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Human Dignity As a Right and Virtue in Practice: a Socio-Theological Reflection from and on the Cross Removal Incidents in China

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Human Dignity As a Right and Virtue in Practice: a Socio-Theological Reflection from and on the Cross Removal Incidents in China religions Article Human Dignity as a Right and Virtue in Practice: A Socio-Theological Reflection from and on the Cross Removal Incidents in China Lap Yan Kung ID Divinity School of Chung Chi College, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, China; [email protected] or [email protected] Received: 19 February 2018; Accepted: 19 April 2018; Published: 24 April 2018 Abstract: This paper is written to reflect human dignity in practice with reference to the cross removal incidents in China in Zhejiang Province between 2014 and 2016. This paper starts with three questions: How did the Chinese authorities treat Christians? How did Christians respond to what the Chinese authorities did to them? How did Christians view themselves, taking into account the treatment of the Chinese authorities? In contrast with the indignity of the Chinese authorities, Christians in their resistance have displayed a dignified manner characterized by non-violence and forgiveness, as well as the spirituality of persistence in truth and living in hope. The interaction between the government and the churches in these incidents has revealed both the hope and constraints of human dignity in practice, that is, the rule of law and freedom of expression, dignity and the face culture in China, and dignity as “respect-as-observance.” Christians in their resistance may have little impact on the improvement of human rights conditions in China, but as the Dao De Jing says, “A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step.” Thus, Christian resistance is one of the many steps to protect and respect human dignity. Keywords: human rights in China; cross removal in China; theology of the cross and Chinese Christianity; freedom of religion in China; freedom of expression in China 1. Introduction The concept of human dignity has gained significant traction internationally since the middle of the second millennium as a result of World War II and especially since the United Nations promulgated its landmark document, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. With increasing awareness of the vitality of, and the incessant occurrences of violations and abuses against, human rights, a clarion call for respect and promotion for human dignity resounds. After all, it is human dignity that forms the foundation of human rights. While some schools of thought contend that the concept of human dignity is a modern construct, there are those that posit otherwise. A case in point is the work of Qianfan Zhang, who noted that the notion of human dignity is not completely foreign to Chinese culture, for it has had a very long history in classical Chinese philosophy. In his book Human Dignity in Classical Chinese Philosophy, Qianfan Zhang examines the three classical Chinese philosophies, that is, Confucianism, Daoism, and Mohism, and concludes that the three schools of thought do converge on a common moral precept that to treat every human being as the end in itself and not merely as means to other things. (Zhang 2016, p. 200) Zhang points out that the three schools of thought affirm that human dignity is an intrinsic value of being human. It is the status of being human that demands our full respect and protection. This understanding of human dignity is identical to Immanuel Kant’s second formulation of categorical Religions 2018, 9, 138; doi:10.3390/rel9050138 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2018, 9, 138 2 of 16 imperative, that is, treating humanity as an end in itself. This concept leads to justice-based rights and principles. Moreover, Zhang indicates that these three classical Chinese philosophies, especially Confucianism, consider that the notion of human dignity is reflected in one’s dignified manner or bearing (Zhang 2016, pp. 56–58). Human dignity thus is the expression of a sublime disposition: dignity as virtue. These two dimensions of human dignity as a right and virtue are distinct but related. Human dignity as a right is not earned but rather signifies respect-as-respectfulness. However, human dignity as a virtue makes life flourish and signifies respect-as-observance. In this paper, we intend to investigate human dignity as a right and virtue in practice with reference to a traumatic series of events, namely the forced removal of rooftop crosses from church buildings in China’s Zhejiang Province since early 2014. This paper will explore the three dimensions of human dignity in practice by specifically addressing three sets of questions: First, how do the Chinese authorities treat Christians? What do the Chinese authorities take away from Christians when they remove the crosses from their churches? Second, how do Christians respond to what the Chinese authorities have done to them? What kind of conduct towards the Chinese authorities would be allowed so that Christians can protect their rights? Third, how do Christians see themselves? What kind of life should they have in order to avoid humiliation and live a dignified life? Finally, we will correlate the findings from these three questions to a general enquiry of human dignity in practice in China. Apart from a literature review, this paper also employs fieldwork and interviews. 2. The Cross Removal Campaign In early 2014, the Chinese authorities began a campaign to demolish crosses on the rooftops of churches in Zhejiang Province (Cook 2017, pp. 43–65). There is no accurate record of the number of affected churches, but it is estimated that the number is about 1500.1 Most affected churches are found not in the cities but in towns and villages. Apart from the removal of crosses, around 20 churches were completely demolished. One significant case is the total demolition of Sanjiang Church in April 2014. Considering that it took 12 years and 30 million yuan ($5 million) to build the Sanjiang Church, the church’s size significantly increased up to 10,000 square meters and took up a space four to five times larger than the approved size. It is interesting to note, however, that while the Sanjiang Church was appraised as a model project by the local authorities, it was still demolished by the government. The affected churches are mostly members of the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM, an approved Protestant organization), Catholic churches, and a few house churches (most house churches have their buildings in Leqing). Though the demolition campaign has been relatively quiet since April 2016, it has not come to a complete stop. At the time of writing, there are still some incidents of demolition activities that have been ongoing in other provinces, such as in Jiangxi, Shanxi, and Henan.2 The government explains that the demolitions being conducted are all part of the government’s intent to implement the policy of “Three Rectifications and One Demolition” (hereafter referred to as TROD) that was endorsed in December 2012 by the Zhejiang provincial government, which aims to address the increasing number of illegal constructions.3 The government further clarifies that a construction can be considered as an illegal construction when the “construction is without approval and construction is beyond the size of approval.” Religious buildings, according to the government, would be affected only if they were involved in illegal construction. It is true that some churches are involved in illegal construction, but it would be a discriminating act to demolish such illegal constructions without making a critical review of the extremely cumbersome existing procedures for church construction. 1 https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20160523/c23chinacross/zh-hant/ (accessed on 10 March 2018); https://docs.google.com/ document/d/1bx5XNC-WEt7EJ0zwpmvkrcPjeUbqCTEMFyqbeJINvmE/edit (accessed on 10 March 2018), it has a list of affected churches. 2 http://www.rfa.org/cantonese/news/church-08042017093029.html?encoding=traditional (accessed on 10 March 2018). 3 http://www.chinaaid.org/2014/04/exclusive-china-aid-receives-internal.html (accessed on 10 March 2018). Religions 2018, 9, 138 3 of 16 Although the TROD was initially implemented in Zhejiang Province and not nationwide, some argue that this is proof that there has been no fundamental change of the government’s policy in relation to religion. It was not obvious at the time of the introduction of the TROD, but in the subsequent years it became more obvious that the TROD has a political agenda. The introduction of the program of “Five Entries and Five Transformations” in late 2015,4 cross removals in other provinces since 2016, and the introduction of the “Revised Regulations of Religious Affairs” in September 2017 convinced us that what happened in Zhejiang Province was a test case for future tightening of religious activities and policy by the government. Apart from the increasing number of illegal constructions being cited as a reason for the implementation of the TROD, another reason being considered is the active religious activities in Wenzhou County. Wenzhou County is known as “China’s Jerusalem” among Chinese Christians, because it has a high concentration of churches and Christians. It was observed that the severe cross removal campaign was carried out as a reaction to a complaint expressed by Xia Baolong, the secretary of Zhejiang Province, as to how a communist country could have so many crosses, which is for him nothing but humiliating to the Chinese Communist Party.5 In addition, the church, Xia Baolong contends, represents foreign beliefs, and is a sign of foreign imperialism (Wang 2017, p. 795). Nevertheless, it is important to note that the TROD has been more devastating to folk religious sites that are labeled as an expression of superstition than to Christian churches (Ying 2016, p. 29). Thus, it may be argued that Christianity is not solely targeted, but rather religion as a whole. There are two more important reasons causing the cross removals.
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