutions 85 see also regional government relations with provinces 84 Lombardo-Venezia 11, 12 Mussolini, Alessandra, Liberta` d’Azione Lome´ Convention (1976) 330 213, 248 n. 1 Mussolini, Benito 21 Maastricht, Treaty of (1991) 9, 39, 43, 328 and 1921 election 19 and convergence criteria 101, 102, 265 fall of 22 Mafia 164–7, 171 and Fascism 20 control over voting 167 Lateran Pacts (1929) 204 magistrati ordinari 305 Mutolo, Gaspare 165 majoritarian democracy 63 constitutional reform and 68 Napolitano, Giorgio, President 57, 57, 59 ‘Mani pulite’ (‘Clean Hands’) investigations Nasser Gamal Abdel, Egyptian president 343 (1992) 32, 160 National Alliance (Alleanza Nazionale, AN) Manuale Cencelli 100 38, 41, 70, 218 Margherita alliance 42, 214, 217, 248 n. 4 2008 elections 243 merger with DS 241 and Casa delle Liberta` coalition 212 Rutelli and 221, 222 support in South 229 Marsala, Garibaldi’s landing at 14 see also Italian Social Movement Mastella, Clemente, UDEUR leader 241 National Council for the Economy materialism, and rise of ‘post-material’ and Labour 188 values 235, 237 national identity 149–52 Mattei, Enrico, ‘foreign policy’ 334, 342–4 and legacy of Fascism 150 mayors 85 legacy of Unification 150 election of 107 n. 2 recent changes 152–3 powers of 44, 80, 89 and role of political parties 151–2 under Fascism 81 national minimum income scheme 285, 287 Mazzini, Giovanni 14 national pride 1 Mediaset 36 National Social Security Institute (INPS) Mediobanca, merchant bank 197 188, 295 metropolitan cities 86 nationalism, Milan, Piazza Fontana bombing (1969) doctrine of 17 200, 333 and trasformismo 19 militarism, as central component NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) 328 of Fascism 20 EU and 325, 326 Minimum Insertion Income scheme (Reddito membership of 104–5, 321, 336, 347, 350 minimo de inserimento, RMI) 303–4 newly industrialised countries (NICs), ministries 96, 99–100, 133 competition from 259, 261 advisers 100 Northern League (LN) 31, 35, 41, 218 direzioni 99 1995 primary elections 223 internal organisation 132 and Casa delle Liberta` coalition 212 ministerial responsibility 123–5, 138 demands for federalism 42, 80 ministers without portfolio 96, 124 emergence of 31, 66, 152, 174–5 and patronage 99, 124 reduction in number 132 Occhetto, Achille, leader of PCI 31 structure 99 OECD (Organization for Economic Ministry of Industry and Commerce Co-operation and Development) 321 184, 193 oil supplies 342–4 Modena 11, 12 Olive-tree Alliance (Ulivo) 39, 215, 345 monarchy, abolition of 24 omerta` (‘conspiracy of silence’), effect of 165 Montanelli, Indro 235 Onofri Commission, on national minimum Montecitorio, palazzo 50, 51 income 303 Moro, Aldo, Operazione Alba 347, 351 n. 7 kidnap and murder of 200, 201, 333 and relations with United States Padoa-Schioppa, Tommaso, as Minister of 333, 335 Economy and Finance 56 Moroni, Sergio, corruption allegations 161 Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) 342

380

Index

Papacy, territorial losses at unification 16 pensions 187, 293 Papal States, Romagna area 12 1990s reforms 296–7 Papi, Enzo, managing director of Cogefar 160 2004 reforms 297–8 parentela, ties of 193 equity impact of reforms 299–300 Paris, Treaty of (1947) 323, 324, 335 financial impact of reforms 298 Parliament 59–60 funding structure 296–7 1971 reform 114 introduction of contributory scheme 296 1997 reform 114 raising of minimum age 297 Chamber of Deputies 59 seniority pensions 297 Committee of Parliamentary Group spending as proportion of GDP 299 Leaders 113, 114 system before 295 and constitutional amendment 194 women’s 298 constitutional reform and 68 People of Freedom (Popolo della constitutional rules on 111–12 Liberta,` PdL) 73 constraints on executive 112–14, 117, 119 2008 elections 243 control over bureaucracy 126 People’s Party (Partito Popolare Italiano, and Council of Ministers 56 PPI) 27 divisions of labour with executive 118–21 and Christian Democrats 24 and executive 108–10, 111 Pertini, Sandro, President 59 increasing role of backbenchers 118 Piano Solo coup plot (1964) 333 influence of interest groups on 189–91, 207 Piedmont Sardinia, international ambitions instruments of control 118, 119 10, 11 legislative authority 190 Piga Commission (1981), on ministries 99 legislative process 113 Pininfarina, Sergio, life senator 60 party groupings (2008) 246 Pizzorno, Alessandro, on social capital 171 relationship to bureaucracy 135–8 pluralism 182 role of committees 28, 111, 190 podesta`, under Fascism 81 role in policy-making 108 policy community, defined 109 Senate 59 policy objectives 253 standing commissions 115 see also economic policy; foreign policy; standing orders 112–14 judicial policy; welfare policy parliamentary majority, policy-making 49, 105, 108–10 and executive 53 central government 95 lack of cohesion 115 constraints on 262 see also coalition governments effect of Economic and Monetary Union 102 parliamentary politics, by independent authorities 135–8 effect of Acerbo Law 19 influence of interest groups 179, 180, 207 legacy of unification 16–18 polycentricity of 139 majoritarian democracy 63 role of judiciary 53, 194, 304 Parma 11, 12 social partners 188 parochialism 16 tripartite (1993 protocollo) 185 Parri, Ferrucci, Prime Minister 24 political activism 235 Partito Democratica della Sinistra (PDS) see retreat from (1980s) 65 Democratic Party of the Left political authority, Partito Popolare Italiano see People’s Party constitutional division of 56–61 partitocrazia 28, 43 regional powers 63 shortcomings of 173 political corruption 159–63 South and 32 cultural conflict over 160–3 Party of Action 23 definitions 164, 178 n. 9 Party of Italian Communists (PdCI) 41, 215 expansion of 160 party politics, and social capital 159, 160 effect on centre-periphery relations 86–9 political culture 147–9, 175–6 and exclusion of extremes 26 as explanation of phenomena 147–8 first republican period 25–6, 27–28 flawed evidence for 148 fragmentation 3, 43, 73, 74, 246 and ‘national characteristics’ 148, 175 left-right alternation 1, 39 political ideals, impact of conflicts on local recent developments 172–4 government 94–5 second republican period 40 political parties, at Unification 16 and 2008 elections 245 see also political parties alliances between 116 path dependency 150, 150 bi-polar format 40, 74, 245, 247 Pella, Giuseppe, Prime Minister 334, 336 centre-left 213–16

381

Index

political parties (cont.) privatisation 270 centre-right 212–13 state holding companies and 101 and clientelism 28, 30, 158 Prodi, Romano 1, 223 and corruption investigations 33 and 2006 election 239 discipline within 108 as coalition leader 221, 222 and emergence of ‘protest’ parties 31, 173 and constitutional reform 74 first republican period 27–28 foreign policy 345, 349 funding needs 290 and Olive-tree Alliance 39 ideological divisions 234–6 presenzialismo 346 and limits on powers of executive 114–17 see also Unione membership levels 192 protest activity 197–9, 207 policies 108 control of 197 primary elections 222, 223 evaluation 199–202 second republican period 36–37, 41–42 illegal 199 subcultures 30, 43, 175 and support of institutions 202 see also coalitions; party politics; voting provinces 84–6 behaviour administrative responsibilities 84 Il Popolo d’Italia (People of Italy), Fascist Party financial resources 85, 89–90 newspaper 20 institutions 85 population, relations with municipalities 84 age structure 283, 293, 293 provincial prefects 80 growth and economic indicators 260 Public Audit Office (Corte dei Conti) 306 populism 172–3 public debt, anti-political attitudes 173 growth of 102, 257, 263, 267–9, 270 and trade union influence 188 and welfare spending 294 position issues 182 public finances, poverty, municipalities 85, 89–90 and clientelism 157–9 need for restructuring 44 protection against 288, 289 public goods 154, 155 relative and absolute 287, 288, public prosecutor (Pubblico ministero) 305, 288, 289 312, 313 in South 15 public services, power, concept of 109 reforms 260 prefects, provincial 80 shortcomings 257–8 President of the Republic, public space 152 nature of veto on legislation 58, 78 nn. 5 Putnam, Robert, nomination of life senators 59 on co-operation in industrial districts power to dissolve Parliament 55, 58 170–1 proposals for direct election of 65, 68 social capital study 156–7 role of 56–9 primary elections, October 222, 223 Qaddafi, Colonel Muammar 345 prime ministers, quality of life issues 236 administrative resources 123–5 Quirinale 152, 153 Berlusconi’s tenure 44, 123 constitutional role of 56, 122 Radicals 42, 216 democratic transition (1943–48) 22 and 2008 elections 242 discretionary departments 125 emergence of 31 and dissolution of parliament 58 Rainbow Left (Sinistra d’Arcobaleno, SA) 243 and electoral system 34 rational choice 146 and foreign policy 348–9 reciprocity, and social capital 179 increased power of 122, 246, 247 Red Brigades 199, 200, 333 lack of authority 26, 75, 102 referenda, political resources 122–3 1946 (on monarchy) 24 role in policy-making 121–5, 191 1974 (on divorce) 65, 71, 204 Prime Minister’s office 98–99, 123, 124–5 1993 (on electoral reform) 34, 71 administrative offices 96 1999 and 2000 (on electoral law reform) 71 personal secretary (segretario particolare) 96 2006 (constitutional reform) 72 prime minister’s general secretary 96 abrogative 54, 65, 71 reforms 124–5 constitutional provision for 53, 54 responsibilities of 124 proposals for constitutional change 54, 55 under-secretary of state (sottosegretario di use of 33, 71 stato) 96 regime transition, notion of 66

382

Index

Regional Administrative Court 305 schools, responsibilities of 275 regional government 62, 81–4 science, and demand for health 1999 reforms 82 services 292 and 2001 reforms 61, 62, 83–4, 104 scientific research, Church and 205 constitutional status of 61 secret services, and right-wing extremism 198 economic inequalities 90–4 secularism 219 institutions of 53, 82 Senate 59 interaction with other institutions 84 2006 election 5 n. 1 legislative powers 83 elections to 59 ordinary regions 81 proposals for reform 69 revenue-raising powers 83 referendum on elections to 33 role in election of president 56 Senators, for life 59, 60 special statute regions 81 Serbia 347 spending on health services 301 shadow cabinet, emergence of (2008) 246 see also local government Sicily, regional presidents 82 and Mafia 165 ‘regional security complexes’ (RSCs) 324–5 special statute region 81 regions, single market, definition 264 diversity 91 Sinistra l’Arcobaleno (SA) see Rainbow Left variation in voting behaviour 228–9 Sinistra Democratica (SD) see Democratic Left regulation, small and medium-sized firms, reforms 260 co-operative relations 170 shortcomings 257 disadvantages of 276–80 religion, and enterprise finance 278 and class 230 number of 258 decline in church attendance 231 ownership and control structures 277 and voting behaviour 231–4, 233 ‘Third Italy’ 167, 168, 257 see also Catholic Church social assistance 285, 287 Repubblicani Europei 215 administrative difficulties 287 republican period 9 social capital 153–7, 175, 178 n. 11 first period 25–39, 45 Banfield’s work 155–6 end of 31–9 and clientelism 157–9 governments of 29 in industrial districts 170 and regime transition 66 interest groups and 179 second period 39–45 notion of 146 governments of 38 and political corruption 159 Resistance movement 23 problems with 157 and 1948 Constitution 25 and public goods 155 and post-war government 24, 151 Puttnam’s work 156–7 and post-war politics 25 see also corruption; ‘Third Italy’ Revolutions of 1848 11 social closure 163, 163 Rifondazione Comunista see Communist social Darwinism 20 Refoundation (RC) social democracy 219 right-wing extremism 198, 199 social inclusion, open method of rights, economic and social, in co-ordination (OMC) 295, 315 n. 6 Constitution 53 social mobility, education and 275, 276 rights policy, defined 284 social movements, left libertarian Rinnovamento Italiano see Italian Renewal (RI) 199, 219 Risorgimento, Victor Emmanuel and 13 social norms, and political corruption 160 Roman Catholics, electoral participation social organisations 25 16, 18 socialism 219 Rome, Prosecutor’s Office 105 emergence and growth 18 Rosa nel Pugno alliance 216, 217 see also Italian Socialist Party (PSI) Ruggiero, Renato, as Foreign Minister 56, 348 South, Rumor, Mariano 100 clientelism in 31, 157, 158, 229 Rutelli, Francesco, Mayor of Rome, and economic disparity 90–4, 255, 256 and Federation alliance 222 economic structure 170–1, 255 leader of Olive-tree Alliance 39, 221 poverty in 15, 178 n. 7 pro-monarchy 24 Sardinia, special statute region 81 unemployment 255 Scalfaro, Oscar Luigi, President 56, 60 Southern Question, as legacy of Unification 15 Scelba, Mario, Prime Minister 333, 334 sovereignty, definition 63

383

Index

state, UIL, Social Democrat/Republican trade union functions of 284 confederation 185, 187 and Mafia 166 Ulivo see Olive-tree Alliance popular hostility to 15, 30, 172 underground economy 287, 290 weakness of 15–16, 43, 102, 198 unemployment, see also government reforms 303–4 state holding companies 101 in South 255 and privatisation 101 unemployment protection 290, 290 state-regional conference 84 Unification 11–18 supra-national organisations 109 and national integration 80, 150 membership of 102–5 and parliamentary politics 16–18 see also European Union; international and Southern Question 15 organisations; NATO and weakness of state 15–16 ‘swindle’ law (1953) 55 Union of Christian Democrats and Centre Democrats (UDC) 41, 213 Tambroni, Fernando, Interior Minister 88 2008 elections 243, 245, 249 n. 15 Tangentopoli 33, 35, 46 n. 5 Union of Democrats for Europe (UDEUR) controversies of investigations 68, 290, 310 42, 215 tariff barriers, internal 11, 15 and 2006 administration 241 taxation, Union of Democrats and Socialists 28 as economic policy response 271–2 Unione, local income taxes (imposta locale sui 2006 election 1, 236 redditi) 89 primary elections 223 local property tax (imposta comunale sugli see also Prodi, Romano immobili) 90 unitary states, type 61 political blocks on increases 294 United Nations 321 revenue as percentage of GDP 294 Italian role in 347 social contributions 294 Italy and Security Council reforms and spending on health service 291–2 337–8 at Unification 15 United States of America, teacher training 275 and Cold War 323, 332–5 technocrats, as ministers 56 economic expansion 273 Telemilano 36 and EU 328 television, influence on Italian policy 332–3 and candidate-centred campaigns 226 military installations in Italy 332, 346 party control over channels 2 and NATO 325, 328 ‘Third Italy’ 167–72 relations with 104 location of 169–70 universalism 163, 163 Pizzorno’s view of 171 university education, Putnam’s view of 171 access to 274, 275 rise of 168–9 drop-out rates 275 Trigilia’s view of 171 reforms 276 Togliatti, Palmiro, Communist Party leader 23 totalitarianism, as central component of Valle d’Aosta, special statute region 81 Fascism 20 Veltroni, Walter, PD leader 73, 242 trade, import-export balances 338 and 2008 elections 242 trade unions 25, 184–9 Verdi see Green Party 1993 protocollo 185–6 Victor Emmanuel II, king of Piedmont and industrial relations 185–6 11, 13 membership 187 Victor Emmanuel III, king of Italy, and public employees 127, 131 and fall of Mussolini 22 Transparency International (TI), corruption flight (1944) 23 index 163 Vienna, Treaty of (1815) 11, 12 trasformismo 17 violence, Cavour and 14 against protesters 197 and rise of Fascism 19 Fascists’ use of 19 Trentino-Alto Adige, special statute region 81 by protesters 199 tribunale 305 see also Red Brigades Trieste 82, 336, 342 virement, rules on 129 Trigilia, Carlo, on social capital 171 Visco, Vincenzo 271 Tuscany 11 Vittoriano monument 154 Two Sicilies, Kingdom of 11, 13 restoration of 152, 153

384

Index

voting behaviour 228–36, 235 international pressures 295 2008 elections 243 pressures on 283 class and occupation 230, 232 unemployment reforms 303–4 flows (1996–2001) 237, 239 see also rights policy; welfare state geographical divisions 228–9, 230, 230 welfare state, ideological divisions 234–6, 237 reforms 295–304 perception of extremes 235 risks covered 288 and pre-election polls 237, 240, 248 n. 10 state holding companies and 101 religious divisions 231–4, 233 Western European Union (WEU) 326, 327 see also Elections Workers’ Statute (1970) 189, 200 World Health Organization 105 welfare policy, World Trade Organization (WTO) 322 challenge of funding 291 World War I 20 challenges of efficiency 291 World War II 21, 22, 23–4, 323 challenges of legality 290 constraints on 283–5 yuppie phenomenon 65 defined 284 downward pressure on spending 294–5 Zellerbach, James David, US imbalances between programme types ambassador 343 285–8 Zionist movement 342

385