Cement and , Creativity and Community, and Charles E. Peterson Author(s): David Gregory Cornelius Source: APT Bulletin, Vol. 37, No. 1 (2006), pp. 17-25 Published by: Association for Preservation Technology International (APT)Association for Preservation Technology International (APT) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40004677 Accessed: 08/09/2010 16:55

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http://www.jstor.org and Concrete, Creativity and Community,and Charles E. Peterson

DAVID GREGORY CORNELIUS

Charles E. Peterson's research into A Simple Question the Journal of the Society of Architec- tural which he edited from the "lost history" of cement and In 1948 CharlesE. then a 41- Historians, Peterson, its in 1950 until the feature's concrete reveals as much about the architectwith the National inception year-old discontinuationin 1967. researcher as it does about his Park Servicein St. Louis, receiveda letter from A. J. Boase of the Portland subject. CementAssociation that contained this Peterson and McKee: "A Deep, information:"As far as we have been Involved and Confusing Topic" able to learn the first monolithic con- Peterson'smost importantmentor and crete built in the United States building colleague in the study of cement and was erectedin the 1849 in Wiscon- year concrete was HarleyJ. McKee (1905- sin. It is still in service.However the 1976), professor of architectureat cement used in that was not a job port- SyracuseUniversity, who became a land cement but a naturalcement and I valuable contact duringPeterson's years believe it was hauled from by wagon of editing AmericanNotes and re- New York State."1 mained so until McKee'sdeath. As he would continue to do through- In the day-longHistoric Structures out his Petersonhad formulated career, TrainingConference conducted for the a fundamentaland deceptivelysimple EasternOffice of Design and Construc- in this what was the question: instance, tion of the Park Serviceon July 28, firstconcrete in building America? 1961, toward the end of Peterson's addressedthis to the Having query tenurethere as supervisingarchitect for Port- recognizedexpert authority(the historic structures,McKee spoke and land Cement and received Association) contributedthe supplementarynotes its Peterson the next five reply, spent entitled "Cementand Mortar,1800- decades the refor- challenging answer, 1850."3 In 1962, at Peterson'surging, mulatingthe question, pursuingthe McKee contributedan AmericanNote the precedents,questioning terminology, on the early use of naturalhydraulic the receivedwisdom. torturing cement on the Erie Canal, in which the Peterson'sdrive for could knowledge importantengineer Canvass White never be containedwithin a single job (1790-1834) figuredprominently.4 The After the Historic description. founding same year Petersonleft the Park Service American from his BuildingsSurvey and establisheda privatearchitectural in the Na- relativelyinsignificant post practicein Philadelphia,supplemented tional ParkService in his atten- 1933, by adjunctteaching in the historic tions were divertedto win- temporarily preservationprogram, led by James the SecondWorld War in the ning Marston Fitch, within ColumbiaUniver- with the assis- Pacific, acknowledged sity's School of Architecture. tance of ChesterW. Nimitz. But back In the 1960s Petersondeferred to with the Park from 1946 to Service, McKee as a leading authorityon the 1948 in St. Louis and 1948 to 1962 in subjectsof early cement and concrete, Fig. 1 . Tower of barracks from southeast, Fort Philadelphia,Peterson's wars to preserve while not his own inter- Frederica National Monument (1741-42), St. selling growing nineteenth-centuryarchitecture from est short.5He exercisedthis balancein Simons Island, Georgia, May 1958. Photograph were harderto by Jack E. Boucher. Library of Congress, Prints mall-buildingpoliticians writing to an editor in 1966: "At the and the frustrations In those and Photographs Division, Historic American win, many.2 moment I am busy tryingto persuade Buildings Survey, Reproduction Number HABS years Petersonhad a scholarlybully ProfessorMcKee to do a resumeof GA, 64-FRED, 1-5. in the AmericanNotes section of pulpit Americanconcrete which (in my

17 18 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 37:1, 2006 opinion) comes to us from the Mediter- 1961 McKee, having warned that the 1790 and 1880 in Britain,France and raneanand the Caribbeanwith early history of cementwas a "deep, America- of hydrauliclimes, natural concretein the very earliestdays, involved and confusingtopic which (emphasizingCanvass White), throughtapia, the gravelwall and other cannot be taken lightly,"figuratively and early portlandcements, but left "the things."6In November 1966 Peterson, read Petersonthe riot act: Dutch developmentsand the use of as he was occasionallydisposed to do, In my judgement, you are incorrect in referring Trassto CharlesPeterson, who has composed a circularletter, copied to to the material used on the Erie Canal as port- found a great deal of valuableinforma- and who have land cement. I have found it referredto by tion on that branchof the anyone everyone might as subject."14 useful informationof value to contemporaries hydraulic cement, water-lime, In his McKee was still him, water-proof lime, water-proof cement. Benjamin presentation announcingthat Wright, Chief Engineer for all of the New York battlingfor rigorousterminology. "For State in to the canal For our graduate seminar on Preservation and Canals, 1818, suggested historicalpurposes, the term 'cement', Restoration in the School of Architecturewe commissioners that they import Tarrasor which has a connotationto a Roman but did not follow his precise have had for two years a lecture on 'The walls cement, they recommendation. The material discovered and modern engineer,is too restrictive," of Buildings in America to 18 60. '...During this with Canvass White was thus McKee wrote. "At other sub- coming Spring Term it is hoped to explore this experimented by times, used in mortar as a substitute for tremendous subject in greater depth and a Roman-type stancesin the composition of concrete natural cement. It to me that White was lecture on early concrete by Professor Emeritus appears or mortarwere for its the same lines as Parker responsible ability Harley McKee of SyracuseUniversity is hoped following general James in - Parker called his material to set and hardenunder water."15 for. Eventually we may have a handbook and England (1796) Roman cement.10 McKee's as much as his finally, perhaps, an encyclopedia on Early definitions, assistedPeterson in advanc- American materials and construction tech- For Peterson,under McKee's tute- corrections, niques.7 his own researches.16 lage, the clear definitionof the terminol- ing With his lecturein March 1967 to ogy, for any given subject,became in- the students in Peterson'sseminar, Early creasinglyan essentialobligation of the Tabby, Tabia, Tabas . . . American Materialsand Con- Building historian.In his 1966 circularletter in For a 1952 in AmericanNotes structionMethods to McKee piece (up 1860), anticipationof the springterm at Col- Peterson "induced" choice of seven of (his word) provided pages supplementary umbia, Petersonwrote on the subjectof a Park Service Albert C. notes that summarizedBritish technol- colleague, cement and concretehistory: "One of to contributea brief but de- to and Vicat's 1818 Manucy, ogy up Aspdin the great difficultiesin discussingthis tailed article relatedto the as well as the Americannatural ongoing treatise, subjectis semanticin nature. On this stabilizationof the concrete ruins cement with Can- tabby industrybeginning Marion ElizabethBlake, [in] Ancient of the Britishfortress vass White in the same eighteenth-century year.8 Roman Construction...show red that the town of Fort Fredericain Much of the materialin the research Georgia use of words has been troublesomefor venturedinto the and course notes would find its into (Fig. I).17Manucy way nearlytwo thousand years."11Among and treacher- McKee'sstill invaluablebook amorphous semantically Early the excerptsfrom Blake selectedby ous of and American which constituteda topics tapia tabby:tapia, Masonry', Petersonwas the following: "The En- derivesfrom fulfillmentof Peterson's Manucy wrote, Spanish partial hoped- glish word cement, though obviously and "refersto mud or adobe wall con- for handbook.9As he stated in his derivedfrom the Latinword pref- caementum, struction,"with or without lime. ace to that book, however,McKee had has come down to have anothermate- Manucy then made clear that he was excludedthe of con- rial we are explicitly subjects entirely.Consequently, referringnot to adobe unit masonry but crete and cast stone. Perhapsboth he forced to adopt the Englishcommercial instead to rammed-earthmonolithic and Petersondeemed the subjectof name for the materialthat is to say, in horizontal lifts Americanconcrete as too vast construction,placed primitive concrete."12 using wood , which could and undeveloped,rather like the early McKee and Petersonwere afforded also be for floors and roofs.18 for inclusion. both employed nation, Apparently, one more concertedassault on the mys- Where oyster-shelllime was employed, men came to view concreteas the appro- terious origins of early Americancement Manucy noted that the Spanishterm of a priate subject separatemonograph, and concretewhen both presentedat the was tabique de hostion, to which the which loomed as Peterson's increasingly Symposiumon Restorationof Historic Englishtabby was the exact equivalent. responsibility,inevitably so after ConcreteStructures, held as part of the He also noted that shell lime was ob- McKee'sdeath. 1975 annualconvention of the Ameri- tainable both from Indian shell mid- Peterson's - juniorcolleagues which, can ConcreteInstitute in Boston.13 dens, which were particularlyabundant of course, in his later days comprised Althoughthe focus of the agendawas in and from the shell- - Georgia, coquina, virtuallyall of them tended to grant preservation,three historicalstudies rich limestone local to .19 him a somewhat that godlike authority were presented:"Concrete Crosses the Two terms which appearedneither in could be with challengedonly ample Atlantic, 1498-1818" by Peterson; Manucy'stext nor in Peterson'sintro- documentationand greaterfortitude. "HistoricalDevelopment of Hydraulic duction were cement and concrete:the But as seen in his association Peterson, Cements"by McKee;and "The First identificationof tabby with cement (in with an mind McKee, always kept open Half Centuryof ReinforcedConcrete, the sense of a materialwith hydraulic to those he creditedwith the having 1855-1905" by Carl Condit. McKee properties)and with concrete,liberally - betterdata or superiorreasoning. In spoke on the development between definedas monolithicconstruction, CEMENT AND CONCRETE, CREATIVITY AND COMMUNITY 19

Going back in time to the very beginnings of European construction in the New World, we can note Columbus' new town - Nueva Isabella (begun in January, 1494) where the houses were built of wood, the public build- ings of stone and the fort of tapia. In Spain I have had no luck discussing the origin of tapia with architects and archeologists. But in examining old structures along the coast of Andalusia I was much impressed by the defensive towers of the ancient port city of Almeria which was held by the Arabs over seven centuries until the year 148 7... Because tapia is generally held to be a word of Arabic origin it seems logical to trace the Moors back across the Straits of Gibralter.23 In November 1975, on the conve- nient pretext of advisingon the restora- tion of the old Americanchancery resi- dence in Tangier,Peterson realized a long-deferreddream of visitingMorocco (Fig. 3).24Peterson wrote to his friend, the noted anthropologistCarleton 2. Rear del Cristo Fig. view, Capilla (1753), Coon, as follows: Fig. 3. Repairs to the Almohad Era (1 130-1269 Cristo and Tetuan streets, San Juan, Puerto CE) city walls, Rabat, Morocco, November 1975. Rico, undated photograph. Library of Congress, In 1969 I stood at Tarifaand looked across the Photograph by Charles E. Peterson. Charles E. Prints and Photographs Division, Historic Straitsof Gibralterwondering what was coming Peterson Concrete Research Notes, Box 6, and with the Moors a thousand American Buildings Survey, Reproduction going years ago. Folder 62, The Athenaeum of Philadelphia. I Number HABS PR, 7-SAJU, 2-4. am still wondering but last month I got closer to an answer.. .1 found that the Almohad walls of Rabat were made of the stuff [tapia] and in the universalityand homogeneityof the would have to await the disentangle- talking (with an interpreter)to men who are technique."27 ment of the word's various meanings repairingthem found that the old mix was 50% and senses.20 hamri (the local reddish clay) and 50% jir (lime burned on the beach at Sale across the river). Trass, Tarras, Terrace . . . Peterson'sexposure to vernacular Nowadays they add a little for buildingtraditions would be expanded obvious reasons, use steel scaffolding (lumber One of the most characteristicthemes in two later with his as is too expensive) and a mechanicallifter. But the work of CharlesE. Petersonwas years appointment otherwise the materialis the chief historicarchitect of the Na- generallymixed by the and hand and tamped in layers as revealed in many tracing temporal development tional Park Service'snewly created Moroccan constructionsof great age still to be geographicmovement of technologies. EasternOffice, with oversightfor the seen. . .It looks as if the answer lies with the Beginningin the 1950s, as described region that includedthe Carolinas, archeologists.25 above, Petersonhad sought to trace a Georgia,Florida, and PuertoRico. A decadelater Petersoncame closer tabia tradition of monolithic construc- "Since1952," wrote Peterson,"I have to a resolutionin correspondencewith tion linking North Americanvernacular many times walked the streetsof the Thomas F. Glick, a Boston University constructionback through the West ancientcity of San Juan, PuertoRico historianof culturalcontinuity and Indies to Spain and, ultimately,Islamic where fallen revealsthat a large diffusionin Islamicand post-Islamic Africa. Soon thereafter,he was to dis- part of the old walls are built of a low Spain.To him Petersonposed: "I have cern a parallel,more northerlyvector, - - grade but generallyadequate type cruiseda bit with cameraand sample involving the transmissionof natural of lime-earthconcrete [Fig.2], In that jars on both sides of the Straitsof hydrauliccements from Germany city the term mamposteriais often used Gibralter.The structuresare there but I through Holland and Britain,and their today though its exact derivationand haven'tfound any literarysources that respectiveempires, thereby enabling meaningare still unclear."21 explain how the techniquemigrated... It constructionof some of the first public One term that is not unclearin the is possible that the techniquewas never works in the new Americanrepublic. precedingpassage is concrete,which forgottenin Spain.But it seems more The invaluablenatural cement was Petersonby then unabashedlyidentified likely that it was re-introducedby the known variously as trass, tras, tarras, with any form of monolithicconstruc- Moors."26In a 1976 articleGlick had and ten ace}* tion employinglime or cement, includ- written, as if anticipatingPeterson's Trasswas one of the stepchildrenof ing most constructionin the ancientand inquiry,that "the unity of Spain and the history of constructionthat Peterson global traditionof rammedearth or North Africain a network of continuous sought to rehabilitate.Like rammed pise.22The origins of the Hispanic tapia culturalinterchange throughout antiq- earth, trass cementwas one of the tradi- traditiontherefore became, in Peterson's uity and the middle ages seems undeni- tional materialsthat nineteenth-century eyes, the true story of concretein the able. Indeed,the historicalsequence in technologysought to replace.Both New World: the transmissionof tamped earth con- materialstended to be ignored or trivial- structionis all but lost, masked over by ized by some historiansas the detritusof 20 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 37:1, 2006

Fig. 4. Tower near Andernach, William Tombleson, delineator, J. Watts, Fig. 5. Henry Sheere, engineer, "The Great Chest constructed . . . June " engraver (London: Black and Co., n.d.). Note the millwheels staged by the 1 677. Filled with stone mortared with trass, it was sunk as part of the Crane Tower, from which they will be loaded onto barges and sent down construction of the Great Mole at Tangier. E. M. G. Routh, Tangier (London: the Rhine to Dordrecht. Collection of D. G. Cornelius. John Murray, 1913), facing p. 356. darkertimes, without any serious at- ingredientused in many places) was mined at As the most sophisticatedhydraulic to understandthe rich vernacular Andernachon the Rhine [Fig. 4] from Roman constructorsof their the Dutch tempt times. It was later at - and time, culturesin which ground exported firstrealized the value of waste material building they per- from - Dordrecht and Amsterdam...My prob- formed admirablyfor centuries. lem is to close the time gap between the Romans left over from grindingmillstones made Exchanginginformation on early and the seventeenthcentury Dutch... Archeologi- of Bavarianvolcanic stone shipped cementsin Petersonwrote cal excavations have revealedmassive concrete down the Rhine and then their 1967, constructionsof classical times at modern repeated McKee: "Thewonderful stuff on the Cologne, Trier,etc. But I understandthat written discoveryin their West Indianposses- Middlesex Canal, trass, etc., just came records for the Netherlands do not begin before sion, St. Eustatius,which possessedvery in. What a find!"29The "wonderful about the year 1100.31 similargeological resources.German stuff" was proof of the applicationof Petersonand his correspondents and St. Eustatiantrass thereforeenjoyed naturalhydraulic cements in American were actually unable to do much to fill a near-monopolyin hydraulic-engineer- civil engineeringprior to its previously this historicallacuna. Instead,their ing specifications,until engineersin known discoveryby CanvassWhite in investigationsrevealed the development Britain,France, and Americabegan 1818. Specifically,McKee and Peterson of a strong sellers'market in construc- seekingdomestically occurring natural were galvanizedby findingshipping tion materialsby the Dutch over two cementswith similarproperties. Among papersfor the 1795 importationof trass centuries,including the creation of a the firstto do so in Britainwere John from St. Eustatiusin the Netherlands cartel to fix prices when Louis XIV's Smeaton,who in the mid-eighteenth Antilles for use in the Middlesex constructionprojects accelerated de- centurydiscovered not only the specific Canal (also known variouslyas the mand, and the successfuldomination of utility of "Welsh"cements (actually MassachusettsCanal and the Merrimac British- and by culturalinfluence from Cornwall)but also the underlying Canal), as specifiedby WilliamWeston, North American- hydraulicconstruc- necessityof expansiveclays in hydraulic the Englishhydraulic engineer brought tion by Dutch vendors and, occasion- cements,and Joseph Parker,whose in to supervisethe construction,and ally, Dutch engineersas well.32Trass patented "Roman"cement (1796), LaommiBaldwin, his Americanassis- would thereforeplay a major role in the using ThamesValley clay stones, was tant. The next winter found Peterson GreatMole of Tangier(1662-1680), the extensivelyused in America.34 visiting St. Eustatiusand seekingsource most importantBritish hydraulic con- materialson the history and architecture structionproject to that date, and one Cementing the New Republic of the Dutch West Indies.30 of Peterson'sfavorite topics (Fig. 5).33 the 1970s Petersonwas vora- Seekingto trace the Europeanroots As with Joseph Totten'sfortification By early and of trass, Petersonfell back on one of his designs in the nineteenth-centuryUnited ciously collecting anything every- to cement and concrete large-caliberresearch weapons, the States, the Mole of Tangier- begun by thing relating In 1973 he wrote: "Thereis a circularletter. "Throwing myself on the the Britishadmiralty and then demol- history. fantastic amount of material to kindnessof Dutch and Germanfriends," ished while still unfinished,at coming great hand. most recent is on the he wrote: expense, when it abandonedthe brief- My push canal buildersand the U.S. The Romans invented cement" which lived North Africannaval station - Army engi- "hydraulic neers."35The constructionof hardenedunder water for masonry in wet places. was no secret to militaryhistorians, but canals, The Dutch somehow inheritedthe and ratherthan indeed to technique its great technologicalsignificance had buildings, proved must have found it indispensablefor "hydraulic be one early cutting edge of the native construction"such as dams and largely eluded historiansof architecture sluices, bridge cement and the rationalization footings. Trass, tras or terras (an important and engineering. industry CEMENT AND CONCRETE, CREATIVITYAND COMMUNITY 21

anotherfinding gleaned by Peterson from evidencehidden in plain sight. For example, Petersonwrote, at the 1779- 1780 Morristownencampment "Wash- ington had three or four of his principal Frenchengineers trying to 'make some mortarinto a consolidatedmass' ac- cordingto the directionsof Loriot, whose PracticalEssay on a Cementand ArtificialStone had been translatedand publishedin London only a year before the war broke out. The experimentsat Morristownwere not a successfor 'the result'as the Generalwrote 'was in- finitelydistant from what we had been led to expect.'"39Peterson found Jeffer- son sending $40 to New Yorkfor Roman cement, presumablymade under 40 Parker'spatent, in 1815. Amongst Fig. 6. Canvass White. Courtesy of Munson- Peterson'slast correspondence,from Fig. 7. Joseph G. Totten.Courtesy of United Williams-ProctorInstitute, Utica, New York. States MilitaryAcademy, West Point, New York. 2004, was with TravisMcDonald, of PoplarForest, regarding Jefferson's use of Americanconcrete practice; military of "brickdust" in the stucco rendering the Napoleonic Wars.His intuition was architecturewas the other. of his columns.41 rewardedin part, when documentation The definingevent in the history of Petersonbrought to his independent eventuallysurfaced of a Frenchengi- Americancement and concretehad been scholarshipa masteryof delegation neer,Jean-Xavier Bureaux de Pusy identifiedby McKee as the discovery learnedduring his Navy and Park Ser- (1750-1806), who, while in exile in and immediateexploitation of native vice days. Wherethere were documents Americawith Lafayette,had been con- naturalhydraulic materials by Canvass in languagesobscure to Peterson,trans- sulted in 1801 regardingharbor de- White in 1818 duringthe construction lators would "volunteer"to help, often fenses for the Port of New York. Al- of the Delawareand Hudson Canal.36In gratis.42Correspondents would be though Bureauxde Pusy recommended seizing on this information,however, persuadedto drop into distant archives. pozzuolana for hydraulicwork, no Petersonwas not merelycontent to But sometimesthe "if you want it done substantiveevidence has been found for honor a canonicalevent; he also wanted right"adage would prevail.Writing to the implementationof his advice.46 to know the context in which it oc- Darwin H. Stapleton,of the Papersof An obviously criticalfigure in the curred.Writing to RichardN. Wrightof BenjaminHenry Latrobe,about other developmentin Americaof structural the Canal Societyof the State of New mattersin 1975, Petersondemanded engineeringgenerally and of cement and Yorkin 1972, Petersonstated: "One of to know: "Who is going to look up concretetechnology specificallywas the things I'd like very much to know is Latrobe'sexperience with John Joseph Totten (1788-1864), military whetheror not the Erie Canal builders Smeaton?"43Peterson in this instance engineerand eventualbrevet major learnedabout the value of hydraulic ended up delegatingthe work to Peter- generaland chief of engineersof the cementsfor underwatermasonry from son, who wrote an amusingpassage on United StatesArmy. In 1973 Peterson the Merrimac[or Middlesex] Canal. how Latrobe- justly deifiedfor most wrote to a Park Servicehistorian in LaommiBaldwin got trass from St. aspectsof his architectureand engineer- Manhattanthat he was "workingon a Eustatiusand the story goes back to ing - really should have known better history of concretebefore 1860 and one of the first I learnedwas the Andernachon the Rhine. The question when specifyingcements.44 "Actually," things of the work done Colonel could be asked:Was CanvassWhite (or Petersonwrote, "Latrobewas quite importance by Tottenat Fort in his associates)in touch with Baldwin? wrong on certainphases of the concrete Adams, Newport 1825-1838. "47Peterson then asked his Did any of them go over to see the story - but so were most professionals New York "How did Massachusetts[another name for the at the time... Doing it as the Romans did correspondent, Col. Tottenfirst become Middlesex] Canal?"37The question frustratedmany Englishmenover a long acquainted with in could be asked, but perhapsnot an- On the Continent,the was Europeanpractices 'hydraulic' period. story construction?On that Totten swered;it is easierto ascertainthat somewhat different."45 learning White visited Britainin 1817 than to the Frenchdominance in (aftergraduation from West Point in Knowing had an track his movementscloser to home.38 civil and into the 1805) early tour of duty on the militaryengineering New Yorkwaterfront I have been won- The relativelyprecocious interest of nineteenth Petersonwent early century, if trass was used in connection such individualsas in search of French in Amer- dering GeorgeWashington engineers with work on the waterfront and Thomas in the ica the unsettled of the piling Jefferson incipient during years structureslike Castle Clinton."Here cement technologyof their time was Americanand Frenchrevolutions and 22 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 37:1 , 2006

own monograph.As we have observed, sequel. Ongoing correspondence,re- one likely impetus in Peterson'sliterary search,and travelwere reflectedin ambition was McKee'sdeliberate exclu- additionaldrafts, some of them revised sion of most of the history of cement as late as 2003. and concrete from his Early American In the last years of his life Peterson Masonry', publishedin 1973.51 was largelykept home by the physical In a requestto view the Canvass infirmitiesof age, but his wits remained White Papersat CornellUniversity, undiminished.Encouraged by such Petersonnoted that "throughthe studies friendsas Roger Moss of the Athenseum of ProfessorHarley McKee of Syracuse of Philadelphia,Peterson finally found many of us learnedabout White'sgreat the time and researchassistance to contributionto the history of American complete and publish severaldeferred concrete.My problemnow is to take the manuscripts,including the Robert Smith scrapsof informationI have collected monograph.The concretetext was to be over the years and write a dissertation the capstone project.Through the good Fig. 8. Charles E. Peterson field sketch of on the one of which was works of Nicholas L. Roman building in Baiae, near Pompeii, Novem- subject, phase engineer Gianopu- ber 1984, showing an almost 80-year-old with the Erie Canal experience."52He was los and Dr. Moss, fundingfor the work remarkable sureness of eye and hand, if, as similarlyhumble in pursuingthe papers was obtained from the National Center always, indecipherable handwriting. Charles E. of John Jervis(1795-1885), engineerof for PreservationTechnology and Train- Peterson Concrete Research Notes, Box 6, New York City'swater supply:"What a ing of the National Park Servicein Folder 51, The Athenaeum of Philadelphia. pity no one has ever done full-dress 2004, shortly before Peterson'sdeath. biographiesof Jervisand White! I can One of this article'speer reviewers Petersonwas fishingfor a link between only do a sketch on AmericanConcrete observedthat Petersonwas "everthe Pusy and Totten, but there were to be no to carryforward the interestgenerated antiquarian"but, this authorwould bites on that particularline. Another years ago by TurpinBannister and argue, one who grew in technicaldisci- link, mentionedin the same letter,was Harley McKee."53 pline as a professionalhistorian. He was more promising:"I also know that As fortunewould have it, Peterson indeed, in numerousrespects, a nine- Tottenin the 1820's was in touch with was alreadypreoccupied with planning teenth-centuryfigure, on one hand a like CanvassWhite who canal engineers a major symposiumcommemorating the kindredspirit to Viollet-le-Ducor becamefamous for his innovationswith 1974 bicentennialof the Carpenters WilliamMorris, but on the other an native cement on the Erie hydraulic Companyof the City and County of active participantin furtheringthe new Canal c.l 820. "48 Philadelphiaand in the meeting'safter- fields of materialculture and the history Petersonoften the emphasized per- math was to edit and publishthe papers of technology. sonal side of architecturaland engineer- presented.The resulting1976 publica- Above all, despitehis self-cultivated as the title of ing history, exemplifiedby tion was the monumentalBuilding Early misanthropicpersona, Peterson was the one of his later Robert Smith: books, America:Contributions toward the unrivalledcommunicator in his field, a Architect,Builder, Patriot, 1722-1777.,49 History of a Great Industry.The sympo- man whose most effectiveresearch CanvassWhite and Joseph Totten (Figs. sium and book were to method was to createand enthusea 6 and both heroic largelymonopo- 7) represented figures lize five of Peterson'slife. of like-minded to for reasons their years community correspon- Peterson, beyond the of dent researchersand to be a mentor and achievements:the By spring 1975, however, professional former, Petersonhad also to to at least three of chronicill health that caused his managed compose colleague generations despite an outline for a concrete scholarsand servedwith distinction monograph preservationistsprivileged prematuredeath, and write and revise draftsfor severalof - as I was - to know and work in the War of the latter lived to a briefly 1812; the sections.54His to and with him. but died while in the service trip Spain greaterage Morocco in the fall of 1975 of of his the Civil War. was, country during DAVIDGREGORY CORNELIUS, AIA, PE, is an That both men contributed to course, largelyrelated to the concrete greatly as was a architect, structural engineer, teacher, and in- the of the and story, subsequentexpedition architectural historian. He is cur- development profession to the Mediterraneanin to dependent art of civil engineeringin Americamust 1984, study rently editing Charles E. Peterson's concrete have seemedto Petersona naturalcon- the sources and uses of pozzuolanain research papers. and the sequenceof their animatedintelligence Italy (Fig. 8) corresponding volcanic cementsof the Greekisland of and public dedication. Acknowledgements Santorini.55Having publishedhis magis- terial of the of iron CharlesE. Peterson'sconcrete researchis being study development edited with awarded under a Towards a Monograph and steel structuralsections in the funding cooperative agreementbetween the National Center for As early as 1966, Petersonhad consid- 1980s, and done much to documentthe PreservationTechnology and Trainingof the ered writing an article on the history of developmentof sawmills and the indus- National Park Service(Kirk A. Cordell, executive trializationof wood he director,and Andrew Ferrell,chief, architecture cement and concrete.50By the early construction, and and the Athenseumof Philadel- viewed the engineering), 1970s he had determinedto write his concretetext as a logical phia (Roger W. Moss, Jr.,executive director). CEMENT AND CONCRETE, CREATIVITYAND COMMUNITY 23

Nicholas L. Gianopulos, senior consultant, Keast 6. CEP to Clarissa McKnight, Associate Editor, Robert E. Koehler, Editor, AIA Journal, Wash- & Hood Co., Philadelphia,and Hilda Sanchez, Concrete Construction, Elmhurst, 111.,Sept. 2, ington, draft, Jan. 26, 1967; CEP CRN 2:11. for assistant to Mr. Peterson,were 1966; CEP CRN 2:11. many years 12. Marion Elizabeth Ancient Roman highly instrumentalin establishingthe project. Blake, The Athenaeumholds of Mr. Peterson's 7. From the title of the lecture it is apparent Construction in Italy from the Prehistoric copies that 1966 Peterson had defined the Period to Institution Pub- concrete research;Mr. Peterson'soriginal papers by already Augustus, Carnegie now reside in the National Trust for Historic terminal year of his own historic interests, lication 570 (Washington, D.C.: 1947), 327. which he maintained for most of his later Blake wrote two further volumes on construc- Preservation Collection at the University Library research into the of tion in the and late Roman of Maryland, College Park. I also acknowledge history building technology. early Empire. The 1860 date served the history of cement and the assistance at the Athenasumof Eileen Magee, 13. The was ACI Com- concrete well, predating the artificial-cement meeting organized by assistant director;Bruce Laverty,curator of mittee of chaired industry in America (if not quite Britain) and 120, History Concrete, by architecture;and Michael Seneca;and the assis- Howard H. Newlon were the the development of ferrocement (the systematic Jr.;cosponsors tance of my readers,including Lori Aument, of Association for Preservation engineered reinforcement of concrete with Technology, John Milner Associates, Philadelphia. National Park and National Trust for steel). Peterson thereby avoided duplicating Service, Historic Preservation. The occurrence of the most of the work of historians such as Sigfried attested both to the valida- Giedion, Ada Louise Huxtable, and Peter meeting increasing Notes tion of historic and to the Collins, who essentially picked up after, or preservation pre- Bicentennial also in 1 . No of Peterson's letter to the shortly before, he left off. Circular letter from Zeitgeist displayed Building copy original America. PCA is in his files relating to concrete research. CEP, Subject: History of Cement/Concrete, Early Nov. CEP CRN 3:25. Boase's reply is in the Athenseum's Charles E. 30, 1966; By encyclope- 14. McKee to Newlon, Oct. 2, 1974; copy to Peterson Concrete Research Notes, Box 2, dia Peterson was presumably thinking more in CEP in CEP CRN 2:16. McKee wrote an terms of one of his more useful Folder 7 (hereafter CEP CRN 2:07, etc.). Diderot, excellent accompanying paper, "Historical sources, than of the World Book. of 2. W. Barksdale is a Development Hydraulic Cement," of 20 Maynard writing biogra- it was to this of Charles E. Peterson For 8. Joseph Aspdin (1779-1855) was for many pages including footnotes; not, phy (hereafter CEP). writer's but a is in an excellent narrative of Peterson's Park years recognized as the inventor of the sintering knowledge, published, copy now, the CEP CRN 3:25. Newlon Service wars can be found in Constance M. process used for making modern artificial encouraged Peterson to Greiff's The Creation a hydraulic cements, which were patented by him produce something similar, relating Independence: of to the Middlesex Canal: CEP to National Park (Philadelphia:Univ. of Pennsyl- in 1824 under the brand-name "Portland," specifically 1975; CEP CRN 2:16. vania Press, 1987). The malls were the Gate- although recent scholarship has somewhat Newlon, Apr. 14, way Mall in St. Louis and Independence Mall diminished the primacy of his claims. Louis- 15. McKee continues: "There have been two Vicat was a French mili- in Philadelphia, both of which imposed over- Joseph (1786-1861) major lines of development. One deals with and civil and the author of sized settings for relatively modest historic tary engineer natural materials often classed with sand, that Recherches sur les Chaux de buildings (the Old Courthouse and Indepen- experimental had been formed by volcanic action, possessing les Betons et les Mortiers ordi- dence Hall, respectively) at the general expense Construction, hydraulic properties. Among these, the poz- naires revised in and of historic urban fabric. (Paris, 1818), 1828, zolana used by the ancient Romans is most translated into in 1837. Vicat's English book, familiar. The second line of development begins 3. It must have been an intense day: also on not the earliest on the is although subject, with natural hydraulic lime and natural cement the agenda were Lee H. Nelson's "Eighteenth credited with the first exhaustive widely being and progresses through artificial hydraulic lime Century Framing Devices with Special Empha- and viable resource on limes and scientifically and cement." McKee, "Historical sis on Early Cut Nails," the handout for which portland cements, reflecting contemporary developments Development of Hydraulic Cements," 1-2. has attained biblical status with preservation in chemistry and mechanics. Harley J. McKee, professionals, and Penelope Hartshorne's "SupplementaryNotes on Mortar, Lime, 16. In one of his last letters to Peterson (McKee similarly canonical "Paint Color Research and Natural Cement, Concrete, and Plaster" (type- to CEP,May 20, 1975; CEP CRN 3:22), McKee Restoration." script), Mar. 22, 1967. The following year admonished amidst more emphatic underlining: McKee returned to lecture and issued a "You be careless in the use of term 4. Peterson made the request of McKee on Dec. again may getting revised Notes on Mortar, Lime, Cement or mortar is if it 7, 1960, who responded rather delinquently "Explanatory hydraulic. hydraulic Natural Cement, Concrete, and Plaster" will set and harden under water, or in four months later: "This subject, as you, in- (type- damp 17, 1968. At Peterson's locations. Some mortars and would not terests me more than my lack of accomplish- script), Apr. request plasters McKee followed his related set and harden under water, but if allowed to ment would indicate; I feel that it is a deep, up by sending research notes, an bundle" (no less harden in a would then resist involved and confusing topic which cannot be "impressive dry place, they than 32 of water well; this could be the case with treated lightly." McKee to CEP,Apr. 2, 1961; single-spaced pages), comprised very " CEP CRN 3:21. definitions of individual topics, such as natural reference to a cistern. Correcting Peterson's cement, followed by annotated citations in the comments on William Weston, an English 5. On May 31, 1961, Peterson wrote to the primary literature. All three of McKee's docu- engineer working in America in the 1790s, Park Service architect at Fort Laramie, solicit- ments are located in CEP CRN 2:11. McKee went on to say: "I would feel more ing an American Note on its lime-concrete comfortable if you had said that Weston had a 9. McKee, American ruins: "Among other things, I am getting more Harley J. Early Masonry: durable material for waterproofing cisterns, and more concerned with the of Stone, Brick, Mortar and Plaster (Washington, rather than that he was development " saying using hydraulic architectural concrete in the United States. A D.C.: National Trust for Historic Preservation, cement. 1973). A second fulfillment, not little has been written about it, but mostly by partial by art historians who over its structural intention but serving admirably by default, is 17. American Notes, Journal of the Society of glance no. 4 sources of etc. I have Building Early America (Radnor, Pa.: Chilton, Architectural Historians 11, (1952): 32- characteristics, supply, a started a small movement to correct some of 1976), which was edited by Peterson. 33. Albert C. Manucy (1910-1997) was both these Most is Profes- keen observer of architectural physical evidence things. important having 10. McKee to CEP,Apr. 2, 1961; CEP CRN in sor McKee of who works for and well-read Spanish and English primary Harley Syracuse, 3:21. to write on the us the the Architec- sources. He was monographs [i.e., Journal of Society of fortresses of St. and San and tural and is close to the of 11. Circular letter from CEP,Subject: History Augustine Juan Historians] history his delineated The Houses St. the Erie work out some of these of Cement/Concrete, Nov. 30, 1966; CEP CRN finely guide of Canal, matters, St. Histori- in the earliest CEP to Robert 3:25. Similarly Peterson wrote a few months Augustine (St. Augustine: Augustine especially years." cal remains in H. Gann, Fort Laramie National Monument, later, "Semantics [has] probably been the basic Society, 1962) print. trouble the concrete from its true Wyo. CEP CRN 4:29. tracing story 18. Manucy 's cover letter reads: "The enclosed two thousand CEP to beginning years ago." data on tabby will interest you. It came to light 24 APT BULLETIN: JOURNAL OF PRESERVATION TECHNOLOGY / 37:1, 2006

while we were researching to do a sketch 27. Thomas F. Glick, "Cob Walls Revisited: 34. Smeaton's discoveries, although made diagramming tabby wall construction for the The Diffusion of Tabby Construction in the around 1756, were unfortunately not published Frederica museum." Manucy, Castillo de San Western Mediterranean World" in B. Hall and until 1791, shortly before his death. The British Marco National Monument, to CEP,Eastern D. West, eds., On Pre-Modern Technology and development of natural cements in the late Office, Oct. 4, 1956; CEP CRN 3:22. Science, 148 (Malibu: Undena Publications, eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, as a 1976); a copy is with Dr. Glick's letter in the prologue to the artificial cements of Aspdin and 19. The field of and tabby history preservation CEP CRN. others, was well known by the 1920s has been broadened in the last 15 already extensively and is definitively summarized in A. J. Francis, the work of Lauren B. Sickels- 28. The last variant is not a mala- years through necessarily The Cement Industry 1796-1914: A History Taves and her collaborators. Peterson corre- If a as is often the is a propism. terrace, case, (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1977). But with Dr. Sicklels-Tavesin the flat surface over a habitable sponded early paved space below, the extent to which Joseph Parker'scement was to information the must have some resis- 1990s, exchange and, doubtless, supported assembly available and applied in the early United States another researcher at a critical tance to moisture. encourage yet was largely discovered by McKee and Peterson. in her work: elec- early point Sickels-Taves, One tantalizing footnote is that Parker,after tronic with the 29. The Middlesex Canal was chartered in correspondence writer, Jan. 10, selling his patents and works to the Wyatt 2006. 1794 and completed in 1804. The canal pro- vided an outlet in Boston Harbor for the family, immigrated to America and then disap- from Did Peterson seek some 20. Peterson was to discover that, just as port- products of the Merrimac watershed, not peared history. link to Obadiah the land cement is integral to modern concrete, the initially, as one might suppose, Lowell textiles, genealogical Parker, early American concrete The records are durability of historic concrete (as broadly de- but New Hampshire lumber. Robert J. Kapsch, pioneer? mute. fined by him to include monolithic poured or Canals (New York: W. W Norton , 2004): 16. formed rammed McKee wrote to CEP on construction, employing earth, again Aug. 11, 1967, 35. CEP to Howard Newlon, Mar. 5, 1973, and similar was new information about the Middle- rubble, materials) frequently reporting CEP CRN 2:16. Peterson would shortly dis- on the use of materials with sex Canal and the use of trass cement in its dependent hy- cover parallel contemporary developments in draulic Merrimack learned at a canal historians' properties. locks, Canada by British military engineers and the meeting the week prior: CEP CRN 5:37. constructors of the Rideau Canal: "The canal 21. "Tabby/Tapia/Tabiya/Tabbi:Notes Assem- McKee cited conversations with Middlesex engineers, again, were the cement pioneers - bled Preparatory to a Visit to Morocco," Nov. Canal Association historian Fred Lawson and a as in the USA as well." CEP to A. J. H. 5, 1975; CEP CRN 5:43. The Middlesex study by Christopher Roberts, Richardson, St. Jean, Quebec, Aug. 26, 1974; Canal 1793-1860 Harvard Univ. 22. A parallel conclusion was being reached by (Cambridge: CEP CRN 4:28. The critical documents on the Peter Collins in his Concrete: The Vision of a Press, 1938). construction of the canal are shared between 36. as New Architecture, 2nd ed. (Montreal: McGill- Naturally occurring hydraulic cements, the Alumni Memorial of the Lowell McKee and Peterson are more common Queen's Univ. Press, 2004): 21-25, wherein Library found, Technical Institute and the Baker of than The of Collins identified Francois Cointeraux (1740- Library generally supposed. discovery Harvard. Peterson both collections in natural cement Andrew Bartow and Canvass 1830), French theorist of pise or rammed-earth perused by 1973. White in New in construction, as the key progenitor of modern Onondaga County, York, 1818 is the classic example of a phenomenon concrete construction. Opportunities for dis- 30. A valuable resource was particularly Joh. repeated time and again: a need (a construction cussion between Peterson and Collins were Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Hartog, project requiring hydraulic materials) combined limited by rather frosty relations between the Antillen IV: De Boven windse Eilanden (Aruba, with the perceptive eye of some individual two men; Peterson, however, expressed respect Peterson devoured the book and 1964). rapidly (usually an engineer responsible for that pro- for Collins's concrete scholarship to this writer. then wrote to "to ask about the Hartog you ject) to reveal the right combination of stone earliest use of Statia tras. The oldest record we 23. "Tabby/Tapia/Tabiya/Tabbi,"CEP CRN and clay in a propitious location (such as a have found is the for the stone 5:43. By the late 1960s, Peterson was seeking import masonry geological formation disturbed by the initial of the Middlesex Canal in when to take the history of hydraulic cements and Massachusetts, excavation for the work). concrete construction in the Americas even a schooner was sent down especially to procure it. We know that Tras was also used in the 37. CEP to Richard Dec. further back, prior to European incursions. Wright, 21, 1972; New over the Delaware CEP CRN 4:36. That story, although an interesting one, is too Trenton, Jersey bridge in 1804. I haven't looked yet to see if it came involved to be included in this article, but 38. Peterson would have been from Statia or Holland." CEP to Joh. Hartog, highly gratified, includes Peterson's study of Hohokam caliche as both a and a to Aruba, Jan. 15, 1968. Hartog was unable to preservationist historian, concrete in Arizona (best exemplified by the learn of the recent commercial revival of determine when the exports began but stated Casa Grande monument), and his support for Rosendale natural cement - first discovered research David S. into that they were definitely occurring by 1746-47. by Hyman Mayan and exploited during the construction of the cements: CEP CRN 5:38. CEP CRN 5:39. Erie Canal - and by the historic scholarship 31. circular "A of its new Edison 24. Although the preferred modern spelling of CEP, letter, Study Hydraulic sponsored by owner, Coatings, Mortars and CEP Inc. The first the revived the name of the city is Tanger, Peterson and the Cements," May 25, 1973; major project using CRN 4:27. cement was a demonstration restoration for the sources he consulted generally used the older National Park Service of Fort Jefferson, Tangier, and so does this article for consistency. 32. CEP "Cement for manuscript, Versailles, Florida, a major Totten fortification. CEP CRN 5:43. 25. Peterson continues: "I have just about given 1685," July 13, 1973; on the It seems to be a of 39. "Our Founding Fathers Experiment," up Spaniards. point 33. Peterson's major source was E. M. G. honor not to know about the Moors. chapter in CEP's concrete manuscript, third anything Routh, Tangier:England's Lost Atlantic Out- The fortress at Niebla should be too to draft, Apr. 9, 1975; CEP CRN 5:40. big post, 1661-1684 (London: John Murray, overlook but haven't admitted to me that they 1912). He also revisited some of the primary 40. Edwin Morris Betts, ed., Thomas Jeffer- it exists." CEP to Carleton Coon, Gloucester, public records used by Routh and was able to son's Garden Book (Philadelphia:American Dec. CEP CRN 7:61. In 1976 Mass., 2, 1975; discover a major antecedent for the Tangier Philosophical Society, 1944): 541, 583-584, the Ministerio de Educacion Ciencia Spanish y mole in the Mole Nuovo (1638) at Genova. 586-587, 600-603, for 1815-1820. On pages Peterson with the "Las finally provided paper Lacking the time to publish his findings him- 583-584 Betts comments that "It is doubtful if Murallas de CEP CRN 5:45. " Niebla"; self, Peterson shared them with Michael M. Jefferson's cisterns were ever fully satisfactory. Librarian of the Institute of Civil Peterson's notes on Betts are in CEP CRN 3:17. 26. CEP to Thomas F. Glick, Boston University, Chrimes, Engineers, who summarized them in the ICE Dec. 26, 1985; Glick to CEP,Jan. 6, 1986; CEP 41. Travis to Panel for Historical Engineering Works McDonald, Poplar Forest, CEP, CRN 5:45. CEP to 2004. (PHEW) Newsletter (Dec. 1992), 4-5. July 27, 2004; McDonald, Aug. 3, CEMENT AND CONCRETE, CREATIVITYAND COMMUNITY 25

42. Peterson was evidently fluent in French and CEP CRN 3:21. Peterson's research on Totten 51. "The undersigned is planning to complete a got by in Italian. For documents in Dutch, he fills several folders of the CEP CRN. study of Early American concrete by the end of received invaluable research and translation this year." CEP to Douglas P. Adams, Middle- 48. the assistance from his untiring Columbia col- Interestingly foreshadowing Army sex Canal Association, Charlestown, Mass., for inland in the league, Theodore Prudon; see, for example, Corp's oversight waterways Apr. 20, 1973; CEP CRN 3:24. next which was to become its Prudon's rendition of some 20 pages from A. century, major "The relations of like 52. CEP to Gould P. and Heerding, Cement in Nederland (1971): CEP occupation. engineers Colman, Manuscripts CRN 5:42. Peterson's personal assistant, Hilda Baldwin, Canvass White, Totten and Weston University Archives, Cornell University, Dec. Sanchez, assisted with some Spanish texts. need to be worked out. These fellows did a lot 20, 1972; CEP CRN 3:21. of travelling." Circular letter from CEP regard- 53. CEP to Richard N. 43. CEP to Darwin H. Stapleton, May 16, ing Fort Adams, June 4, 1973; CEP CRN 3:22. Wright, Onondaga 1975, Papers of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, Historical Association, Syracuse, Sept. 24, Maryland Historical Society, Baltimore; CEP 49. Charles E. Peterson, with Constance M. 1973; CEP CRN 3:21. For a work on the CRN 3:25. Greiff and Maria M. Thompson, Robert Smith: subject prior to McKee, see Robert W Lesley, Architect, Builder, Patriot, 1722-1777 (Phila- History of the Portland Cement Industry in the CEP 44. "The Misfortunes of Latrobe," mono- delphia: Athenaeumof Philadelphia, 2000). United States (Chicago: International Trade CEP graph chapter, third draft, Apr. 9, 1975; Press, 1924), which, despite its title, has useful 50. In December 1966 and 1967 CRN 5:40. January information on the natural cement industry as Peterson corresponded with Robert E. Koehler, 45. CEP to P. well; excerpts are in CEP CRN 3:17. Edgar Richardson, Philadelphia, editor of the AIA Journal: "I enjoyed reading Feb. CEP CRN 3:21. 16, 1977; the article on the evolution of concrete in the 54. The manuscript for the concrete mono- November 1966 issue of the but I Folder 40 of Box CEP 46. Bureaux de Pusy, "Memoire on the Subjectof Journal, graph comprises 5, believe that should have back further with additional sections Fortifyingthe Port of New York" (1801), New- you gone CRN, manuscript to the of this material. scattered elsewhere in the boxes. York Historical Society,United States Military begin story important in Concrete was one of the great inventions of the PhilosophicalSociety Papers 1, n. 6; transcript 55. This uses Peterson's CEP CRN 3:24. Petersonfirst learned of "the Roman builders and its history in the New essay preferred spel-. - - ling, "pozzuolana," whereas contemporary Frenchmanwith the extraordinaryname of World in the form of lime concrete began English usage usually drops the u. Papers Bureaude Pusy" from Norman B. Wilkinson, in Columbus' time." So begins the January 26 relating to the 1984 European trip comprise Director of Researchof the Hagley Museum, draft of an article-length letter that Peterson most of Box 6, CEP CRN. where there are extensive archivesrelating to I. E. initiated in response to Koehler's suggestion, but did not CEP CRN du Pont's contacts with the French emigre com- evidently complete; Credit for Fig. 6: Portrait of Canvass White, 2:11. The draft serves as a of Peter- munity: CEP to Wilkinson, Aug.13, 1973; snapshot Hugh Bridport, not dated, oil on canvas, 35% Wilkinson to CEP to Wilkin- son's at the rather CEP,Sept. 4, 1973; knowledge time, leaping by 27 inches. Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Oct. CEP CRN 2:08. from Ponce de Leon in one son, 8, 1973; precipitously (1505) Institute, Museum of Art, Utica, N.Y., 58.104. paragraph to Orson Squire Fowler (1850) in 47. CEP to Ricardo Torres Reyes, Federal Hall the next. Peterson was to soon do much to fill National New Memorial, York, May 22, 1973; in the three-century gap.

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