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Marine Sedimentation the Sea Floor, Being the Place of Accumulation Of t CHAPTER XX Marine Sedimentation INTRODUCTION The sea floor, being the place of accumulation of solid detrital material of inorganic or organic origin, is virtually covered with unconsolidated sediments; therefore, the study of materialsfound on the sea bottom falls largely within the field of sedimentation, and the methods of investigation employed are those used in this branch of geology. Twenhofel (1926) has defined sedimentation as . includhg that portionof the metamorphkcyole from the separation of the particlesfromthe parentrock,no matterwhatits originor constitu- tion,to andincludingtheirconsolidationinto anotherrock. Sedimentation thus involvesa considerationof the sourcesfrom whichthe sedimentsare derived;the methodsof transportationfromthe placesof originto thoseof deposition;the chemicaland other changestakingplace in the sediments from the times of their productionto their ultimateconsolidation;the climaticandotherenvironmentalconditionsprevailingattheplacesof origin, overtheregionsthroughwhichtransportationtakesplace,andin the places of deposition;the structuresdevelopedin connectionwith depositionand consolidation;and the horizontaland verticalvariationsof the sediments. Marine sedimentation is therefore concerned with a wide range of prob- lems, some of which are more or less unique to the sea, while others are of more general character. This discussion will deal with the first group and particular emphasiswill be placed upon the” oceanographic” aspects of marine sediments. The methods of studying the character and com- position of marine deposits are common to all types of sediments and, since readily available sources are cited in the text, will not be described here. The importance of investigations in marine sedimentation is obvious when it is realized that most of the rocks exposed at the surface of the earth are sedimentary deposits laid down under the sea. In order to interpret the past history of the earth from these structures,it is necessary to determinethe character of the materialnow being deposited in different environments. As the consolidated sediments generally contain fossils, it is of equal importance to determine the biological associations under different conditions and the character of the organic materials that may 946 MARINE SEDIMENTATION 947 form a part of the sedimentary record. An essentiallypractical problem is that of the petroleum industry. Since petroleum isformed from marine sediments, it is of the greatest’importance to determine the conditions under which potential oil-producing sedimentsare laid down in order that the search for new fields may be prosecuted most successfully. A by-product of such studies as those mentioned above, but never- thelessof the greatestimportance, is the knowledge gained concerning the hktory of the earth and phases of geochemistry and geology. In order to reconstruct the geological history of the earth”,it is essential to obtain information on the rate of sedimentation in the oceans and to determine, either directly or indirectly, the total thickness, and hence the amount, of sediments which have been deposited in the sea. Recent research has shown that the sedimentsfound in the deep waters of the North Atlantic are stratified, and, as stratification is related to variations in the source’ of material and transportational agencies, many possibilities are sug- gested for obtaining a better understanding of the past history of the earth. The geochemist is concerned with the chemical composition of the sediments, as they differ from the original source rocks and thus show a red~tribution of the various elements, and the geologist is inter- ested in the rate of sedimentation, as crustal movements may result from the changed distribution of mass. In addition, many problems concerning marine sediments are of immediate significanceto other phases of oceanography. To name but a few examples, the biologist is interested in the associations of organisms found in dtierent environments on the sea bottom and the remains which may be preserved in the sediments. The occurrence of certain types of organismshas actually been deduced from their skeletal remains in the sedimentsbefore they were found living in the sea. Furthermore, the sea bottom is a zone of active breakdown of much of the detrital organic matter sinking to the bottom. From a study of the mechanisms controlling the transportation of sedimentary material it is hoped that the character of the sediments may actually be used as a measure of the water movements over the bottom. The development of the study of marine sediments has been rapid. Sir John Murray is credited with the firstintensive investigations, and his report on the Challenger material (Murray and Renard, 1891) set the pattern for many later investigations. His work was largely descriptive, identifying the various constituents and considering the source of the material. More recently, as newer methods of study—microscopical, chemical, and physical-have been developed, the character of the investigations has changed. The X-ray technique has made possible the identification of the fine-grainedcrystalline materialwhich had earlier been classifiedas “amorphous” because it could not be recognized under the microscope. The question of precipitation and solution of calcium 948 MARINE SEDIMENTATION carbonate (an important constituent of many sediments) has been clarified as a result of studies in chemical oceanography. A better understanding of the character of turbulent flow offers a more rational treatment of processes of transportation of sedimentary debris. The earlier investigations of marine sedments are discussed in the writings of Murray and his collaborators, and by Collet (1908), Cayeux (1931), and Andr6e (1920). More recent studies have been summarized in a symposium on Recent ,Marine Sediments (Trask, cd., 1939) and in the reports of the German MeteorExpedition (Correns et a.?,1937) and other national expeditions. CONSTITUENTS OF MARINE SEDIMENTS - Since any solid material denserthan sea water and relatively insoluble may fall to the sea floor, a wide vsriety of substances from many sources contributes to the sediments and may be considered under six headings: (1) detrital material,largely of immediate terrigenousorigin, (2) products of subaerial and submarine volcanism, (3) skeletal remains of organisms and organic matter, (4) inorganic precipitatesfrom seawater, (5) products of chemical transformationtaking place in the sea, and (6) extraterrestrial materials. TERRIGENOUSMATERIAL. Two processes are involved in the break- down of terrigenousrocks of either igneous or sedimentary types. These are dieintegratioa and decomposition. Disintegration is the mechanical breakdown of the rock into smaller fragments and does not necessarily involve any change in the composition of the material. Decomposition involves chemical changes in the rock substanceswhich are.brought about by the action of water and air. Certain of the constituents are more soluble or more readily attacked and, hence, pass into solution and are carried away. The processes of weathering depend upon the character of the rock and the many aspects of the climatic conditions. Weathering depends upon the amount of rock surface exposed and, therefore, to a large degree upon the amount of disintegration which will increase the exposed rock surface (Twenhofel, 1932, 1939> The smallerthe rock fragments the more likely they are to be carried to the sea, but actually those found in the sea vary from large boulders to particlesof colloidal dimensions,so smallthat they cannot be identified under the microscope by the ordinary petrographic methods. The material found in the marine sediments varies from easily recognizable, chemically unaltered minerals, that is, the products of disintegration, to fine material which has undergone great changes in physical character- istics and chemical composition. In the first group belong the primary minerals, quartz, mica, feldspar, pyroxenes and amphiboles, and the heavy minerals. At the other extreme are the ultimate products of MARINE SEDIMENTATION 949 chemical weathering, such as clay minerals, free hydroxides of iron, alumina, colloidal silica, and material in various stages of transformat- ion. Thus, two processes must always be kept in mind in the study of @neral substancesin marine sediments: first, the degree of disintegration as represented by the size of the fragments, and second, the degree of ‘ weathering or decomposition as indicated by the absence of the more readily attacked substances and the presence of the ultimate products of chemical weathering. PRODUCTSOF VOLCANISM.Two types of volcanism. must be con- sidered, namely, subaerial and submarine. In both, essentially the same kinds of material may be ejected; but in the first Wse the volcanic ejecta will be subjected to mechanical and chemical weathering before reaching the sea. Volcanic material may be first deposited on the land and later transported to the sea by the action of running water, but the lighter and more finely divided fragments may be carried over the sea by the air. As a result of transport by winds, volcanic material maybe deposited in relatively large amounts over a considerable area and, in fact, ash from single eruptions is thought to have encircled the whole world. Furthermore, pumice will float in the water for some time. ‘ Volcanic material may frequently be recognized by its physical or chem- ical characteristics, but it is virtually impossible to determine
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