Geographical Review of Japan Vol. 59 (Ser. B), No. 2, 69-82, 1986

Between and New Guinea-Ecological and

Cultural Diversity in the with Special

Reference to the Use of Marine Resources-

George OHSHIMA*

The region between lowland Papua and the northern tip of the Australian continent presents a fascinating panorama of ecological, cultural and socio-economic diversity. In lowland Papua and on its associated small islands such as Saibai, Boigu and Parama, a combination of coastal forests and muddy shores dominates the scene, whereas the of volcanic and limestone origin, together with raised coral islands and their associated reef systems present a range of island ecosystems scattered over a broad territory some 800km in extent. Coralline habitats extend south wards to the and some parts of Arnhem Land. Coupled with those ecological diversities within a relatively small compass across the Torres Strait, the region has evoked important questions concerning the archaeological and historical dichotomy between Australian hunter-gatherers and Melanesian horticulturalists. This notion is also reflectd in terms of its complex linguistic, ethnic and political composition. In summarizing the present day cultural diversity of the region, at least three major components emerge: hunter-gatherers in the Australian Northern Territory, Australian islanders and tribal Papuans. Historically, these groups have interacted in complex ways and this has resulted in an intricate intermingling of cultures and societies. Such acculturation processes operating over thousands of years make it difficult to isolate meaning ful trends in terms of "core-periphery" components of the individual cultures. However, in order to assess cultural diversity within the region, it is useful to examine typical elements of the individual cultures and forms of ecological adaptation. In this paper the author will present an overview of the ecological and cultural diversity of the region from the perspective of maritime adaptation, focussing on a description of the techno environmental complexes of traditional and contemporary fisheries and on the comparative aspects of the utilization of maritime resources.

of Yorke (known as Massig, Massied or Kay I. General view of diversity lag), Coconut (Poruma), Sue (Warraber) and in the region Yam (Iama). The third group is the Western Islands consisting of Moa(Banks in English), Politically, the Torres Strait Islands are Badu (Mulgrave) and (Jervis). divided between two countries, Australia and These three English names, Banks, Mulgrave , and currently there are and Jervis, are put on the official chart but 18 Australian and 2 Papuan inhabited not usually used. The fourth group is the Top islands. The Australian islands are further Western Islands (or Northwestern Islands) divided into five groups (Fig. 1). The consisting of Saibai, Dauan (Cornwallis in first group is the Eastern Islands consisting English) and Boigu (Talbot in English). These of Murray (local name Mer, with two four groups are designated as reserved islands uninhabited islands of Waier and Dauer), for . The last group, Darnley (Erub) and Stephens (Ugar). The Prince of Wales Islands (called Southern second group is the Central Islands consisting Islands) are Thursday (local name Waiben

* Department of Geography , Kwansei Gakuin University, Uegahara, Nishinomiya, Hyogo 662, Japan. 70 G. OHSHIMA

Fig. 1 Administrative division of Torres Strait. 1. Buji 2. Sigabaduru 3. Mabaduan 4. Tureture 5. Dorogori 6. Katatai 7. St. Paul 8. Kubin 9. Cowal Creek 10. Umagico 11. 12. Red Island Point 13. Somerset but well known as T.I., the administrative (Keriri), Friday (Palilug) and Horn (Nurpai). center of the strait), Prince of Wales (tradi Among them, only Hammond Island has been tionally called Muralug, also the name of the reserved by the Catholic Mission since 1929. original people of this island), Hammond Friday has been used as a pearl farm for a Ecological and Cultural Diversity in the Torres Strait 71 joint Australia-Japan enterprise during the last in English). South of , there is a large two decades. On Horn Island, Thursday uninhabited island named Lobo (Bristow), Island Airport, was built after World War II, which was also part of an important trading and has since become a base of the Australian route at one time. Air Force. Consequently, the latter two The geomorphological and political divisions islands are populated by white people and are similar. The Eastern group, just inside the foreigners such as Japanese who are skilled arch of the , are volcanic technicians and laborers. In addition to the islands with fertile soils and abundant water islands mentioned, other islands were also supply from springs and wells (Fig. 2). The inhabited in earlier days. Tudu (Warrior in Central group around the Warrior Reefs are English), Aureed and Nagir (the English is coral islands or so-called raised-coral islands, Mt. Ernest) in Central Islands, in particular, and these are the best fishing grounds in the are worthy of note for their historical signifi strait. The islands are very low and flat, and cance in the traditional trading route governed are surrounded by large circles of coral reef. by powerful chiefs on the islands. These three The Southern group and Western group, includ islands were abandoned by the original inhabi ing Yam and Dauan Islands, are part of the tants after the encounter with white people orogenic zone, an extension of the Australian who introduced political and religious control. , that ends at a small On the Papuan side, there are two inhabited hill in mainland Papua called Mabaduan, mean islands in the strait that belong to the Western ing "place of hillside". The Northwestern and Province. They are Darn (administrative Papuan adjacent groups are alluvial islands center of the province) and Parama (Bampton covered by the massive deposits of Papuan

Fig. 2 Geomorphological division of Torres Strait. 72 G. OHSHIMA rivers and streams such as the Fly River. These the narrowest place. People of Boigu Island are low and muddy islands fringed thickly by go to mainland Papua to get water for daily mangrove forest. use, and people of the opposite side, such as Torres Strait Islanders, or "Islanders" in Sigabaduru, come to twice a short, are a rather unique people. They are week in order to buy items such as clothes originally of Melanesian race, but Polynesian, and flour from the Island Industries Board. Asian and even European blood was introduced The currencies of both countries must there in recent centuries, producing a amixed an fore be used. But one can also recognize cesrry and cultural milieux. This fact com clear differences in language between the two plicates the analysis of their culture, and sides. For example, in the case of bartering thus it is difficult to determine the genuine fish from Papua for clothes from the Islanders, traditional culture of this region. they sometimes need interpreters in order to In all of recorded history, people of the strait communicate smoothly. Moreover, the history have never been integrated into one unit, even of severe hostilities just before this century is during the era of British rule. not totally erased. A monument was built at State declared her territory along its coastline, the front of the coast of , com but did not intend to rule the entire islands of memorating one brave leader who had fought the strait at the time. The Commonwealth of and been killed in a battle against Papuan Australia, which started in 1901, separated villagers in the 1870's. In Dauan Island, there Papuan Territory from Queensland State by a is still a large rock left at the edge of a cliff border line drawn through the strait, which still which could be thrown straight down on presents an unresolved controversy over the enemies who might land on the beach. territory. Some attempts were made to settle The clearest boundary between these two the problem, but they could not reach an cultures is the linguistic barrier. Miriam, agreement. The most recent case, however, still commonly used in the Eastern Islands, has been resolved and the solution was recom is a branch of the Trans-Fly language, and mended by the British Parliament just before very similar to the Kiwai language which is the Independence of Australia(FARNFIELD,1974). used in Daru and Parama of Papua (WURM& Although one cannot deny the subtle signs of an HATTORI,1981). Another language that is used underground movement for independence in the in the greater part of the strait, westward Torres Strait Islands, the success of such a from Yorke Island, is the Mabuiag language, movement appears unlikely in the near future. which is one of the Australian native tongues Few Islanders feel a strong need for political and more specifically belongs to the Otani, on independence. the east coast of Cape York Peninsula. Nevertheless, Torres Strait Islanders identify The myth of Bomai-Malo is considered to be themselves as separate from both Australian a Papuan-originated religion tracing the route natives and Papuan tribes. Certainly, the of Bomai's navigation (Fig. 3). Bomai, which intelligence of the Islanders is thought to be may be translated as "God", came from Tuger, much higher than that of any other native the western side of Papua, stopping at Boigu, peoples of Australia and Papua New Guinea. Dauan, Mabuiag, Muralug, Nagir, Warraber, The pearl farms of the Austro-Japanese Poruma, Aureed, Massig and then finally companies prefer to employ these Islanders as reached Mer. Four of his brothers accompanied skilled laborers. Almost all Islanders believe him, but they remained behind at other islands that they are able to have their own independ on the way to Mer. Debili stayed at Nagir, ent government, since they feel superior to Sigai at lama, Kulka at Aureed and Sau at Papua New Guineans. Yet it is Papua New Massig (LAWRIE,1970). These brothers did not Guinea which obtained its independence in possess divine powers and their names and even 1975. their story have long been forgotten by the The boundary between Australia and Papua people of these islands. However, in the New Guinea is curiously close to the Papuan Miriam world of the Eastern Islands, this myth mainland, only some hundred meters apart at is the most important part of their religious Ecological and Cultural Diversity in the Torres Strait 73

(eel), dabor (yellowtail), mokrep (cowry shell), serar (seagull) and the aforementioned galbol and bid-the characteristics of Bomai during his journey. Of course, there are some other names of augud which are not related to marine lives, such as tabu (snake), umai (dog), samu (cassowary), gau (dove) etc. Among the latter names, cassowary, for example, obviously originated in the Papuan mainland, since it is never seen in the strait. These augud or lubabad are thought to be the ancestors of people of the strait, and because of this belief, they were eliminated when Christianity was introduced. In spite of the efforts of newcomers, however, almost all of the Islanders still know their own Fig. 3 Navigation route of Bomai and Malo. augud. A pious native pastor in Yorke Island solemnly told me that he could not deny that lives (KITAOJI,1979). their fates were directed by their ancestors, The Bomai-Malo legend not only suggests the augud. In the modernized Torres Strait, origin of the Islanders, but also reflects their Christianity and traditional beliefs coexist experience with the creatures and subsistence without apparent contradiction. activities of the region. Bomai transformed There is also some diversity in the names of himself into different maritime beings and augud among the islands. In the Central and objects including a canoe on his way to the Western Islands, remote from both mainlands, east. At first, he changed into a galbol (whale) the names of augud are mainly those of mari and travelled from his country Tuger to his time animals, except for umai, samu, which are first stop at Boigu Island, where he became a land animals and are the names of peripheral bid (dolphin), and as HADDONdescribed, then groups of the clan. In contrast, among the Top a kaier (crayfish) at Nagir Island. Western Islands, near the mainland of Papua, Bomai left Moa as a canoe and sailed to only a small number of names are maritime Nagir. A Nagir man who was fishing saw creatures. Instead, names such as debau (yam), the canoe, and came to have a good look karbai (a kind of bird), sui (heron) and burum at it, but Bomai transformed himself into (pig), with aforementioned umai and samu are kaier (crayfish). The Nagir man noticed all popular and dominant. In Parama Island, this and as he caught the crayfish, it made the names of gu (clan) are in the Kiwai tongue. a noise, so he dropped Bomai into a goki For example, there are terebeor doriomu (shark), (rock-pool) on the reef and called out to maruadai (cassowary), hegeredai (wild dog), the people. They came, looked and said, oromorubi (dog), miaridai (crocodile) and gaidai "That is a zogo (god)" (HADDON , 1908). (eagle), all of which resemble the types of At the end, he transformed himself into an arti names found among the Top Western Islands (octopus) when he arrived at Mer. All of these of the Australian side. There is a clear parallel maritime creatures are very familiar to the in the types of clan names among Papuan people of the strait but they are also somewhat and Australian island groups, in spite of the awe-inspiring to them. differences in language. These parallels The names of augud or lubabad (totem clan) reflect the common environment of the people that are found on the islands in the strait also in the region. reflect the Islanders lives and their relation to Other factors such as temperature, rainfall, the surroundings. These names are dangal wind, current, tide, depth of sea, geographical (dugong), kadal (crocodile), baidam (shark), features of the sea bottom and so forth should kursi (hammer-head shark), kaigas or peibri be mentioned, but it may be more meaningful (stingray), karar or mam (green turtle), geur to describe these items in relation to the 74 G. OHSHIMA

fisheries and with concrete examples. territory. Visitors to this island are also obliged The main subject of this article is the use of to land at the beach that is within the territory the sea in the strait. The author will discuss of their friends use with the exception of the area within the coral reef and beyond the the governmental ambulance-boat. In short, edge of coral reef separately. segregation. of the Parama village is extended to the edge of the coral reef. This village does II. The use of the sea within not face a fishing site, and there is no activity the coral reefs on the shallow water at the front of the village. Nowadays, few villagers go to the other side All islands of the region are surrounded by of the island to catch bata (barramundi) by coral reefs, as if the reefs were natural break setting-net or hook-and-line, but in earlier days, - water constructions. Around coral islands such most of them did go out around the island as the Central Islands, these break-waters are seeking crocodiles. The crocodile skins brought very beautiful white rings formed by shoaling in substantial income when they were sold to waves from the outer blue sea, enclosinglight white buyers. There is no segregation in the green shallow waters within, and tiny flat islets use of open sea outside of the village site. at their centers, like pairs of compasses. During At Mer, Murray Island of the Eastern Islands the lowest tide, shallow waters change to dried of the Australian Torres Strait, all of the sea beaches, doubling or tripling the areas of the surface within the coral reef is divided among islets themselves. The other islands of volcanic the clan groups, as well as their land inside the and orogenic nature are also surrounded by reef (Fig. 4). This island is the most conserva fringing reefs or so-called shore reefs. These tive island of the strait, and is especially famous reefs do not necessarily form complete circles, for the Bomai-Malo cult of the Miriam world. and are not as wide as the islands themselves. Therefore, it is suspected that their traditional In either case, the area within these reefs is system of land use may reflect the original the best place for fishing, since there is abun system of this society. The division of land dant sunlight and organic matter which pro is still maintained through inheritance, and vides a nutritious zone for all kinds of maritime the electoral districts of the island councillors creatures. In other words, it is this area within are also based upon the same land division. the reefs that provides the maritime resources The villagers can get small fish such as sardines for subsistence and commercial fisheries. at their own beach any time they want. The At Parama Island, Papua, the village is map around the island is marked with the located on the east coast, which is the only available place for settlement, since the island is largely mud and swamp due to the deposits of the Fly River. Houses are built in a north to south alignment in accordance with gu-groups mentioned earlier. The gu-group segregation is observed regularly and strictly, resulting in the following housing arrangement: doriomu 5 houses, maruadai 3, hegeredai 4, oromorubi 3, miaridai 8 and gaidai 4. Between the village and the coast, there is a low sand-dune running parallel to the line of houses, which is also divided by the order of clans, and used for cultivating potatoes and vegetables. Moreover, the division line reaches to the coast and extends even into the sea-surfaceof the shallow part. Every villager must keep his tataku (single outrigger canoe) and motamota (double Fig. 4 Division lines of sea-surface of Murray outrigger canoe) on his own coast within the Island. (Based on LAWRIE,1970) Ecological and Cultural Diversity in the Torres Strait 75 signs of a particular stone-fence fishing trap At Darnley Island, the system of land use called sai built by the villagers. This is one of and sea-surface use changed after the encounter the characteristic fishing methods seen at large with European culture at the end of the last tide beaches around the world, from the Indian century. This island is remembered as the Ocean to the Pacific. This traditional technique place of the first landing of the L. M.S. (London includes "ishihibi" or "sukin-naka" of the Missionary Society) on July 1st, 1871. This Ariake Sea and the Goto Archipelago of western date is also remembered as the historical "Light Japan. This trap is built by the collaborative Coming Day" of the strait. Before that date, labors of the community. The villagers pile during the period of so-called "darkness", up a stone wall on the dried beach on three right of use of land and sea-surface were sides of a quadrangle, with the opening facing limited to four groups of clans, occupying the the coastal side. During the full tide, the four villages of Mauram, Peidu, Saisarem and stone wall is under water, but when ebb tide Samsep. The division lines extended to the comes, the wall reappears gradually, retaining coral reef, just as in Murray Island (Figure an artificial tide pool inside its stone wall. 5). Among the four, the name of Saisarem This tide pool becomes a harvesting ground means "people of sai". In fact, there used to for those who participated in its construction. be many sai built all around the island in the

Fig. 5 Territorial division of four clans and hamlets of Darnley Island. (Based on SEGAWA,1977) 76 Gr. OHSHIMA

territory of every clan, not only in Saisarem. therefore sai at southern and eastern exposures But after the contact with white people, they have bigger harvests than ones on the other were allowed to build sai only at the southern side. From November to February, a north coast within eight hamlets mainly in the - western wind (kuki) brings large quantities of district of Samsep. Consequently, people left fishes to the northern and western sai. People their old village sites and abandoned their sai of the island must depend on each sai for daily in eastern, northern and western parts. This food, because their yield on the land is com was the strategic policy of the Anglican Church, paratively poor. which took over after the L. M.S. in 1914. Yorke Island, which belongs to the Central Abandoned sai are not used any more, just Islands, is a typical coral island where the like the abandoned fields of the eastern, nor highest point is only five meters above sea thern and western sides. It requires much level. Everything here is quite different from labor to repair or rebuild such stone-fences the volcanic islands described above. There located at places remote from newly regulated is no evidence of land division according to villages. The people of this island, however, augud groups, although there were five such prefer farming to fishing, so they do not seem augud originally. It seems that this island has to suffer from this imposed inconvenience. changed due to the influence of one immigrant Stephens Island, which belongs to the American sailor, who settled here in 1871. volcanic island group, is different from Murray Since his arrival, all traditional customs or Darnley Islands. The land here is very rocky appear to have disappeared. Land use here and there is little area for agriculture. But is recognized as the right of a family rather its fringing reef is a very big circle, and it than the right of the augud group, and the provides large quantities of maritime products land is marked by coconut-palms which used on its wide dried beach. There is no evidence to bring some income to the owners. Upon of dividing the sea-surface within the reef, even inquiring about the ownership of the land, a in earlier days, and there are still plenty of sai rather unexpected trend was found in the way surrounding the entire coastline of the island each family occupies and uses the land on this (Fig. 6). People of the island can use these island. The southern half of the island facing sai effectively in each season. From April to the wider side of coral beach is occupied by September, it is the season of the south-eastern the true native families of the island or earlier trade wind (sager) affecting the ocean, settlers who had moved from other islands within the strait. The other side of the island with narrow beaches, however, has been left for later immigrants from the "outer world" such the South Pacific. One of the most interesting points of this island is the fact that several coconut-palms' points are called kampani in Torres Strait Pidgin English, meaning "com pany" for "common use", or for use of later comers and expanded families (Fig. 7). On the eastern beach of Kadal Island, which is an uninhabited island adjacent to the mother island of Yorke, there is a small stone-fence trap site of kampani, for the common use of all villagers of Yorke Island. They can enter the tide pool inside the stone-fence and gather fishes and mussels for their own consumption at any time. This is named Sabai Graz by Fig. 6 Topographical map with sings of Sai the name of this point of Sabai, with a local based on aerial photograph, Stephens term for the stone-fence trap graz, similar to the Island. word sai. In fact a graz is smaller than a sai Ecological and Cultural Diversity in the Torres Strait 77

Fig. 7 Land use of Yorke Island of the Eastern Islands. One of the informants, There are many other kinds of fisheries in who now lives at but was originally shallow water or on the dried beach within from Darnley Island, explained that a sai is the coral reef besides these stone-gyaz or human bigger in size and requires more manpower to - graz. Poison fishing called sarzi is one of the construct in comparison to a gyaz. However, traditional methods in Yam Island. Poisonous a sai provides longer use lasting for about a plants for sarzi are kept secret and known year once it is built, whereas a gyaz is a smaller only to a few people. Beating of the roots of fence built by a small number of people for these plants produces a white milky juice, each fishing occasion. which is dropped into the tide pool or around Speaking of Yam Island, this informant the rocks in shallow water. Then, small fish described a very curious fishing method on his float up overturned, paralyzed momentarily. island, which may be called "human-gyaz". Catches by this poison fishery method are safe It is often enjoyed as a leisure activity by four to eat. The same poison fishery is seen at to five villagers at a time. Just before the Kiwai district in Papua, on the opposite coast ebb tide comes, they pile up a small stone of the strait, using the same name of sarzi. fence three sides in a C-shape. Then two people The people in this district claim that sarzi lie down in the water to shut the open side, is a name of the poisonous plant itself. waiting for the beach to dry up. The other Spearing and harpooning are popular tech people watch their surrounding carefully, and niques for fishing or hunting in the strait. when they notice a shoal of fishes approaching It requires skill to handle these tools, but the trap, they call to the partners who are almost all islanders including women can oper lying down to get up at once and to drive the ate them very skillfully. At Yorke Island, fish into the fence. This recreational fishery I observed an island woman throwing a spear brings quite a harvest to the party. These from the shore five meters into the water. She human-gyaz are made on any part of the beach, did a beautiful job and got a medium sized without asking permission from anyone. The sardine. At Coconut Island, I followed two entire beach of Yam Island is now available young Islanders who went spear fishing for to all villagers. crayfish in shallow water within the reef. They 78 G. OHSHIMA handled four-bladed spears in two to three sharks in the glittering water under the moon meters' depth, and skillfully caught crayfishes light. without missing even once. The spots for A circle of people stading in shallow water crayfish fishing are well known to all Coconut drive fish into a sakir by beating the water Island people, but exclusively to them. The surface with leaves of coconut-palms, -another crayfish fishing is monitored carefully by the activity seen around the coral islands. islanders so that they do not overfish them. Scooping fish with a handy trap called a werea However, there appears to be no legal or is very popular and effective for catching official fishing regulations such as fishing sardines, which crowd the shore on the incom grounds, seasons, tools or quotas. ing tide. Another method of fishing is to cast The harpoon is a tool for dugong hunting, a net on the beach at an angle against the the most impressive activity of adult males shore line. Although these methods were only of the strait. Dugongs have the habit of recently introduced, it is thought to be women's appearing at the shore at night to eat seaweed. work to catch fish for daily consumption with In earlier days, Islanders used to build a these techniques. At Yorke Island, the author platform called nayat at the shore where they followed a group of women carrying gear-net had actually seen a couple of dugongs foraging for fishing mackerel in the shallow water of the on the previous night. People knew that the reef. The author observed a sort of modern dugongs would appear again at the same site. application of their more traditional fishing This, of course, happens on the shallow beach method, sakir. They rounded up a shoal of within the reef. When a dugong is seen fish by jumping and running around, driving approaching a nayat, a brave Islander will jump the fish into a net which had been stretched down into the water at once, shooting at the behind them. It appeared as if it were a mammal with his harpoon and even throwing recreational activity rather than the work himself at it. The big marine mammal of subsistence. One informant from Yorke will try desperately to escape at full speed, Island stated that fishing within the coral reef dragging the hunter with the rope of the is the daily chore of women, just like cooking harpoon in his hand. The dugong will swim and baby-sitting, but beyond the edge of the about for a few minutes until it grows weak. coral reef is the working ground for men. Then, other Islanders will pull the rope from shore and the brave hunter returns in triumph III. The use of the sea beyond with his game that is nearly two meters long. the coral reef In of the Western Islands, the brave Islander of dugong hunting is called The history of the Torres Strait has many buai garka, meaning "clan chief" (MATSUMOTO, references to the large variety of maritime 1979). At the present time, nayat have disap creatures in the region. The first European peared completely from the strait, and instead written record of the Islanders can be found a dingi, duralmin boat with an outboard in the "Endeavour Journal" by Joseph Banks, motor is being used for chasing the game. which is the official record of the navigator But the harpoon for dugong hunting is still Captain Cook. The following passage was the same style and size, with an iron spear entered in the journal of August 21, 1770: head ground elaborately by the hunters them In passing through, for it was not more selves. than a mile in length before it widened The best fishing sites for green turtles are very much, we saw ten Indians standing also on the shore of the coral reef. Turtles on a hill; nine were armed with lances often come near the shore in high tide on full as we had been used to see them, the moon nights. At Kadal Island on such a tenth had a bow and arrows; also had night, the author witnessed a stout man of large ornaments of mother of pearl shell Yorke Island capturing two big turtles in half hung around his neck (BAYTON,1965). an hour. There was some risk of shark attack The above statement referred to the native since it is difficult to distinguish turtles and people of the island around Cape York, which Ecological and Cultural Diversity in the Torres Strait 79 was named Possession Island (originally Tuined fishery was expanded by the introduction of in the local tongue), is meant to indicate Japanese divers in 1879, and at the height of that "English Couliers in the name of His its prosperity in 1897, the Japanese population Majesty King George the Third took posses of peaked at 1,027. The sion". This proves that pearl shell was already "Pearl Shell and Beche-de-mer Fishery Act" known and used as ornaments by native people was introduced in 1881. The main fishing at this time. grounds for pearl shell were, (1) around the The oral history of traditional trading or warrior Reefs (2) between Yorke, Stephens, navigation tells about wauri or waiui (corn Nepian and Darnley Islands, (3) from Mabuiag shell), which was the most important item of to Turnagain Islands, where the survey and trade between the island and the mainland. official charts were not available and (4) three The word wauri itself also means trading or lines of long reefs between Hammond and Moa navigation. Another name for the trading shell, Islands. toia (conch shell, one of the materials for There is one interesting document reported bracelets), is now used to indicate the unit of by British Captain J. Mackay, who had inves currency in the newly born country of Papua tigated the fishing conditions of beche-de-mer New Guinea. Not only wauri and toia, but and pearl shells in the strait. On June 28th, also mokrep or bubuam (cowry shell), mairi 1908, he met Edward Mosby who came from (pearl shell), kabar (trochus shell), shell of turtle Boston, U. S.A., and settled at Yorke Island and dried meat of dugong were the main by getting married to a daughter of a mamoose articles of the island people, which were traded (chief) of the island, just prior to "Light for warup (drums), sarik (arrows), canoes, or a Coming Day". The following is a part of the feathers of the paradise-bird from mainland interesting dialogue between the two. After Papua. The people of Murray Island fished discussing the technique and management of at sand shoals called Mared and Kargel, or these maritime industries, the British Captain rocky islet such as Eur , in search of wauri. asked the American settler: The people of Darnley and Stephens Islands Q. What do you think, are they exhausting go to Bramble Cay, and the people from Yorke pearl shells or not? Isn't there a need for a and Aureed Islands to Damut (Dalrymple in fishing prohibition once a year? English) Island seeking wauri. These shoals, A. Indeed, on my first fishing by "The cays and uninhabited islands were in the Three Brothers" (before 1870), I could neutral zone. harvest 17 tons a month, but it is impossible Increased involvement of Europeans in the to do that these days, at any good fishing strait during the latter half of the 19th century ground. Mr. Seville-Kent recommended a was due to the exploitation of beche-de-mer pause in fishing once every nine years, but and pearl shell. The existence of pearl shells in I think it needs more than nine years for Australian waters, called white-lip, was first growth up to seven to eight inches, in my reported by an American sailor in 1861. Soon experience. after, pearl seekers from Sydney began to Q. Is it going out around any other employ South Pacific Islanders as laborers for island limited by you, Yorke Island divers? diving and gathering pearl shells and beche Is any mamoose prohibiting their fishing? de-mers. Within three years, in 1864, the first A. No, mamoose of any island has a right operating base for a pearl shell fishery was to prohibit fishery by other islanders if it is set up at Somerset which was at the tip of outside of his own island. the Cape York Peninsula, where the administra (Minutes of Evidence taken before the pearl tive center of the strait was located. In 1866 shell and beche-de-mer Royal Commission). Darnley Island became the first base of a beche As was noted above, outside of the inhabited de-mer fishery, employing South Pacific divers. island beyond its coral reef, there were no Then, before the "Light Coming Day" of 1871, fishing regulations. That is the reason why a large number of immigrants came from the these marine industries became prosperous. Pacific as well as from Asia. The pearl shell Laborers flowed in from all over the world 80 G. OHSHIMA

without causing any trouble to the native dependency on maritime creatures for daily people, who were thought to be hostile and life, the more access the people allowed each brutal in earlier days, the days of "darkness". other to the use of the beach or the sea surface. On the contrary, these industries were wel This sharing included responsibility for the use comed by the native people, since they pro of good common sense in not overexploiting vided the Islanders with good income, however the maritime resources. One Islander said: hard the work may be under the water. In "We must preserve the maritime resources 1956, pearl culture technology was introduced forever, for our descendants, for their daily to this strait by the Japanese, and the Austro food, just as our ancestors did for us in the - Japanese companies have been the best em past." ployers for the Islanders. Unfortunately, the industries have experienced considerable finan IV. Conclusion cial instability, and as a result, the largest company was scheduled to close its operation Twenty islands in the Torres Strait are by the end of 1985. inhabited with a population of less than five In recent years, commercial fisheries such as thousand, mainly Torres Strait Islanders. The prawn trawling have been operated in the diversity of the use of maritime resources strait by Australian companies, mainly off between each island results from environmental the shore of the western part of Yorke Island diversity. and the northern waters of Yam Island. From (1) The location each island in relation to the Islanders point of view, however, the most distance from the mainland: remote islands important industry is the crayfish fishery. The such as the Eastern, Central and Western name "diver boats" which, in former days, Islands depend on maritime resources meant the boats used in the pearl shell fishery, mainly, while the adjacent islands such as has been succeeded by crayfish boats. The Northwestern Islands and Kiwai Islands , crayfish boats typically sail from Thursday close to the mainland of Papua, and Prince Island to the water around the Warrior Reefs, of Wales Islands near to Cape York Penins employing native divers as they stop at each ula, have access to other food inland. It island. Today, divers use spear-guns with is difficult to get any agricultural products elastic string, and shoot the crayfish between at the remote islands, either internally or its eyes. Spearing crayfish is just about the from other places. The people of these only reliable manual work. The owners of the islands must work at sea, to get daily boats, usually white people or sometimes subsistence goods. Asians, must secure five to six good spearers (2) Physical or ecological point of view: per boat for the fishing season (SHIMADA, coral islands are obviously poor in fertility 1981). of soil compared to volcanic ones. The All of the commercial fisheries in the strait people of the former must depend on mari mentioned above provide Islanders with a good time resources, while the latter people prefer income. However, after helping to make a to cultivate the land. In the case of the small number of white and Asian merchants latter, division lines of use of sea-surface rich, the Islanders typically face the situation are just the extension of lines of land use, where these maritime resources are being within the coral reef. On the other hand, exhausted. The Islanders are spared serious islands which have only a small popula economic hardship only because commercial tion have not divided their sea-surface, fisheries, such as the prawn fishery, are operated being used seasonally and commonly by all outside of the reefs of the inhabited islands, inhabitants. and also because the commercial products such (3) Historical point of view: islands which as becce-de-mer or pearls are not necessary have accepted large numbers of immigrants for their basic subsistence. from the "outer world" (South Pacific or The author would like to mention his overall Asia), and even mixed with white people, impression. It appeared that the higher the were changed very much and have lost their Ecological and Cultural Diversity in the Torres Strait 81

traditional way of life. The people of such KITAOJI, H. (1979): The Myth of Bomai; Its islands have been acculturated rapidly into Structure and Contemporary Significance for the modern and the so-called westernized system Murray Islanders, in The Torres Strait Island more or less, and the original institution of Kenkyukai (ed.) ibid., 33-36. land use and sea-surface use system has been LAWRIE, M. (1970): Myths and Legends of the Torres Strait, University of Queensland Press, forgotten or abandoned. Even in earlier St. Lucia. days, some adjacent islands close to the MATSUMOTO,H. (1979): A Note on the Regional mainland, were influenced deeply by System in the Torres Strait Islands, in The Torres frequent trading or bartering with mainland Strait Island Kenkyukai (ed.) ibid., 13-20. people. MOORE, D. R. (1972): Cape York Aborigines and Islanders of. Western Torres Strait, in D. WALKER, Acknowledgments (ed.) Bridge and Barrier, Australian National University Press, Canberra, 327-344. The author must express his hearty thanks to NIETSCHMAN,B. and J. (1977): Eight Decades on an Mr. TANIGUCHI,who had sponsored "The Seventh Island; Social and Ecological Relationships in the International TANIGUCHI Foundation Symposium", Torres Strait, (Seminar Paper delivered August, titled "Maritime Institutions in the Western Pacific", 1977), Dept. of Human Geography, Research in November 1983 at Osaka and Otsu. This paper School of Pacific Studies, Australian National was read as a special lecture for that symposium. University, Canberra. Thanks must also be given to Dr. UMESAO,who NIETSCHMANN,B. (1980): The Cultural Context of totally organized and arranged the program,. Hunting, Torres Strait, Australia, (Paper presented (Received July 4, 1986) at 24th I. G. U., Tokyo). (Accepted October 4, 1986) OHSHIMA,G. (1979): Acculturation and its Historical Background of the Torres Strait Island, in The References Torres Strait Island Kenkyukai (ed.) ibid., 5-7. OHSHIMA,G. (1980): Acculturation and Christianiza BAYTCN,J. (1965) : Cross over Carpentaria: Being tion in Torres Strait Island, Kwansei Gakuin a History of the Church of England in Northern University Annual Studies, 29, 47-58. Australia from 1865-1965, W. R. & Patterson Pty. OHSHIMA,G. (1983): Land Use and Sea Surface Use Ltd., Brisbane. of Coral Islands, Kwansei Gakuin University FARNFIELD,D. J. (1974): The Moving Frontier: Annual Studies, 32, 49-58. Queensland and the Torres Strait, Lectures on OHSHIMA,G. (ed.) (1983): Torres Kaikyo no Hitobito, North Queensland History, James Cook University, sono Chirigaku-teki, Minzokugakuteki Kenkyu, 63-72. Kokon-Shoin, Tokyo. GEORGE,C. D. (1970): Pearl Cultivation in the South SEGAWA,S. (1979): A Note on the Change of Land Seas, A Dedication to the Memory of SEVILLE-KENT, System on Darnley Island, in The Torres Strait Lapidary Journal, 24,-5, 660-674. Island Kenkyukai (ed.) ibid., 27-32. HADDON,A. C. (ed.). (1901-1935): Reports of the SHIMADA,M. (1981): Crayfish Fishing in Torres Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Strait, in The Torres Strait Kenkyukai (ed.) Strait, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. The Results of Field Research in the Toyyes Strait HARRIS,D. R. (1979): Foragers and Farmers in Region, Osaka, 11-13. the Western Torres Strait Islands; An Historical WURM, S. A, and S. HATTORI,(eds.) (1981): Language Analysis of Economic, Demographic, and Spatial Atlas of the Pacific Area, Part I, New Guinea Differentiation, in BURNHAM,P. C. and R. F. ELIEN, Area, Oceania, Australia, Australian Academy (eds.) Social and Ecological System, (A.S. A. of the Humanities in Collaboration with the Japan Monograph 18), London. Academy, Canberra. HASHIMOTO,S. (1979): A Study of the Spatial YABUUCHI,Y. (1979): Mabaduan's Trading Canoe Aspects of Acculturation in the Torres Strait Calling at the Northern Islands of Torres Strait, Region, in The Torres Strait Island Kenkyukai in The Torres Strait Island Kenkyukai (ed.) (ed.) Interim Report of Field Research on the Torres ibid., 21-26. Strait Islands, Osaka, 8-12. HORNELL,J. (1950): Fishing in Many Waters, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 82 G. OHSHIMA

オ ー ス トラ リア と ニ ュー ギ ニ ア の 間

-ト レス海峡 の生態的 ・文化的 多様性, と くに水産資源 の利用 につ いて-

大 島 襄 二*

オ ー ス トラ リアの 北 部,ニ ュ ーギ ニア本 土 との 間 に あ 中 部 諸 島 ・西部 諸 島 が それ で あ る.他 方,ニ ュー ギ ニア る トレス海 峡 は,い ま,オ ース トラ リア側 に18島,パ プ 本 土 に近 い 北西 部 諸 島 ・キ ワイ諸 島や,ケ ー プ ・ヨー ク ア ・ニ ュー ギ ニ ア側 に2島 の有 人 の 島 が あ る.こ れ ら は 半 島 に近 い プ リンス ・オブ ・ウェ ール ズ諸 島で は本 土 と 一 般 的 にい えば海 に依 存 す る人 々,ア イ ラ ンダ ー ズ の生 の交 易 に よ って農 産 物 を期 待 で き る. 活 空 間 と して概 括 され る が,詳 細 にみ れ ばそ れ ぞ れ の 島 (2)自 然 地 理 学 的 ・生態 学 的 要 因:火 山 島 は 肥 沃 な 土 の 自然 地 理 学 的 特 性 と,そ こ に住 み 着 いた 人 の民 族 的 ・ 壌 が あ り農業 を営 む こ とが で き る.ク ラ ン毎 の 土 地 区 分 歴 史 的 背 景 の相 違 を反 映 して,海 へ の認 識 の しかた が 微 は リー フ 内 の水 面 に及 ぶ.サ ン ゴ礁 島 で は土 地 が狭 くか 妙 に 喰 違 って い る.そ れ を,海 面 利 用 形 態 ・伝統 的 漁法 つ 痩 せ て い る ので 漁 業 に 頼 らざ る を 得 な い.よ い 漁場 は ・資源利 用 状 況 ・近代 的 漁 業 導 入 な どの 観 点 か ら比 較 分 島 民 共 有 の財 産 と考 え られ る. 析 し,そ の 生 態 的 ・文化 的 多 様 性 を 明 らか に す る. (3)歴 史 的 条 件:近 世 以 降 の外 来 者 の定 住 に よ って混 結 論 と して 以 下 の よ うな3点 を そ の 分 類 の 基 準 とす る 血 が 進 ん だ 島 で は,伝 統 的 な生 活 習慣 は失 わ れ,資 本 主 こ とが で きた. 義 漁 業 た と えば真 珠 や エ ビに志 向 した し,近 世 以前 で も (1)両 岸 か らの 距 離:当 然 の こ とな が ら本 土 か ら離れ 交 易 が 盛 ん だ った 沿岸 部 の 島 で は対 岸 の影 響 を受 け る こ て い る海 峡 中 央 部 で は 海 へ の依 存 度 が 高 い.東 部 諸 島 ・ とが 多 か った.

* 〒662西 官市上 ケ原 関西学院大学文学部地理学教室