Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

United States Department of Engineering Agriculture

Natural Field Resources Conservation Handbook Service

Issued December 1996

Cover: Little Yellow Creek, Cumberland Gap National Park, Kentucky (photograph by Robbin B. Sotir & Associates)

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimina- tion in its programs on the basis of race, color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or familial status. (Not all pro- hibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDA Office of Communications at (202) 720-2791.

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16–ii (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Preface

Chapter 16, Streambank and Shoreline Protection, is one of 18 chapters of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Ser- vice, Engineering Field Handbook, previously referred to as the Engineer- ing Field Manual. Other chapters that are pertinent to, and should be refer- enced in use with, Chapter 16 are:

Chapter 1: Engineering Surveys Chapter 2: Estimating Runoff Chapter 3: Hydraulics Chapter 4: Elementary Soils Engineering Chapter 5: Preparation of Engineering Plans Chapter 6: Structures Chapter 7: Grassed Waterways and Outlets Chapter 8: Terraces Chapter 9: Diversions Chapter 10: Gully Treatment Chapter 11: Ponds and Reservoirs Chapter 12: Springs and Wells Chapter 13: Wetland Restoration, Enhancement, or Creation Chapter 14: Drainage Chapter 15: Irrigation Chapter 17: Construction and Construction Materials Chapter 18: Soil Bioengineering for Upland Slope Protection and Erosion Reduction

This is the second edition of chapter 16. Some techniques presented in this text are rapidly evolving and improving; therefore, additions to and modifications of chapter 16 will be made as necessary.

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16–i Chapter 18 Acknowledgments

This chapter was prepared under the guidance of Ronald W. Tuttle, national landscape architect, United States Department of Agriculture, Natu- ral Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), and Richard D. Wenberg, national drainage engineer (retired).

Robbin B. Sotir & Associates, Marietta, Georgia, was a major contributor to the inclusion of soil bioengineering and revision of the chapter. In addition to authoring sections of the revised manuscript, they supplied original drawings, which were adapted for NRCS use, and photographs.

Walter K. Twitty, drainage engineer (retired), NRCS, Fort Worth, Texas, and Robert T. Escheman, landscape architect, NRCS, Somerset, New Jersey, served a coordination role in the review and revision of the chapter. Carolyn A. Adams, director, Watershed Science Institute, NRCS, Seattle, Washington; Leland M. Saele, design engineer; Gary E. Formanek, agricultural engineer; and Frank F. Reckendorf, sedimentation geologist (retired), NRCS, Portland, Oregon, edited the manuscript to extend its applicability to most geographic regions. In addition these authors revised the manuscript to reflect new research on stream classification and design considerations for riprap, dormant post plantings, rootwad/boulder revetments, and stream barbs. H. Wayne Everett, plant materials specialist (retired), NRCS, Fort Worth, Texas, supplied the plant species information in the appendix. Mary R. Mattinson, editor, John D. Massey, visual information specialist, and Wendy R. Pierce, illustrator, NRCS, Fort Worth, Texas, provided editing assistance and desktop publishing in preparation for printing.

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Contents: 650.1600 Introduction 16–1 (a) Purpose and scope...... 16–1 (b) Categories of protection ...... 16–1 (c) Selecting streambank and shoreline protection measures ...... 16–1

650.1601 Streambank protection 16–3 (a) General ...... 16–3 (b) Planning and selecting stream-bank protection measures ...... 16–3 (c) Design considerations for streambank protection ...... 16–6 (d) Protective measures for streambanks ...... 16–10

650.1602 Shoreline protection 16–63 (a) General ...... 16–63 (b) Design considerations for shoreline protection ...... 16–63 (c) Protective measures for shorelines ...... 16–64

650.1603 References 16–81

Appendix A Size Determination for Rock Riprap 16A–1

Appendix B Plants for Soil Bioengineering and Associated Systems 16B–1

Tables Table 16–1 Live fascine spacing 16–16

Table 16–2 Methods for rock riprap protection 16–49

Figures Figure 16–1 Appropriate selection and application of streambank 16–2 or shoreline protection measures should vary in response to specific objectives and site conditions

Figure 16–2 Vegetative system along streambank 16–9

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Figure 16–3a Eroding bank, Winooski River, Vermont, June 1938 16–12

Figure 16–3b Bank shaping prior to installing soil bioengineering 16–12 practices, Winooski River, Vermont, September 1938

Figure 16–3c Three years after installation of soil bioengineering 16–12 practices, 1941

Figure 16–3d Soil bioengineering system, Winooski River, Vermont, 16–12 June 1993 (55 years after installation)

Figure 16–4 Live stake details 16–13

Figure 16–5 Prepared live stake 16–15

Figure 16–6 Growing live stake 16–15

Figure 16–7 Live fascine details 16–17

Figure 16–8 Preparation of a dead stout stake 16–18

Figure 16–9a Placing live fascines 16–18

Figure 16–9b Installing live stakes in live fascine system 16–18

Figure 16–9c An established 2-year-old live fascine system 16–18

Figure 16–10 Branchpacking details 16–20

Figure 16–11a Live branches installed in criss-cross configuration 16–21

Figure 16–11b Each layer of branches is followed by a layer 16–21 of compacted soil

Figure 16–11c A growing branchpacking system 16–21

Figure 16–12 Vegetated geogrid details 16–23

Figure 16–13a A vegetated geogrid during installation 16–24

Figure 16–13b A vegetated geogrid immediately after installation 16–24

Figure 16–13c Vegetated geogrid 2 years after installation 16–24

Figure 16–14 Live cribwall details 16–26

Figure 16–15a Pre-construction streambank conditions 16–27

Figure 16–15b A live cribwall during installation 16–27

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Figure 16–15c An established live cribwall system 16–27

Figure 16–16 Joint planting details 16–28

Figure 16–17a Live stake tamped into rock joints 16–29

Figure 16–17b An installed joint planting system 16–29

Figure 16–17c An established joint planting system 16–29

Figure 16–18 Brushmattress details 16–31

Figure 16–19a Brushmattress during installation 16–32

Figure 16–19b An installed brushmattress system 16–32

Figure 16–19c Brushmattress system 6 months after installation 16–32

Figure 16–19d Brushmattress system 2 years after installation 16–32

Figure 16–20 Tree revetment details 16–34

Figure 16–21a Tree revetment system with dormant posts 16–35

Figure 16–21b Tree revetment system with dormant posts, 16–35 2 years after installation

Figure 16–22 Log, rootwad, and boulder revetment details 16–36

Figure 16–23 Rootwad, boulder, and willow transplant 16–37 revetment system, Weminuche River, CO

Figure 16-24 Dormant post details 16–38

Figure 16–25a Pre-construction streambank conditions 16–39

Figure 16–25b Installing dormant posts 16–39

Figure 16–25c Established dormant post system 16–39

Figure 16–26 Piling revetment details 16–41

Figure 16–27 Slotted board fence details (double fence option) 16–42

Figure 16–28 Slotted board fence system 16–43

Figure 16–29 Concrete jack details 16–44

Figure 16–30 Wooden jack field 16–45

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Figure 16–31 Concrete jack system several years after installation 16–46

Figure 16–32 Rock riprap details 16–47

Figure 16–33 Rock riprap revetment system 16–48

Figure 16–34 Concrete cellular block details 16–50

Figure 16–35a Concrete cellular block system before backfilling 16–51

Figure 16–35b Concrete cellular block system several years 16–51 after installation

Figure 16–36 Coconut fiber roll details 16–52

Figure 16–37a Coconut fiber roll 16–53

Figure 16–37b Coconut fiber roll system 16–53

Figure 16–38 Stream jetty details 16–55

Figure 16–39a Stream jetty placed to protect railroad bridge 16–56

Figure 16–39b Long-established vegetated stream jetty, with 16–56 deposition in foreground

Figure 16–40 Stream barb details 16–58

Figure 16–41 Stream barb system 16–59

Figure 16–42 Vegetated rock gabion details 16–61

Figure 16–43 Vegetated rock gabion system 16–62

Figure 16–44 Timber groin details 16–65

Figure 16–45 Timber groin system 16–66

Figure 16–46 Timber bulkhead system 16–67

Figure 16–47 Timber bulkhead details 16–68

Figure 16–48 Concrete bulkhead details 16–69

Figure 16–49 Concrete bulkhead system 16–70

Figure 16–50 Concrete revetment (poured in place) 16–71

Figure 16–51 Rock riprap revetment 16–71

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Figure 16–52 Live siltation construction details 16–74

Figure 16–53 Live siltation construction system 16–75

Figure 16–54 Reed clump details 16–77

Figure 16–55a Installing dead stout stakes in reed clump system 16–78

Figure 16–55b Completing installation of reed clump system 16–78

Figure 16–55c Established reed clump system 16–78

Figure 16–56 Coconut fiber roll details 16–79

Figure 16–57 Coconut fiber roll system 16–80

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(c) Selecting streambank and 650.1600 Introduction shoreline protection measures This document recognizes the need for intervention (a) Purpose and scope into stream corridors to affect rehabilitation; however, it is also acknowledged that this should be done on a Streambank and shoreline protection consists of selective basis. When selecting a site or stream reach restoring and protecting banks of streams, lakes, for treatment, it is most effective to select areas within estuaries, and excavated channels against scour and relatively healthy systems. Projects planned and erosion by using vegetative plantings, soil bioengineer- installed in this context are more likely to be success- ing, and structural systems. These systems can be used ful, and it is often critically important to prevent the alone or in combination. The information in chapter 16 decline of these healthier systems while an opportu- does not apply to erosion problems on ocean fronts, nity remains to preserve their biological diversity. large river and lake systems, or other areas of similar Rehabilitation of highly degraded systems is also scale and complexity. important, but these systems often require substantial investment of resources and may be so modified that partial success is often a realistic goal. (b) Categories of protection After deciding rehabilitation is needed, a variety of The two basic categories of protection measures are remedies are available to minimize the susceptibility those that work by reducing the force of water against of streambanks or shorelines to disturbance-caused a streambank or shoreline and those that increase erosive processes. They range from vegetation- their resistance to erosive forces. These measures can oriented remedies, such as soil bioengineering, to be combined into a system. engineered grade stabilization structures (fig. 16–1). In the recent past, many organizations involved in water Stormwater reduction or retention methods, grade resource management have given preference to engi- reduction, and designs that reduce flow velocity fall neered structures. Structures may still be viable op- into the first category of protection. Examples include tions; however, in a growing effort to restore sustain- permeable fence design, tree or brush revetments, ability and ensure diversity, preference should be jacks, groins, stream jetties, barbs, drop structures, given to those methods that restore the ecological increasing channel sinuosity, and log, rootwad, and functions and values of stream or shoreline systems. boulder combinations. The second category includes channels lined with grass, concrete, riprap, gabions, As a first priority consider those measures that cellular concrete, and other revetment designs. These • are self sustaining or reduce requirements for measures can be used alone or in combination. Most future human support; designs that employ brushy vegetation, e.g., soil • use native, living materials for restoration; bioengineering, either alone or in combination with • restore the physical, biological, and chemical structures, protect from erosion in both ways. functions and values of streams or shorelines; • improve water quality through reduction of Revetment designs do not reduce the energy of the temperature and chronic sedimentation flow significantly, so using revetments for spot protec- problems; tion may move erosion problems downstream or • provide opportunities to connect fragmented across the stream channel. riparian areas; and • retain or enhance the stream corridor or shoreline system.

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ives and

Less coefficient

" e. is w

er s=channel slope n= roughn n= slope s=channel h s ot t tend n i he w g n o r w s i t I

y t i n u m m o c c ti o i b e h

t f

y t u a e b

ty li bi a st y, rit teg in e h t

v r e s e r p to s d n te t i

(Aldo Leopold)

i r

s a=cross sectional flow area radius hydraulic = r velocity V=average

a=cross sectional flow area i

h t

Appropriate selection and application of streambank or shoreline protection measures should vary in response to specific object site conditions A

" /n where

1/2

2/3

–

V=1.49r

Figure 16

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• Projected development over anticipated project 650.1601 Streambank life. protection (2) Causes and extent of erosion problems • If bank failure problems are the result of widespread bed degradation or headcutting, deter- (a) General mine what triggered the problem. • If bank erosion problems are localized, deter- The principal causes of streambank erosion may be mine the cause of erosion at each site. classed as geologic, climatic, vegetative, and hydraulic. These causes may act independently, but normally (3) Hydrologic/hydraulic data work in an interrelated manner. Direct human activi- • Flood frequency data (if not available, estimate ties, such as channel confinement or realignment and using regional equations or other procedures). damage to or removal of vegetation, are major factors • Estimates of stream-forming flow at 1- to 2-year in streambank erosion. recurrence interval and flow velocities. • Estimates of width and depth at stream-forming Streambank erosion is a natural process that occurs flow conditions. when the forces exerted by flowing water exceed the • Channel slope, width, depth, meander wavelength, resisting forces of bank materials and vegetation. and shape (width/depth, wetted perimeter). Erosion occurs in many natural streams that have • Sediment load (suspended and bedload). vegetated banks. However, land use changes or natu- • Water quality. ral disturbances can cause the frequency and magnitude of water forces to increase. Loss of streamside (4) Stream reach characteristics vegetation can reduce resisting forces, thus stream- • Soil and streambank materials at site. banks become more susceptible to erosion. Channel • Potential streambank failures. realignment often increases stream power and may • Vegetative condition of banks. cause streambeds and banks to erode. In many cases • Channel alignment. streambed stabilization is a necessary prerequisite to • Present stream width, depth, meander amplitude, the placement of streambank protection measures. belt width, wavelength, and sinuosity to determine stream classification. • Identification of specific problems arising from (b) Planning and selecting streamflow deflection caused by sediment buildup, bank protection measures boulders, debris jams, bank irregularities, or constrictions. The list that follows, although not exhaustive, includes • Bed material d50 based on a pebble count. data commonly needed for planning purposes. • Quality, amount, and types of terrestrial and aquatic habitat. (1) Watershed data • Suspended load and bedload as needed, to When analyzing the source of erosion problems, con- determine if incoming sediment load can be sider the stream as a system that is affected by water- transported through the restored reach. shed conditions and what happens in other stream • When selecting protective measures, analyze the reaches. An analysis of stream and watershed condi- needs of the entire watershed, the effects that tions should include historical information on land use stream protection may have on other reaches, changes, hydrologic conditions, and natural distur- surrounding wetlands, the riparian corridor, bances that might influence stream behavior. It should terrestrial habitat, aquatic habitat, water quality, anticipate the changes most likely to occur or that are and aesthetics. Reducing runoff and soil loss planned for the near future: from the upland portions of the watershed using • Climatic regime. sound land treatment and management measures • Land use/land cover. normally makes the streambank protection • History of land use, prior stream modifications, solution less expensive and more durable. past stability problems, and previous treatments.

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(5) Stream classification (6) Soils Stream classification has evolved significantly over the A particular soil's resistance to erosion depends on its past 100 years. William Davis (1899) first divided cohesiveness and particle size. Sandy soils have low streams into three stages as youthful, mature and old cohesion, and their particles are small enough to be age. Streams were later classified by their pattern as entrained by velocity flows of 2 or 3 feet per second. straight, meandering, or braided (Leopold & Wolman, Lenses or layers of erodible material are frequent 1957) or by stability and mode of sediment transport sources of erosion. Fines are selectively removed from (Schumm, 1963 and 1977). Although all these systems soils that are heterogeneous mixtures of sand and served their intended purposes, they were not particu- gravel, leaving behind a layer of gravel that may pro- larly helpful in establishing useful criteria for stream- tect or armor the streambed against further erosion. bank protection and design. Rosgen (1985) developed a However, the hydraulic removal of fines and sand stream classification system that categorizes essentially from a gravel matrix may cause it to collapse, resulting all types of stream channels on the basis of measured in sloughing of the streambank and its overlying morphological features. This system has been updated material. several times (Rosgen, 1992) and has broad applicability for communication among users and to predict a The resistance of cohesive soils depends on the physi- stream's behavior based on its appearance. cal and chemical properties of the soil as well as the chemical properties of the eroding fluid. Cohesive Predicting a stream's behavior based on appearance is soils often contain montmorillonite, bentonite, or also a feature of the Schumm, Harvey, and Watson other expansive clays. Because unvegetated banks (1984) channel evolution model developed for made up of expansive clays are subject to shrinkage Oaklimeter Creek in Mississippi. This model discusses during dry weather, tension cracks may develop paral- channel conditions extending from total disequilib- lel to and several feet below the top of the bank. These rium to a new state of dynamic equilibrium. Such a cracks may lead to slab failures on oversteepened model is useful in stream restoration work because banks, especially in places where bank support has streams can be observed in the field and their domi- been reduced by toe erosion. Tension cracks can also nant process determined in the reach under consider- contribute to piping and related failures. ation (i.e., active headcutting and transport of sediment, through aggradation and stabilization of alter- (7) Hydrologic, climatic, and vegetative nate bars, and approaching a stage of dynamic equilib- conditions rium). Stream erosion is largely a function of the magnitude and frequency of flow events. Flow duration is of Rosgen's (1992) stream classification system goes secondary importance except for flows that exceed beyond the channel evolution model as it is based on stream-forming flow stage for extended periods. A determining hydraulic geometry of stable stream streambank's position (outside curve or inside) can also reaches. This geometry is then extrapolated to un- be a major factor in determining its erosion potential. stable stream reaches to derive a template for potential channel design and reconstruction. Watershed changes that increase magnitude and frequency of flooding, such as urbanization, deforesta- The present version of Rosgen's stream classification tion, and increased surface runoff, contribute to has several types (A, B, C, D, DA, E, F, and G), based streambank erosion. Associated changes, such as loss on a hierarchical system. The first level of classifica- of streamside vegetation from human or animal tram- tion distinguishes between single or multiple thread pling, often compound the streambank erosion effect. channels. The streams are then separated based on degrees of entrenchment, width-to-depth ratio, and In cold climates where streams normally freeze or stream sinuosity. They are further subdivided by slope partly freeze during winter, erosion caused by ice is an range and channel materials. Several stream subtypes additional problem. Streambanks are affected by ice are based on other criteria, such as average riparian scour in several ways: vegetation, organic debris and channel blockages, flow • Streambanks and associated vegetation can be regimes, stream size, depositional features, and mean- forcibly damaged during freezing or thawing der pattern. action.

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• Floating ice can cause gouging of streambanks. Grade control structures should be designed to main- • Acceleration of flow around and under ice rafts tain low channel width-to-depth ratios, maintain the can cause damage to streambanks. sediment transport capacity of the channel, and provide for passing a wide range of flow velocities with- Erosion from ice may be minimized or reduced by out creating backwater and causing sediment deposi- vegetation for the following reasons: tion. Vortex rock weirs, "W" rock weirs, and other • Streambank vegetation reduces damaging cycles rock/boulder structures that protect the channel of freeze-thaw by maintaining the temperature of without creating backwater should be considered bank materials, thus preventing ice from forming instead of small rock and log dams. and encouraging faster thawing. • Vegetation tends to be flexible and absorbs much Local obstructions to flow, channel constrictions, and of the momentum of drifting ice. bank irregularities cause local increases in the energy • Vegetation helps protect the bank from ice slope and create secondary currents that produce damage. accelerations in velocity sufficient to cause localized • Woody vegetation has deeply embedded roots streambank erosion problems. These localized prob- that reinforce soils. lems often are treated best by eliminating the source • Deeply rooted, woody vegetation helps to control of the problem and providing remedial bank protec- erosion by adding strength to streambank materi- tion. However, secondary cross currents are also a als, increasing flow resistance, reducing flow natural feature around the outside curves of meanders, velocities in the vicinity of the bank, and retard- and structural features may be required to modify ing tension crack development. these cross currents.

(8) Hydraulic data Streamflows that transport sustained heavy loads of Stream power is a function of velocity, flow depth, and sediment are less erosive than clear flows. This can slope. Channelization projects that straighten or easily be seen where dams are constructed on large enlarge channels often increase one or more of these sediment-laden streams. Once a dam is operational, factors enough to cause widespread erosion and the sediment drops out into the reservoir pool, so the associated problems, especially if soils are easily water leaving the structure is clear. Several feet of erodible. degradation commonly occurs in the reach below the dam before an armor layer develops or hydraulic Headcuts often develop in the modified reach or at the parameters are sufficiently altered to a stable grade. In transition from the modified reach to the unaltered watersheds that have high sediment yields, conserva- reach. They move upstream, causing bed erosion and tion treatments that significantly reduce sediment bank failure on the main stream and its tributaries. loads can trigger stream erosion problems unless Returning the stream to its former meander geometry runoff is also reduced. is generally the most reliable way to stop headcuts or prevent their development. Installing grade control (9) Habitat characteristics structures that completely cross a stream and act as a The least-understood aspect of designing and analyz- very low head dam may initiate other channel instabili- ing streambank protection measures is often the ties by: impact of the protective measures on instream and • inducing bank erosion around the ends of the riparian habitats. Commonly, each stage of the life structure; cycle of aquatic species requires different habitats, • raising flood levels and causing out-of-bank each having specific characteristics. These diverse flows to erode new channels; habitats are needed to meet the unique demands • trapping sediment, thus decreasing channel imposed by spawning and incubation, summer rearing, capacity, inducing bank erosion and flood plain and overwintering. The productivity of most aquatic scour; and systems is directly related to the diversity and com- • increasing width-to-depth ratio with subsequent plexity of available habitats. lateral migration, increased bank erosion, and increased bar deposition or formation.

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Fish habitat structures are commonly an integral part (11) Social and economic factors of stream protection measures, but applicability of Initial installation cost and long-term maintenance are habitat structures varies by classified stream type. factors to be considered when planning streambank Work by Rosgen and Fittante (1992) resulted in a and shoreline protection. Other factors include the guide for evaluating suitability of various proposed suitability of construction material for the use in- fish habitat structures for a wide range of morphologi- tended, the cost of labor and machinery, access for cal stream types. They divide structures into those for equipment and crews at the site, and adaptations rearing habitat enhancement and those for spawning needed to adjust designs to special conditions and the habitat enhancement. The structures for rearing habi- local environment. tat enhancement include low stage check dam, medium stage check dam, boulder placement, bank- Some protection measures seem to have apparent placed materials, single wing deflector, channel con- advantages, such as low cost or ease of construction, strictor, bank cover, floating log cover, submerged but a more expensive alternative might best meet shelter, half log cover, and migration barrier. U-shaped planned objectives when maintenance, durability of gravel traps, log sill gravel traps, and gravel placement material, and replacement costs are considered. Effect are for spawning habitat enhancement. upon resources and environmental values, such as aesthetics, wildlife habitat, and aquatic requirements, Since a multitude of interrelated factors influence the are also integral factors. productivity of streams, the response of fish and wildlife populations to changes in habitat is often The need for access to the stream or shoreline and the difficult to predict with confidence. effects of protection measures upon adjacent property and land uses should be analyzed. (10) Environmental data Environmental goals should be set early in the plan- Minor protective measures can be installed without ning process to ensure that full consideration is given using contract labor or heavy equipment. However, to ecological stability and productivity during the many of the protective measures presented in this selection and design of streambank protection mea- chapter require evaluation, design, and implementa- sures. Special care should be given to consideration of tion to be done by a knowledgeable interdisciplinary terrestrial and aquatic habitat benefits of alternative team because precise construction techniques and types of protection and to maintenance needs on a site costly construction materials may be required. specific basis.

In general, the least disturbance to the existing stream (c) Design considerations for system during construction and maintenance produces streambank protection the greatest environmental benefits. Damages to the environment can be limited by: (1) Channel grade • Using small equipment and hand labor. The channel grade may need to be controlled before • Limiting access. any permanent type of bank protection can be consid- • Locating staging areas outside work area ered feasible unless the protection can be safely and boundaries. economically constructed to a depth well below the • Avoiding or altering construction procedures anticipated lowest depth of bed scour. Control can be during critical times, such as fish spawning or by natural or artificial means. Reconstructing stream bird nesting periods. channels to their historical stream type (i.e., stream • Coordinating construction on a stream that geometry) has been successfully used to achieve grade involves more than one job or ownership. control. Artificial measures typically include rock, • Adopting maintenance plans that maximize gabions and reinforced concrete grade control struc- riparian vegetation and allow wide, woody tures. vegetative buffers. • Scheduling construction activities to avoid expected peak flood season(s).

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(2) Discharge frequency (4) Freeboard Maximum floods are rarely used for design of stream- Freeboard should be provided to prevent overtopping bank protection measures. The design flood frequency of the revetment at curves and other points where high should be compatible with the value or safety of the velocity flow contacts the revetment. In these areas a property or improvements being protected, the repair potential supercritical velocity can set up waves, and cost of the streambank protection, and the sensitivity the climb on sloping revetments may be appreciable. and value of ecological systems within the planning Because an accurate method to determine freeboard unit. Bankfull discharge (stream-forming flow) of requirements is not available for sloping revetments in natural streams tends to have a recurrence interval of critical zones, the allowance for freeboard should be 1 to 2 years based on the annual flood series (Leopold based on sound judgment and experience. Under and Rosgen, 1991). The discharge at this frequency is similar conditions, the freeboard required for a sloping commonly used as a design discharge for stream revetment is always greater than that for a vertical restoration (Rosgen, 1992). For modified streams, the 1- revetment. to 2-year frequency discharge is also useful for design discharge because it is the flow that has the most impact (5) Alignment upon the stability of the stream channel. Changes in channel alignment affect the flow characteristics through, above, and below the changed reach. (3) Discharge velocities Straightening without extensive channel hardening Where the flow entering the section to be protected does not eliminate a stream's tendency to meander. An carries only clay, silt, and fine sand in suspension, the erosion hazard may often develop at both ends of the maximum velocity should be limited to that which is channel because of velocity increases, bar formations, nonscouring on the least resistant material occurring and current direction changes. Changes in channel in any appreciable quantity in the streambed and bank. alignment are not recommended unless the change is The minimum velocity should be that required to to reconstruct the channel to its former meander transport the suspended material. The depth-area- geometry. velocity relationship of the upstream channel should be maintained through the protected reach. Where the Alignment of the reach must also be carefully consid- flow entering the section is transporting bedload, the ered in designing protective measures. Because of minimum velocity should be that which will transport major changes in hydraulic characteristics, stream- the entering bedload material through the section. banks for channels having straight alignment generally require a continuous scour-resistant lining or revet- The minimum design velocity should also be compat- ment. To prevent scour by streamflow as the stream ible with the needs of the various fish species present attempts to recreate its natural meander pattern, most or those targeted for recovery. Velocity changes can banks must be sloped to a stable grade before the reduce available habitat or create physical barriers lining is applied. For nonrigid lining, the slope must be that restrict fish passage. Further information on fish flat enough to prevent the lining material from sliding. habitat is available in publications cited in the reference section. Curved revetments are subjected to increased forces because of the secondary currents acting against them. Streambank protection measures on large, wide chan- More substantial and permanent types of construction nels most likely will not significantly change stream- may be needed on curved channel sections because flow velocity. On smaller streams, however, the pro- streambank failures at these vulnerable points could tective measures can influence the velocity throughout result in much greater damage than that along unob- the reach. structed straight reaches of channel.

In calculating these velocities, the Manning’s n values selected should represent the stream condition after the channel has matured, which normally requires several years. Erosion or sedimentation may occur if this is not anticipated.

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(6) Stream type and hydraulic geometry Methods used to provide protection against undermin- Stream rehabilitation should be considered in the ing at the toe are: context of the historically stable stream type and its • Extending the toe trench down to a depth below geometry. If stream modification has caused short- the anticipated scour and backfilling with heavy ened meander wavelength, amplitude, and radius of rock. curvature, the stream being treated might be best • Anchoring a heavy, flexible mattress to the stabilized by restoring the historical geometry. The bottom of the revetment, which at the time of width-to-depth ratio of the stream being treated may installation will extend some distance out into be too high to transport the sediment load, and a lower the channel. This mattress will settle progres- ratio may be needed in the design channel. sively as scour takes place, protecting the revetment foundation. (7) Sediment load and bed material • Installing a massive toe of heavy rock where To determine the potential for stream aggradation, the excavation for a deep toe is not practical. This sediment load (bedload and suspended) for storm and allows the rock forming the toe to settle in place snowmelt runoff periods must frequently be deter- if scour occurs. However, because of the forces mined before reconstruction. The size distribution of of flow, the settlement direction of the rock is the streambed and bar material also should be deter- not always straight down. mined. These measurements are important above and • Driving sheet piling to form a continuous protec- below the reconstruction reach under consideration as tion for the revetment foundation. Such piling well as in the main tributary streams above the reach. should be securely anchored against lateral This information is used with appropriate shear stress pressures. To provide for a remaining embed- equations to determine the size of material that would ment after scour, piling should be driven to a be entrained at bankfull discharge (stream-forming depth equal to about twice the exposed height. flow) for both the tributary streams and in the re- • Installing toe deflector groins to deflect high stored reach. The sediment transport rate must be velocity currents away from the toe of the sufficient to prevent aggradation of the newly restored revetment. channel. As shown by studies in Colorado (Andrews, • Installing submerged vanes to control secondary 1983) on gravelbed rivers, it is anticipated that par- currents. ticles as large as the median diameter of the bed surface will be entrained by discharge equal to the Since most of these measures have direct impacts on bankfull stage (stream-forming flow) or less. aquatic habitat and other stream functions and values, their use should be considered carefully when plan- (8) Protection against failure ning a streambank protection project. Measures should be designed to provide against loss of support at the revetment’s boundaries. This includes (10) Ends of revetment upstream and downstream ends, its base or toe, and The location of the upstream and downstream ends of the crest or top. revetments must be selected carefully to avoid flanking by erosion. Wherever possible, the revetment (9) Undermining should tie into stable anchorage points, such as bridge Undermining or scouring of the foundation material by abutments, rock outcrops, or well-vegetated stable high velocity currents is a major cause of bank protec- sections. If this is not practical, the upstream and tion failure. In addition to protecting the lowest ex- downstream ends of the revetment must be positioned pected stable grade, additional depth must be provided well into a slack water area along the bank where to reach a footing that most likely will not be scoured bank erosion is not a problem. out during floods or lose its stability through satura- tion. Deep scour can be expected where construction is on an erodible streambed and high velocity currents flow adjacent to it.

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(11) Debris removal Sediment bars, snags, trees, and other debris drifts Streambank protection may require the selective that create secondary currents or deflect flow toward removal or repositioning of debris, such as fallen trees, the banks may require selective removal or relocation sediment bars, or other obstructions. Because logs and in the stream channel. The entire plant structure does other woody debris are the major habitat-forming not always need to be dislodged when considering the components in many stream systems, a plan for debris removal of trees and snags; rooted stumps should be removal should be developed in consultation with left in place to prevent erosion. Isolated or single logs qualified fish and wildlife specialists. Small accumula- that are embedded, lodged, or rooted in the channel tions of debris and sediment generally do not cause and not causing flow problems should not be dis- problems and should be left undisturbed. turbed. Fallen trees may be used to construct bank protection systems. Trees and other large vegetation When planning streambank stabilization work, select are important to aquatic, aesthetic and riparian habitat access routes for equipment that minimize disturbance systems, and removal should be done judiciously and to the flood plain and riparian areas. All debris re- with great care. moval, grading, and material delivery and placement should be accomplished in a manner that uses the (12) Vegetative systems smallest equipment feasible and minimizes distur- Vegetative systems provide many benefits to fish and bance of riparian vegetation. Excavated material wildlife populations as well as increasing the stream- should be disposed of in such a way that it does not bank's resistance to erosive forces. Vegetation near interfere with overbank flooding, flood plain drainage, the channel provides shade to help maintain suitable or associated wetland hydrology. In high velocity water temperature for fish, provides habitat for wild- streams it may be necessary to remove floating debris life and protection from predators, and contributes to selectively from flood-prone areas or anchor it so that aesthetic quality. Leaves, twigs, and insects drop into it will not float back into the channel. the stream, providing nutrients for aquatic life (fig. 16–2).

Figure 16–2 Vegetative system along streambank

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Although woody brush is preferable for habitat rea- • Protection and maintenance requirements are sons, suitable herbaceous ground cover can provide often high during plant establishment. desirable bank protection in areas of marginal erosion. Perennial grasses and forbes, preferably those native Woody vegetation, which is seeded or planted as to the area, should be used rather than annual grasses. rooted stock, is used most successfully above base- Woody vegetation may also be used to control undesir- flow on properly sloped banks and on the flood plain able access to the stream. adjacent to the banks. Vegetation should always be used behind revetments and jetties in the area where Associated emergent aquatic plants serve multiple sediment deposition occurs, on the banks above base- functions, including the protection of woody streamflow, and on slopes protected by cellular blocks or bank or shoreline vegetation from wave or current similar type materials. wave action, which tend to undercut them. Many species of plants are suitable for streambank Vegetation protects streambanks in several ways: protection (see appendix 16B). Use locally collected • Root systems help hold the soil particles together native species as a first priority. Exotic or introduced increasing bank stability. species should be used only if there is no alternative. • Vegetation may increase the hydraulic resistance They should never be invasive species. Locally avail- to flow and reduce local velocities in small able erosion-resistant species that are suited to the channels. soil, moisture, and climatic conditions of a particular • Vegetation acts as a buffer against the hydraulic site are desirable. Aesthetics may also play an impor- forces and abrasive effect of transported materials. tant role in selecting plants for certain areas. • Dense vegetation on streambanks can induce sediment deposition. In many instances streambank erosion is accelerated • Vegetation can redirect flow away from the bank. by overgrazing, cultivating too close to the banks, or by overuse. In either case the treated area should be protected by adequate streamside buffers and appro- (d) Protective measures for priate management practices. If the stream is the streambanks source of livestock drinking water, access can be provided by establishing a ramp down to the water. Protective measures for streambanks can be grouped Such ramps should be located where the bank is not into three categories: vegetative plantings, soil bioengi- steep and, preferably, in straighter sections or at the neering systems, and structural measures. They are inside of curves in the channel where velocities are often used in combination. low. Providing watering facilities out of the channel (i.e., on the flood plain or terrace) for the livestock is (1) Vegetative plantings often a preferred alternative to using ramps. Conventional plantings of vegetation may be used alone for bank protection on small streams and on The visual impact, habitat value, and other environ- locations having only marginal erosion, or it may be mental effects of material removal or relocation must used in combination with structural measures in other also be considered before performing any work. situations. Considerations in using vegetation alone for protection include: Protective measures reduce streambank erosion and • Conventional plantings require establishment prevent land losses and sediment damages, but do not time, and bank protection is not immediate. directly stabilize the channel grade. However, if the • Maintenance may be needed to replace dead channel is restored to a stable stream type, vegetative plants, control disease, or otherwise ensure that protective measures, such as soil bioengineering, can materials become established and self-sustaining. be used to stabilize the streambanks. Vegetation • Establishing plants to prevent undercutting and assists in bank stabilization by trapping sediment, bank sloughing in a section of bank below reducing tractive stresses acting on the bank, redirect- baseflow is often difficult. ing the flow, and holding soil. The boundary shear • Establishing plants in coarse gravely material stress provided by vegetation, however, is much less may be difficult. than that provided by structural elements.

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(2) Soil bioengineering systems Many sites require some earthwork before soil bio- Properly designed and constructed soil bioengineering engineering systems are installed. A steep undercut or systems have been used successfully to stabilize slumping bank, for example, may require grading to a streambanks (figs. 16–3a, 16–3b, 16–3c, and 16–3d). 3:1 or flatter slope. Although soil bioengineering systems are suitable for most sites, they are most Soil bioengineering is a system of living plant materials successful where installed in sunny locations and used as structural components. Adapted types of constructed during the dormant season. woody vegetation (shrubs and trees) are initially installed in specified configurations that offer immedi- Rooted seedlings and rooted cuttings are excellent ate soil protection and reinforcement. In addition, soil additions to soil bioengineering projects. They should bioengineering systems create resistance to sliding or be installed for species diversification and to provide shear displacement in a streambank as they develop habitat cover and food for fish and wildlife. Optimum roots or fibrous inclusions. Environmental benefits establishment is usually achieved shortly after earth derived from woody vegetation include diverse and work, preferably in the spring. productive riparian habitats, shade, organic additions to the stream, cover for fish, and improvements in Some of the most common and useful soil bioengineer- aesthetic value and water quality. ing structures for restoration and protection of streambanks are described in the following sections. Under certain conditions, soil bioengineering installations work well in conjunction with structures to provide more permanent protection and healthy function, enhance aesthetics, and create a more environmentally acceptable product. Soil bioengineering systems normally use unrooted plant parts in the form of cut branches and rooted plants. For streambanks, living systems include brushmattresses, live stakes, joint plantings, vegetated geogrids, branchpacking, and live fascines.

Major attractions of soil bioengineering systems are their natural appearance and function and the economy with which they can often be constructed. As discussed in chapter 18 of this Engineering Field Handbook, the work is normally done in the dormant months, generally September to March, which is the off season for many laborers. The main construction materials are live cuttings from suitable plant species. Species must be appropriate for the intended use and adapted to the site's climate and soil conditions.

Consult a plant materials specialist for guidance on plant selection. Ideally plant materials should come from local ecotypes and genetic stock similar to that within the vicinity of the stream. Species that root easily, such as willow, are required for measures, such as live fascines and live staking, or where unrooted cuttings are used with structural measures. Suitable plant materials are listed in appendix 16B. They may also be identified in Field Office Technical Guides for specific site conditions or by contacting Plant Materi- als Centers.

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Figure 16–3a Eroding bank, Winooski River, Vermont, Figure 16–3b Bank shaping prior to installing soil June 1938 bioengineering practices, Winooski River, Vermont, September 1938

Figure 16–3c Three years after installation of soil Figure 16–3d Soil bioengineering system, Winooski bioengineering practices, 1941 River, Vermont, June 1993 (55 years after installation)

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(i) Live stakes—Live staking involves the insertion Applications and effectiveness and tamping of live, rootable vegetative cuttings into • Effective streambank protection technique the ground (figs. 16–4 and 16–5). If correctly prepared, where site conditions are uncomplicated, con- handled, and placed, the live stake will root and grow struction time is limited, and an inexpensive (fig. 16–6). method is needed. • Appropriate technique for repair of small earth A system of stakes creates a living root mat that stabi- slips and slumps that frequently are wet. lizes the soil by reinforcing and binding soil particles • Can be used to peg down and enhance the per- together and by extracting excess soil moisture. Most formance of surface erosion control materials. willow species root rapidly and begin to dry out a • Enhance conditions for natural colonization of bank soon after installation. vegetation from the surrounding plant community. • Stabilize intervening areas between other soil bioengineering techniques, such as live fascines. • Produce streamside habitat.

Figure 16–4 Live stake details

Cross section Not to scale

Streambank

2 to 3 feet Erosion control fabric

° 90 Dead stout stake

2 to 3 feet Stream-forming flow (triangular spacing)

Baseflow Live cutting 1/2 to 1 1/2 inches in diameter

Streambed Toe protection Note: Rooted/leafed condition of the living Geotextile fabric plant material is not representative of the time of installation.

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Construction guidelines • Placement may vary by species. For example, Live material sizes—The stakes generally are 0.5 to 1.5 along many western streams, tree-type willow inches in diameter and 2 to 3 feet long. The specific species are placed on the inside curves of point site requirements and available cutting source deter- bars where more inundation occurs, while shrub mine sizes. willow species are planted on outside curves where the inundation period is minimal. Live material preparation • The buds should be oriented up. • The materials must have side branches cleanly • Four-fifths of the length of the live stake should removed with the bark intact. be installed into the ground, and soil should be • The basal ends should be cut at an angle or point firmly packed around it after installation. for easy insertion into the soil. The top should be • Do not split the stakes during installation. Stakes cut square. that split should be removed and replaced. • Materials should be installed the same day that • An iron bar can be used to make a pilot hole in they are prepared. firm soil. • Tamp the stake into the ground with a dead blow Installation hammer (hammer head filled with shot or sand). • Erosion control fabric should be placed on slopes subject to erosive inundation. • Tamp the live stake into the ground at right angles to the slope and diverted downstream. The installation may be started at any point on the slope face. • The live stakes should be installed 2 to 3 feet apart using triangular spacing. The density of the installation will range from 2 to 4 stakes per square yard. Site variations may require slightly different spacing.

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Figure 16–5 Prepared live stake (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

Figure 16–6 Growing live stake

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(ii) Live fascines—Live fascines are long bundles of Dead stout stakes used to secure the live fascines branch cuttings bound together in cylindrical struc- should be 2.5-foot long, untreated, 2 by 4 lumber. Each tures (fig. 16–7). They should be placed in shallow length should be cut again diagonally across the 4-inch contour trenches on dry slopes and at an angle on wet face to make two stakes from each length (fig 16–8). slopes to reduce erosion and shallow sliding. Only new, sound lumber should be used, and any stakes that shatter upon installation should be discarded. Applications and effectiveness • Apply typically above bankfull discharge Installation (stream-forming flow) except on very small • Prepare the live fascine bundle and live stakes drainage area sites (generally less than 2,000 immediately before installation. acres). • Beginning at the base of the slope, dig a trench • Effective stabilization technique for stream- on the contour approximately 10 inches wide and banks. When properly installed, this system does deep. not cause much site disturbance. • Excavate trenches up the slope at intervals • Protect slopes from shallow slides (1 to 2 foot specified in table 16–1. Where possible, place one depth). or two rows over the top of the slope. • Offer immediate protection from surface • Place long straw and annual grasses between erosion. rows. • Capable of trapping and holding soil on a stream- • Install jute mesh, coconut netting, or other bank by creating small dam-like structures, thus acceptable erosion control fabric. Secure the reducing the slope length into a series of shorter fabric. slopes. • Place the live fascine into the trench (fig. 16–9a). • Serve to facilitate drainage where installed at an • Drive the dead stout stakes directly through the angle on the slope. live fascine. Extra stakes should be used at con- • Enhance conditions for colonization of native nections or bundle overlaps. Leave the top of the vegetation by creating surface stabilization and a dead stout stakes flush with the installed bundle. microclimate conducive to plant growth. • Live stakes are generally installed on the downslope side of the bundle. Tamp the live Construction guidelines stakes below and against the bundle between the Live materials—Cuttings must be from species, such previously installed dead stout stakes, leaving 3 as young willows or shrub dogwoods, that root easily inches to protrude above the top of the ground and have long, straight branches. (fig. 16–9b). Place moist soil along the sides of the bundles. The top of the live fascine should Live material sizes and preparation be slightly visible when the installation is • Cuttings tied together to form live fascine completed. Figure 16–9c shows an established bundles normally vary in length from 5 to 10 feet live fascine system 2 years after installation is or longer, depending on site conditions and completed. limitations in handling. • The completed bundles should be 6 to 8 inches in diameter, with all of the growing tips oriented in Table 16–1 Live fascine spacing the same direction. Stagger the cuttings in the bundles so that tops are evenly distributed throughout the length of the uniformly sized live Slope steepness ------Soils ------Erosive Non-erosive Fill fascine. (feet) (feet) (feet) • Live stakes should be 2.5 feet long. 3:1 or flatter 3 – 55 – 73 – 5 1/ Inert materials—String used for bundling should be untreated twine. Steeper than 3:1 3 1/ 3 – 5 2/ (up to 1:1)

1/ Not recommended alone. 2/ Not a recommended system.

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Figure 16–7 Live fascine details

Top of live fascine Cross section slightly exposed Not to scale after installation Moist soil backfill

Prepared trench

Erosion control fabric & seeding Stream-forming flow

Baseflow

Streambed Live fascine bundle

Geotextile fabric Live stake (2- to 3-foot spacing between dead stout stakes)

Toe protection

Note: Dead stout stake Rooted/leafed condition of the living (2- to 3-foot spacing along bundle) plant material is not representative of the time of installation.

Live branches (stagger throughout bundle)

Bundle (6 to 8 inches Twine in diameter)

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Figure 16–8 Preparation of a dead stout stake Figure 16–9b Installing live stakes in live fascine system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

2 1/2'

Figure 16–9c An established 2-year-old live fascine 2" by 4" lumber Saw a 2" by 4" diagonally to system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo) produce two dead stout stakes

Not to scale

Figure 16–9a Placing live fascines (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

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(iii) Branchpacking—Branchpacking consists of Inert materials—Wooden stakes should be 5 to 8 feet alternating layers of live branches and compacted long and made from 3- to 4-inch diameter poles or 2 by backfill to repair small localized slumps and holes in 4 lumber, depending upon the depth of the particular streambanks (figs. 16–10, 16–11a, 16–11b, and 16–11c). slump or hole being repaired.

Applications and effectiveness Installation • Effective and inexpensive method to repair holes • Starting at the lowest point, drive the wooden in streambanks that range from 2 to 4 feet in stakes vertically 3 to 4 feet into the ground. Set height and depth. them 1 to 1.5 feet apart. • Produces a filter barrier that prevents erosion • Place an initial layer of living branches 4 to 6 and scouring from streambank or overbank flow. inches thick in the bottom of the hole between • Rapidly establishes a vegetated streambank. the vertical stakes, and perpendicular to the • Enhances conditions for colonization of native slope face (fig. 16–10). They should be placed in vegetation. a criss-cross configuration with the growing tips • Provides immediate soil reinforcement. generally oriented toward the slope face. Some • Live branches serve as tensile inclusions for of the basal ends of the branches should touch reinforcement once installed. As plant tops begin the undisturbed soil at the back of the hole. to grow, the branchpacking system becomes • Subsequent layers of branches are installed with increasingly effective in retarding runoff and the basal ends lower than the growing tips of the reducing surface erosion. Trapped sediment branches. refills the localized slumps or hole, while roots • Each layer of branches must be followed by a spread throughout the backfill and surrounding layer of compacted soil to ensure soil contact earth to form a unified mass. with the branches. • Typically branchpacking is not effective in slump • The final installation should conform to the areas greater than 4 feet deep or 4 feet wide. existing slope. Branches should protrude only slightly from the filled installation. Construction guidelines • Water must be controlled or diverted if the Live materials—Live branches may range from 0.5 to 2 original streambank damage was caused by inches in diameter. They should be long enough to water flowing over the bank. If this is not done, touch the undisturbed soil of the back of the trench erosion will most likely occur on either or both and extend slightly from the rebuilt streambank. sides of the new branchpacking installation.

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Figure 16–10 Branchpacking details

Cross section Not to scale Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems

Max. depth 4'

Streambank after scour

Live branches (1/2- to 2-inch diameter)

Compacted fill material

Stream-forming flow Wooden stakes (5- to 8-foot long, 2 by 4 lumber, driven 3 to 4 feet Baseflow into undisturbed soil)

Streambed

1 to 1 1/2 feet Geotextile fabric Toe protection

Note: Root/leafed condition of the living plant material is not representative of the time of installation .

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Figure 16–11a Live branches installed in criss-cross Figure 16–11b Each layer of branches is followed by a configuration (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates layer of compacted soil (Robbin B. Sotir & photo) Associates photo)

Figure 16–11c A growing branchpacking system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

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(iv) Vegetated geogrids—Vegetated geogrids are Installation similar to branchpacking except that natural or syn- • Excavate a trench that is 2 to 3 feet below thetic geotextile materials are wrapped around each streambed elevation and 3 to 4 feet wide. Place soil lift between the layers of live branch cuttings the geotextile in the trench, leaving a foot or two (figs. 16–12, 16–13a, 16–13b, and 16–13c). overhanging on the streamside face. Fill this area with rocks 2 to 3 inches in diameter. Applications and effectiveness • Beginning at the stream-forming flow level, place • Used above and below stream-forming flow a 6- to 8-inch layer of live branch cuttings on top conditions. of the rock-filled geogrid with the growing tips at • Drainage areas should be relatively small right angles to the streamflow. The basal ends of (generally less than 2,000 acres) with stable branch cuttings should touch the back of the streambeds. excavated slope. • The system must be built during low flow • Cover this layer of cuttings with geotextile leav- conditions. ing an overhang. Place a 12-inch layer of soil • Can be complex and expensive. suitable for plant growth on top of the geotextile • Produce a newly constructed, well-reinforced before compacting it to ensure good soil contact streambank. with the branches. Wrap the overhanging portion • Useful in restoring outside bends where erosion of the geotextile over the compacted soil to form is a problem. the completed geotextile wrap. • Capture sediment, which rapidly rebuilds to • Continue this process of excavated trenches with further stabilize the toe of the streambank. alternating layers of cuttings and geotextile • Function immediately after high water to wraps until the bank is restored to its original rebuild the bank. height. • Produce rapid vegetative growth. • This system should be limited to a maximum of 8 • Enhance conditions for colonization of native feet in total height, including the 2 to 3 feet vegetation. below the bed. The length should not exceed 20 • Benefits are similar to those of branchpacking, feet for any one unit along the stream. An engi- but a vegetated geogrid can be placed on a 1:1 or neering analysis should determine appropriate steeper slope. dimensions of the system. • The final installation should match the existing Construction guidelines slope. Branch cuttings should protrude only Live materials—Live branch cuttings that are brushy slightly from the geotextile wraps. and root readily are required. They should be 4 to 6 feet long.

Inert materials—Natural or synthetic geotextile material is required.

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Figure 16–12 Vegetated geogrid details

Cross section Dead stout stake used to secure geotextile fabric Not to scale Install additional vegetation such as live stakes, rooted seedlings, etc.

Eroded streambank

Compacted soil approximately 1-foot thick

Live cuttings

Geotextile fabric Height varies 8 foot maximum Stream-forming flow

Baseflow

Streambed Rock fill

2 to 3 feet

Note: Rooted/leafed condition of the living plant material is not representative 3 to 4 feet of the time of installation.

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Figure 16–13a A vegetated geogrid during installation Figure 16–13b A vegetated geogrid immediately after (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo) installation (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

Figure 16–13c Vegetated geogrid 2 years after installation (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

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(v) Live cribwall—A live cribwall consists of a box- Installation like interlocking arrangement of untreated log or • Starting at the base of the streambank to be timber members. The structure is filled with suitable treated, excavate 2 to 3 feet below the existing backfill material and layers of live branch cuttings that streambed until a stable foundation 5 to 6 feet root inside the crib structure and extend into the wide is reached. slope. Once the live cuttings root and become estab- • Excavate the back of the stable foundation lished, the subsequent vegetation gradually takes over (closest to the slope) 6 to 12 inches lower than the structural functions of the wood members (fig. the front to add stability to the structure. 16–14). • Place the first course of logs or timbers at the front and back of the excavated foundation, Applications and effectiveness approximately 4 to 5 feet apart and parallel to the • Effective on outside bends of streams where slope contour. strong currents are present. • Place the next course of logs or timbers at right • Appropriate at the base of a slope where a low angles (perpendicular to the slope) on top of the wall may be required to stabilize the toe of the previous course to overhang the front and back slope and reduce its steepness. of the previous course by 3 to 6 inches. Each • Appropriate above and below water level where course of the live cribwall is placed in the same stable streambeds exist. manner and secured to the preceding course • Useful where space is limited and a more vertical with nails or reinforcement bars. structure is required. • Place rock fill in the openings in the bottom of • Effective in locations where an eroding bank the crib structure until it reaches the approxi- may eventually form a split channel. mate existing elevation of the streambed. In • Maintains a natural streambank appearance. some cases it is necessary to place rocks in front • Provides excellent habitat. of the structure for added toe support, especially • Provides immediate protection from erosion, in outside stream meanders. while established vegetation provides long-term • Place the first layer of cuttings on top of the rock stability. material at the baseflow water level, and change • Supplies effective bank erosion control on fast the rock fill to soil fill capable of supporting flowing streams. plant growth at this point. Ensure that the basal • Should be tilted back or battered if the system is ends of some of the cuttings contact undisturbed built on a smooth, evenly sloped surface. soil at the back of the cribwall. • Can be complex and expensive. • When the cribwall structure reaches the existing ground elevation, place live branch cuttings on Construction guidelines the backfill perpendicular to the slope; then Live materials—Live branch cuttings should be 0.5 to cover the cuttings with backfill and compact. 2.5 inches in diameter and long enough to reach the • Live branch cuttings should be placed at each back of the wooden crib structure. course to the top of the cribwall structure with growing tips oriented toward the slope face. Inert materials—Logs or timbers should range from 4 Follow each layer of branches with a layer of to 6 inches in diameter or dimension. The lengths will compacted soil. Place the basal ends of the re- vary with the size of the crib structure. maining live branch cuttings so that they reach to undisturbed soil at the back of the cribwall with Large nails or rebar are required to secure the logs or growing tips protruding slightly beyond the front timbers together. of the cribwall (figs. 16–15a, 16–15b, and 16–15c). • The live cribwall structure, including the section below the streambed, should not exceed a maximum height of 7 feet. An engineering analysis should determine appropriate dimensions of the system. • The length of any single constructed unit should not exceed 20 feet.

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Figure 16–14 Live cribwall details

Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems Cross section Not to scale

Erosion control fabric Compacted fill material Stream-forming flow

Baseflow 3 to 4 feet Live branch Streambed cuttings

2 to 3 feet

Rock fill

4 to 5 feet

Note: Rooted/leafed condition of the living plant material is not representative of

the time of installation.

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Figure 16–15a Pre-construction streambank conditions Figure 16–15b A live cribwall during installation

Figure 16–15c An established live cribwall system

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(vi) Joint planting—Joint planting or vegetated Construction guidelines riprap involves tamping live stakes into joints or open Live material sizes—The stakes must have side spaces in rocks that have been previously placed on a branches removed and bark intact. They should be 1.5 slope (fig 16–16). Alternatively, the stakes can be inches or larger in diameter and sufficiently long to tamped into place at the same time that rock is being extend well into soil below the rock surface. placed on the slope face. Installation Applications and effectiveness • Tamp live stakes into the openings of the rock • Useful where rock riprap is required or already during or after placement of riprap. The basal in place. ends of the material must extend into the backfill • Roots improve drainage by removing soil moisture. or undisturbed soil behind the riprap. A steel rod • Over time, joint plantings create a living root mat or hydraulic probe may be used to prepare a hole in the soil base upon which the rock has been through the riprap. placed. These root systems bind or reinforce the • Orient the live stakes perpendicular to the slope soil and prevent washout of fines between and with growing tips protruding slightly from the below the rock. finished face of the rock (figs. 16–17a, 16–17b, • Provides immediate protection and is effective in and 16–17c). reducing erosion on actively eroding banks. • Place the stakes in a random configuration. • Dissipates some of the energy along the streambank.

Figure 16–16 Joint planting details

Cross section Not to scale

Stream-forming flow

Baseflow

Streambed Riprap Dead stout stake used to secure geotextile fabric

Live stake

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Figure 16–17a Live stake tamped into rock joints (joint Figure 16–17b An installed joint planting system planting) (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo) (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

Figure 16–17c An established joint planting system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

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(vii) Brushmattress—A brushmattress is a combi- Installation nation of live stakes, live fascines, and branch cuttings • Grade the unstable area of the streambank installed to cover and stabilize streambanks (figs. uniformly to a maximum steepness of 3:1. 16–18, 16–19a through 16–19d). Application typically • Prepare live stakes and live fascine bundles starts above stream-forming flow conditions and immediately before installation, as previously moves up the slope. described in this chapter. • Beginning at the base of slope, near the stream- Applications and effectiveness forming flow stage, excavate a trench on the • Forms an immediate, protective cover over the contour large enough to accommodate a live streambank. fascine and the basal ends of the branches. • Useful on steep, fast-flowing streams. • Install an even mix of live and dead stout stakes • Captures sediment during flood conditions. at 1-foot depth over the face of the graded area • Rapidly restores riparian vegetation and stream- using 2-foot square spacing. side habitat. • Place branches in a layer 1 to 2 branches thick • Enhances conditions for colonization of native vertically on the prepared slope with basal ends vegetation. located in the previously excavated trench. • Stretch No. 16 smooth wire diagonally from one Construction guidelines dead stout stake to another by tightly wrapping Live materials—Branches 6 to 9 feet long and approxi- wire around each stake no closer than 6 inches mately 1 inch in diameter are required. They must be from its top. flexible to enable installations that conform to varia- • Tamp and drive the live and dead stout stakes tions in the slope face. Live stakes and live fascines into the ground until branches are tightly secured are previously described in this chapter. to the slope. • Place live fascines in the prepared trench over Inert materials—Untreated twine for bundling the live the basal ends of the branches. fascines and number 16 smooth wire are needed to tie • Drive dead stout stakes directly through into soil down the branch mattress. Dead stout stakes to secure below the live fascine every 2 feet along its the live fascines and brushmattress in place. length. • Fill voids between brushmattress and live fascine cuttings with thin layers of soil to promote rooting, but leave the top surface of the brushmattress and live fascine installation slightly exposed.

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Figure 16–18 Brushmattress details

Cross section Live and dead stout stake spacing Not to scale 2 feet o.c.

Branch cuttings 16 gauge wire

Live stake Stream-forming flow

Baseflow Streambed Live fascine bundle

Live stake

Geotextile fabric Dead stout stake driven on 2-foot Dead stout stake centers each way. Minimum length 2 1/2 feet. Wire secured to stakes

Brush mattress

Note: Rooted/leafed condition of the living 2 ft plant material is not representative at the time of installation.

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Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Figure 16–19a Brushmattress during installation Figure 16–19b An installed brushmattress system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo) (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

Figure 16–19c Brushmattress system 6 months after Figure 16–19d Brushmattress system 2 years after installation (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates installation (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo) photo)

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(4) Structural measures Construction guidelines Structural measures include tree revetments; log, • Lay the cabled trees along the bank with the rootwad and boulder revetments; dormant post basal ends oriented upstream. plantings; piling revetments with wire or geotextile • Overlap the trees to ensure continuous protec- fencing; piling revetments with slotted fencing; jacks tion to the bank. or jack fields; rock riprap; stream jetties; stream barbs; • Attach the trunks by cables to anchors set in the and gabions. bank. Pilings can be used in lieu of earth anchors in the bank if they can be driven well below the (i) Tree revetment—A tree revetment is constructed point of maximum bed scour. The required cable from whole trees (except rootwads) that are usually size and anchorage design are dependent upon cabled together and anchored by earth anchors, which many variables and should be custom designed are buried in the bank (figs. 16–20, 16–21a, and to fit specific site conditions. 16–21b). • Use trees that have a trunk diameter of 12 inches or larger. The best type are those that have a Applications and effectiveness brushy top and durable wood, such as douglas • Uses inexpensive, readily available materials to fir, oak, hard maple, or beech. form semi-permanent protection. • Use vegetative plantings or soil bioengineering • Captures sediment and enhances conditions for systems within and above structures to restore colonization of native species. stability and establish a vegetative community. • Has self-repairing abilities following damage Tree species that will withstand inundation after flood events if used in combination with should be staked in openings in the revetment soil bioengineering techniques. below stream-forming flow stage. • Not appropriate near bridges or other structures where there is high potential for downstream damage if the revetment dislodges during flood events. • Has a limited life and may need to be replaced periodically, depending on the climate and durability of tree species used. • May be damaged in streams where heavy ice flows occur. • May require periodic maintenance to replace damaged or deteriorating trees.

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Figure 16–20 Tree revetment details

Plan view Not to scale

Flow

Piling may be substituted for earth anchors

Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems Stabilize streambank to top of slope where appropriate

Earth anchors (8-inch dia. by 4-foot min.)

Two-thirds of bank height covered

Stream-forming flow

Second row applied

Cross section Baseflow

Not to scale

Bank toe Earth anchors 6 feet deep 16–34 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Figure 16–21a Tree revetment system with dormant posts

Figure 16–21b Tree revetment system with dormant posts, 2 years after installation

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(ii) Log, rootwad and boulder revetments— Applications and effectiveness These revetments are systems composed of logs, • Used for stabilization and to create instream rootwads, and boulders selectively placed in and on structures for improved fish rearing and spawn- streambanks (figs. 16–22 and 16–23). These revet- ing habitat ments can provide excellent overhead cover, resting • Effective on meandering streams with out-of- areas, shelters for insects and other fish food organ- bank flow conditions. isms, substrate for aquatic organisms, and increased • Will tolerate high boundary shear stress if logs stream velocity that results in sediment flushing and and rootwads are well anchored. deeper scour pools. Several of these combinations are • Suited to streams where fish habitat deficiencies described in Flosi and Reynolds (1991), Rosgen (1992) exist. and Berger (1991). • Should be used in combination with soil bioengineering systems or vegetative plantings to stabi-

Figure 16–22 Log, rootwad, and boulder revetment details (adapted from Rosgen 1993—Applied fluvial geomorphology short course)

Existing vegetation, plantings or Cross section soil bioengineering systems Not to scale

8- to 12-foot Length

Stream-forming flow

Rootwad

Baseflow

Streambed

Thalweg channel

Diameter of log = 16-in min.

Boulder 1 1/2 times diameter of log

Footer log

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lize the upper bank and ensure a regenerative • Install a footer log at the toe of the eroding bank source of streambank vegetation. by excavating trenches or driving them into the • Enhance diversity of riparian corridor when used bank to stabilize the slope and provide a stable in combination with soil bioengineering systems. foundation for the rootwad. • Have limited life depending on climate and tree • Place the footer log to the expected scour depth species used. Some species, such as cottonwood at a slight angle away from the direction of the or willow, often sprout and accelerate natural stream flow. colonization. Revetments may need eventual • Use boulders to anchor the footer log against replacement if natural colonization does not take flotation. If boulders are not available, logs can place or soil bioengineering methods are not be pinned into gravel and rubble substrate with used in combination. 3/4-inch rebar 54 inches or longer. Anchor rebar to provide maximum pull out resistance. Cable Construction guidelines and anchors may also be used in combination Numerous individual organic revetments exist and with boulders and rebar. many are detailed in the U.S. Forest Service publica- • Drive or trench and place rootwads into the tion, Stream Habitat Improvement Handbook. Chap- streambank so that the tree's primary brace roots ter 16 only presents construction guidelines for a are flush with the streambank. Place the root- combination log, rootwad, and boulder revetment. wads at a slight angle toward the direction of the • Use logs over 16 inches in diameter that are streamflow. crooked and have an irregular surface. • Backfill and combine vegetative plantings or soil • Use rootwads with numerous root protrusions bioengineering systems behind and above and 8- to 12-foot long boles. rootwad. They can include live stakes and dor- • Boulders should be as large as possible, but at a mant post plantings in the openings of the revet- minimum one and one-half the log diameter. ment below stream-forming flow stage, live They should have an irregular surface. stakes, bare root, or other upland methods at the top of the bank.

Figure 16–23 Rootwad, boulder, and willow transplant revetment system, Weminuche River, CO (Rosgen, Wildland hydrology)

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(iii) Dormant post plantings—Dormant post Construction guidelines plantings form a permeable revetment that is con- • Select a plant species appropriate to the site structed from rootable vegetative material placed conditions. Willows and poplars have demon- along streambanks in a square or triangular pattern strated high success rates. (figs. 16–24, 16–25a, 16–25b, 16–25c). • Cut live posts approximately 7 to 9 feet long and 3 to 5 inches in diameter. Taper the basal end of Applications and effectiveness the post for easier insertion into the ground. • Well suited to smaller, non-gravely streams • Install posts into the eroding bank at or just where ice damage is not a problem. above the normal waterline. Make sure posts are • Quickly re-establishe riparian vegetation. installed pointing up. • Reduce stream velocities and causes sediment • Insert one-half to two-thirds of the length of post deposition in the treated area. below the ground line. At least the bottom 12 • Enhance conditions for colonization of native inches of the post should be set into a saturated species. soil layer. • Are self-repairing. For example, posts damaged • Avoid excessive damage to the bark of the posts. by beaver often develop multiple stems. • Place two or more rows of posts spaced 2 to 4 • Can be used in combination with soil bioengi- feet apart using square or triangular spacing. neering systems. • Supplement the installation with appropriate soil • Can be installed by a variety of methods includ- bioengineering systems or, where appropriate, ing water jetting or mechanized stingers to form rooted plants. planting holes or driving the posts directly with machine mounted rams. • Unsuccessfully rooted posts at spacings of about 4 feet can provide some benefits by deflecting higher streamflows and trapping sediment.

Figure 16-24 Dormant post details

Cross section Existing vegetation, plantings Not to scale or soil bioengineering systems Dormant posts

Streambank Stream-forming flow 2:1 to 5:1 slope 5 ft Baseflow

Streambed

2 ft

2 to 4 feet triangular spacing

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Figure 16–25a Pre-construction streambank conditions Figure 16–25b Installing dormant posts (Don Roseboom photo) (Don Roseboom photo)

Figure 16–25c Established dormant post system (Don Roseboom photo)

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(iv) Piling revetment with wire or geotextile Installation fencing—Piling revetment is a continuous single or • Beginning at the base of the streambank, near double row of pilings with a facing of woven wire or stream-forming flow stage, drive pilings 6 to 8 geogrid material (fig. 16–26). The space between feet apart to a depth approximately half their double rows of pilings is filled with rock and brush. length and below the point of maximum scour. If the streambed is firm and not subject to appre- Applications and effectiveness ciable scour, the piling should be driven to re- • Particularly suited to streams where water next fusal or to a depth of at least half the length of to the bank is more than 3 feet deep. the piling. • Application is limited to a flow depth (and height • Additional rows of pilings may be installed at of piling) of 6 feet. higher elevations on the streambank if required • More economical than riprap construction in to protect the bank and if using vegetation or deep water because it eliminates the need to other methods is not practical. build a stable foundation under water for holding • Fasten a heavy gauge of woven wire or geotextile the riprap in place. material to the stream side of the pilings to form • Is easily damaged by ice flows or heavy flood a fence. The purpose of this material is to collect debris and should not be used where these debris while serving as a permeable wall to conditions occur. reduce velocities on the streambank. • Do not use where the stream has fish or an • Double row piling revetment is typically con- abundance of riparian wildlife. structed with 5 feet between rows. Fill the row • Do not use without careful analysis of its long- space with rock and brush. term effects upon aesthetics, changes in flows • If the streambed is subject to scour, extend the where large amounts of debris will be collected, woven wire or geotextile material horizontally habitat damage caused by driving or installing toward the center of the streambed for a dis- pilings with water jets, and possible dangers for tance at least equal to the anticipated depth of recreational uses (boating, rafting, swimming, or scour. Attach concrete blocks or other suitable wading). weights at regular intervals to cause the fence to settle in a vertical position along the face of the Construction guidelines pilings after scouring occurs. Inert materials—Used material, such as timbers, logs, • Place brush behind the piling to increase the railroad rails, or pipe, may be used for pilings. Logs system's effectiveness. Where piling revetments should have a diameter sufficiently large to permit extend for several hundred feet in length, install driving to the required depth. Avoid material that may permeable groins or tiebacks of brush and rock produce toxicity effects in aquatic ecosystems. at right angles to the revetment at 50 foot intervals. This reduces currents developing between the streambank and the revetment.

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Figure 16–26 Piling revetment details

Front elevation Heavy woven wire or Not to scale geogrid fencing Piling 6 to 8 feet

Stream-forming flow Baseflow

Streambed

Weight Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems Cross section Not to scale Piling (8- to 12-in dia.)

Heavy woven wire or Streambank geogrid fencing 5 to 6 feet Stream-forming flow

Baseflow Sloped bank

Brush Streambed

Concrete block weight ground than height above Equal to or greater

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(v) Piling revetment with slotted board fencing • May be vulnerable to damage by ice or heavy —This type of revetment consists of slotted board flood debris; should not be used where these fencing made of wood pilings and horizontal wood conditions occur. timbers (figs. 16–27 and 16–28). Variations include • Usually complex and expensive. different fence heights, double rows of slotted fence, • Most effective on streams that have a heavy and use of woven wire in place of timber boards. The sediment load of sand and silt. size and spacing of pilings, cross members, and verti- • Can withstand a relatively high velocity attack cal fence boards depend on height of fence, stream force and, therefore, can be installed in sharper velocity, and sediment load. curves than jacks or other systems. • Useful in deeper stream channels with large flow Applications and effectiveness depths. • Most variations of slotted fencing include some • Low slotted board fences, which do not control bracing or tieback into the streambank to in- the entire flood flow, can be very effective for crease strength, reduce velocity against the streambank toe protection where the toe is the streambank, and to trap sediment. weak part of the streambank. • Should not be constructed higher than 3 feet • May not be appropriate where unusually hard without an engineering analysis to determine materials are encountered in the channel bottom. sizes of the structural members.

Figure 16–27 Slotted board fence details (double fence option)

Existing vegetation, plantings Cross section or soil bioengineering systems Not to scale 5 ft. Brace

Piling

Brush & rock fill Boards

optional

Stream-forming flow

Baseflow

Streambed

Equal to or greater than

height above ground

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• Should not be used without careful consideration Installation of its long-term effects upon aesthetics, changes • See (iv) Piling revetment with wire or in flows where large amounts of debris are geotextile fencing for general construction collected, habitat damage caused by driving or guidelines. installing pilings with water jets, and possible • Drive the timber piling to a depth below the dangers for recreational uses (boating, rafting, channel bottom that is equal to the height of the swimming, or wading). slotted fence above the expected scour line when stream soils have a standard penetration resis- Construction guidelines tance of 10 or more blows per foot. Increase the Inert materials—Slotted fencing is constructed of piling depth when penetration resistance is less wood boards, wood pilings, and woven wire. Avoid than 10 blows per foot. materials that may produce toxicity effects in aquatic • Take great care during layout to tie in the up- ecosystems. stream end adequately to prevent flanking and unraveling.

Figure 16–28 Slotted board fence system

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(vi) Jacks or jack fields—Jacks are individual • Do not use on high velocity, debris-laden structures made of wood, concrete, or steel. The jacks streams. are placed in rows parallel to the eroding streambank • Somewhat flexible because of their physical and function by trapping debris and sediment. They configuration and installation techniques that are often constructed in groups called jack fields allow them to adjust to slight changes in the (figs. 16–29, 16–30, and 16–31). channel grade. • Most effective on long, radius curves. Applications and effectiveness • Not an effective alternative for redirecting flow • May be an effective means of controlling bank away from the streambank. erosion on sinuous streams carrying heavy • Do not use without careful analysis of its long- bedloads of sand and silt during flood flows. This term effects upon aesthetics, changes in flows condition is generally indicated by the presence where large amounts of debris are collected, fish of extensive sandbar formations on the bed at habitat damage, and possible dangers for recre- low flow. ational uses (boating, rafting, swimming, or • Are complex systems requiring proper design wading). and installation for effective results. • Collect coarse and fine sediment, when function- ing properly, and naturally revegetate as the systems, including cable, become embedded in the streambank.

Figure 16–29 Concrete jack details

Front elevation Concrete, wood, or steel jack Not to scale Cable - 3/8 inch wire strands

Anchor piling Cable clamps Notch

Staples

6 feet

Streambed 1 foot 4 feet

Baseflow

5 to 20 feet Streambed

Upstream anchor

Downstream & inline anchor

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Construction guidelines Steel jacks are used in a manner similar to that of Inert materials—Jacks may be constructed of wood, wood jacks; however, leg assemblies, cable size, steel, or concrete. Wooden jacks are constructed from anchor blocks, and anchor placement details vary. three poles 10 to 16 feet long. They are crossed and Concrete beams may be substituted for steel, but wired together at the ends and midpoints with No. 9 engineering design is required to determine different galvanized wire. Cables used to anchor the wood jack attachment methods, anchoring systems, and assem- systems should be 3/8-inch diameter or larger with a bly configurations. minimum breaking strength of 15,400 pounds. Wooden jack systems dimensioned in this chapter are limited to shallow flow depths of 12 feet or less.

Figure 16–30 Wooden jack field

Note: For streams of high velocity, a sturdy Bank to be protected construction would be to tie all ends together.

Rock placed at base of jack to prevent floating.

Floodplain

Stream channel

Cable

Deadman anchor Note: Supplemental anchors should be used to tie (timber log) individual jacks into the streambank.

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Installation • Bury anchors or drive anchor pilings to the • Jack rows can be placed on a shelf 14 feet wide design depth determined by an engineer. Depths for one line and on two shelves, each 14 feet may vary from 5 to 20 feet and must be specified wide, for a double jack row. Grade the shelf to based on individual site characteristics. slope from 1 foot above the streambed at the side • On long curves, anchor jack rows at intermediate nearest the stream to 3 feet above the streambed points along the curve to isolate damages to the at the side nearest the slope. This encourages a jack row. Two 3/8-inch diameter wire cables tied dry surface for construction and provides some to timber or steel pilings provide adequate an- additional elevation for protection from greater chors. Place anchors up the streambank rather depths of flow. Alternatively, jacks can be con- than in the streambed. structed on the streambed or on the top of the • Consider pilings if streambed anchors are re- bank and moved into place. quired. Space pilings 75 to 125 feet apart along • Space jacks closely together with a maximum of the jack row, with closer spacing on shorter one jack dimension between them to provide an curves. almost continuous line of revetment. • Attach an anchored 3/8-inch diameter wire cable • Anchor the jacks in place by a cable strung to one leg of each jack to prevent rotation and through and tied to the center of the jacks with improve stability. cable clamps. The cable should be tied to a • Place jack rows perpendicular to the bank at buried anchor or pilings, thereby securing all the regular intervals where jack rows are not close jacks as a unit. Wooden jacks are weighted by to existing banks. This prevents local scour. rocks, which should be wired onto the jack Extend bank protection far enough to prevent poles. The first two pilings at the upstream end flanking action. Ensure the jack row is anchored of the jack line should be driven no more than 12 to a hardpoint at the upstream end. feet apart to reduce the effect of increased water • Supplement the jack string or field with vegeta- force from trash buildup. tive plantings. Dormant posts offer a compatible component in the system.

Figure 16–31 Concrete jack system several years after installation

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(vii) Rock riprap—Rock riprap, properly designed Construction guidelines and placed, is an effective method of streambank Inert materials—Cobbles and gravel obtained from the protection (figs.16–32 and 16–33). The cost of quarry- stream bed should not be used to armor streambanks ing, transporting, and placing the stone and the large unless the material is so abundant that its removal will quantity of stone that may be needed must be consid- not reduce habitat for benthic organisms and fish. ered. Gabion baskets, concrete cellular blocks, or Material forming an armor layer that protects the bed similar systems (figs. 16–34, 16–35a, 16–35b; and from erosion should not be removed. Use of stream 16–42, 16–43) can be an alternative to rock riprap cobble and gravel may require permission from state under many circumstances. and local agencies.

Applications and effectiveness Removing streambed materials tends to destroy the • Provides long-term stability. diversity of physical habitat necessary for optimum • Has structural flexibility. It can be designed to fish production, not only in the project area, but up- self-adjust to eroding foundations. stream and downstream as well. Construction activi- • Has a long life and seldom needs replacement. ties often create channels of uniform depth and width • Is inert so does not depend on specific environ- in which water velocities increase. Following disrup- mental or climatic conditions for success. tion of the existing streamflow by alteration of the • May be designed for high velocity flow stream channel, further damage results as the stream conditions. seeks to reestablish its original meander pattern.

Figure 16–32 Rock riprap details

Cross section Not to scale Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems

Erosion control fabric Stream-forming flow Top of riprap minimum

thickness = maximum rock size 1

1.5 (max.) Baseflow

Gravel bedding, geotextile fabric, as needed Streambed

Bottom of riprap minimum thickness = 2 x maximum rock size

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Upstream, the stream may seek to adjust to the new Numerous methods have been developed for designing gradient by actively eroding or grading its banks and rock riprap. Nearly all use either an allowable velocity bed. The eroded material may be deposited in the or tractive stress methodology as the basis for deter- channel downstream from the alteration causing mining a stable rock size. Table 16–2 lists several additional changes in flow pattern. The downstream accepted procedures currently used in the NRCS. The channel will then also adjust to the new gradient and table provides summary information and references increased streamflow velocity by scour and bank where appropriate. Two of the more direct methods of erosion or further deposition. obtaining a rock size are included in appendix 16A. All four methods listed in the table provide the user with a Rock riprap on streambanks is affected by the hydro- design rock size for a given set of input parameters. dynamic drag and lift forces created by the velocity of The first time user is advised to use more than one flow past the rock. Resisting the hydrodynamic effects method in determining rock size. Availability of rock are the force components resulting from the sub- and experience of the designer continue to play impor- merged weight of the rock and its geometry. These tant roles in determining the appropriate size rock for forces must be considered in any analytical procedure any given job. for determining a stable rock size. Channel alignment, surface roughness, debris and ice impact, rock gradation, angularity, and placement are other factors that must be considered when designing for given site conditions.

Figure 16–33 Rock riprap revetment system

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A well graded rock provides the greatest assurance of The transition zone can be designed as a filter, bed- stability and long-term protection. Poorly graded rock ding, or geotextile. The bank soils, bank seepage, and results in weak areas where individual stones are rock gradation and thickness are factors to consider subject to movement and subsequent revetment fail- when determining the transition material. ure. Satisfactory gradation limits and thickness of the rock riprap can be determined from the basic stone Bedding material is generally a pit run sand-gravel size. Figure 16A–3 in appendix 16A can help determine mixture. Bedding is suitable for those sites where rock gradation limits for any calculated basic rock size bank materials are plastic and forces can be consid- (D50, D75, and so forth). ered external, that is, forces acting on the bedding result only from the action of flow past or over the The void space between rocks in riprap is generally rock riprap. Bedding is not recommended for condi- many times greater than the void space in existing tions where flow occurs through the rock (as on steep bank materials. A transition zone serves two purposes: slopes), where subject to wave action, or where flow • Distributes the weight of rock to the underlying velocity exceeds 10 feet per second. soil. • Prevents movement and loss of fine grained soil into the large void spaces of the riprap.

Table 16–2 Methods for rock riprap protection

Method (reference) Basis for rock size Procedure Comments

Isbash Curve Allowable velocity— Use design velocity and Use judgment to factor Appendix 16A (reprint Curve developed from curve to determine basic in site conditions. The from SCS Engineering Isbash work. rock size (D100). basic stone weight is Field Manual, chapter often doubled to 16, 1969). account for debris.

FWS-Lane Tractive stress— Enter monograph with Easy to use procedure. Appendix 16A (reprint Monograph developed channel hydraulic and Generally results in a from SCS Engineering from Lane's work. physical data to solve conservative rock size. Design Standards—Far for basic rock size (D75). West States, 1970).

COE Method Allowable velocity— Use equation or graphs Detailed procedure can Corps of Engineers, Basic equation developed and site physical and be used on natural or EM 1110-2-1601, 7/91, by COE from study of hydraulic data to prismatic channels. Hydraulic Design of models and comparison determine basic rock Flood Control Channels. to field data. size (D30).

Federal Highway Tractive Force Theory— Use equation with known Stability factor requires Administration Uses velocity as a primary site data and user user judgment of site Hydraulic Engineering design parameter. determined stability conditions. Circular No. 11, Design of factor to solve for basic Riprap Revetment (1989). rock size (D50).

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A filter is a graded granular material designed to • A nonwoven geotextile may be used in lieu of a prevent movement of the bank soil. A filter is recom- bedding or filter layer under the rock riprap. The mended where bank materials are nonplastic, seepage geotextile material must maintain intimate con- forces exist, or where bedding is not adequate protec- tact with the subsurface. Geotextile that can tion for the external forces as noted above. The site move with changes in seepage pressure or exter- should be evaluated for potential seepage pressures nal forces permits soil particle movement and from existing or seasonal water table, rapid fluctua- can result in plugging of the geotextile. A 3-inch tions in streamflow (rapid drawdown), surface runoff, layer of bedding material over the geotextile or other factors. In critical applications or where prevents this movement. experience indicates problems with the loss of bank • Hand-placing all rock in a revetment should material under riprap, use chapter 26, part 633 of the seldom, if ever, be necessary. While the revet- NRCS National Engineering Handbook, January 1994, ment may have a somewhat less finished look, it for guidance in designing granular filters. is adequate to dump the rock and rearrange it with a minimum of hand labor. However, the Nonwoven geotextiles are widely used as a substitute rock must be dumped in a manner that will not for bedding and filter material. Availability, cost, and separate small and large stones or cause damage ease of placement are contributing factors. For guid- to the filter fabrics. The finished surface should ance in selection of the proper geotextile, refer to not have pockets of finer materials that would NRCS Design Note 24, Guide to Use of Geotextile. flush out and weaken the revetment. Sufficient hand placing and chinking should be done to Installation provide a well-keyed surface. • Minimum thickness of the riprap should at least equal the maximum rock size at the top of the The Engineering Field Handbook, Chapter 17, Con- revetment. The thickness is often increased at struction and Construction Materials, has additional the base of the revetment to two or more times information on riprap construction and materials. the maximum rock size. • The toe for rock riprap must be firmly estab- Manufacturers have developed design recommenda- lished. This is important where the stream bot- tions for various flow and soil conditions. Their rec- tom is unstable or subject to scour during flood ommendations are good references in use of gabions, flows. cellular blocks, and similar systems. • Banks on which riprap is to be placed should be sloped so that the pressure of the stone is mainly against the bank rather than against the stone in the lower courses and toe. This slope should not Figure 16–34 Concrete cellular block details be steeper than 1.5:1. The riprap should extend up the bank to an elevation at which vegetation Revegetate will provide adequate protection. 6 in above design wave height or top of slope • A filter or bedding must be placed between the riprap and the bank except in those cases where Steepest slope of block placement 3:1 the material in the bank to be protected is determined to be a suitable bedding or filter material. 12 in min. The filter or bedding material should be at least 6 Stream-forming flow inches thick.

Baseflow

Geotextile fabric

Streambed Cross section 18 in min. Not to scale

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Figure 16–35a Concrete cellular block system before backfilling

Figure 16–35b Concrete cellular block system several years after installation

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(viii) Coconut fiber rolls—Coconut fiber rolls are • Prefabricated materials can be expensive. cylindrical structures composed of coconut husk • Manufacturers estimate the product has an fibers bound together with twine woven from coconut effective life of 6 to 10 years. (figs. 16–36, 16–37a, and 16–37b). This material is most commonly manufactured in 12-inch diameters and Construction guidelines lengths of 20 feet. It is staked in place at the toe of the • Excavate a shallow trench at the toe of the slope slope, generally at the stream-forming flow stage. to a depth slightly below channel grade. • Place the coconut fiber roll in the trench. Applications and effectiveness • Drive 2 inch x 2 inch x 36 inch stakes between • Protect slopes from shallow slides or undermin- the binding twine and coconut fiber. Stakes ing while trapping sediment that encourages should be placed on both sides of the roll on 2 to plant growth within the fiber roll. 4 feet centers depending upon anticipated veloci- • Flexible, product can mold to existing curvature ties. Tops of stakes should not extend above the of streambank. top of the fiber roll. • Produce a well-reinforced streambank without • In areas that experience ice or wave action, much site disturbance. notch outside of stakes on either side of fiber roll and secure with 16-gauge wire.

Figure 16–36 Coconut fiber roll details

Cross section Not to scale Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems

Herbaceous Erosion control fabric plugs

Stream-forming flow

Baseflow Coconut fiber roll Streambed

2 in. by 2 in. by 36 in. oak stakes

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Figure 16–37a Coconut fiber roll

Figure 16–37b Coconut fiber roll system

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• Backfill soil behind the fiber roll. Construction guidelines • If conditions permit, rooted herbaceous plants Inert materials—Rock filled jetties are the most com- may be installed in the coconut fiber. mon, however, other materials are used including • Install appropriate vegetation or soil bioengineer- timber, concrete, gabions, and rock protected earth. ing systems upslope from fiber roll. Installation (ix) Stream jetties—Jetties are short dike-like struc- • Use a D50 size rock equal to 1.5 to 2 times the d50 tures that project from a streambank into a stream size determined from rock riprap design methods channel. They may consist of one or more structures for bank full flow condition. placed at intervals along the bank to be protected. Most • Size and space jetties so that flow passing are constructed to the top of the bank and can be ori- around and downstream from the outer end will ented either upstream, downstream, or perpendicular to intersect the next jetty before intersecting the the bank (figs. 16–38 and 16–39). eroding bank. The length varies but should not unduly constrict the channel. Rock jetties typi- Jetties deflect or maintain the direction of flow cally have 2:1 side slopes with an 8 to 12-foot top through and beyond the reach of stream being pro- width and 2:1 end slope. tected. In function and design, jetties change the • Space jetties to account for such characteristics as direction of flow by obstructing and redirecting the stream width, stream velocity, and radius of curva- streamflow. Their design and construction require ture. Typical spacing is 2 to 5 times the jetty length. specialized skills. A fluvial geomorphologist, engineer, • Construct jetties with a level top or a downward or other qualified discipline with knowledge of open slope to the outer end (riverward). The top of the channel hydraulics should be consulted for specific jetty at the bank should be equal to the bank considerations and guidelines. height. • Orient jetties either perpendicular to the stream- Applications and effectiveness bank or angled upstream or downstream. Per- • Used successfully in a wide variety of applica- pendicular and downstream orientation are the tions in all types of rivers and streams. most common. • Effective in controlling erosion on bends in river • Tie jetties securely back into the bank and bed to and stream systems. prevent washout along the bank and undercut- • Can be augmented with vegetation or soil ting. Place rock a short distance on either side of bioengineering systems in some situations; i.e., the jetty along the bank to prevent erosion at this deposited material upstream of jetties. critical location. The base of the jetty should be • May develop scour holes just downstream and keyed into the bed a minimum depth equal to the off the end of the jetties. D100 rock size. • Can be complex and expensive.

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Figure 16–38 Stream jetty details

Cross section Not to scale

Length of jetty (varies)

Stream-forming flow Existing bank

2:1 Baseflow Streambed

Rock riprap 1:1

Front elevation Not to scale

8-12 feet, top width

2:1 2:1

Key into streambed, approx. D 1:1 100 1:1

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Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Figure 16–39a Stream jetty placed to protect railroad bridge

Figure 16–39b Long-established vegetated stream jetty, with deposition in foreground

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(x) Stream barbs—Stream barbs are low rock sills Installation projecting out from a streambank and across the • Use a D50 size rock equal to two times the d50 size stream's thalweg to redirect streamflow away from an determined from rock riprap design methods for eroding bank (figs.16–40 and 16–41). Flow passing bank full flow condition. The maximum rock size over the barb is redirected so that the flow leaving the (D100) should be about 1.5 to 2 times the D50 size. barb is perpendicular to the barb centerline. Stream The minimum rock size should not be less than barbs are always oriented upstream. .75D50. • Key the barb into the stream bed to a depth Application and effectiveness approximately D100 below the bed. • Used in limited applications and range of applica- • Construct the barb above the streambed to a bility is unclear. height approximately equal to the D100 rock, but • Effective in control of bank erosion on small generally not over 2 feet. The width should be at streams. least equal to 3 times D100, but not less than a • Require less rock and stream disturbance than typical construction equipment width of 8 to 10 jetties. feet. Construction of barbs can begin at the • Improve fish habitat (especially when vegetated). streambank and proceed streamward using the • Can be combined with soil bioengineering barb to support construction equipment. practices. • Align the barb so that the flow off the barb is • Can be complex and expensive. directed toward the center of the stream or away from the bank. The acute angle between the barb Construction guidelines and the upstream bank typically ranges from 50 Inert materials—Stream barbs require the use of large to 80 degrees. rock. • Ensure that, at a minimum, the barb is long enough to cross the stream flow low thalweg. • Space the barbs apart from 4 to 5 times the barb’s length. The specific spacing is dependent on finding the point at which the streamflow leaving the barb intersects with the bank.

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Figure 16–40 Stream barb details

Plan view Not to scale

8 ft min.

(L)

50° to 80° C of stream barb

Vegetative bank between barbs

Flow

Cross section Not to scale

Existing 8 ft. min. Length determined grade by design (L)

Stream-forming flow Slope Baseflow

Geotextile fabric Streambed Key into streambed

approx. D100

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Figure 16–41 Stream barb system

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(xi) Rock gabions—Rock gabions begin as rectangu- Construction guidelines lar containers fabricated from a triple twisted, hexago- Live material sizes—When constructing vegetated nal mesh of heavily galvanized steel wire. Empty rock gabions, branches should range from 0.5 to 2.5 gabions are placed in position, wired to adjoining inches in diameter and must be long enough to reach gabions, filled with stones, and then folded shut and beyond the back of the rock basket structure into the wired at the ends and sides. NRCS Construction Speci- backfill or undisturbed bank. fication 64, Wire Gabions, provides detailed information on their installation. Inert materials—Galvanized woven wire mesh or galvanized welded wire mesh baskets or mattresses Vegetation can be incorporated into rock gabions, if may be used. The baskets or mattresses are filled with desired, by placing live branches on each consecutive sound durable rock that has a minimum size of 4 layer between the rock-filled baskets (fig. 16–42 and inches and a maximum of 9 inches. Gabions can be 16–43). These gabions take root inside the gabion coated with polyvinyl chloride to improve their service baskets and in the soil behind the structures. In time life where subject to aggressive water or soil conditions. the roots consolidate the structure and bind it to the slope. Installation • Remove loose material from the foundation area Applications and effectiveness and cut or fill with compacted material to pro- • Useful when rock riprap design requires a rock vide a uniform foundation. size greater than what is locally available. • Excavate the back of the stable foundation • Effective where the bank slope is steep (typically (closest to the slope) slightly deeper than the greater than 1.5:1) and requires structural support. front to add stability to the structure. This pro- • Appropriate at the base of a slope where a low vides additional stability to the structure and wall may be required to stabilize the toe of the ensures that the living branches root well for slope and reduce its steepness. vegetated rock gabions. • Can be fabricated on top of the bank and then • Place bedding or filter material in a uniformly placed as a unit, below water if necessary. graded surface. Compaction of materials is not • Lower initial cost than a concrete structure. usually required. Install geotextiles so that they • Tolerate limited foundation movement. lie smoothly on the prepared foundation. • Have a short service life where installed in • Assemble, place, and fill the gabions with rock. streams that have a high bed load. Avoid use Be certain that all stiffeners and fasteners are where streambed material might abrade and properly secured. cause rapid failure of gabion wire mesh. • Place the gabions so that the vertical joints are • Not designed for or intended to resist large, staggered between the gabions of adjacent rows lateral earth stresses. Should be constructed to a and layers by at least one-half of a cell length. maximum of 5 feet in overall height, including • Place backfill between and behind the wire the excavation required for a stable foundation. baskets. • Useful where space is limited and a more vertical • For vegetated rock gabions, place live branch structure is required. cuttings on the wire baskets perpendicular to the • Where gabions are designed as a structural unit, slope with the growing tips oriented away from the effects of uplift, overturning, and sliding must the slope and extending slightly beyond the be analyzed in a manner similar to that for grav- gabions. The live cuttings must extend beyond ity type structures. the backs of the wire baskets into the fill mate- • Can be placed as a continuous mattress for slope rial. Place soil over the cuttings and compact it. protection. Slopes steeper than 2:1 should be • Repeat the construction sequence until the analyzed for slope stability. structure reaches the required height. • Gabions used as mattresses should be a minimum of 9 inches thick for stream velocities of up to 9 feet per second. Increase the thickness to a minimum of 1.5 feet for velocities of 10 to 14 feet per second.

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• Where abrasive bedloads or debris can snag or many applications, however, when drainage is tear the gabion wire, a concrete cap should be critical, the fabric must maintain intimate con- used to protect those surfaces subject to attack. tact with the foundation soils. A 3-inch layer of A concrete cap 6 inches thick with 3 inches sand-gravel between the gabions and the filter penetration into the basket is usually sufficient. material assures that contact is maintained. The concrete for the cap should be placed after • At the toe and up and downstream ends of ga- initial settlement has occurred. bion revetments, a tieback into the bank and bed • A filter is nearly always needed between the should be provided to protect the revetment gabions and the foundation or backfill to prevent from undermining or scour. soil movement through the baskets. Geosyn- thetics can be used in lieu of granular filters for

Figure 16–42 Vegetated rock gabion details

Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering Cross section systems Not to scale Compacted fill material

Live branch cuttings (1/2- to 1-inch diameter)

Erosion control fabric

Stream-forming flow Geotextile fabric

Baseflow Gabion baskets

Streambed

2 to 3 feet

Note: Rooted/leafed condition of the living plant material is not representative of the time of installation.

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Figure 16–43 Vegetated rock gabion system (H.M. Schiechtl photo)

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(b) Design considerations for 650.1602 Shoreline shoreline protection protection (1) Beach slope Slopes should be determined above and below the waterline. The slope below waterline should be repre- (a) General sentative of the slope for a distance of at least 50 feet.

Shoreline erosion results primarily from erosive forces (2) Offshore depth and wave height in the form of waves generally perpendicular to the Offshore depth is a critical factor in designing shore- shoreline. As a wave moves toward shore, it begins to line protection measures. Structures that must be drag on the bottom, dissipating energy. This eventually constructed in deep water, or in water that may be- causes it to break or collapse. This major turbulence come deep, are beyond the scope of this chapter. stirs up material from the shore bottom or erodes it Other important considerations are the dynamic wave from banks and bluffs. Fluctuating tides, freezing and height acting in deep water (roughly, the total height thawing, floating ice, and surface runoff from adjacent of the wave is three times that visible) and the de- uplands may also cause shorelines to erode. creased wave action caused by shallow water. Effec- tive fetch length also needs to be considered in deter- (1) Types of shoreline protection mining wave height. Methods for computing wave Systems for shoreline protection can be living or height using fetch length are in NRCS Technical Re- nonliving. They consist of vegetation, soil bioengineer- leases 56 and 69. ing, structures, or a combination of these. (3) Water surface (2) Planning for shoreline protection The design water surface is the mean high tide or, in measures nontidal areas, the mean high water. This information The following items need to be considered for shoreline may be obtained from tidal tables, records of lake protection in addition to the items listed earlier in this levels, or from topographic maps of the reservoir site chapter for planning streambank protection measures: in conjunction with observed high and normal water • Mean high and low water levels or tides. lines along the shore. • Potential wave parameters. • Slope configuration above and below waterline. (4) Littoral transport • Nature of the soil material above and below The material being moved parallel to the shoreline in water level. the littoral zone, under the influence of waves and • Evidence of littoral drift and transport. currents should be addressed in groin design. It is • Causes of erosion. important to determine that the supply of transport • Adjacent land use. material is not coming from the bank being protected • Maintenance requirements. and the predominant direction of littoral transport. This information is used to locate structures properly with respect to adjacent properties and so that groins can fill most quickly and effectively. Another factor to be considered is that littoral transport often reverses directions with a change in season.

The rate of littoral transport and the supply are as important as the direction of movement. No simple ways to measure the supply are available. For the scope of this chapter, supply may be determined by observation of existing structures, sand beaches, auger samples of the sand above the parent material on the beach, and the presence of sandbars offshore. Other

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considerations are existing barriers, shoreline configu- (c) Protective measures for ration, and inlets that tend to push the supply offshore shorelines and away from the area in question. The net direction of transport is an important and complex consideration. The analysis and design of shoreline protection measures are often complex and require special expertise. (5) Bank soil type For this reason the following discussion is limited to Determining the nature of bank soil material aids in revetments, bulkheads, and groins no higher than 3 estimating the rate of erosion. A very dense, heavy feet above mean high water, as well as soil bioengi- clay can offer more resistance to wave action than neering and other vegetative systems used alone or in noncohesive materials, such as sand. A thin sand lens combination with structural measures. Consideration can result in erosion problems since it may be washed must be given to the possible effects that erosion out when subjected to high tides or wave action for control measures can have on adjacent areas, espe- extended periods of time. The resulting void will no cially estuarine wetlands. longer support the bank above it, causing it to break away. (1) Groins Groins are somewhat permeable to impermeable (6) Foundation material finger-like structures that are installed perpendicular The type of existing foundation may govern the type of to the shore. They generally are constructed in groups protection selected. For example, a rock bottom will called groin fields, and their primary purpose is to trap not permit the use of sheet piling. If the use of riprap is littoral drift. The entrapped sand between the groins being considered on a highly erodible foundation, a acts as a buffer between the incoming waves and filter will be needed to prevent fine material from shoreline by causing the waves to break on the newly washing through the voids. A soft foundation, such as deposited sand and expend most of their energy there dredge spoil, may result in excessive flotation or (figs. 16–44 and 16–45). movement of the structure in any direction. Applications and effectiveness (7) Adjacent shoreline and structures • Particularly dependent on site conditions. Groins Structures that might have an effect on adjacent shore- are most effective in trapping sand when littoral line or other structures must be examined carefully. drift is transported in a single direction. End sections need to be adequately anchored to exist- • Filling the groin field with borrowed sand may be ing measures or terminated in stable areas. necessary, if the littoral transport is clay or silt rather than sand. (8) Existing vegetation • Will not fill until all preceding updrift groins have The installation of erosion control structures can have been filled. a detrimental effect upon existing vegetation unless steps are taken to prevent what is often avoidable site Construction guidelines disturbance. Existing vegetation should be saved as an Inert materials—The most common type of structural integral part of the erosion control system being groin is built of preservative-treated tongue and installed. groove sheet piling.

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Figure 16–44 Timber groin details

Top of bank 6-inch diameter poles - spacing varies

Mean high

24 in. or water key to elevation bulkhead Sheet piling

Ground surface 3 1/2 ft min.

Cross section

24 in. 2 by 8 stringers STD placement of galvanized min. 20d nails

Bank Mean high 2 in. by 8 in. or 2 in. by 10 in. treated T&G sheet piling water elevation 6 in. polepiles Varies

Plan

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Installation • Key the shoreward end of the groins into the • Groins must extend far enough into the water to shoreline bank for at least 2 feet or extend them retain desired amounts of sand. The distance to a bulkhead. between groins generally ranges from one to • Measure the groin height on the shoreline so that three times the length of the groin. When used in it will generally be at high tide or mean high conjunction with bulkheads, the groins are water elevation plus 2 or 3 feet for wave surge usually shorter. height. Decrease the height seaward at a gradual • Groins are particularly vulnerable to storm rate to mean high water elevation. damage before they fill, so initially only the first three or four at the downdrift end of the system should be constructed. • Install the second group of groins after the first has filled and the material passing around or over the groins has again stabilized the downdrift shoreline. This provides the means to verify or adjust the design spacing.

Figure 16–45 Timber groin system

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(3) Bulkheads Installation Bulkheads are vertical structures of timber, concrete, • Use environmentally compatible treated timber. steel, or aluminum sheet piling installed parallel to the • Thickness and spacing of pilings, supports, cross shoreline. member, and face boards must be engineered on a site-by-site basis. Applications and effectiveness • Pilings can be drilled, driven, or jetted depending • Generally constructed where wave action will on the foundation materials. Depth of piling must not cause excessive overtopping of the structure, be at least equal to the exposed height below the which causes bank erosion to continue as though point of maximum anticipated scour. the bulkhead were not there. • Place stones or other appropriate materials at • Scour at the base of the bulkhead also causes the base of the bulkhead to absorb wave energy. failure. The vertical face of the bulkhead re- • In salt water environments, use noncorrosive directs wave action to cause excessive scour at materials to the greatest extent possible. the toe of the structure unless it is protected.

Construction guidelines Inert materials—The most common materials used for bulkhead construction are timber (figs. 16–46 and 16–47), concrete (figs. 16–48 and 16–49), and masonry.

Figure 16–46 Timber bulkhead system

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Figure 16–47 Timber bulkhead details

Cross section Existing vegetation, plantings Not to scale or soil bioengineering systems Backfill and slope to meet site conditions

Erosion control fabric

2 in x 6 in cap Existing bank 7/16 galvanized bolt 2 in x 8 in x 16 in wale 6 in x 6 ft anchor pile 5 ft min. 3 ft Geotextile fabric 3/8 in cable Mean high 2 in x 8 in x 16 in wale water elevation

5 ft Note: Locate bottom wale near ground line,

not more than 3 inches on center from 7 ft top wale.

2 in x 8 in or 2 in x 10 in T&G sheet piling

6 in x 10 in fender pile

Existing vegetation, plantings or soil bioengineering systems Cross section Not to scale Berm - min. 2 x wave height

Backfill and slope to meet site conditions

Erosion control fabric

3:1 or flatter

Mean high water elevation Gravel drain

Max. 4 feet Geotextile fabric

Coarse gravel or riprap

Weep holes 11/2 dia. (as needed) 10' O.C.

Wave height or 18" (whichever is least)

2 x H or 2 x wave height (whichever is greater)

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Figure 16–48 Concrete bulkhead details

Cross section Poured in place concrete wall Existing vegetation, plantings Not to scale Berm - min. 2 x wave height or soil bioengineering systems 8 in. min.

Backfill and slope to meet site conditions Erosion control fabric 3:1 or flatter

Gravel drain

Max. 4 ft. No. 4 bars at 12 in. o.c.

Mean high No. 4 bars at 16 in. o.c. water elevation Geotextile fabric Coarse gravel or riprap as needed Weep holes 1.5 in. dia.

at 10 ft. o.c. Wave height or 18 in. (whichever No. 4 bars at 16 in. o.c. is least) 1 ft.-2 in. No. 4 bars at 12 in. o.c.

8 in. 8 in.

1 ft.-3 in 1 ft.-2 in 2 ft.-1 in. 4 ft.-6 in. Existing vegetation, plantings Cross section or soil bioengineering systems Concrete block wall Berm - min. 2 x wave height Not to scale 8 in. min.

Erosion control fabric 3:1 or flatter

Gravel drain Geotextile fabric No. 4 bars at 16 in. o.c. Backfill and slope to

meet site conditions Horizontal joint reinforcement Max. 4 ft. Mean high water elevation 2 - no. 4 bars in bond beams at 16 in. o.c. or joint reinforcement Coarse gravel or at 8 in o.c.

riprap as needed Weep holes 1.5 in. dia. at 10 ft. o.c. Wave height or

18 in. whichever No. 4 bars at 16 in. o.c. is least

10 in. No. 4 bars at 12 in. o.c.

6 in. 14 in. 6 in.

3 ft.-8 in. (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16–69

Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Figure 16–49 Concrete bulkhead system

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(4) Revetments Construction guidelines Revetments are protective structures of rock, con- • The size and thickness of rock revetments must crete, cellular blocks, or other material installed to fit be determined to resist wave action. NRCS the slope and shape of the shoreline (figs. 16–50 and Technical Release 69, Rock Riprap for Slope 16–51). Protection Against Wave Action, provides guidance for size, thickness, and gradation. Applications and effectiveness • The base of the revetment must be founded below • Flexible and not impaired by slight movement the scour depth or placed on nonerosive material. caused by settlement or other adjustments. • Angular stone is preferred for revetments. If • Preferred to bulkheads where the possibility of rounded stone is used, increase the layer thick- extreme wave action exists. ness by a factor of 1.5. • Local damage or loss of rock easily repaired. • Use a minimum thickness of 6-inch filter material • No special equipment required for construction. under rock. • Subject to scour at the toe and flanking, thus • If geotextile is used in place of granular filter, filters are important and should always be cover the geotextile with a minimum of 3inches considered. of sand-gravel before placement of rock. • Complex and expensive.

Figure 16–50 Concrete revetment (poured in place)

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Figure 16–51 Rock riprap revetment

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(5) Vegetative measures (ii) Live fascine—The live fascines previously de- If some vegetation exists on the shoreline, the shore- scribed in this chapter work best in shoreline applica- line problem may be solved with more vegetation. tions where the ground between them is also pro- Determine if the vegetation disappeared because of a tected. Natural geotextiles, such as those manufac- single, infrequent storm, or if plants are being shaded tured from coconut husks, are strong, durable, and out by developing overstory trees and shrubs. In either work well to protect the ground. case revegetation is a viable alternative. Consult local technical guides and plant material specialists for Construction guidelines appropriate plant species and planting specifications. Live materials—Live cuttings as previously described NRCS Technical Release 56, Vegetative Control of for fabrication of live fascine bundles. Fabricate live Wave Action on Earth Dams, provides additional fascine bundles approximately 8 inches in diameter. guidance. Live stakes should be about 3 feet long.

(6) Patching Inert materials—Dead stout stakes approximately 3 A shoreline problem is often isolated and requires only feet long to anchor well in loose sand. Jute mesh with a simple patch repair. Site characteristics that would long straw for low energy shorelines. Natural geo- indicate a patch solution may be appropriate include textile with long straw for higher energy shorelines. good overall protection from wave action, slight undercutting in spots with an occasional slide on the Installation bank, and fairly good vegetative growth on the shore- The installation methods are similar to those dis- line. The problems are often caused by boat wake or cussed for live fascines, with the following variations: excessive upland runoff. Fill undercut areas with stone • Excavate a trench approximately 10 inches wide sandbags or grout-filled bags and repair with a grass and deep, beginning at one end of and parallel to transplant, reed clumps, branchpacking, vegetated the shoreline section to be repaired and extend- geogrid, or vegetated riprap. ing to the other end. • Spread jute mesh or geotextile fabric across the Slides that occur because of a saturated soil condition excavated trench and temporarily leave the are best alleviated by providing subsurface drainage or remainder on the slope immediately above the a diversion. Leaning or slipping trees in the immediate trench. slide area may need to be removed initially because of • Place a live fascine bundle in the trench on top of their weight and the forces they exert on the soil; the fabric and anchor with live and dead stout however, once the saturated condition is remedied, stakes. disturbed areas should be revegetated with native • Spread long straw on the slope above the trench trees, shrubs, grasses, and forbs to establish cover. to the approximate location of the next trench to be constructed upslope. (7) Soil bioengineering systems • Pull the fabric upslope over the long straw and Soil bioengineering systems that are best suited to spread in the next excavated trench. Trenches reducing erosion along shorelines are live stakes, live should be spaced 3 to 5 feet apart and parallel to fascines, brushmattresses, live siltation, and reed each other. clump constructions. • Repeat the process until the system is in place over the treatment area. (i) Live stake—Live stakes offer no stability until they root into the shoreline area, but over time they provide excellent soil reinforcement. To reduce failure until root establishment occurs, installations may be enhanced with a layer of long straw mulch covered with jute mesh or, in more critical areas, a natural geotextile fabric.

Refer to streambank protection section of this chapter for appropriate applications and construction guidelines.

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(iii) Brushmattress—Brushmattresses for shore- (iv) Live siltation construction—Live siltation lines perform a similar function as those for stream- construction is similar to brushlayering except that the banks. Therefore, effectiveness and construction orientation of the branches are more vertical. Ideally guidelines are similar to those given earlier in this live siltation systems are approximately perpendicular chapter, with the following additions. to the prevailing winds. The branch tips should slope upwards at 45 to 60 degrees. Installation is similar to Applications and effectiveness brushlayering (see Engineering Field Handbook, • May be effective in lake areas that have fluctuat- chapter 18 for a more complete discussion of a ing water levels since they are able to protect the brushlayer). shoreline and continue to grow. • Able to filter incoming water because they also Live siltation branches that have been installed in the establish a dense, healthy shoreline vegetation. trenches serve as tensile inclusions or reinforcing units. The part of the brush that protrudes from the Installation ground assists in retarding runoff and surface erosion • After the trench at the bottom has been dug and from wave action and wind (figs. 16–52 and 16–53). the mattress branches placed, the trench should be lined with geotextile fabric. Applications and effectiveness • Secure the live fascine, press down the mattress Live siltation systems provide immediate erosion brush, and place the fabric on top of the brush. control and earth reinforcement functions, including: • At this point, install the live and dead stout • Providing surface stability for the planting or stakes to hold the brush in place. A few dead establishment of vegetation. stout stakes may be used in the mattress branch • Trapping debris, seed, and vegetation at the and partly wired down before covering the shoreline. fabric. This helps in the final steps of covering • Reducing wind erosion and surface particle and securing the brush and the fabric. movement. • Drying excessively wet sites through transpiration. • Promoting seed germination for natural colonization. • Reinforcing the soil with unrooted branch cuttings. • Reinforcing the soil as deep, strong roots develop and adding resistance to sliding and shear displacement.

Construction guidelines Live material—Live branch cuttings 0.5 to 1 inch in diameter and 4 to 5 feet long with side branches intact.

Installation • Beginning at the toe of the shoreline bank to be treated, excavate a trench 2 to 3 feet deep and 1 to 2 feet wide, with one vertical side and the other angled toward the shoreline. • Parallel live siltation rows should vary from 5 to 10 feet apart, depending upon shoreline conditions and stability required. Steep, unstable and high energy sites require closer spacing.

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Figure 16–52 Live siltation construction details

Plan Not to scale

Littoral Shoreline transport

AA Toe of shoreline bank Live siltation constructions

5 to 10 ft

Section A-A

Littoral transport

Live brush

Excavated trench

2 to 3 ft

Fill material

1 to 2 ft Live siltation branches

Note: Rooted/leafed condition of the living plant material is not respresentative of the time of installation.

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Figure 16–53 Live siltation construction system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

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(v) Reed clump—Reed clump installations consist of Installation root divisions wrapped in natural geotextile fabric, • Reed root clumps are either placed directly into placed in trenches, and staked down. The resulting fabric-lined trenches or prefabricated into rolls 5 root mat reinforces soil particles and extracts excess to 30 feet long. With the growing tips pointing up, moisture through transpiration. Reed clump systems space clumps every 12 inches on a 2- to 3-foot- are typically installed at the water's edge or on shelves wide strip of geotextile fabric to fabricate the in the littoral zone (fig. 16–54 and 16–55). rolls. The growing buds should all be oriented in the same upright direction for correct placement Applications and effectiveness into the trench. • Reduces toe erosion and creates a dense energy- • Wrap the fabric from both sides to overlap the dissipating reed bank area. top, leaving the reed clumps exposed and bound • Offers relatively inexpensive and immediate with twine between each plant. protection from erosion. • Beginning at and parallel to the water's edge, • Useful on shore sites where rapid repair of spot excavate a trench 2 inches wider and deeper damage is required. than the size of the prefabricated reed roll or • Retains soil and transported sediment at the reed clumps. shoreline. • To place reed clumps directly into trenches, first • Reduces a long beach wash into a series of line the trench with a 2- to 3-foot-wide strip of shorter sections capable of retaining surface geotextile fabric before spreading a 1-inch layer soils. of highly organic topsoil over it at the bottom of • Enhances conditions for natural colonization and the trench. Next, center the reed clumps on 12- establishment of vegetation from the surround- inch spacing in the bottom of the trench. Fill the ing plant community. remainder of the trench between and around • Grows in water and survives fluctuating water reed clumps with highly organic topsoil, and levels. compact. Wrap geotextile fabric from each side to overlap at the top and leave the reed clumps Construction guidelines exposed before securing with dead stout stakes Live materials—The reed clumps should be 4 to 8 spaced between the clumps. Complete the instal- inches in diameter and taken from healthy water- lation by spreading previously excavated soil dependent species, such as arrowhead, cattail, or around the exposed reed clumps to cover this water iris. They may be selectively harvested from staked fabric. existing natural sites or purchased from a nursery. • To use the prefabricated reed clump roll, place it in the excavated trench, secure it with dead stout Wrap reed clumps in natural geotextile fabric and bind stakes, and backfill as described above. together with twine. These clumps can be fabricated • Repeat the above procedure by excavating addi- several days before installation if they are kept moist tional parallel trenches spaced 3 to 6 feet apart and shaded. toward the shoreline. Place the reed clumps from one row to the next to produce a staggered Inert materials—Natural geotextile fabric, twine, and spacing pattern. 3- to 3.5-foot-long dead stout stakes are required.

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Figure 16–54 Reed clump details

Cross section Not to scale

Natural geotextile Backfill fabric wrap Mean high water elevation

Backfill

Lakebed

Coconut fiber roll Organic soil Dead stout (optional to reduce wave energy) stakes

Plan Not to scale

3-6 feet Aquatic plant

Dead stout stake

12-18 inches

Optional coconut fiber roll

12-18 inches

Mean water level Trench (filled with organic soil)

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Figure 16–55a Installing dead stout stakes in reed clump Figure 16–55b Completing installation of reed clump system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo) system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

Figure 16–55c Established reed clump system (Robbin B. Sotir & Associates photo)

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(8) Coconut fiber roll Applications and effectiveness Coconut fiber rolls are cylindrical structures com- • Effective in lake areas where the water level posed of coconut fibers bound together with twine fluctuates because it is able to protect the shore- woven from coconut (figs. 16–56 and 16–57). This line and encourage new vegetation. material is most commonly manufactured in 12-inch • Flexible, can be molded to the curvature of the diameters and lengths of 20 feet. The fiber rolls func- shoreline. tion as breakwaters along the shores of lakes and • Prefabricated materials can be expensive. embayments. In addition to reducing wave energy, this • Manufacturers estimate the product has an product can help contain substrate and encourage effective life of 6 to 10 years. development of wetland communities.

Figure 16–56 Coconut fiber roll details

Cross section Vegetative Not to scale plantings

Coconut fiber roll

Mean high water elevation

Lakebed Eroded shoreline

2 in. x 2 in. x 36 in. oak stakes

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Installation • Fiber roll should be located off shore at a distance where the top of the fiber roll is exposed at low tide. In nontidal areas, the fiber roll should be placed where it will not be overtopped by wave action. • Drive 2 inch x 2 inch stakes between the binding twine and the coconut fiber. Stakes should be placed on 4-foot centers and should not extend above the fiber roll. • If desired, rooted cuttings can be installed between the coconut fiber roll and the shoreline.

Figure 16–57 Coconut fiber roll system

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Naiman, Robert J. 1992. Watershed management. 650.1603 References Springer-Verlag, NY. Rosgen, David L. 1985. A stream classification sys- Andrews, E.D. 1983. Entrainment of gravel from natu- tem—riparian ecosystems and their rally sorted riverbed material. Geological Society management. First North American Riparian of America 94:1225-1231. Conference, Tucson, AZ.

Bell, Milo C. Fisheries handbook of engineering re- Rosgen, David L. 1992. Restoration. Pages E-1 through quirements and biological criteria. E-28 in Applied Fluvial Geomorphology, and pages E-29 through E-36 in Wildland Hydrology Berger, John. 1991. Restoration of aquatic ecosystems: Consultants (Rosgen) Short Course, September science, technology, and public policy. Report 28-October 2, 1992, Pagosa Springs, CO. for national research council committee on restoration of aquatic ecosystems in applied Rosgen, Dave, and Brenda Fittante. 1992. Fish habitat fluvial geomorphology. Wildland Hydrology structures: a selection using stream classifica- Consultants (Rosgen) Short Course, September tion. Pages C-31 through C-50 in Applied Fluvial 28-October 2, 1992, Pagosa Springs, CO, pp. E-29 Geomorphology, and pages E-29 through E-36, through E-36. Wildland Hydrology Consultants (Rosgen) Short Course, September 28-October 2, 1992, Pagosa Coppin, N.J., and I.G. Richards. 1990. Use of vegetation Springs, Colorado. in civil engineering. Butterworths, London, England. Schumm, Stanley A. 1963. A tentative classification of alluvial rivers. U.S. Geologic Survey Circular 477, Davis, William M. 1889. The geographical cycle. Geo- Washington, DC. graphical Journal 14: 481-504. Schumm, Stanley A. 1977. The fluvial system. John Flosi, Gary, and Forrest Reynolds. 1991. California Wiley and Sons, NY, 338 pp. salmonid stream habitat and restoration manual. California Department of Fish and Game. Schumm, Stanley A., Mike D. Harvey, and Chester A. Watson. 1984. Incised channels: morphology, Gray, Donald H., and Andrew T. Leiser. 1982. dynamics and control. Water Resources Publica- Biotechnical slope protection and erosion con- tions, Littleton, CO, 200 pp. trol. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY. The Pacific Rivers Council. 1993. Entering the water- Leopold, Aldo. 1949. A sand county almanac and shed. Washington, DC. sketches here and there. U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center. 1975. Leopold, Luna B., and David L. Rosgen. 1991. Move- Shore protection manual, volumes I and II. ment of bed material clasts in gravel streams. Proceedings of the Fifth Federal Interagency U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Help yourself—A Sedimentation Conference, Las Vegas, NV. discussion of erosion problems on the Great Lakes and alternative methods of shore protec- Leopold, Luna B., and M. G. Wolman. 1957. River tion. A General Information Pamphlet. channel patterns; braided, meandering, and straight. U.S. Geologic Survey Professional Paper U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Main report, final 282-B. Washington, DC. report to Congress on the Streambank Erosion Control Evaluation and Demonstration Act of Malanson, George P. 1993. Riparian landscapes. Cam- 1974, Section 32, Public Law 93-251. bridge University, Great Britain.

16–82 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Streambank U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation protection guidelines. Service. Agricultural Information Bulletin 460.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, South- U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation ern Region. 1992. Stream habitat improvement Service. Vegetation for tidal shoreline stabiliza- handbook. tion in the Mid-Atlantic States, U.S. Government Printing Office S/N001-007-00906-5. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1977. Design of open channels. Techni- U.S. Department of Transportation. 1975. Highways in cal Release 25. the river environment-hydraulic and environmental design considerations. Training and Design U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Manual. Service. 1974. A guide for design and layout of vegetative wave protection for earth dam em- U.S. Department of Transportation. Use of riprap for bankments. Technical Release 56. bank protection. (need date)

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Waldo, Peter G. 1991. The geomorphic approach to Service. 1983. Riprap for slope protection against channel investigation. Proceedings of the Fifth wave action. Technical Release 69. Federal Interagency Sedimentation Conference. Las Vegas, NV, pp. 3-71 through 3-78. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1994. Gradation design of sand and gravel filters. Natl. Eng. Hdbk, part 633, ch. 26.

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16–84 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Glossary

Bankfull discharge Natural streams—The discharge that fills the channel without overflowing onto the flood plain.

Modified or entrenched streams—The streamflow volume and depth that is the 1- to 3-year frequency flow event.

The discharge that determines the stream's geomorphic planform dimensions.

Bar A streambed deposit of sand or gravel, often exposed during low-water periods.

Baseflow The ground water contribution of streamflow.

Bole Trunk of a tree.

Branchpacking Live, woody, branch cuttings and compacted soil used to repair slumped areas of streambanks.

Brushmattress A combination of live stakes, fascines, and branch cuttings installed to cover and protect streambanks and shorelines.

Bulkhead Generally vertical structures of timber, concrete, steel, or aluminum sheet piling used to protect shorelines from wave action.

Channel A natural or manmade waterway that continuously or intermittently carries water.

Cohesive soil A soil that, when unconfined, has considerable strength when air dried and significant strength when wet.

Current The flow of water through a stream channel.

Dead blow hammer A hammer filled with lead shot or sand.

Deadman A log or concrete block buried in a streambank to anchor revetments.

Deposition The accumulation of soil particles on the channel bed, banks, and flood plain.

Discharge The volume of water passing through a channel during a given time, usually measured in cubic feet per second.

Dormant season The time of year when plants are not growing and deciduous plants shed their leaves.

Duration of flow Length of time a stream floods.

Erosion control fabric Woven or spun material made from natural or synthetic fibers and placed to prevent surface erosion.

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Erosion The wearing away of the land by the natural forces of wind, water, or gravity.

Erosive (erodible) A soil whose particles are easily detached and entrained in a fluid, either air or water, passing over or through the soil. The most erodible soils tend to be silts and/or fine sands with little or no cohesion.

Failure Collapse or slippage of a large mass of streambank material.

Filter A layer of fabric, sand, gravel, or graded rock placed between the bank revetment or channel lining and soil to prevent the movement of fine grained sizes or to prevent revetment work from sinking into the soil.

Fines Silt and clay particles.

Flanking Streamflow between a structure and the bank that creates an area of scour.

Flow rate Volume of flow per unit of time; usually expressed as cubic feet per second.

Footer log A log placed below the expected scour depth of a stream. Foundation for a rootwad and boulders.

Gabion A wire mesh basket filled with rock that can be used in multiples as a structural unit.

Geotextile Any permeable textile used with foundation soil, rock, or earth as an integral part of a product, structure, or system usually to provide separation, reinforcement, filtration, or drainage.

Groin A structure built perpendicular to the shoreline to trap littoral drift and retard erosion.

Ground water Water contained in the voids of the saturated zone of geologic strata.

Headcutting The development and upstream movement of a vertical or near vertical change in bed slope, generally evident as falls or rapids. Headcuts are often an indication of major disturbances in a stream system or watershed.

Joint planting The insertion of live branch cuttings in openings or interstices of rocks, blocks, or other inert revetment units and into the underlying soil.

Littoral drift The movement of littoral drift either transport parallel (long shore transport) or perpendicular (on-shore transport) to the shoreline.

Littoral The sedimentary material of shorelines moved by waves and currents.

Littoral zone An indefinite zone extending seaward from the shoreline to just beyond the breaker zone.

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Live branch cuttings Living, freshly cut branches from woody shrub and tree species that readily propagate when embedded in soil.

Live cribwall A rectangular framework of logs or timbers filled with soil and containing live woody cuttings that are capable of rooting.

Live fascine Bound, elongated, cylindrical bundles of live branch cuttings that are placed in shallow trenches, partly covered with soil, and staked in place.

Live siltation construction Live branch cuttings that are placed in trenches at an angle from shoreline to trap sediment and protect them against wave action.

Live stake Live branch cuttings that are tamped or inserted into the earth to take root and produce vegetative growth.

Noncohesive soil Soil, such as sand, that lacks significant internal strength and has little resistance to erosion.

Piling (sheet) Strips or sheets of metal or other material connected with meshed or interlocking members to form an impermeable diaphragm or wall.

Piling A long, heavy timber, concrete, or metal support driven or jetted into the earth.

Piping The progressive removal of soil particles from a soil mass by percolating water, leading to the development of flow channels or tunnels.

Reach A section of a stream's length.

Reed clump A combination of root divisions from aquatic plants and natural geotextile fabric to protect shorelines from wave action.

Revetment (armoring) A facing of stone, interlocking pavers, or other armoring material shaped to conform to and protect streambanks or shorelines.

Riprap A layer, facing, or protective mound of rubble or stones randomly placed to prevent erosion, scour, or sloughing of a structure of embankment; also, the stone used for this purpose.

Rootwad A short length of tree trunk and root mass.

Scour Removal of underwater material by waves or currents, especially at the base or toe of a streambank or shoreline.

Sediment deposition The accumulation of sediment.

Sediment load The amount of sediment in transport.

Sediment Soil particles transported from their natural location by wind or water.

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Seepage The movement of water through the ground, or water emerging on the face of a bank.

Slumping (sloughing) Shallow mass movement of soil as a result of gravity and seepage.

Stream-forming flow The discharge that determines a stream’s geomorphic planform dimensions. Equivalent to the 1- to 3-year frequency flow event (see Bankfull discharge).

Streambank The side slopes within which streamflow is confined.

Streambed (bed) The bottom of a channel.

Streamflow The movement of water within a channel.

Submerged vanes Precast concrete or wooden elements placed in streambeds to deflect secondary currents away from the streambank.

Thalweg The deepest part of a stream channel where the fastest current is usually found.

Toe The break in slope at the foot of a bank where it meets the streambed.

Vegetated geogrid Live branch cuttings placed in layers with natural or synthetic geotextile fabric wrapped around each soil lift.

Vegetated structural revetments Porous revetments, such as riprap or interlocking pavers, into which live plants or cuttings can be placed.

Vegetated structures A retaining structure in which live plants or cuttings have been integrated.

16–88 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Appendix 16A Size Determination for Rock Riprap

Isbash Curve

The Isbash Curve, because of its widespread accep- tance and ease of use, is a direct reprint from the previous chapter 16, Engineering Field Manual. The curve was developed from empirical data to determine a rock size for a given velocity. See figure 16A–1. The user can read the D100 rock size (100 percent of riprap ≤ this size) directly from the graph in terms of weight (pounds) or dimension (inches). Less experienced users should use this method for quick estimates or comparison with other methods before determining a final design.

Figure 16A–1 Rock size based on Isbash Curve

60 15,000

10,000

5,000 3 40

1,000

20 500 Diameter of stone (in) 250 Weight of stone at 165 lb/ft 100 50

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Velocity (ft/s) Based on Isbash Curve

Procedure 1. Determine the design velocity. 2. Use velocity and fig. 16A-1 (Isbash Curve) to determine basic rock size. 3. Basic rock size is the D100 size.

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Ds (nominal diameter in inches). Size of rock for which 25% by weight is larger 0 10 20 30 40

9 - 12 Side slope 2:1

1 1/2:1 1 6 - 9 3:1 Straight channel

Ratio of curve radius to water surface width 4 - 6

c = 10 0.52 =

= 0.90 0.72 = = 0.75 0.87 = K

= 0.60 size. 75 10 8 6 4 2 characteristics to determine basic rock size. Procedure 1. Determine the average channel grade or energy slope. 2. Enter fig. 16A-2 with energy slope, flow depth, and site physical 3. Basic rock size is the D K .52 .63 .72 .80 .87 2:1 3:1 1 1/2:1 1 3/4:1 2 1/2:1 Slide slope at maximum

s at the base. s Channel slope S (ft/ft) 0.010 0.015 0.020 size rock in inches

C 0.6 1.0 75 0.75 0.90 = D s D

Rock size based on Far West States (FWS)-Lane method Depth of flow D (ft) D flow of Depth

2 0.005

– s 3.5 CK grading in accordance with cirteria NRCS Soil Mechanics Note 1. (D) greater than 4. include fairly well graded rock, stable foundation, and minimum section thickness (normal to slope) not less than D water surface elevation and 3 D /W =Water surface width = w D S =Curve radius s c s c R 4. Where a filter blanket is used, design material 2. Specific gravity of rock not less than 2.56. 3. Additional requirements for stable riprap Notes: 1. Ratio of channel bottom width to depth D 4-6 6-9 9-12 straight channel R S=Energy slope or channel grade w=62.4 W

Figure 16A

16A–2 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

10 9 8

27 in 24 in 21 in 18 in 14 in

upper 7

6 =1.18

8 in

17 in 16 in 15 in 13 in

lower

K 5

75 60 40 20

100

4 K

etc.

)

K 3 etc.

100, 75

100

16A-2

––––––––——

, D

Rock Riprap Gradation

=calculated basic rock size from one

, D

etc.

w/high=lower or upper size limit of riprap

ow/high=

=K from lower gradation limits curve for the

100, 75

2 D

d l

d lo

of the rock riprap design methods D

from lower curve

=16 in. (from figure

1.18

16 in.

=1.18

Example: Calculate basic rock size from one of the design methods. For this example assume D

Determine K

Determine gradation limits d= (K)

1 9 8

100

7 D

5 50

Size

Reference 4

(K)

0.2 0.25 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 4.0 5.0

Gradation limits curve for determining suitable rock gradation

–

100 % Passing (by weight) (by Passing %

Figure 16A 1

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16A–3

Appendix 16B Plants for Soil Bioengineering and Associated Systems

The information in appendix 16B is from the Natural Growth rate—Subjective rating of the speed of Resources Conservation Service's data base for Soil growth of the plant: slow, medium, fast, etc. Bioengineering Plant Materials (biotype). The plants are listed in alphabetical order by scientific name. Establishment speed—Subjective rating of the speed Further subdivision of the listing should be considered of establishment of the plant. to account for local conditions and identify species suitable only for soil bioengineering systems. Spread potential—Subjective rating of the potential for the plant to spread: low, good, etc. Table header definitions (in the order they occur on the tables): Plant materials—The type of vegetation plant parts that can be used to establish a new colony of the Scientific name—Genus and species name of the species. plant. Notes—Other important or interesting characteristics Common name—Common name of the plant. about the plant.

Region of occurrence—Region(s) of occurrence Soil preference—Indication of the type of soil the using the regions of distribution in PLANTS (Plant List plant prefers: sand, loam, clay, etc. of Attributes, Nomenclature, Taxonomy, and Symbols, 1994). Region code number or letter: pH preference—Lists the pH preference(s) of the 1 Northeast—ME, NH, VT, MA, CT, RI, WV, KY, plant. NY, PA, NJ, MD, DE, VA, OH 2 Southeast—NC, SC, GA, FL, TN, AL, MS, LA, AR Drought tolerance—Subjective rating of the ability 3 North Central—MO, IA, MN, MI, WI, IL, IN of the plant to survive dry soil conditions. 4 North Plains—ND, SD, MT (eastern) WY (eastern) Shade tolerance—Subjective rating of the ability of 5 Central Plains—NE, KS, CO (eastern) the plant to tolerate shaded sites. 6 South Plains—TX, OK 7 Southwest—AZ, NM Deposition tolerance—Subjective rating of the 8 Intermountain—NV, UT, CO (western) ability of the plant to tolerate deposition of soil or 9 Northwest—WA, OR, ID, MT (western) organic debris around or over the roots and stems. WY (western) 0 California—Ca Flood tolerance—Selective rating of the ability of the A Alaska—AK plant to tolerate flooding events. C Caribbean—PR, VI, CZ, SQ H Hawaii—HI, AQ, GU, IQ, MQ, TQ, WQ, YQ Flood season—Time of the year that the plant can tolerate flooding events. Commercial availability—Answers whether the plant is available from commercial plant vendors. Minimum water depth—The minimum water depth required by the plant for optimal growth. Plant type—Short description of the type of plant: tree, shrub, grass, forb, legume, etc. Maximum water depth—The maximum water depth the plant can tolerate and not succumb to drowning. Root type—Description of the root of the plant: tap, fibrous, suckering, etc. Wetland indicator—A national indicator from Na- tional List of Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands: Rooting ability from cutting—Subjective rating of 1988 National Summary. cut stems of the plant to root without special hormone and/or environmental surroundings provided.

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occurs with conifer overstory. Occurs British Columbia to CA.

grows in poor soils.

with a high water table and/or an annual flooding event.

years of flooding in MS.

good plants Not tolerant of high

fair plants Plants occur mostly

medium

young and prefers sites

cutting

suckering Pacific NW.

but small rooting good touch& root at in tree at nodes ground level. Often limited quant- ities

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

8,9,0, A

4,5,6, medium moderate- rooted shade. Survived 7,8,9, tree ly deep, cuttings deep flooding for 0 spreading, one season in

6 tree when pH sites. Occurs on

4,5,6, tree fibrous when east of the 95th 8 young parallel. Survived 2

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

vine maple 9,0 yes, shrub to fibrous, fair to slow slow good plants Branches often

dwarf maple 4,5,7, yes small tree poor plants usually dioecious,

boxelder 1,2,3, yes small to fibrous, poor fast fast fair plants, Use in sun & part

red maple 1,2,3, yes medium shallow poor fast

silver maple 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, poor fast

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Acer circinatum

Acer glabrum

Acer negundo

Acer rubrum

Acer saccharinum

16B–2 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

northwest. Plant on 10- to 12-foot spacing.

milesof the ocean & below 2,400 feet elevation. A nitrogen source. Short lived species. May be seedable. Sus- ceptible to caterpillers.

flooding in MS. Roots have relation with nitrogen-fixing actinomycetes, susceptible to ice damage, needs full sun.

alders forested wetland are fast sites in the Pacific

Continued

—

cutting

suckering Mtns, within 125

tree spreading, fair of the Cascade

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 shrub spreading Survived 2 years of

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

pacific alder tree poor most plants A species for

red alder 9,0,A yes medium shallow, poor to fast fast good plants Usually grows west

smooth alder 1,2,3, yes large shallow, poor slow medium fair plants Thicket forming.

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Alnus pacifica

Alnus rubra

Alnus serrulata

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–3 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

propagated. Occurs in eastern WA, northern ID, & eastern OR. A different variety is Pacific serviceberry A. alnifolia var semiintegrifolia. Host to several insect & disease pests.

seeded directly on roadside cut and fill sites in MD.

second year.

seed suckers. Has been

seed produce fruit in

Continued

—

cutting

shrub UT.

very small tree first year, good Occurs AK to CA. limited moderate quan- thereafter tities

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

4,5,6, 7,8,0

s 9 yes shrub poor medium medium medium plants Usually seed

’

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

sitka alder 9,0,A yes, but shrub to shallow poor rapid medium fair to plants A nitrogen source.

serviceberry

cusick

utah 9 small to plants Occurs in southeast serviceberry large OR, south ID, NV, &

false indigo 1,2,3, yes shrub poor medium fast poor plants, Supposedly root

red 1,2,3, yes shrub poor fast fast plants, Rhizomatous. May chokeberry 6

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Alnus viridis ssp.sinuata alnifolia var cusickii

Amelanchier

Amelanchier utahensis

Amorpha fruitcosa

Aronia arbutifolia

16B–4 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

propagated by layering & root cuttings. Occurs NY to FL & TX.

to FL & TX.

high in CA coastal bluffs.

plants, plants. Occurs MA

mats, ing. May be seed- layering, able. Colony- cuttings forming to 1 foot

layering, cuttings

Continued

—

cutting

suckers plants native & can be

spreading, fibrous

evergreen stakes, many forms shrub brush prostrate & spread-

green wide- mats, unisexual plants. shrub spreading stakes,

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 tree root fair cuttings, thickets where

0 shrub wide-

0 ever- deep, brush Thicket forming,

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

pawpaw 1,2,3, yes small tap and poor to fast poor root Does produce

seepwillow 6,7,8, yes medium deep & good plants Thicket forming.

eastern 1,2,6 yes medium fibrous good fair fast fair fascines, Resistant to salt baccharis shrub cuttings, spray; unisexual

coyotebush 9,0 medium fibrous good fair fascines, Pioneer in gullies,

water wally 6,7,8, medium fibrous, good fair fascines, Was B. glutinosa.

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Asimina triloba

Baccharis glutinosa

Baccharis halimifolia

Baccharis pilularis

Baccharis salicifolia

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–5 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

MS. Hybridizes with B papyrifera.

inundation in a New England trial. Short lived but the most resistant to borers of all birches.

layering, cuttings

Continued

—

cutting

green brush shrub mats,

tree 1 year of flooding in

shrub

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 to large young when cut. Survived

8,9,0, tree spreadin Pacific Coast to CO. Ag

5,9,A tree fibrous young than a few days

8,9 large land to NJ & MN.

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

mulefat 6,7,8, medium fibrous good fascines, May be B. baccharis 0 ever- stakes, salicifolia.

river birch 1,2,3, yes medium poor fast when fast poor plants Plants coppice

water birch 4,5,7, yes medium fibrous, plants Occurs on the

paper birch 1,3,4, yes medium shallow, poor fast when fast poor plants Not tolerant of more

low birch 1,3,4, small to fibrous poor plants Occurs Newfound-

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Baccharis viminea

Betula nigra

Betula occidentalis

Betula papyrifera

Betula pumila

16B–6 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Valley trial. Occurs MD to FL & west to southern IL & east TX. A northern form occurs from New England to NC & west to MN & AR.

a MO trial. Occurs Quebec to FL & LA. Transplants with difficulty.

FL & TX.

LA; naturalized in New England, OH, MI, & TX.

Continued

—

cutting

lateral sites.

laterals tolerate flooding in

sources

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

6 shallow forested wetland

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

american 1,2,3, yes, small poor slow slow poor plants Not tolerant of hornbeam 6 limited tree flooding in TN

water hickory 1,2,3, yes tall tree tap to poor slow fast poor plants A species for

bitternut 1,2,3, yes tree tap & poor slow poor plants Roots & stumps hickory 5,6 dense coppice. Not

shagbark 1,2,3, yes medium tap poor slow slow poor plants Hard to transplant. hickory 4,5,6 tree Occurs Quebec to

southern 1,2,3, yes tree poor fair fair poor plants Occurs in SW GA to catalpa 5,6,7

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Carpinis caroliniana

Carya aquatica

Carya cordiformis

Carya ovata

Catalpa bignonioides

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–7 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Occurs FL, west to TX & southern IN. Also in Mexico. Leaf fall allelopathic.

few days inundation in a MO trial. Susceptible to witches-broom. Occurs Quebec to NC & AL.

southern CA & into Mexico. 'Barranco,' 'Hope,' & 'Regal' cultivars were releasedin New Mexico.

layering, grow in sun or plants shade.

Continued

—

cutting

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6,7, tree shallow witches-broom. 9,0

4,5,6, tree to deep to fast flooding in MS. Not 8 fibrous tolerate more than a

5,6,7, shrub good mats, flooding in MS. Will 8,0

5,6,7, tree roots will root. 8

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

sugarberry 1,2,3, yes medium relatively poor medium slow low plants Very resistant to

hackberry 1,2,3, yes medium medium poor medium slow low plants Survived 2 years of

buttonbush 1,2,3, yes large fair to slow medium poor brush Survived 3 years of

redbud 1,2,3, yes small tap poor slow slow poor plants Juvenile wood &

desert willow 6,7,8, yes shrub fibrous medium medium low plants Occurs TX to

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Celtis laevigata

Celtis occidentalis

Cephalanthus occidentalis

Cercis canadensis

Chilopsis linearis

16B–8 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

scale. Occurs PA to FL & west to TX.

to 8-inch precip & 1,000-foot elevation.

tolerant on coastal sites. Occurs ME to FL.

brush shade. 'Indigo' mats, cultivar was layering, released by MI cuttings, PMC. plants

brush wan to KS & NE, mats, south to MS, LA, & cuttings, TX. plants

Continued

—

cutting

spreading layering, Occurs Saskatche-

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

6 tree severe browsing &

8,9,0 fibrous in sandy soils at 7-

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

fringetree 1,2,3, yes small poor slow poor plants Susceptible to

western 1,2,4, yes vine shallow poor fast fast good plants Produces new clematis 5,6,7, & plants from layering

sweet 1,2,6 yes shrub poor slow plants Has rhizomes; salt pepperbush

silky 1,2,3, yes small shallow, fair fast medium poor fascines, Pith brown, dogwood 4,5,6 shrub fibrous stakes, tolerates partial

roughleaf 1,2,3, yes large root fair fair fascines, Root suckers too. dogwood 4,5,6 shrub suckering, stakes, Pith usually brown.

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Chionanthus virginicus

Clematis ligusticifolia

Clethera alnifolia

Cornus amomum

Cornus drummondii

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–9 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

coppices freely. Not tolerant of flooding in TN Valley trial.

VA to FL & west to TX. Pith white.

root_abil = good to excellent. Occurs Nova Scotia to VA & ND.

mats, tolerates city layering, smoke. Occurs ME cuttings, & MN to NC & OK. plants

Continued

—

cutting

shrub brush usually brown,

shrub plants species with

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

4,5,6 shrub plants racemosa Occurs

4,5,6 to small fibrous stakes, thickets. Pith

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

flowering 1,2,3, yes small shallow, poor fair fair poor plants Hard to transplant dogwood 5,6 tree fibrous as bare root;

stiff dogwood 1,2,3, medium fair fast fascines, Formerly C.

gray dogwood 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, fair medium fair fascines, Forms dense

roundleaf 1,3 medium shallow, fair to fascines, Pith white. Use in dogwood to small fibrous good cuttings, combination with

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Cornus florida

Cornus foemina

Cornus racemosa

Cornus rugosa

16B–10 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

merly C. stolonifera. 'Ruby' cultivar was released by NY PMC.

foemina.

sites. Grown from seed or grafted. Occurs British Columbia to CA & MN.

'Homestead' cultivar was released by ND PMC.

Occurs VA to FL & on to South America. Prefers organic sites.

brush ing of branches. mats, Survived 6 years of layering, flooding in MS. Pith cuttings, white, tolerates plants partial shade. For-

Continued

—

cutting

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

9,0,A

C tree good honey plant.

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

red-osier 1,3,4, yes medium shallow good fast medium fair fascines, Forms thickets by dogwood 5,7,8, shrub stakes, rootstocks & root-

swamp shrub poor plants May be same as C. dogwood

douglas 3,8,9, yes small tap to poor to slow poor cuttings, Forms dense hawthorn 0,A tree fibrous fair plants thickets on moist

downy 1,2,3, yes tree tap poor to plants Occurs Ontario & hawthorn 4,5,6 fair MN to AL, AR & MS.

titi 1,2,6, small poor plants Semievergreen, a

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Cornus sericea ssp sericea

Cornus stricta

Crataegus douglasii

Crataegus mollis

Cyrilla racemiflora

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–11 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

sites. Stoloniferous & tap rooted. Occurs CT toFL & TX.

soils.

VA to TX.

occurs west of the Cascade Mtns.

'Cardan' cultivar was released by ND PMC.

Continued

—

cutting

fibrous young grafted. Usually

small tree flooding in MS.

tree Occurs in swamps

tree shallow, when seed but usually

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 tree thickets on dry

8,9,A tree fibrous fair limestone & alkaline

4,5,6, tree fibrous flooding in MS. 8,9

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

persimmon 1,2,3, yes medium tap poor slow fair poor plants Forms dense

silverberry 1,3,4, yes small shallow, poor to fast fast fair plants Grows well in

swamp 1,2,3, yes large fair slow poor plants Thicket forming. privet 6 shrub to Survived 3 years of

carolina ash 1,2,6 large fibrous poor fast fast plants Easily transplanted.

oregon ash 9,0 yes medium moderately poor fast medium fair plants May be grown from

green ash 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, poor fast fast good plants Survived 3 years of

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Diospyros virginiana

Elaeagnus commutata

Forestiera acuminata

Fraxinus caroliniana

Fraxinus latifolia

Fraxinus pennsylvanica

16B–12 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

years. Has been used in reg_occ 7,8,9. Native ecotypes have thorns!

Occurs from British

ID. Usually grown from seed or cuttings.

Continued

—

cutting

shrub

from fair to rapid burned areas. contract growers. Columbia to CA to

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

4,5,6, tree wide- fair flooding for 100 7,8,9 spread days 3 consecutive

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

honeylocust 1,2,3, yes medium deep & poor to fast fast medium plants Survived deep

hibiscus 2,6 yes shrub poor plants

halberd-leaf yes shrub poor plants Was H. militaris. marshmallow

common rose 1,2,3, yes shrub poor plants mallow 5,6,7,

hibiscus yes shrub poor plants

oceanspray 9,0 yes, shrub poor to medium fast poor plants Often pioneers on

sweet 1,2,6, yes small to poor plants Evergreen. gallberry C large

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Gleditsia triacanthos

Hibiscus aculeatus

Hibiscus laevis

Hibiscus moscheutos

Hibiscus moscheutos ssp.lasiocarpos

Holodiscus discolor

Ilex coriacea

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–13 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Stoloniferous! Occurs eastern US & Canada.

TN Valley trial.

Continued

—

cutting

laterals

wide- grow on poor or dry spread soil sites. Not laterals tolerate flooding in

fibrous Valley trial. laterals

small tree

shrub Plants dioecious.

shrub

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 shrub to flooding in MS.

6 to large flooded sites.

4,5,6 tree deep & tolerant, will not

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

possomhaw 1,2,3, yes large poor slow plants Survived 3 years of

bitter 1,2,6 yes small poor slow plants Evergreen, sprouts gallberrry shrub after fire.

american 1,2,3, yes small tap root poor slow medium poor plants Easy to transplant holly 6 tree & prolific when young.

winterberry 1,2,3, yes small poor slow plants Prefers seasonally

yaupon 1,2,6 yes large poor plants Root suckers.

black walnut 1,2,3, yes medium tap & poor fair fair poor plants Though drought

eastern 1,2,3, yes large tree tap & poor slow medium good plants Not tolerate redcedar 4,5,6 dense flooding in TN

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Ilex decidua

Ilex glabra

Ilex opaca

Ilex verticillata

Ilex vomitoria

Juglans nigra

Juniperus virginiana

16B–14 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Dioecious.

sites.

from MA to FL and west to east TX.

to FL & north to NJ.

well.

plants

Continued

—

cutting

spreading

to large shrub

shrub shallow cuttings,

to large shrub

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6

6 tree fibrous forested wetland

5,6 tree wide-

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

leucothoe 1,2 yes small poor slow plants Evergreen.

spicebush 1,2,3, yes shrub poor slow plants Prefers acid soils.

sweetgum 1,2,3, yes large tap to poor slow fair plants A species for

tulip poplar 1,2,3, yes large deep & poor fast fast plants Hard to transplant.

black 3,7,8, yes small fibrous good fast fast poor to fascines, twinberry 9,0,A to large & fair stakes,

fetterbush 1,2 small poor plants Evergreen.

sweetbay 1,2,6 yes small tree poor slow plants Occurs in swamps

southern 1,2,6, yes small fibrous poor medium slow slow plants Evergreen. Occurs waxmyrtle c shrub east TX & OK, east

swamp 1,2,3, yes large tree shallow, poor slow plants Trees from the wild tupelo 6 fibrous do not transplant

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Leucothoe axillaris

Lindera benzoin

Liquidambar styraciflua

Liriodendron tulipifera

Lonicera involucrata

Lyonia lucida

Magnolia virginiana

Myrica cerifera

Nyssa aquatica

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–15 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

close to perennial wetland sites.

10- to 12-foot spacing.

Tolerated flooding for up to 30 days during 1 growing season.

Continued

—

cutting

very sites. Difficult to long, transplant but plant decending in sun or shade on

to small reproduction not tree noted. Only grows

to large evergreen tree

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

6 fibrous, forested wetland

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

ogeeche 2 large sparse, poor slow medium poor plants Largest fruit of all lime shrub fibrous Nyssa. Vegetative

blackgum 1,2,3, yes tall tree sparse, poor medium slow fair plants A species for

hophorn- 1,2,3, yes small poor slow slow plants Difficult to beam 4,5,6 tree transplant.

redbay 1,2,6 yes small poor slow slow plants

lewis 9,0 yes large fibrous poor fast medium medium plants Usually grown from mockorange shrub to fast seed.

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Nyssa ogeeche

Nyssa sylvatica

Ostrya virginiana

Persea borbonia

Philadelphus lewesii

16B–16 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Cascade Mtns.

mats, Mtns. layering, cuttings, plants

mats, with rooting ability layering, good to excellent. cuttings, plants

Continued

—

cutting

rhizomes occurs east of the

changes to shallow spreading laterals

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

8,9

6 tree tap

5,6 tree fast west to IL & TX.

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

pacific 8,9,0, yes large fibrous good fascines, Usually occurs ninebark A shrub brush west of the Cascade

mallow 8,9 yes small shallow fair cuttings, Propagated by seed ninebark shrub but with plants or cuttings. Usually

common 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, fair slow slow poor fascines, Use in combination ninebark 4,5,6, shrub lateral brush with other species

loblolly pine 1,2,3, yes medium short poor fast fast poor plants

water elm 1,2,3, small poor fairly plants Occurs KY to FL,

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Physocarpus capitatus

Physocarpus malvaceus

Physocarpus opulifolius

Pinus taeda

Planera aquatica

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–17 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

city smoke & alkali sites. Plant on 10- to12-foot spacing. Trans- plants well.

sites in CA.

poles, sites. brush mats, layering, cuttings, plants

poles, brush mats, layering, cuttings, plants

Continued

—

cutting

spreading sites. Tolerates

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 tree wide- forested wetland

9,O,A

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

sycamore 1,2,3, yes large fibrous, poor fast fast medium plants A species for

California 0 tall plants A species for sycamore tree forested wetlands

narrowleaf 4,5,6, large shallow v good fascines, Under development cottonwood 7,8,9, tree stakes, in ID for riparian

balsam 1,2,3, yes tall deep, v good fast fast fascines, poplar 4,5,8, tree fibrous stakes,

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Platanus occidentalis

Platanus racemosa

Populus angustifolia

Populus balsamifera

16B–18 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

aluminum in the soil.

inundation in a New England trial. Use rooted plant materials.

brush Survived over 1 mats, year of flooding in layering, MS. Hybridizes with cuttings, several other root poplars. Plant roots suckers, may be invasive. plants May be sensitive to

poles, brush mats, layering, cuttings, plants

Continued

—

cutting

under- root cuttings. Not ground tolerant of more runners than a few days

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

7,8,9 suckering poles, sunny sites.

8,9,0, suckers, cuttings, sunny sites. Normal A vigorous plants propagation is by

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

eastern 1,2,3, yes tall shallow, v good fast fast poor fascines, Short lived. cottonwood 4,5,6, tree fibrous, stakes, Endures heat &

fremont 6,7,8, tree shallow, v good fast fascines, Tolerates saline cottonwood 0 fibrous stakes, soils. Dirty tree.

quaking 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, poor fast fast fair layering, Short lived. A aspen 4,5,7, tree profuse to fair root pioneer species on

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Populus deltoides

Populus fremontii

Populus tremuloides

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–19 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Plant on 10- to 12- foot spacing. May be P. balsimifera

City, TX, PMC.

sites. Has hydro- cyanic acid in most parts, especially the seeds. Usually grown from seed. Thicket forming. Plant on 5- to 8-foot spacing. Reportedly poisonous to cattle.

mats, ally grown from layering, cuttings. Under cuttings, development in ID plants for riparian sites.

Continued

—

cutting

spread, poles, sites. Was P. fibrous brush trichophora. Usu-

suckering cuttings released by Knox

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 shrub spreading, root 'Rainbow' cultivar

7,8,9, 0,A

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

black 4,7,8, yes large deep & good v fast fast good fascines, A species for cottonwood 9,0,A tree wide- stakes, forested wetland

wild plum 1,2,3, yes small fibrous, poor medium fast good plants, Thicket forming.

common 1,2,3, yes large shallow, poor medium medium fair plants A species for chokecherry 4,5,6, shrub suckering forested wetland

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Populus trichocarpa

Prunus angustifolia

Prunus virginiana

16B–20 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

transplant larger specimens.

the Dalles & to Yakima, WA. Propa- gated from seed sown in fall.

street tree in the southeast US.

PMC.

Continued

—

cutting

well- days flooding in a developed trial in New Eng- fibrous land. Difficult to

laterals bia River Gorge to

dense shallow laterals

laterals released by TX

tree developed Mtns, in the Colum-

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,6 tree deep, more than a few

6 tree iorates to lumber species.

4,5,6, tree & well- flooding in MS. 9 developed 'Boomer' cultivar

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

white oak 1,2,3, yes large tap to poor slow slow slow plants Did not survive

swamp 1,2,3, yes medium somewhat poor fast medium fair plants Survived 2 years of white oak 5,6 tree shallow flooding in MS.

oregon 9,0 yes shrub deep tap poor slow slow fair plants Usually grows west white oak to large & well- of the Cascade

swamp 1,2,6 tree tap poor fast fast plants Often used as a laurel oak

overcup oak 1,2,3, yes medium tap deter- poor slow slow slow plants Often worthless as a

bur oak 1,2,3, yes large deep tap poor medium fast poor plants Survived 2 years of

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Quercus alba

Quercus bicolor

Quercus garryana

Quercus laurifolia

Quercus lyrata

Quercus macrocarpa

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–21 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Occurs from DE to SC.

sites

Continued

—

cutting

fibrous sites. Survived 2 laterals years of flooding in after MS. Plant on 10- to taproot 12-foot spacing. disinte- grates

tree

shrub stolons suckers & stolons.

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

6 tree spreading good

5,6 tree developed forested wetland

6 to large fibrous

5,6 tree

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

swamp 1,2,3, medium tap & poor fair fair poor plants chestnut 6 tree deep oak laterals

water oak 1,2,3, medium shallow & poor fast on slow poor plants Easily transplanted.

cherrybark tree poor plants oak

pin oak 1,2,3, yes large well- poor fast fast fair plants A species for

willow oak 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, poor fast medium fair plants Easily transplanted.

shumard oak 1,2,3, yes large shallow poor medium slow low plants

coast azalea 1,2 small poor fast good by plants Mat forming from

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Quercus michauxii

Quercus nigra

Quercus pagoda

Quercus palustris

Quercus phellos

Quercus shumardii

Rhododendron atlanticum

16B–22 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

forms. Occurs from ME to SC. Highly susceptible to insects & diseases.

tolerant of flooding in TN Valley trial. Escaped in regions 5,7,8,9,0. Reported toxic to livestock.

root suckers, plants

plants or seed. Not

Continued

—

cutting

good plants

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

7,8,9

4,5,6, tree to fast cuttings, is by root cuttings 7,8,9, 0

0,A good plants

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

swamp 1,2 shrub poor slow plants Has stoloniferous azalea

flameleaf 1,2,3, yes medium fibrous, poor to fast fast fair root Thicket forming. sumac 4,5,6 shrub suckering fair cuttings,

smooth 1,2,3, yes large fibrous, poor to fast fast fair to root Thicket forming. sumac 4,5,6, shrub suckering fair good cuttings,

black locust 1,2,3, yes medium shallow poor medium fast good root Normal propagation

baldhip rose 9,0 shrub fair to cuttings, A browsed species.

nootka rose 7,8,9, shrub fair to cuttings, A browsed species.

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Rhododendron viscosum

Rhus copallina

Rhus glabra

Robinia pseuodoacacia

Rosa gymnocarpa

Rosa nutkana

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–23 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

is by root cuttings.

Use in combination with other species. Rooting ability is good to excellent.

Continued

—

cutting

fibrous

shrub ous &

shrub is by root cuttings.

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5 shrub plants

6,7,8, to good plants 9,0,A

4,5,6, shrub Normal propagation 7,8,9, A

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

swamp rose 1,2,3, small shallow good fascines,

virginia rose 1,2,3 yes small rhizomat- good fair fast fair plants

woods rose 3,4,5, shrub fair cuttings, A browsed species.

allegheny 1,2,3, small fibrous good plants Normal propagation blackberry 5,6,0 shrub is by root cuttings.

red raspberry 1,2,3, small fibrous good plants Was R. strigosus.

salmonberry 9,0,A small fibrous good plants Normal propagation

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Rosa palustris

Rosa virginiana

Rosa woodsii

Rubus allegheniensis

Rubus idaeus ssp. strigosus

Rubus spectabilis

16B–24 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

’

Bankers

‘

willow species.

brush plants on 2' to 6' mats, spacing. layering, cultivar released by cuttings, Kentucky PMC. plants

mats, for riparian sites. layering, Not tolerant of cuttings, shade. Hybridized plants with several other

brush mats, layering, cuttings, plants

Continued

—

cutting

tree brush development in ID

tree Mtns & in ID & MT.

large tree poles,

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

7,8,9 small poles, short-lived. Under

9,A large east of the Cascade

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

dwarf not yes small shallow v good medium fast poor fascines, Not a native willow native shrub stakes, species. Plant

peachleaf 1,2,3, yes large shallow v good fast fast fascines, Often roots only at willow 4,5,6, shrub to to deep stakes, callus cut. May be

bebb's 1,3,4, small fibrous cuttings, Does not form willow 5,7,8, shrub to plants suckers. Usually

pussy 7 yes medium fibrous v good fascines, Eaten by livestock willow shrub to stakes, when young.

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix X cottetii

Salix amygdaloides

Salix bebbiana

Salix bonplandiana

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–25 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

in Idaho for riparian sites.

in ID for riparian sites. 'Curlew' cultivar released by WA PMC.

PMC.

layering, cuttings, plants

cuttings, Cascade Mtns. plants Under development

poles, name, it may be S. layering, ligulifolia! cuttings, 'Placer' cultivar plants released by OR

mats, 'Silvar' cultivar layering, released by WA cuttings, PMC. plants

Continued

—

cutting

spreading poles,

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

0 shrub stakes, discrepancy in the

7,8,9, rhizomat- poles, development in ID 0,A ous brush for riparian sites.

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

booth 8,9 shrub Under development willow

pussy 1,2,3, yes large shallow, v good rapid fascines, Use on sunny to willow 4,9 shrub fibrous, stakes, partial shade sites.

drummond's 7,8,9, yes shrub good fascines, Usually east of the willow 0

erect willow 7,8,9, yes large fibrous v good fast fascines, A botanic

coyote 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, good fast fascines, Relished by willow 4,5,6, shrub suckering, stakes, livestock. Under

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix boothii

Salix discolor

Salix drummondiana

Salix eriocephala

Salix exigua

16B–26 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Relished by livestock. Under development in ID for riparian sites.

mats, layering, cuttings, plants

cuttings, PMC. plants

poles, brush mats, layering, cuttings, plants

there- mats, cultivar was after layering, released by OR

Continued

—

cutting

shrub higher elevations.

large poles, say this is western tree brush black willow.

small young, poles, compete well with tree medium brush grasses. 'Clatsop'

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

geyer's 7,8,9, small to cuttings, Occurs east of the willow 0 large plants Cascade Mtns at

goodding 6,7,8, small shallow good to fast fast fascines, Not tolerate willow 0 shrub to to deep excel stakes, alkaline sites. Some

hooker 9,0 yes large fibrous, v good rapid medium fascines, May have salt willow shrub to dense when stakes, tolerance. Can

prairie 1,2,3, medium fibrous, good medium fascines, Thicket forming. willow 4,5,6 shrub spreading stakes,

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix geyeriana

Salix gooddingii

Salix hookeriana

Salix humilis

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–27 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

’

Palouse

‘

poles, been changed to S. brush exigua. Use in mats, combination with layering, species with cuttings, rooting ability good plants to excellent.

cuttings, plants

poles, the Cascade Mtns. brush Under development mats, in ID for riparian layering, sites. cuttings, cultivar released by plants WA PMC.

brush mats, layering, cuttings, plants

there- mats, OR PMC. after layering,

Continued

—

cutting

to small young, poles, callus. 'Rogue' tree medium brush cultivar released by

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

9,A

9,0 shrub poles,

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

sandbar 1,3,4, yes large shallow exce medium medium fair fascines, Thicket forming. willow 5,7,8, shrub to deep stakes, This species has

arroyo 6,7,8, yes tall fibrous v good rapid medium fascines, Roots only on lower willow 9,0 shrub when stakes, 1/3 of cutting or at

lemmon's 8,9,0 yes medium fibrous v good fast fascines, Occurs at high willow shrub stakes, elevations, east of

shining 1,3,4, medium fibrous, v good rapid fascines, willow 5,7,8, to tall spreading stakes,

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix interior

Salix lasiolepis

Salix lemmonii

Salix lucida

16B–28 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

’

Nehalem

‘

several diseases cultivar released by and insects. Plant OR PMC. on 10- to 12-foot spacing.

mats, of S. lucida. Under layering, development in ID cuttings, for riparian sites. plants Susceptible to

brush for riparian sites. mats, layering, cuttings, plants

mats, Susceptible to layering, several diseases cuttings, & insects. root cuttings, plants

Continued

—

cutting

readily brush Needs full sun.

small poles, sites. There are tree brush several subspecies

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

0 shrub poles, development in ID

8 tree sprouts poles, flooding in MS.

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

pacific 4,7,8, yes large fibrous v good medium medium fascines, A species for willow 9,0,A shrub to to slow to slow stakes, forested wetlands

yellow 1,4,5, medium fibrous v good fascines, Usually browsed by willow 7,8,9, to tall stakes, livestock. Under

black 1,2,3, yes small dense, good to fast fast good fascines, May be short lived. willow 5,6,7, to large shallow, excel stakes, Survived 3 years of

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix lucida ssp. lasiandra

Salix lutea

Salix nigra

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–29 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

mats, regularly. layering, cuttings, plants

poles, cultivar released by brush NY PMC. mats, layering, cuttings, plants

mats, low to high eleva- layering, tions. Often roots cuttings, only at callus. plants

Continued

—

cutting

to small poles, the East. Insects tree brush may defoliate it

to small poles, both sides of the tree brush Cascade Mtns in

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

laural not yes large fibrous, good fast medium poor fascines, From Europe, willow native shrub spreading stakes, sparingly escaped in

purpleosier 1,2,3, yes medium shallow excel fast fast poor fascines, Tolerates partial willow 5 tree stakes, shade. 'Streamco'

scouler's 4,7,8, large shallow v good fast fascines, Pioneers on burned willow 9,0,A shrub stakes, sites. Occurs on

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix pentandra

Salix purpurea

Salix scouleriana

16B–30 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

cultivar released by OR PMC.

Pith white.

wood cuttings root easily in spring or summer.

cuttings, excellent survival plants in trials. 'Plumas'

mats, spring or summer. layering, Pith brown. This cuttings, may be S. callicarpa. plants

young, poles, Mtns. Vigorous medium brush shoots branch there- mats, freely; lends itself to after layering, bioengineering uses;

Continued

—

cutting

shrub when stakes, sides of the Cascade

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

8,9 erous plants spring or summer.

9,0,A

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

sitka willow 9,0,A yes very large v good rapid medium fascines, Occurs on both

american 1,2,3, yes medium fibrous & good fast fast poor fascines, Softwood cuttings elder 4,5,6, shrub stolonif- cuttings, root root easily in

blue 6,7,8, yes large fibrous poor v fast v fast poor plants elderberry 9,0 shrub

mexican 6,7,8, large good fascines, Was S. mexicana. elder 0,H shrub plants Evergreen. Soft-

red 1,2,3, yes medium good medium slow fascines, Softwood cuttings elderberry 4,7,8, shrub brush root easily in

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Salix sitchensis

Sambucus canadensis

Sambucus cerulea

Sambucus cerulea ssp. mexicana

Sambucus racemosa

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–31 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

usually within 10 miles of the ocean & on the coastal bays & estuaries. Soft- wood cuttings root easily in spring or summer. Pith brown. Use in combination with species with rooting ability good to excellent.

summer under mist.

seed. Occurs east of the Cascade Mtns at medium to high elevations.

layering, tion by leafy soft- cuttings, wood cuttings in division midsummer under of mist. 'Bashaw' cul- suckers, tivar released by plants WA PMC.

Continued

—

cutting

shrub mats, thickets). Propaga-

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

4,9,A shrub laterals good plants Cascade Mtns,

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

red elder 1,2,3, medium deep fair to fascines, Occurs west of the

meadow- 1,2,3, yes short dense fair to medium plants Propagation by sweet 4 dense shallow, good leafy softwood spirea tree lateral cuttings in mid-

shinyleaf 1,2,4, shrub plants Usually grown from spirea 9

douglas 2,3,9, yes small fibrous, good rapid fast excellent fascines, Resists fire & pro- spirea 0 dense suckering brush lific sprouter (forms

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Sambucus racemosa ssp. pubens

Spiraea alba

Spiraea betulifolia

Spiraea douglasii

16B–32 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

cuttings in midsummer under mist. A weed in New England pastures. Use rooted materials.

plants

Continued

—

cutting

for knees ates upland sites in for region 6 with 32" aeration rainfall.

colony suckering layering, forming cuttings,

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

5,7,8, shrub, fibrous, brush shade, especially on 9,0,A dense freely mats, wet sites.

5,6 tree laterals foot spacing. Toler-

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

hardhack 1,2,3, small dense, poor to plants Propagation by spirea 5 shrub shallow fair leafy softwood

Japanese 1,2,3, yes large poor plants snowbell 5,6 shrub

snowberry 1,3,4, yes small shallow, good rapid slow fair fascines, Plant in sun to part

baldcypress 1,2,3, yes medium tap with poor medium fast poor plants Plant on 10- to 12-

eastern 1,2,3 yes large shallow poor slow slow low plants hemlock tree fibrous

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Spiraea tomentosa

Styrax japonica

Symphoricarpos albus

Taxodium distichum

Tsuga canadensis

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–33 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

full shade.

plant materials.

branches often root when they touch soil. Use in combination with species with rooting ability good to excellent.

brush Branch tips root at mats, soil. layering, cuttings, plants

stakes, smoke. Tolerates plants full shade. Older

Continued

—

cutting

shallow 2 years of flooding fibrous in MS. Plant on on moist 10- to 12-foot sites spacing; tolerates

shrub plants smoke. Use rooted

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

8 sites to sites. Survived near

6 to tall fibrous cuttings, tolerates city

4,5,9 shrub good cuttings, tolerates city

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

american 1,2,3, yes large tap on poor medium medium poor plants A species for elm 4,5,6, tree dry forested wetland

arrowwood 1,2,3, yes medium shallow, good fast slow layering, Thicket forming;

hubblebush 1,2,3 medium shallow, good fascines, Was V. alnifolium. viburnam shrub fibrous stakes, Thicket forming.

nannyberry 1,2,3, yes large shallow fair to fast fast fascines, Thicket forming;

–

Table 16B

Scientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Ulmus americana

Viburnum dentatum

Viburnum lantanoides

Viburnum lentago

16B–34 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

the South than V. cassinoides.

are edible.

Continued

—

cutting

shrub is more adapted to

occur- cial availability rate lishment potential materials ence ability from speed type

Woody plants for soil bioengineering and associated systems

swamp haw 1,2,6 large poor plants D. Wymann says it

american 1,3,4,bush yes medium poor medium slow layering, Use rooted plant cranberry- 5,9 shrub plants materials. Fruits

–

Table 16B

cientific name Common name Region Commer- Plant type Root type Rooting Growth Estab- Spread Plant Notes

Viburnum nudum

Viburnum trilobum

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–35 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Table 16B–2 Woody plants with fair to good or better rooting ability from unrooted cuttings

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common mame

Acer circinatum vine maple Salix bonplandiana pussy willow Baccharis glutinosa seepwillow Salix discolor pussy willow Baccharis halimifolia eastern baccharis Salix drummondiana drummond's willow Baccharis pilularis coyotebush Salix eriocephala erect willow Baccharis salicifolia water wally Salix exigua coyote willow Baccharis viminea mulefat baccharis Salix gooddingii goodding willow Cephalanthus occidentalis buttonbush Salix hookeriana hooker willow Cornus amomum silky dogwood Salix humilis prairie willow Cornus drummondii roughleaf dogwood Salix interior sandbar willow Cornus foemina stiff dogwood Salix lasiolepis arroyo willow Cornus racemosa gray dogwood Salix lemmonii lemmon’s willow Cornus rugosa roundleaf dogwood Salix lucida shining willow Cornus sericea ssp sericea red-osier dogwood Salix lucida ssp. lasiandra pacific willow Lonicera involucrata black twinberry Salix lutea yellow willow Physocarpus capitatus pacific ninebark Salix nigra black willow Physocarpus opulifolius common ninebark Salix pentandra laural willow Populus angustifolia narrowleaf cottonwood Salix purpurea purpleosier willow Populus balsamifera balsam poplar Salix scouleriana scouler’s willow Populus deltoides eastern cottonwood Salix sitchensis sitka willow Populus fremontii fremont cottonwood Sambucus canadensis american elder Populus trichocarpa black cottonwood Sambucus cerulea mexican elder Rosa gymnocarpa baldhip rose ssp. mexicana Rosa nutkana nootka rose Sambucus racemosa red elderberry Rosa palustris swamp rose Sambucus racemosa red elder ssp. pubens Rosa virginiana virginia rose Spiraea alba meadowsweet spirea Rosa woodsii woods rose Spiraea douglasii douglas spirea Rubus allegheniensis allegheny blackberry Symphoricarpos albus snowberry Rubus idaeus red raspberry Viburnum dentatum arrowwood ssp.strigosus Viburnum lantanoides hubblebush viburnam Rubus spectabilis salmonberry Viburnum lentago nannyberry Salix X cottetii dwarf willow Salix amygdaloides peachleaf willow

16B–36 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Table 16B–3 Woody plants with poor or fair rooting ability from unrooted cuttings

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common mame

Acer glabrum dwarf maple Fraxinus pennsylvanica green ash Acer negundo boxelder Gleditsia triacanthos honeylocust Acer rubrum red maple Hibiscus aculeatus hibiscus Acer saccharinum silver maple Hibiscus laevis halberd-leaf Alnus pacifica pacific alder marshmallow Alnus rubra red alder Hibiscus moscheutos common rose mallow Alnus serrulata smooth alder Hibiscus moscheutos hibiscus ssp. lasiocarpos Alnus viridis ssp.sinuata sitka alder Holodiscus discolor oceanspray Amelanchier alnifolia cusick's serviceberry var cusickii Ilex coriacea sweet gallberry Amorpha fruitcosa false indigo Ilex decidua possomhaw Aronia arbutifolia red chokeberry Ilex glabra bitter gallberrry Asimina triloba pawpaw Ilex opaca american holly Betula nigra river birch Ilex verticillata winterberry Betula papyrifera paper birch Ilex vomitoria yaupon Betula pumila low birch Juglans nigra black walnut Carpinis caroliniana american hornbeam Juniperus virginiana eastern redcedar Carya aquatica water hickory Leucothoe axillaris leucothoe Carya cordiformis bitternut hickory Lindera benzoin spicebush Carya ovata shagbark hickory Liquidambar styraciflua sweetgum Catalpa bignonioides southern catalpa Liriodendron tulipifera tulip poplar Celtis laevigata sugarberry Lyonia lucida fetterbush Celtis occidentalis hackberry Magnolia virginiana sweetbay Cercis canadensis redbud Myrica cerifera southern waxmyrtle Chionanthus virginicus fringetree Nyssa aquatica swamp tupelo Clematis ligusticifolia western clematis Nyssa ogeeche ogeeche lime Clethera alnifolia sweet pepperbush Nyssa sylvatica blackgum Cornus florida flowering dogwood Ostrya virginiana hophornbeam Cornus stricta swamp dogwood Persea borbonia redbay Crataegus douglasii douglas' hawthorn Philadelphus lewesii lewis mockorange Crataegus mollis downy hawthorn Physocarpus malvaceus mallow ninebark Cyrilla racemiflora titi Physocarpus opulifolius common ninebark Diospyros virginiana persimmon Pinus taeda loblolly pine Dlaeagnus commutata silverberry Planera aquatica water elm Forestiera acuminata swamp privet Platanus occidentalis sycamore Fraxinus caroliniana carolina ash Populus tremuloides quaking aspen Fraxinus latifolia oregon ash Prunus angustifolia wild plum

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–37 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

Table 16B–3 Woody plants with poor or fair rooting ability from unrooted cuttings—Continued

Scientific name Common name Scientific name Common mame

Prunus virginiana common chokecherry Rhododendron atlanticum coast azalea Quercus alba white oak Rhododendron viscosum swamp azalea Quercus bicolor swamp white oak Rhus copallina flameleaf sumac Quercus garryana oregon white oak Rhus glabra smooth sumac Quercus laurifolia swamp laurel oak Robinia pseuodoacacia black locust Quercus lyrata overcup oak Sambucus cerulea blue elderberry Quercus macrocarpa bur oak Spiraea tomentosa hardhack spirea Quercus michauxii swamp chestnut oak Styrax americanus Japanese snowbell Quercus nigra water oak Taxodium distichum bald cypress Quercus pagoda cherrybark oak Tsuga canadensis eastern hemlock Quercus palustris pin oak Ulmus americana american elm Quercus phellos willow oak Viburnum nudum swamp haw Quercus shumardii shumard oak Viburnum trilobum american cranberrybush

16B–38 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

2,upl 3,upl*

2,fac 3,fac- 4,facu 5,fac- 6,facu 7,fac- 8,facu 9facu

2,facw 3,facw 6,fac+ 7,facw 8,facw 0,facw C,ni H,ni

o indicator

or non- ence ence ance erance ance compe- titive

noncompetitive loams 6.5 good good poor fair 0 1,facu

noncompetitive

redtop

American sands 5.5 fair poor good 0 1,facu- beachgrass

big bluestem yes loams 6.0 good poor poor fair 0 1,fac

giant reed sandy 7.0 good poor poor 0 1" 1,facu-

wildrye yes loams 6.0 fair good fair good 0 1,facw-

sand yes sands 6.0 good poor poor poor 0 lovegrass

red fescue

Grasses and forbs useful in conjunction with soil bioengineering and associated systems

–

Table 16B

Scientific Common Warm Soil pH Drought Shade Deposi- Flood Flood Min. Max. Wetland name name season prefer- prefer- tolerance toler- tion tol- toler- season h

Agrostis alba

Ammophila breviligulata

Andropogon gerardii

Arundo donax

Elymus virginicus

Eragrostis trichodes

Festuca rubra

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–39 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

2,facw 6,facw

2,fac 6,facu-

2,fac+ 3,fac+ 4,fac 5,fac 6,facw 7,fac+ 8,fac 9,fac+ H,ni

6,facw* C,ni H,ni

C,ni H,ni

o indicator

Continued

—

sands

or non- ence ence ance erance ance compe- titive

limpograss sandy poor poor poor good 0 1' 1,facw

coastal yes sands to 5.5 good poor fair good 0 1,facu- panicgrass loams

deertongue yes

switchgrass yes loams to 6.0 good poor fair good all 0 1,fac

seashore sandy poor good 1/2' 1' 2,obl paspalum

elephant- poor 0 2' 2,facu+ grass

Grasses and forbs useful in conjunction with soil bioengineering and associated systems

–

Table 16B

Scientific Common Warm Soil pH Drought Shade Deposi- Flood Flood Min. Max. Wetland name name season prefer- prefer- tolerance toler- tion tol- toler- season h

Hemarthria altissima

Panicum amarulum

Panicum clandestinum

Panicum virgatum

Paspalum vaginatum

Pennisetum purpureum

16B–40 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996) Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

2,obl 3,facw+ 4,facw 5,facw 6,facw+ 7,facw 8,obl 9,obl

2,obl 3,obl 6,obl

o indicator

Continued

—

or non- ence ence ance erance ance compe- titive

Kentucky loam 6.5 poor poor poor fair 0 1,facu bluegrass

little yes sands to 6.5 good poor poor poor 0 1,facu bluestem loams

Indiangrass yes sands to 6.5 fair poor poor poor 0 1,upl

prairie yes sands to 6.0 good fair fair fair 0 1" 1,obl cordgrass loams

giant cutgrass loam 4.3-6.0 poor poor good all 1/2' 2' 1,obl

Grasses and forbs useful in conjunction with soil bioengineering and associated systems

–

Table 16B

Scientific Common Warm Soil pH Drought Shade Deposi- Flood Flood Min. Max. Wetland name name season prefer- prefer- tolerance toler- tion tol- toler- season h

Poa pratensis

Schizachyrium scoparium

Sorghastrum nutans

Spartina pectinata

Zizaniopsis miliacea

(210-vi-EFH, December 1996) 16B–41 Chapter 16 Streambank and Shoreline Protection Part 650 Engineering Field Handbook

DGed-

”

o indicator

QpC

regioK

Continued

—

or non- ence ence ance erance ance compe- titive

Usually occur in wetlands (67-99%), but

Usually occur in nonwetlands (67-99%), but occasionally found in wetlands (1-33%)

—

Occur almost always (99%) under naturl conditions in wetlands.

—

Occur in wetlands in another region, but occur almost always (99%) under natural conditions in nonwetlands im

—

Equally likely to occur in wetlands or nonwetlands

—

Grasses and forbs useful in conjunction with soil bioengineering and associated systems

Facultative (34-66%). Facultative upland Facultative wetland occasionally found in nonwetlands. Obligate wetland Obligate upland Qpec%Cs BMeQ nMt Mccur %n wetlands in any region, it is not on the National List.

ecological information.

determine an indiator status.

–

Northeast (ME, NH, VT, MA, CT, RI, WV, KY, NY, PA, NJ, MD, DE, VA, OH) Southeast (NC, SC, GA, FL, TN, AL, MS, LA, AR) North Central (MO, IA, MN, MI, WI, IL, IN) North Plains (ND, SD, MT (eastern), WY (eastern)) Central Plains (NE, KS, CO (eastern)) South Plains (TX, OK) Southwest (AZ, NM) Intermountain (NV, UT, CO (western)) Northwest (WA, OR, ID, MT (western), WY (western)) California (Ca) Alaska (AK) Caribbean (PR, VI, CZ, SQ) Hawaii (HI, AQ, GU, IQ, MQ, TQ, WQ, YQ)

(negative sign) indicates less frequently found in wetlands. (positive sign) indicates more frequently found in wetlands. (asterisk) indicates wetlands indicators were derived from limited

(no indicator) indicates insufficient information was available to

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 A C H

fac

facu facw

obl upl

– + *

Region code number or letter:

Indicator categories (estimated probability):

Frequency of occurrence:

Table 16B

Scientific Common Warm Soil pH Drought Shade Deposi- Flood Flood Min. Max. Wetland name name season prefer- prefer- tolerance toler- tion tol- toler- season h

1/ Wetland indicator terms (from USDI Fish and Wildlife Service's National List of Plant Species That Occur in Wetlands, 1988):

16B–42 (210-vi-EFH, December 1996)