ESSA and ZSSA combined congress 2017

CSIR, Pretoria 3-7 July 2017 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa CSIR International Convention Centre, Pretoria, South Africa

Abstracts and programme 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

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The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 2 Canadian Journal of Zoology

Canadian Journal of Zoology Published since 1929, this monthly journal reports on primary research in the broad field of zoology.

Offering rapid publication, no submission or page charges, broad readership and indexing, liberal author rights, and options for open access. Canadian Journal of Zoology is published by Canadian Science Publishing. www.nrcresearchpress.com/cjz Canadian Journal of Zoology CALL FOR PAPERS Published since 1929, this monthly journal reports on primary research contributed by respected international scientists in the broad field of zoology, including behaviour, biochemistry and physiology, developmental biology, ecology, genetics, morphology and ultrastructure, parasitology and pathology, and systematics and evolution. It also invites experts to submit review articles on topics of current interest. The Canadian Journal of Zoology is proudly affiliated with the Canadian Society of Zoologists.

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Canadian Science Publishing (CSP) publishes the award-winning NRC Research Press suite of journals, many of which have been in publication since 1929 and FACETS, Canada’s first multidisciplinary open access science journal. CSP is an independent, not-for-profit scholarly publisher dedicated to serving the needs of researchers and their communities. www.cdnsciencepub.com 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Abstract Reviewers: Prof. Armanda Bastos (Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria) Prof. Marcus Byrne (School of , Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand) Dr Heather Campbell (Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria) Mr Blair Cowie (South African Green Industries Council) Dr Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder (Forestry and Agriculture Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria) Dr Ezette du Rand (Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria) Prof. Frances Duncan (School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand) Dr Brett Hurley (Forestry and Agriculture Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria) Mr Philip Ivey (South African National Biodiversity Local organising committee: Institute) ESSA Co-Chair: Dr Chris Weldon Prof. Kerstin Krüger (Department of Zoology and ZSSA Co-Chair: Prof. Andrew McKechnie Entomology, University of Pretoria) ESSA Student Representative: Ms Zoë van Vuuren Dr Aliza le Roux (Department of Zoology and ZSSA Student Representative: Mr Matthew Noakes Entomology, University of the Free State) Lunchtime Workshop Coordinator: Dr Heather Campbell Prof. Schalk Louw (Department of Zoology and Prof. Chris Chimimba Entomology, University of the Free State) Prof. P. J. Nico de Bruyn Dr Heike Lutermann (Department of Zoology and Ms Alexandra Howard Entomology, University of Pretoria) Prof. Kerstin Krüger Dr Sarita Maree (Department of Zoology and Dr Heike Lutermann Entomology, University of Pretoria) Prof. Christian Pirk Dr Danica Marlin (Department of Zoology and Prof. Mark Robertson Entomology, University of Pretoria) Dr Olabimpe Okosun (Department of Zoology and Annual Research Symposium on the Entomology, University of Pretoria) Management of Biological Invasions Dr Marietjie Oosthuizen (Department of Zoology and in Southern Africa Co-Chairs: Entomology, University of Pretoria) Dr Danica Marlin (School of Animal, Plant and Prof. Mark Robertson (Department of Zoology and Environmental Sciences, University of the Entomology, University of Pretoria) Witwatersrand) Mr Nic Venter (School of Animal, Plant and Prof. Marcus Byrne (School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand) Witwatersrand) Dr Chris Weldon (Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria) Abstract Technical Editor: Prof. Edward Witkowski (School of Animal, Plant Dr Martin Krüger (Ditsong Museum) and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand) Dr Darragh Woodford (School of Animal, Plant Event organiser and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand)

Petrie Vogel Tel: +27 12 346 0687/+27 12 346 1674 Fax: +27 12 346 2929, E-mail: [email protected]

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 5 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Abstracts are alphabetical according to presenting Contents author (underlined)

0368 - Circadian rhythms of locomotor activity Sponsors...... 2 in captive Emin’s mole-rats, Heliophobius emini (Rodentia: Bathyergidae)...... 43 Simone Ackermann, Nigel Bennett, Maria Oosthuizen Canadian Journal of 0289 - Antioxidant enzymes in wheat play a role in Zoology...... 3 Alexin™ mediated resistance to Russian wheat aphid....44 Joan Adendorff1, Astrid Jankielsohn2, Schalk vdM. Louw1, Lintle Mohase1

Contents...... 6 0425 - Endemic grasshopper distribution in an agro-natural landscape of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa...... 45 Programme...... 23 Samuel Adu-Acheampong 0066 - Effect of radiation on longevity of an Anopheles arabiensis strain targeted for SIT releases.....46 Eunice Agubuzo1,2, Malibongwe Zulu1,2, Alan Kamp3, Plenary speaker abstracts.33 Givemore Munhenga1,2, Lizette Koekemoer1,2

Sex, drugs and ecosystem services: the ecological 0345 - The evolution of complex phenotypes in functions of nectar toxins...... 34 lizards: can multiple physiological functions be Philip C Stevenson optimized at the same time?...... 47 Karla Alujevic1, Michael Logan2, Jeffrey Streicher3, Invasion biology and management: Progress, Susana Clusella-Trullas1 problems, and polemics...... 35 Daniel Simberloff 0307 - New insights into the life history of the dodo from bone histology...... 48 Climate change and ecotoxicology: predicting Delphine Angst1, Anusuya Chinsamy1, Lorna Steel2, toxicant exposure and impacts on ectotherms in Julian Hume0 warming environments...... 36 Karasov, W.H., Brown, C.T., and J.M. Yahn. 0262 - The effect of pollutants and agricultural practices on soil mesofaunal assemblages...... 49 Work Skills, Education for Sustainable Hannelene Badenhorst1, Charlene Janion-Scheepers2, Development in a safe and just space for humanity...... 37 Schalk Louw1 Dr Jim Taylor 0008 - Evaluation of measurement error in South Africa’s first national status report on rotational mounting of Rhipicephalus (: biological invasions...... 38 Ixodida: ) species in geometric morphometrics.50 Brian W. van Wilgen Deon Bakkes

0149 - Increasing wheat resistance to Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) Oral abstracts...... 39 (: Aphididae) biotypes...... 51 Theresa Bapela1,2, Vicki Tolmay1,2, Toi Tsilo1,2 0359 - Establishment of the biological control agent, Zygogramma bicolorata on Parthenium 0278 - The role of silicon in the biological control hysterophorus in South Africa: is soil moisture of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) important?...... 40 Solms-Laub (Pontederiaceae)...... 52 Tristan Abels1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Ed Witkowski1, Nompumelelo Baso, Julie Coetzee Lorraine Strathie3 0207 - The area-wide spatio-temporal distribution 0058 - Suitability of entomopathogenic fungal of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) populations in isolates for microbial control of pests: the Western Cape, South Africa...... 53 biological traits and effect of formulation...... 41 Francois Bekker1, Adriaan Van Niekerk1, Matthew Mavis Acheampong1, Martin Hill1, Sean Moore1,2, Addison2, Pia Addison1 Candice Coombes1 0152 - Temperature, pesticides and honey bees - a 0164 - Nurturing Citizen Scientists through local hot mess?...... 54 employment in the conservation sector...... 42 Laura Bester, Christian Pirk Cherise Acker-Cooper, Jeanne Tarrant The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 6 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0151 - Life on the Dragon’s Back: the cold, not 0288 - Palaeobiology of the giant insular extinct the heat, limits the distribution and behaviour of bird, Aepyornis maximus...... 67 montane ants...... 55 Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan1, Delphine Angst1, Aurore Tom Bishop1, Mark Robertson1, Berndt Janse van Canoville1,2, Ursula Gohlich3 Rensburg3,4, Catherine Parr2 0157 - Intersite movements and associations of 0199 - Resurrection ecology of invertebrates in southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) ashore temporary wetlands in the Cape Floristic region: at Marion Island...... 68 effects of urbanisation and fire ...... 56 Erin Church, Marthan Bester, P. J. Nico De Bruyn Michelle Blanckenberg1, Musa Mlambo2, Cecile Reed1 0385 - The dissemination of fungal pathogens on 0331 - An assessment of whether thermal tolerance avocado trees in South Africa, with reference to is a driving factor of non-native fish invasion fronts...... 57 vector potential of pests...... 69 Lesley Bloy1,2, Bianca Hannweg1,2, Helen Dallas4, Olaf Weyl2,3 Jolene Coertzen, De Villiers Fourie

0202 - Tall timber: habitat selection of a tree- 0380 - Thermal tolerance in the grain chinch bug, roosting bat during the reproductive season ...... 58 Macchiademus diplopterus, and the influence of Shelby Bohn, Mark Brigham controlled atmospheres for post-harvest control...... 70 Stephan Coetzee1, Leigh Boardman2, John 0314 - Performance of honeybees (Apis mellifera Terblanche1, Shelley Johnson1 scutellata Lepeletier) under laboratory conditions: effects of diet state (liquid or solid) on survival and 0276 - Testing the thermal limits of Eccritotarsus nutrient regulation...... 59 catarinensis Carvalho (Hemiptera: Miridae): Henrika Bosua1, Susan Nicolson1, Ruth Archer2, acclimation or heritability?...... 71 Christian Pirk1 Jordan Porter2, Julie Coetzee1, Candice Owen3, Steve Compton2,3 0235 - The effect of diet restriction on core body temperature patterns in captive 0186 - Unmasking evolutionary diversity among exposed to hot summer conditions...... 60 two closely related South African legless skink Arista Botha, Andrea Fuller, Robyn Hetem species (Acontinae: Acontias) using molecular data...... 72 Theo Busschau1, Werner Conradie2,3, Adriaan 0144 - Forest patch status and soil health indices Jordaan4, Saverl Daniels1 along a topographical gradient within afromontane grasslands...... 61 0162 - Determining population dynamics of the Jason Botham1, Vaughn Swart1, Emile Bredenhand2, endangered Kloof frog, Natalobatrachus bonebergi, Charles Haddad1 through landscape genetics and monitoring towards improving conservation interventions...... 73 0063 - Field-testing a non-invasive doubly labelled Jeanne Tarrant1, Adrian Armstrong2, Cameron Price3, water technique for measuring physiological heat Sandi Willows-Munro3, Werner Conradie4,5, C. Cormack stress in southern pied babblers...... 62 Amanda Bourne1, Andrew McKechnie2, Amanda 0271 - Factors affecting nocturnal signalling Ridley1,3, Susan Cunningham1 behaviour in the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor...... 74 0126 - Thermoregulation by captive and free- Vanessa Couldridge, Tarne Johannes ranging Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in South Africa...... 63 0379 - A dirty agent: photosynthetic response of Mark Brigham1, Robert Barclay2, David Jacobs3, Parthenium hysterophorus to defoliation by the Craig Harding3, Andrew McKechnie4, Stewart leaf-feeding beetle Zygogramma bicolorata...... 75 McCullough4, Wanda Markotter4, Janusz Paweska5 Blair Cowie1,2, Ed Witkowski1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Lorraine Strathie3, Jeremy Goodall3,1, Nic Venter1 0029 - Winter is coming: the overwintering survival strategy of African malaria vectors and 0089 - Sex pheromone doubles as social regulator their physiological and behavioural responses to in honey bee societies...... 76 simulated dry-season conditions...... 64 Robin Crewe Ashley Burke1,2, Innocent Kambule3, Frances Duncan3, Basil Brooke2,1 0015 - Trade-offs between foraging and thermoregulation underpin sublethal costs of 0113 - Host specificity of the parasitoid climate change in birds...... 77 Psyllaephagus bliteus, a biological control agent of Susan Cunningham1, Kate du Plessis1, Tanja van Glycaspis brimblecombei...... 65 de Ven1, Ryan Olinger1, Rowan Martin1, Thomas Samantha Bush1, Bernard Slippers2, Brett Hurley1 Flower4,1, Amanda Ridley3,1, Andrew McKechnie2

0180 - Research and politics: Mbeki’s denialism of 0204 - Study of the sexual maturity and mating of HIV-AIDS ...... 66 the male of An. funestus ...... 78 Michael Cherry Yael Dahan-Moss1,2, Christina Moletsane1, Zilindile Zulu1, Duma Mnisi1, Jacek Zawada1,2, Lizette Koekemoer1,2

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0292 - Natal versus the Cape fly (Diptera: 0312 - Prevalence of haemoparasites on small ) in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga mammals in fallow lands within Mukwe provinces, South Africa...... 79 Constituency, Kavango East Region, Namibia...... 91 John-Henry Daneel1, Aruna Manrakhan1, Johnnie Van Saima Kapia1, Seth Eiseb1, Loth Mulungu2, Ginethon Den Berg2 Mhamphi2, Steven Belmain3

0127 - Taxonomic overview of the tribe Sisyphini 0417 - The importance and evolution of the (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) in underappreciated keystone fly pollinators of southern Africa...... 80 Namaqualand...... 92 Gimo Daniel, Adrian Davis, Catherine Sole, Clarke Scholtz Allan Ellis

0007 - Evaluation of Tiny Targets as an additional 0323 - Development of stem borers on Bt and non- control technique for Glossina austeni and Glossina Bt maize plant crosses...... 93 brevipalpis populations in South Africa...... 81 Reynardt Erasmus1, Hannalene Du Plessis1, Johnnie Chantel de Beer1, Gert Venter1, Johan Esterhuizen2 Van den Berg1, Annemie Erasmus3, Angelika Hilbeck2, Miluse Trtikova2 0083 - Conservation planning for one of the rarest and most threatened in the world...... 82 0169 - Prioritising surveillance for marine Charl Deacon, Michael Samways organisms transported as stowaways on ships...... 94 Katelyn T. Faulkner1,2, Mark P. Robertson2, Mathieu 0128 - The Leptocybe invasa genome: a window Rouget3,4, John R. Wilson1,5 to understanding the biology of a serious invasive pest...... 83 0255 - Systematics of the Afrotropical Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder1,2, Brett P. Hurley1,2, (Chalcidoidea: )...... 95 Michael J. Wingfield1,2, Alisa Postma Smidt1,4, Bernard Sariana Faure1, Steve Compton1, Simon van Noort2, Slippers1,3 Astrid Cruaud3, Jean-Yves Rasplus3, Gerard Delvare4, Sabine Nidelet5 0268 - The role of frugivorous birds in seed dispersal and germination of the invasive 0291 - Carrion feeding ecology of the Cape grey plant species Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus mongoose and its forensic implications...... 96 terebinthifolius) and Indian laurel (Litsea glutinosa)...... 84 Devin Finaughty, Alan Morris Pumla Dlamini1, Costas Zachariades3, Colleen Downs1,2 0299 - Genetic diversity of Deladenus siricidicola, 0244 - Entomopathogens isolated from local the biological control agent of the woodwasp Sirex deciduous fruit orchards and vineyards in efforts to noctilio...... 97 control the banded fruit (BFW), Phlyctinus Katrin Fitza1,2, Jeff Garnas1, Matt Ayres1, Flora callosus (Schoenherr) (Coleoptera: )...... 85 Krivak-Tetley1, Kevin Dodds1, Maria Lombardero1, Bonginkhosi Dlamini, Antoinette Malan, Pia Addison Ecki Brockerhoff1, Michael Wingfield1, Bernard Slippers1

0032 - Impact of habitat fragmentation and habitat 0372 - Habitat, aspect and elevation interact to structure on the occupancy of forest mammals in affect the relative roles of turnover and nestedness eThekwini Municipality...... 86 in explaining ant beta diversity across the Soutpansberg98. Manqoba Zungu, Mfundo Maseko, Riddhika Kalle, Stefan Foord1, Caswell Munyai2 Tharmalingam Ramesh, Colleen Downs 0373 - Investigation of possible pyrethroid 0320 - Modelling the overwintering limits and resistance development in two-spotted stinkbug, range dynamics of Spodoptera frugiperda in Bathycoelia distincta (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on southern Africa using CLIMEX...... 87 macadamia in South Africa...... 99 Hannalene Du Plessis1, Darren Kriticos2,3, Johnnie De Villiers Fourie1, Schalk Louw1, Schalk Schoeman2 Van den Berg1 0409 - Below-ground impacts of selected invasive 0150 - Detoxification ability of honeybee larvae has alien plants in Kruger National Park, South Africa...... 100 been underestimated ...... 88 Llewellyn Foxcroft1,2, Ana Novoa2, Johannes Le Roux2 Esther E. du Rand1,2, Hannelie Human2, Salome Smit3, Zeno Apostolides1, Susan W. Nicolson2, Christian C.W. Pirk2 0267 - Matrix transformation alters species-area relationships in fragmented coastal forests...... 101 0122 - Diversity and distribution of litter and Marc Freeman, Pieter Olivier, Rudi van Aarde topsoil in timber plantation landscape mosaics: the biodiversity value of hydromorphic 0251 - Non-invasive monitoring of endocrine grasslands...... 89 markers in wildlife...... 102 M. Eckert, R. Gaigher, J.S. Pryke, M.J. Samways Andre Ganswindt1,2

0121 - Enemy release and evolution of traits in the 0196 - The complex Leptocybe invasa gall invasive cactus Pereskia aculeata...... 90 community on Eucalyptus...... 103 Ikponmwosa Egbon1,2, Stephen Compton2,3, Iain Paterson2 Caitlin R. Gevers1,2, Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder1,2, Samantha J. Bush1,2, Andrew Morris3, Ilaria

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 8 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Germishuizen3, Bernard Slippers1,2, Brett P. Hurley1,2 0410 - Sable antelope display flexibility in body temperature regulation and behavioural patterns 0208 - Seasonal abundance of forensically related during the dry season...... 118 from greater Johannesburg...... 104 Kiara A. Haylock1, Francesca Parrini1, W. Maartin Allison Gilbert1,2, Richard Hunt2, Maureen Coetzee1,2 Strauss2,3, Piet Beytell4, Carl-Heinz Moeller4, Robyn S. Hetem2,5 0075 - Plasticity and cross tolerance to heterogenous environments: divergent stress 0146 - Scaly bacteria: the quest to identify pangolin responses co-evolved in an African fruit fly...... 105 pathogens ...... 119 Nonofo Gotcha1, John, S. Terblanche2, Casper Sean Heighton, Darren Pietersen, Armanda Bastos Nyamukondiwa1 0088 - Community based implementation is vital to 0195 - Estimating the distribution, spread and the wide-scale success of weed biological control in abundance of Acacia dealbata in the northern South Africa ...... 120 Eastern Cape...... 106 M.P. Hill1, J.A. Coetzee2, I.D. Paterson1, G.D. Martin1, Aidan Gouws, Charlie Shackleton J. Hill1, K. Weaver1

0222 - Rodent responses to volatile compounds 0065 - Potential factors influencing the provide insights into the function of floral scent in establishment success of Dicomada rufa, a mammal-pollinated plants...... 107 biological control agent for Hakea sericea in South Keeveshnee Govender, Steven Dene Johnson Africa...... 121 Kelby English1, John Hoffmann1, Candice Lyons2 0229 - Dispersal and mating patterns of the parasitic nematode, Spirocerca lupi...... 108 0340 - Dispersal patterns and animal personality in Jaco M. Greeff1, Kerry Reid1, Janishtha R. Mitha1, the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus)...... 122 Sarah J. Clift2, Pamela J. de Waal1 Sasha Hoffmann1, Heike Lutermann1, Heather Webster2, Nigel Bennett1, Bettine van Vuuren2 0254 - Longhorn : the good, the bad and the ugly (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)...... 109 0094 - New methods for analysing species Elizabeth Grobbelaar communities: multivariate modelling and Bayesian ordination...... 123 0298 - Undercover complications: the trend Sanet Hugo1,2, Res Altwegg2,3, Terence Bellingan4,5, for growing citrus under net provides new Olaf Weyl1,5 opportunities for pest management research...... 110 Tim Grout 0105 - What is sustaining the ‘capensis calamity’?...... 124 Hannelie Human, Christian Pirk 0280 - The questionable impact of elephants on others.111 Robert Guldemond, Andrew Purdon, Rudi van Aarde 0329 - Management of insect pests in planted forests: challenges for developing economies...... 125 0037 - The Natural Science Collections Facility...... 112 Brett Hurley1, Bernard Slippers1, Shiroma Michelle Hamer Sathyapala2, Michael Wingfield1

0129 - Generating foundational biodiversity 0205 - Global invasive spread and risk of the information that addresses the needs of society...... 113 phytophagous fall armyworm: climate change Michelle Hamer, Lita Pauw implications...... 126 Brian Isabirye1, Ivan Rwomushana2, Anne Akol3, Alex 4 5 2 0081 - Behavioral response of the bark beetle, Mayamba , Frank Kagoda , Sevgan Subramanian Ips typographus, to commonly associated ophiosomatoid fungi ...... 114 0154 - Soil Fusarium survey of the grassland biome Dineshkumar Kandasamy2, Almuth Hammerbacher1 of South Africa...... 127 Adriaana Jacobs1, Lydia Mojela2, Eduard Venter2, 3 0212 - Association between an artificial and a Brett Summerell natural habitat of the Eastern Cape redfin minnow .....115 Bianca Hannweg1,2, Lesley Bloy1,2, Sean Marr2,3, Olaf Weyl2,3 0357 - Assessing the eradication feasibility of Chondrilla juncea L. (Skeleton weed)...... 128 0117 - Rhinoceros beetles of southern Africa: a Kanyisa Jama, Sihle Manzana planned book...... 116 James Harrison 0168 - Local entomopathogenic nematodes ­- can they help control the Mediterranean fruit fly?...... 129 0247 - Effect of an insecticide application at Monique James, Antoinette Malan, Pia Addison different frequencies on nut development in pecan trees, Carya illinoinensis (Juglandaceae)...... 117 0356 - A need for knowledge of soil biota ecological Justin Hatting1, Hardus Du Toit2 function in southern Africa...... 130 Dr. Charlene Janion-Scheepers

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 9 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0175 - Interspecific competition between Culex 0406 - The role of olfaction in host plant location of quinquefasciatus and Anopheles arabiensis under the vector of aster yellows phytoplasma polluted conditions...... 131 in grapevine...... 144 Alexander Jeanrenaud2, Kirsten Barnard2, Basil M. Roleen La Grange1, Michelle L. Schröder1, Rickard Brooke1,2, Shüné Oliver1,2 Ignell2, Robert Glinwood2, Marc Bouwer1, Kerstin Krüger1

0101 - An assessment of the status of alien ferns in 0197 - Prevalence and diversity of -borne South Africa...... 132 Anaplasmataceae in indigenous commensal rodents Emily Joy Jones1,2, Tineke Kraaij1, Desika Moodley2 (Rodentia: Muridae and Nesomyidae) from Gauteng province, South Africa...... 145 0084 - A mark-release-recapture pilot trial using Anja le Grange1, Helene Brettschneider1, Christian T colonized Anopheles arabiensis in Mamfene, Chimimba1,2, Armanda DS Bastos1 KwaZulu-Natal ...... 133 Maria Kaiser1,2, Givemore Munhenga2,1, Oliver 0421 - Guidelines and tools for planning and Wood1,2, Leanne Lobb1,2, Jabulani Zikhali1, Nelius management of alien plant species invasions...... 146 Venter1,2, Jacek Zawada1,2, Erica Erlank1,2, Basil David Le Maitre1,2, Greg Forsyth1 Brooke2,1, Lizette Koekemoer1,2 0228 - Must science #fall for a real connection to be 0330 - Evaluation and comparison of various plant forged with society? ...... 147 extracts for the management of Lucilia sericata...... 134 Aliza le Roux, Melissa Hansen Ms. Bianca Jayde Kay 0391 - Understanding the impacts of invasive 0095 - Herbivorous insect community composition legumes on soil microbial community composition is coupled to plant species and plant phylogenetic and function in South Africa’s Cape Floristic Region ..148 community composition across short spatial scales Johannes Le Roux, Allan Ellis, Jan-Hendrik Keet, Cang Hui in the Cape Floristic Region...... 135 Jurene Kemp1, Peter Linder2, Allan Ellis1 0131 - Bush encroachment slows decomposition and termite activity in an African savanna...... 149 0273 - Habitat use by honey badgers and the Monica Leitner1, Andrew Davies2,3, Catherine Parr4,5, influence of predators in iSimangaliso Wetland Paul Eggleton6, Mark Robertson2 Park, South Africa...... 136 Enhle Kheswa1, Tharmalingam Ramesh1,2, Riddhika 0112 - Almost a decade of water-dependent bird Kalle1,3, Colleen Downs1 monitoring along the Olifants River, Kruger NP...... 150 Rion Lerm1, André Botha2 0333 - The extent of black bass distribution in South Africa...... 137 0230 - Densities of Arthroleptella lightfooti across Dumisani Khosa1,2, Sean Marr2, Ryan Wasserman2,4, the Cape Peninsula: preliminary results from Olaf Weyl2,3 acoustic spatial capture-recapture...... 151 Marike Louw1, Res Altwegg2, Andrew Turner3, Jasper 0107 - Postharvest detection of Thaumatotibia Slingsby4, Ben Stevenson5, David Borchers6, John Measey1 leucotreta in citrus fruit in South Africa...... 138 Wayne Kirkman1, Sean Moore1,2, Martin Hill2, Frikkie 0284 - Managing change in cropping system soils de Beer3, Jacobus Hoffmann3, Rui Krause4, Timothy Gibson5 requires strategic thinking...... 152 Schalk Louw 0048 - Attempts at biological control of small round-leaved prickly pear (Opuntia engelmannii 0213 - Monitoring population trends of false Salm-Dyck ex Engelm.) (Cactaceae) in South Africa....139 codling , carob moth and Mediterranean fruit Hildegard Klein fly on multi-crop farms in the Western Cape...... 153 Claire Love, Martin Gilbert 0413 - Diversity and prevalence of Bartonella in Gerbillus nanus from Saudi Arabia...... 140 0297 - Keratinous tissue as a matrix for obtaining Dewald Kleynhans1, Luiza Hatyoka1, Joshua Sarli1, time-based biochemical data...... 154 Abdulaziz Alagaili2, Nigel Bennett1, Armanda Bastos1 Nico Lubcker1, Ryan Reisinger1, Chris Oosthuizen1, Richard Condit2, Roxanne Beltran3, Andre van 0403 - Response of aphids to heat waves and drought..141 Tonder1, Pierre Pistorius4, Nico de Bruyn1, Kailen Kerstin Krüger, Lezel Beetge Padayachee5, Gerhard Malan5, Pieter Swart6, Grant Hall1, Stephan Woodborne1, Marthan Bester1 0064 - Small mammal landscape corridor usage in a fragmented grassland ecosystem in Mpumalanga 0426 - Variation of morphometric and province, South Africa...... 142 demographic parameters in eastern rock sengi Michelle Kral, Chris Chimimba, Mark Robertson populations...... 155 Dina Fagir, Sasha Hoffmann, Heike Lutermann 0038 - A risk analysis framework for the listing of alien species under regulations...... 143 Sabrina Kumschick1,2, John Wilson2,1, Llewellyn Foxcroft3,1

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 10 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0347 - New predatory species of the genera 0366 - Host-preference of the beetle Diorhabda Eustigmaeus Berlese, 1910 and Eryngiopus carinulata on invasive and indigenous Tamarix Summers, 1964 from citrus in Florida, USA (Acari: species (Tamaricaceae) in South Africa...... 167 Stigmaeidae)...... 156 Danica Marlin1, Etienne Smit1, Marcus Byrne1,2 Pholoshoi Maake1, Eddie Ueckermann2, Carl Childers3 0174 - Evaluating invasion risk for freshwater 0322 - Biological control against two Australian fishes in South Africa...... 168 invaders, Acacia longifolia and A. pycnantha in Sean Marr1,2, Bruce Ellender1,2, Darragh Woodford2,3, South Africa - Are we winning the war?...... 157 Mhairi Alexander4,5, Ryan Wasserman1,6, Philip Ivey7, Pride Mudavanhu, Lulama Madire Tzungai Zengeya7, Olaf Weyl1,2

0024 - Diamondback moth pest status in Botswana: 0090 - Biological control of Salvinia molesta in current control methods, perceptions and South Africa revisited...... 169 knowledge of alternative pest management options...... 158 Grant Martin, Julie Coetzee, Philip Weyl, Mathew Honest Machekano1, Brighton, M. Mvumi2, Casper Parkinson, Martin Hill Nyamukondiwa1 0047 - Response of crested Guinea-fowl (Guttera 0030 - Pre-release assessment of the root-feeding edouardi), a forest specialist, to spatial variation in flea beetle,Heikertingerella sp. (Coleoptera: land use in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa...170 Alticini), on an invasive tree, Tecoma stans, under Mfundo Maseko, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Riddhika quarantine laboratory conditions...... 159 Kalle, Colleen Downs Lulama Gracious Madire 0435 - Changes in landuse alter ant diversity, 0173 - The impact of the indigenous seed wasp assemblages and dominant functional traits in Megastigmus transvaalensis, a new association African savannas...... 171 herbivore on Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi Evans V. Mauda1, Grant S. Joseph2,3, Colleen L. (Anacardiaceae) in South Africa...... 160 Seymour3,4, Thinandavha C. Munyai5, Stefan H. Foord2 Nwabisa Magengelele1, Unathi L.P Heshula2, Martin Hill1, Steve Compton1 0343 - A revision of the endemic South African Drassodella Hewitt, 1916 (Araneae: 0337 - Phylogeny of the genus Chamaeleo and an )...... 172 investigation of cryptic speciation in the common Zingisile Mbo, Charles Haddad flap-necked chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis)...... 161 Devon Main1, Krystal Tolley2,3, Bettine van Vuuren1 0400 - A comparison of plant vigour between Tamarix species and hybrids and their 0286 - Eichhornia crassipes responses to Megamelus susceptibility to stactogalus in South Africa...... 173 scutellaris feeding under varied nitrogen and Siphosenkosi Mbonani, Solomon Newete, Danica temperature...... 162 Marlin, Nic Venter Chumakwande Makehle1, Martin Hill1, Unathi-Nkosi Heshula2 0022 - Phylogenetic variation in heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity among Kalahari 0140 - Heat tolerance and evaporative cooling Desert birds...... 174 capacity in speckled mousebirds (Colius striatus)...... 163 Andrew McKechnie1, Matthew Noakes1, Ben Smit2, Sekgwari Malematja, Matthew Noakes, Andrew McKechnie Maxine Whitfield2, Blair Wolf3

0104 - Food, sex and death: any compromises? 0354 - Effects of food restriction and photoperiod Nutritional geometry of a specialist pest fruit fly, on reproduction in male spiny mice: evidence for Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae)...... 164 terminal investment?...... 175 Kevin Malod1, Ruth Archer2, John Hunt2,3, Sue Ruan de Bruin1, Nigel C. Bennett1, Andre Ganswindt2,1, Nicolson1, Chris Weldon1 Katarina Medger1

0294 - The Oriental fruit fly: four years after first 0043 - Current progress in providing digital access establishment in the northern areas of South Africa.....165 to the primary type specimen holdings of the South Aruna Manrakhan1, Christopher Weldon2, Pia African National Collection of ...... 176 Addison3, Minette Karsten3, Louisa Makumbe2, Welma Ian Millar Pieterse3, Charmaine Theron2, Xolani Sibiya2, John- Henry Daneel1 0339 - Plasticity of traits of competing invasive and native ladybirds in a changing environment...... 177 0005 - Explaining extinction risk pattern in the Ingrid Minnaar1, Cang Hui2,3, Susana Clusella-Trullas1 African : it is all about wrong origin and wrong location...... 166 0338 - Thermal adaptation of the harlequin Adeoba Mariam1, Yessoufou Kowiyou2 ladybird, Harmonia axyridis, to variable environments: a multigenerational experiment...... 178 Ingrid Minnaar1, Johannes Le Roux1, Cang Hui2,3, Susana Clusella-Trullas1

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 11 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0302 - Diversity in the Sirex-Amylostereum- 0056 - Development of sex separation tools to Deladenus complex: understanding pest invasion eliminate female Anopheles arabiensis during mass and guiding management through biological control....179 production: progress and challenges...... 191 X. Osmond Mlonyeni, Brenda D. Wingfield, Jaco M. Givemore Munhenga1,2, Lerato Malakoane2, Leonard Greeff, Michael J. Wingfield, Bernard Slippers C. Dandalo2, Oliver R. Wood2, Leanne N. Lobb2, Basil D. Brooke1,2, Maria Kaiser2, Lizette L. Koekemoer0 0013 - Behavioural observation experiments on cryptic species of Eccritotarsus (Hemiptera: 0078 - Impacts of grazing, fire and blue gum Miridae), biological control agents of water plantation on ant diversity at Ukulinga research hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms- farm in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal...... 192 Laubach (Pontederiaceae)...... 180 Caswell Munyai, Sbongiseni Xolo, Zuziwe Nyawo Sandiso Mnguni1, Unathi-Nkosi LP Heshula2,1, Iain P Paterson1, Julie A Coetzee1 0159 - A promising leaf-mining flea beetle, Epitrix sp. (Chrysomelidae), for biological control of 0232 - Assessing the relative impact potential of Cestrum species (Solanaceae) in South Africa...... 193 successfully introduced fishes in man-made aquatic Tshililo Emmanuel Mphephu, David Okhi Simelane, environments...... 181 Jufter Musedeli Lubabalo Mofu1,2, Darragh Woodford3,4, Ryan Wasserman3,5, Olaf Weyl2,3 0439 - Interaction between the root-feeding beetle Longitarsus bethae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 0246 - South African Russian wheat aphid biotypes and the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica induce differential responses in farmers’ wheat (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae): implication on varieties grown in the highlands of Lesotho...... 182 biological control of Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae).194 Lintle Mohase1, Pitso Masupha1, Astrid Jankielson2 J.N Musedeli1,2, D. O Simelane 2 & M Marais3

0248 - Do elephants migrate?...... 183 0389 - Reproductive performance of the ‘stricta’ Michael Mole, Andrew Purdon, Rudi van Aarde biotype of Dactylopius opuntiae on Opuntia hosts...... 195 Kudakwashe Musengi1, Hildegard Klein2, Marcus Byrne1, 3 0243 - Exploitation or valid justification? The use of animal specimens in forensic science research...... 184 0274 - Post-release evaluation and thermal Calvin Mole, Marise Heyns physiology of the pereskia stem-wilter, Catorhintha schaffneri (), a new biological control 0392 - Hyperspectral Remote Sensing to agent for Pereskia aculeata (Cactaceae)...... 196 discriminate between Tamarix species and their Phillippa Claire Muskett1, Iain Douglas Paterson1, hybrids in South Africa...... 185 Julie Angela Coetzee2 Lerato Molekoa, Solomon Newete, Marcus Byrne, Elhadi Adams 0177 - Mass reproduction in the small hive beetle Aethina tumida: key to suppression of its honey 0325 - Foraging behaviour and thermal physiology bee host (Apis mellifera L.) and an example of in Cape sugarbirds: sex-specific responses to “emancipation” in beetles...... 197 temperature...... 186 Sandra Mustafa Mokgatla Molepo1, Ben Smit1, Susan Cunningham2, Alan Lee2 0054 - Species diversity and abundance of 0092 - Unravelling the fine-scale spatial genetic lepidopteran stem borer natural enemies in Botswana.198 structure of a springtail on sub-Antarctic Marion Reyard Mutamiswa1, Eva Moeng1, Bruno Le Ru2, Des Island...... 187 Conlong3,5, Yoseph Assefa4, Casper Nyamukondiwa1 Daniela Monsanto1, Peter Teske1, Ian Meiklejohn2, Bettine van Vuuren1 0206 - The effect of foraging habitat on the intensity of acoustic signals in echolocation of the 0181 - Quantifying the ecological benefits through bats Neoromicia capensis (Vespertilionidae) and biodiversity contributions of the biological control Tadarida aegyptiaca (Molossidae)...... 199 of invasive alien aquatic weeds in South Africa...... 188 Itani Victor Mutavhatsindi1, David Steve Jacobs1, Samuel Motitsoe1, Martin Hill1, Julie Coetzee2, Jaclyn Marc Holderied2 Hill1, Phumelele Gama3 0060 - Thermal physiology of Stenopelmus 0397 - Mapping distribution of water hyacinth in rufinasus and Neohydronomus affinis (Coleoptera: Rwanda using multispectral remote sensing imagery ..189 Curculionidae), two biological control agents Jeanne Mukarugwiro, Solomon Newete, Elhadi Adam, released against the invasive aquatic weeds Azolla Marcus Byrne filiculoidesand Pistia stratiotes in South Africa...... 200 Sisanda F. Mvandaba, Julie A. Coetzee, Martin P. Hill, 0179 - Apis mellifera scutellata queens can control Candice Owen reproductive parasitism in A. m. capensis clones by blocking production of the “queen substance”...... 190 0423 - Enhancing equity of student access, success Fiona N. Mumoki, Abdullahi A. Yusuf, Robin M. and throughput using funding...... 201 Crewe, Christian W. W. Pirk Nomakwezi Mzilikazi1,2

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 12 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0125 - The changing face of southern Africa’s 0076 - Initiating global actions for managing cactus Mopane woodlands: implications for conservation invasions...... 214 of threatened species and avian functional diversity.....202 Ana Novoa1,2, Haylee Kaplan1, Giuseppe Brundu9, Tiwonge Mzumara-Gawa1, Hemant Tripathi2, Chaona Michael Day3, Franz Essl4, Llewellyn Foxcroft5, Phiri3, Rowan Martin4 Guillaume Fried6, Sandy Lloyd7, Elizabete Marchante8, Helia Marchante8,10, David M 0145 - Feast now, pay later: the cost of foraging Richardson2, Arne Witt11, Helmuth Zimmermann12, at wastewater works for an urban adapter, the John Wilson1,2 banana bat (Neoromicia nana)...... 203 Samantha Naidoo1,2, Dalene Vosloo3, Corrie Schoeman3 0053 - The prioritization and management of invasive alien species within the eThekwini 0184 - Comparison of the genetic differentiation municipality...... 215 and variation of the native and invasive ranges of Bheka Nxele, Errol Douwes Nymphaea mexicana (Mexican water lily) in South Africa...... 204 0139 - Dominance of spotted stemborer, Chilo Prinavin Naidu, Julie Angela Coetzee, Jaclyn Hill, partellus Swinhoe (: ), over Craig Peter indigenous stemborer species in Africa’s changing climates: ecological and thermal biology perspectives .216 0303 - Delta arrow head and its potential suitors...... 205 Casper Nyamukondiwa1, Reyard Mutamiswa1, Frank Mpilonhle S. Ndlovu1, Grant D. Martin1, Raelene M. Chidawanyika2 Kwong1,2 0265 - Extinction debt and species credit in coastal 0237 - How the lack of importance in soil economy forests: does restoration lead to conservation?...... 217 has affected pseudoscorpion (Arachnida: Pieter Olivier, Victor Rolo, Rudi van Aarde Pseudoscorpiones) research...... 206 Jan Andries Neethling 0211 - Do seasonal physiological responses to heat explain climate change vulnerability in a Fynbos 0147 - Alien terrestrial invertebrate species in the endemic bird?...... 218 South African pet trade...... 207 Krista Oswald1, Alan Lee2, Ben Smit1 Takalani Nelufule1,2, Sabrina Kumschick2,3, Mark Robertson1, John Wilson2,3 0033 - A potential new methodology for determining thermal tolerance in insects: are 0119 - Human uses and indigenous knowledge of current methods accurate enough?...... 219 edible termites...... 208 Candice Owen, Julie Coetzee, Martin Hill Shandukani Netshifhefhe1,3, Frances Duncan1, Ednah Kunjeku2 0238 - The role of floral and fruit scent compounds as mosquito attractants: developing new methods 0142 - Flower length is more important than width for monitoring mosquito populations...... 220 in determining foraging preferences of white- Priyanka Pachuwah1, Andreas Jürgens1,2, Steven D. Johnson1 bellied sunbirds (Cinnyris talatala)...... 209 Celiwe Ngcamphalala1, Ida Bailey2, Sue Nicolson1 0370 - Aliens and the city life: how do invasive species travel to and through urban environments?...... 221 0209 - Arthropods associated with blueberry plants Ashlyn Levadia Padayachee1,2, Ulrike Irlich3,4, Katelyn (Vaccinium sp.) in the Mpumalanga and Western Faulkner2,6, Mirijam Gaertner3,4, Şerban Procheş1, Cape provinces of South Africa...... 210 John Wilson2,3, Mathieu Rouget5 Nompumelelo Pretty Ngubane1,2, Isabel Collett1, Francois Roets2 0306 - Genotypic and phenotypic characterisation of captive lion (Panthera leo) populations in South 0324 - Targeting an emerging weed, Iris Africa...... 222 pseudacorus L. (Iridaceae), in South Africa using Shilpa Parbhu1, Bettine van Vuuren1, Antoinette Kotze2,3 biological control...... 211 Samella Ngxande-Koza, Martin Hill, Julie Coetzee 0219 - The potential of three Chrysomya spp. and Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) for the 0074 - Global impact assessment of alien grasses bioconversion of waste products...... 223 occurring in South Africa...... 212 Nina Parry1, Elsje Pieterse2, Chris Weldon1 Khesani V. Nkuna1,2, Vernon Visser3, John R. Wilson1,2, Sabrina Kumschick1,2 0141 - Optimisation of biological control implementation strategies...... 224 0163 - Phenotypic flexibility in heat tolerance of a Iain Paterson, Zezethu Mnqeta, Phillippa Muskett passerine species: a direct test of behavioural and physiological acclimatisation to hotter conditions...... 213 0281 - Seasonal behavioural responses of an arid- Matthew Noakes1, Michelle Thompson1, Ryno Kemp1, zone passerine in a hot environment...... 225 Sekgwari Malematja1, Susie Cunningham2, Andrew Nicholas Pattinson, Ben Smit McKechnie1

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 13 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0133 - How do pollinating fig wasp mothers adjust 0188 - Detection of novel haemoplasma strains in their sex ratios?...... 226 four species of free-living bathyergids from the Karina Pentz, Jaco Greeff, Marié Warren Western Cape province, South Africa...... 239 Liezl Retief1, Nigel Bennett2, Armanda Bastos1 0132 - Impact of prior feeding by two biocontrol agents, Eccritotarsus catarinensis and Megamelus 0194 - Elevation gradients: natural laboratories scutellaris, on their subsequent feeding, and better to understand diversity patterns and processes..240 implications for water hyacinth control in South Mark Robertson Africa...... 227 Nomvume Petela, Julie Coetzee, Martin Hill 0310 - Life history changes in the marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in 0399 - Suitability of O. engelmannii as a host of Las response to selection for age of reproduction...... 241 Cruces and ‘stricta’ biotypes of Dactylopius opuntiae...228 Petrus Roets1, Henrika Bosua1, Ruth Archer2, Mudau Phuluso1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Danica Marlin1 Christopher Weldon1

0193 - of the avian genera Anthus, 0334 - IP-10, a promising biomarker for the Macronyx and Tmetothylacus (Aves: Motacillidae) detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in warthogs.242 in sub-Saharan Africa...... 229 Eduard O. Roos, Sven D.C. Parsons, Michele A. Miller Darren Pietersen1, Ian Little2, Andrew McKechnie1, Raymond Jansen3, Armanda Bastos4 0183 - pests, agricultural trade and South Africa’s biosecurity...... 243 0210 - Aspects of the ecology of vervet monkeys in Davina Saccaggi1,2, Isabel Collett1, John Wilson3,4, urban eThekwini, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa...... 230 John Terblanche2 Kerushka R. Pillay, Colleen T. Downs 0189 - The effect of inorganic fertiliser pollution on 0428 - Interface between managed and wild honey the life history of the Anopheles arabiensis vector bees in South Africa...... 231 mosquito...... 244 Christian Pirk1, Robin Moritz1,2, Robin Crewe1 Michael Samuel1,2, Basil Brooke1,2, Shüné Oliver1,2

0191 - Aspects of the spatial and population ecology 0279 - Case studies regarding the effect of tree of two terrapin species in KwaZulu-Natal, South manipulation on the commercial management of Africa...... 232 key insect pests in two subtropical tree crops...... 245 Cormac Price, Colleen Downs, Gordon O’Brien Schalk Schoeman

0110 - Response of wheat aphids to plants treated 0358 - Population estimates of the invasive common with volatile substance...... 233 myna (Sturnus tristis) in urban Pietermaritzburg, Goddy Prinsloo, Pinkie Radebe South Africa...... 246 Ntaki Senoge, Colleen Downs 0227 - Predicting ecological benchmarks for savannah elephant populations: providing context 0231 - SANBI’s role in fostering sustained and to counts...... 234 informed support for animal conservation ...... 247 Andrew Purdon, Ashley Robson, Trimble Morgan, Theresa Sethusa, Michelle Hamer Rudi van Aarde 0070 - Tarantula species in the South African pet trade.248 0362 - The role of phytopathogenic fungi Cavin Shivambu1,2, Mark Robertson1, Stefan Foord3, in limiting plant invasions: The case of Sabrina Kumschick2,4 Australian Banksia (Proteaceae) in South Africa.235 Axola Qongqo1 ,2, Sjirk Geerts1, Felix Nchu1 0419 - Scent chemistry of the bizarre carrion- mimic Sarcophyte sanguinea (Balanophoraceae): 0283 - Influence of reproductive biology on the the importance of dimethyl trisulfide and dimethyl invasive capacity of Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: tetrasulfide for the attraction of carrion beetles and Siricidae) as a case study...... 236 flies...... 249 Joséphine Queffelec1,3, Jeremy Allison2, Bernard Slippers1,3 Adam Shuttleworth, Steven D. Johnson, Nina Hobbhahn

0046 - The impact of elevated temperatures on 0135 - Exploring genetic approaches for Russian social networks of a highly communal passerine...... 237 wheat aphid resistance breeding in wheat...... 250 Margaux Rat1, Andrew McKechnie1,2, Cedric Sueur3, Thandeka Sikhakhane1,2, Vicki Tolmay1,2, Toi Tsilo1,2 Susan Cunningham1 0424 - Molecular and chemical ecology are 0187 - Frog Olympics: exploring the locomotor important for the management of emerging pests in ecomorphology of the pyxicephalid radiation in plantation forestry...... 251 southern Africa...... 238 Bernard Slippers1, Brett Hurley2, Jeremy Allison2,3, Alexander Douglas Rebelo1,2, John Measey1 Michael J. Wingfield1,2

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 14 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0353 - Optimisation of pheromone traps for 0071 - Seroprevalence and associated risk factors Coryphodema tristis (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)...... 252 of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic Marc Bouwer1, Bernard Slippers2, Michael Wingfield3, in the O.R. Tambo District, South Africa...... 265 Jeremy Allison4,5 Luis Neves1,2, Eric Etter1,3, Whatmore Munetsi Tagwireyi1

0216 - Physiological underpinnings of local 0021 - Integrative taxonomy resolves species limits adaptation in a southern African endemic bird...... 253 and identification of cryptic small rhinolophid bats Ben Smit1, Nicholas Pattinson1, Angela Ribeiro2 in Southern Africa, with the description of two new species from Mozambique...... 266 0386 - Invasion of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Peter Taylor1,4, Steve Goodman2,3, Angus MacDonald4, Tephritidae) into vineyards along the lower Orange Leigh Richards6, Woody Cotterill5, Samantha River, Northern Cape...... 254 Stoffberg5, Teresa Kearney9, Ara Monadjem7,8, Corrie Tanya Smit, Vaughn Swart, Schalk vdM Louw Schoeman4

0017 - Thresholds in forest-fragment size are 0114 - Population connectivity of two large indicated by a reduction in avian functional carnivore species in Zimbabwe...... 267 diversity and forest specialists...... 255 Laura Tensen David Ehlers Smith1,2, Yvette Ehlers Smith1, Colleen Downs1 0192 - Supplementary feeding of African woolly- 0018 - The importance of microhabitat structure necked storks (Ciconia microscelis) may explain in maintaining forest mammal diversity and their recent expansion in KwaZulu-Natal, South abundance in a mixed land-use mosaic...... 256 Africa...... 268 Yvette Ehlers Smith, David Ehlers Smith, Ramesh Vuyisile Thabethe Tharmalingam, Colleen Downs 0416 - Secondary pest outbreaks: the relationship 0318 - Feeding and developmental responses of between Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) and Hydrellia egeriae, a biocontrol agent for Egeria mealybug in Navel oranges...... 269 1,3 1,2 1 densa, to elevated CO2 levels...... 257 Sean Thackeray , Sean Moore , Martin Hill Rosali Smith1, Julie Coetzee1, Andreas Hussner1 0309 - Response of spider diversity to landscape 0405 - Scaling of the muscle-tendon energy and patch heterogeneity in remnant natural recovery system in the lower hindlimbs of the patches within agricultural landscapes of the Cape kangaroo Macropus fuliginosus...... 258 Floristic Region...... 270 Edward Snelling Jurie Theron, René Gaigher, James Pryke, Michael Samways

0418 - We need a South African inventory of alien 0396 - Re-thinking invasive alien plant control as a beetles...... 259 social process in a complex system: the case of the Riaan Stals Blyde catchment...... 271 Reuben Thifhulufhelwi1,2, Jan Graf1, Charles Chikunda1 0261 - Mechanisms mediating false codling moth mating disruption, using point-source pheromone 0313 - Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) dispensers...... 260 respond to habitat quality and not to the zones of a Vernon M. Steyn, Daleen Stenekamp, Pia Addison biosphere reserve...... 272 Aileen Thompson, Michael Samways, Corrina Bazelet 0249 - Effects of differing land use on the presence and habitat use of various mongoose species...... 261 0020 - Breeding ecology of the hooded vulture, Jarryd Streicher, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Colleen Downs Necrosyrtes monachus, in the Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa...... 273 0044 - Does Hypogeococcus festerianus (Hemiptera: Lindy Thompson1, Colleen Downs1, Andre Botha2, Pseudococcidae) successfully control the cactaceous Keith Bildstein3, Campbell Murn4 weed Cereus jamacaru in South Africa?...... 262 Guy Sutton1, Hildegard Klein2, Iain Paterson1 0327 - Messages from the other side: parasites receive damage cues from their host plants...... 274 0364 - Direct and indirect effects of abiotic factors Muvari Tjiurutue1,2, Phil Stevenson3, Lynn Adler4 on the rhizosphere microbiome of selected plants: implications for measuring the impact of climate 0332 - Built for business? Dung beetle morphology change...... 263 and time of flight...... 275 Wijnand Swart, Marcele Vermeulen Claudia Tocco1, Marie Dacke2, Marcus Byrne1

0415 - An ecological analysis of stink bug and 0422 - Resistance reaction of selected advanced lepidopteran borer complexes associated with bread wheat lines and cultivars to all four known pecan and citrus orchards...... 264 biotypes of Russian wheat aphid in South Africa...... 276 Andre Van Rooyen1, Vaughn Swart1, Sean Moore2 Vicki L Tolmay1, Mardé Booyse2, Thandeka Sikhakhane1

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 15 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0257 - Management strategies to control the 0438 - Thermal imaging and feeding damage of the Cape grapevine leafminer, Holocacista capensis biological control agent, Cornops aquaticum, on (Lepidoptera: Heliozelidae), in South Africa...... 277 water hyacinth...... 289 Leigh Torrance, Antoinette Malan, Pia Addison Giuseppe Venturi1, Frances Duncan 1 and Marcus James Byrne1 0239 - Disturbing resource hotspots: drought impacts on vegetation and insect communities 0014 - Evolution of the South African around termite mounds ...... 278 Bathyergidae: patterns and processes...... 290 Matthew Trisos1, Monica Leitner2, Andrew Davies3, Jacobus Visser Catherine Parr4, Mike Picker1, Edmund February1 0082 - Invasions by Tuta absoluta and Spodoptera 0342 - A review of odyssean malaria outbreaks in frugiperda: what is the threat to vegetable South Africa 2014-2017...... 279 production in South Africa?...... 291 Power Tshikae1, Basil Brooke1,2, Givemore Diedrich Visser Munhenga1,2, Lucille Blumberg1, Kerrigan McCarthy3, John Frean1,2 0087 - The StopRats project: The next step in delivering ecologically-based rodent management 0171 - Integrated taxonomy of the endemic Karoo in Africa...... 292 agile grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae: E.F. von Maltitz1, P.R. Brown2, S.J. Eiseb3, S.M. Euryphyminae)...... 280 Goodman4, S.A. Kamara5, J.F. Kirsten1, H. Leirs6, Precious Tshililo T. Mahlaba7, R.H. Makundi8, P.S. Malebana1, A.W. Massawe8, A. Monadjem7, L.S. Mulungu8, G.R. 0275 - To fledge or not to fledge? Hot days limit Singleton9, V.L. Soarimalala4, L. Swanepoel10, P.J. hornbill reproductive success...... 281 Taylor10, S.R. Belmain11 Tanja MFN van de Ven1, Susan J Cunningham1, Andrew E McKechnie2 0040 - Assessment of the socio-economic impacts of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart- Solms) Laubach. 0136 - Soil biota as bioindicators of erosion levels (water hyacinth) in the Wouri Basin (Douala- and fire disturbances in afromontane grassland Cameroon) and management options...... 293 areas within the Golden Gate Highlands National Sonia Nadege Kenfack Voukeng1, Philip Weyl2, Martin Park...... 282 Hill1, Napoleon Chi Forpah3 Sylvia Van der Merwe1, Vaughn Swart1, Emile Bredenhand2, Charles Haddad1 0061 - Novel natural enemy encounters of an invasive forest insect pest...... 294 0052 - Hermetia illucens sausages as human food...... 283 M. Wondafrash Elsje Pieterse, Leah Bessa, L.C. Hoffman, G. Sigge, Liezl van Emmenes 0100 - The spatial genetic structure in the eastern rock elephant shrew, inferred from mitochondrial 0019 - Assessing species richness of one of Africa’s and nuclear data...... 295 most diverse insect families (Ichneumonidae, Heather Webster1, Sasha Hoffmann2, Peter Teske1, Hymenoptera)...... 284 Heike Lutermann2, Bettine van Vuuren1 Simon van Noort1,5, Gavin R. Broad2, Pascal Rousse3, Ilari Sääksjärvi4 0328 - Evaluation of four crops in terms of insect attraction and nematode bio- 0308 - Impaired reproductive performance of fumigant potential in the North-West province...... 296 female Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium s. William Weeks1, Hendriena Fourie1,2 simum) in captive environments...... 285 Martin van Rooyen, Catherina van Zijl, Natalie 0201 - Thermal preference of male Ceratitis capitata Aneck-Hahn, Robert (Bob) Millar (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) reflects higher sexual performance at warmer temperatures...... 297 0085 - Genetic information at different spatial Christopher Weldon1, John Terblanche2, Steven Chown3 scales: Southern Ocean islands as study sites...... 286 Bettine van Vuuren 0073 - Kalahari aardvarks on the edge: drought- induced resource deficiency may compromise 0371 - The amphibious invader: Water hyacinth’s aardvark survival under climate change...... 298 physiological strategy to survive stranding and Nora M. Weyer1, Robyn S. Hetem1, Mike D. Picker2, drought events...... 287 Andrea Fuller1 Nic Venter, Blair Cowie, Ed Witkowski, Gavin Snow, Marcus Byrne 0025 - The temporal occurrence of flesh flies (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) at carrion-baited traps in 0080 - New alien pests in South Africa: how did Grahamstown, South Africa...... 299 they get here and can new incursions be prevented?.....288 Martin Villet2, Crystal Clitheroe2, Kirstin Williams1,2 Jan Hendrik Venter 0388 - Conservation genetics: vultures in crisis ...... 300 Sandi Willows-Munro

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 16 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0059 - Invasion in Mpumalanga’s grassland corridors.301 0009 - Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum - Standing on Georgina Wilson, Mark Robertson the Shoulders of Giants...... 314 Deon Bakkes 0234 - The determination of nutrient requirements and development of artificial diets for the mass 0170 - Testing the SANSA rapid sampling protocol rearing of insects of economic importance...... 302 in Western KwaZulu-Natal to determine seasonal Michael Woods, Elsje Pieterse diversity of non-acarine ...... 315 Ruan Booysen, Charles Haddad 0451 - Knockout: the exceptional success achieved with the biological control of boxing glove cactus 0427 - The role of termites in African savanna soil (Cylindropuntia fulgida var. mamillata) using a new ecology...... 316 cochineal biotype of Dactylopius tomentosus...... 303 Katherine Bunney1, Mark Robertson2,1, Catherine Travor Xivuri, Helmuth Zimmermann Parr3,1, Paul Eggleton4,1, Yadvinder Mahli4,1

0363 - Too much love can kill you: a case study on Damaraland mole-rats...... 317 Poster abstracts...... 304 Lanha Burger, Nigel Bennett, Fanus Venter, Heike Lutermann

0282 - Description of eleven new species and 0252 - Microsatellite variation in a population-level redescription of a single species in the genus study of the endangered bearded vulture Gypaetus Macroderes Westwood, 1842 (Coleoptera, barbatus...... 318 Scarabaeidae, Scarabaeinae) from South Africa...... 305 Melanie Burke, Sonja Kruger, Sandi Willows-Munro Ishtiag Abdalla, Christian Deschodt, Clarke Scholtz, Catherine Sole 0378 - The traditional medicine trade: the diversity, viability and escape potential of alien plant 0006 - Circadian variation in metabolites and species introduced into South Africa by the largest enzyme activity in the femoral and thoracic immigrant groups in Johannesburg...... 319 muscles of adult variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus Marcus Byrne, Vivienne Williams, Amy Burness variegatus (L.) (Orthoptera:Pyrgomorphidae)...... 306 Kehinde Ademolu1, Abiodun Joda2, Samuel Agbeje1, 0096 - The Baboon Spider Atlas - utilising citizen Adebola Osipitan1, Adewunmi Idowu1 science and the ‘fear factor’ to map baboon spider (Araneae: Theraphosidae) distributions and 0369 - The distribution and abundance of the diversity in Southern Africa...... 320 chromolaena stem-galling fly, Heather Campbell, Ian Engelbrecht connexa (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Ghana...... 307 Pascal Aigbedion-Atalor1,2, David Wilson1, Vincent 0374 - Biochemical analysis in Anopheles gambiae Eziah1, Iain Paterson2, Michael Day3 and An. funestus...... 321 Riann Christian1,2, Luisa Nardini1,2, Basil D Brooke1,2, 0233 - False codling moth population ecology in Lizette L Koekemoer1,2 citrus orchards: the influence of orchard age...... 308 Sonnica Albertyn1, Martin Hill1, Sean Moore1,2 0086 - The facilitation of nutrient transfer across the aquatic-terrestrial interface by semi-aquatic 0260 - The effect of eco-estates on animal predators...... 322 biodiversity along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, Shannon Conradie1, Trevor McIntyre1, Grant Hall1, South Africa...... 309 Michael J. Somers1,2 Jarryd Alexander, Colleen Downs 0143 - Entomopathogenic fungi as biological 0176 - Baseline pathogen prevalence and diversity control agents of false codling moth...... 323 estimates for free-ranging aardvark Orycteropus Candice Coombes1, David Taylor1, Samantha afer (Pallas, 1766)...... 310 Prinsloo1, Martin Hill1, Sean Moore1,2 Chane’ R. Alfaiate, Darren W. Pietersen, Armanda D.S. Bastos 0375 - Bugweed biocontrol: new insights and future prospects...... 324 0263 - The ethics of non-medical animal research...... 311 Blair Cowie1,2, Ed Witkowski1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Nic Venter1 Ebrahim Ally 0217 - Will our taxa of conservation concern 0003 - Novel non-estrogenic endpoints of phenolic survive the rapid change in climatic conditions in metabolites toxicity in fish: using zebrafish as a South Africa?...... 325 model for study...... 312 Sarisha Daya1, Theresa Sethusa2, Engela De Crom1 Nessrin Kheirallah, Tamer Aly 0250 - Microsatellite isolation in a pollinating fig 0444 - Lamarck & Darwin got it wrong regarding wasp using a small scale genomic approach...... 326 giraffes: what were the causes?...... 313 Junyin Deng, Pamela J. de Waal, Jaco M. Greeff Ramin Amirmardfar

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 17 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0045 - Ecosystem health of the Eerste River and 0111 - The impact of selection and limited geneflow opportunities for improvement...... 327 on genetic diversity: the impala (Aepyceros Francois du Preez, James Pryke melampus) as a model...... 341 Chantel Henning1, Paul Grobler2, Malan Davey3, 0272 - Mechanosensory structures in the beaks Bettine van Vuuren4 of waders (Threskiornithidae) in relation to their foraging ecology...... 328 0266 - Forensic entomology at the University of Carla du Toit1,3, Susan Cunningham1,2, Anusuya Cape Town: teaching, research, and practice...... 342 Chinsamy-Turan1 Marise Heyns

0137 - Sirex noctilio host susceptibility and 0443 - Response of ground dwelling arthropods utilisation patterns...... 329 in different habitats in the Sandstone Sourveld in Ludwig Eksteen1, Jeff Garnas1,2, Brett P. Hurley1 KwaZulu-Natal...... 343 Zabentungwa Hlongwane1, Zivanai Tsvuura1, 0430 - Habitat use, ecology and behaviour of Tarombera Mwabvu2, Caswell Munyai1 hippos in an important waterbody of Zululand...... 330 Camille Fritsch, Colleen Downs 0067 - Mortality of the leaf-mining moth, Aristaea thalassias (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: ), 0352 - First record of Tthe Marine Turtle Leech a biological control agent of Leptospermum Ozobranchus Margoi Oon Hawksbill Turtles in the laevigatum (Gaertn.) F. Muell. (Myrtaceae)...... 344 Inner Granitic Seychelles...... 331 Thembelihle Mlokoti1,2, Fiona Impson1,2, John Byron Göpper, Nina Voogt Hoffmann1, Candice Lyons1,2

0185 - Intraspecific variation in ants: testing a 0395 - Are mass-releases of mealybug biocontrol central paradigm of functional trait ecology...... 332 agents on citrus effective? ...... 345 Clara Gaudard, Mark Robertson, Tom Bishop Stephan Honiball, Marike Ferreira

0296 - Mating disruption as a method to enhance 0319 - Distribution and thermal thresholds of control of false codling moth in the Western Cape...... 333 Gonipterus species (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Martin Gilbert1,2, Claire Love1,2 Australia...... 346 Michelle Schroder1, Helen Nahrung2, Simon Lawson2, 0226 - The role of fig (Moraceae) volatiles in Bernard Slippers1, Michael Wingfield1, Brett Hurley1 the dispersal of fig seeds by frugivorous bats in southern Africa...... 334 0335 - Comparing genetic patterns in Tullbergia Keeveshnee Govender, Adam Shuttleworth, Colleen T. bisetosa (indigenous) and Isotomurus maculatus Downs, Steven D. Johnson (invasive) (Collembola) on sub-Antarctic Marion Island...... 347 0336 - Mozambique - The Dark Hole...... 335 Harini Jagatap1, Rosemary Dorrington2, Bettine Van Vuuren1 Carly Gregorich, Bettine van Vuuren 0057 - Factors affecting the decline of Russian 0156 - Distribution of Mantodea in South Africa wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) in wheat production and biological studies of selected species...... 336 areas in South Africa...... 348 Bianca Greyvenstein1, Johnnie van den Berg1, Astrid Jankielsohn Hannalene du Plessis1 0382 - A comprehensive analysis of the Gruiformes 0269 - Thermal physiology of two Eccritotarsus to identify their key conservation risks and relate (Heteroptera: Miridae) species from different these to their conservation and captive breeding climates: phenotypic plasticity or adaptation in activities ...... 349 field populations?...... 337 Lara Jordan1, Kevin Kirkman1, Tracy Rehse2, Colleen Downs1 Tamzin Griffith, Iain Paterson, Julie Coetzee 0350 - Asphodelus fistulosus L., a new plant invader 0277 - Identification and evolutionary relationships in South Africa: assessment of risk and potential of genes linked to colour vision in Sirex noctilio...... 338 for eradication...... 350 Quentin Guignard1,3, Bernard Slippers1, Allison Jeremy2 Nolwethu Jubase1, Jorge Renteria1,2, David Maphisa3, Ernita van Wyk1 0166 - Dietary preference of the common myna, an invasive alien bird in South Africa ...... 339 0160 - Dragonflies as umbrella species in Western Silindile Thobeka Gumede, Colleen Downs Cape rivers...... 351 Gabriella Kietzka1,2, James Pryke1,2, Michael 1,2 1,2 0203 - Seasonal variation and habitat Samways , René Gaigher characteristics of rock pool species composition on the south coast of South Africa...... 340 0412 - Bartonella in the Mahali mole-rat Natanah Molline C Gusha, Christopher McQuaid, (Cryptomys hottentotus mohali) from South Africa...... 352 Tatenda Dalu Dewald Kleynhans, Luiza Hatyoka, Daniel Hart, Nigel Bennett, Armanda Bastos

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 18 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0407 - Insect monitoring: the South African suction 0167 - Distribution of banded fruit weevil trap network...... 353 (Phlyctinus callosus) (Schönherr) (Coleoptera: Kerstin Krüger1, Goddy Prinsloo2, Kobus Laubscher3, Curculionidae) in apple orchards in Elgin...... 366 Janine Snyman1, Ian Millar4 Meshack Magagula

0042 - Weeds as alternate hosts for Trialeurodes 0326 - Australian Acacia species in South Africa: vaporariorum (Westwoood) (Hemiptera: an assessment of introduction status...... 367 Aleyrodidae) in greenhouses in the OR Tambo Nkoliso Magona1,2, David M Richardson1, Municipal District, South Africa...... 354 Johannes J Le Roux1, John R Wilson1,2 Simon Kuria, Zimbini Scott 0321 - A description of a newly discovered skeleton 0178 - Phylogeography of codistributed anuran of Endothiodon (Therapsida, Anomodontia), from species in the Eastern Cape forests, South Africa...... 355 the Late of the Karoo Basin of South Africa...368 Judith Natsai Theodora Kushata1, Michael Cherry1, Iyra Maharaj Werner Conradie2,3, Savel Daniels1 0393 - Environmental drivers of foraging migration 0010 - Geometric morphometrics on the strategies in southern elephant seals...... 369 imicola group in South Africa...... 356 Tshepiso Majelantle, Trevor McIntyre, P.J. Nico de Bruyn Karien Labuschagne 0315 - Promoting conservation biological control 0198 - Bartonella prevalence and diversity in in agroecosystems by using ecological functions commensal and wild populations of Mastomys provided by insect predators: a review...... 370 coucha (Rodentia: Muridae) from South Africa...... 357 Maria Makwela1, Astrid Jankielsohn1,2, Caswell Munyai1,2 Anja le Grange1, Helene Brettschneider1, Christian T. Chimimba1,2, Armanda D.S. Bastos1 0317 - Conservation of soil biodiversity to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability: A review. 371 0214 - Human-mediated impacts in indigenous Emogine Mamabolo1,2, Astrid Jankielsohn1, Caswell Munyai2 forests of the Eastern Cape, South Africa: implications for forest-dependent bird habitat quality.358 0011 - Effects of land-use changes on aspects of the Jessica Leaver1, Nokwanda Makunga1, Michelle ecology of long-crested eagles, including habitat use Cocks2, Michael Cherry1 particularly when breeding...... 372 Machawe Maphalala1, Colleen Downs1, Ara 0115 - Mapping invasive smelter’s bush (Flaveria Monadjem2, Keith Bildstein3 bidentis) using a simple unmanned aerial vehicle and open source software packages...... 359 0055 - Insect health for weed biological control...... 373 Rion Lerm, Anthony Swemmer Tamryn Marsberg, Martin Hill

0264 - Culicoides species composition along an 0124 - The distribution and impact of two species gradient in Namibia...... 360 of Eccritotarsus on Eichhornia crassipes in South Danica Liebenberg1, Stuart Piketh1, Karien Africa...... 374 Labuschagne2, Gert Venter2, Telane Greyling1, Zolile Maseko, Julie Coetzee, Martin Hill, Iain Paterson Charlotte Mienie1, Tania de Waal1, Huib van Hamburg1 0408 - Assessing threats to African vultures and the 0182 - Optimisation and evaluation of novel adult effectiveness of conservation efforts in the Kruger trapping methods to be used in surveillance of the to Canyons Biosphere Region, Mpumalanga, South malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis...... 361 Africa...... 375 Leanne Lobb1,2, Lizette Koekemoer1,2, Givemore Munhenga2,1 Nhlamazi Mbali Mashele, Lindy Thompson, Colleen Downs

0361 - Whiskers of southern elephant seals as a 0305 - Variation in Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis matrix for obtaining fine-scale dietary data...... 362 noxia resistance between South African wheat Nico Lubcker, Ryan Reisinger, Chris Oosthuizen, Nico Triticum aestivum cultivars and cultivars grown in de Bruyn, Marthan Bester the mountains of Lesotho ...... 376 Pitso Masupha1, Astrid Jankielsohn2, Lintle Mohase1 0404 - Karoo BioGap Project - contribute to filling biodiversity information gaps in the Karoo....363 0148 - Using captive birds to assess assumptions of Robin Lyle, Ansie Dippenaar-Schoeman, Petro Marais a diet analysis technique: stable isotope analysis...... 377 Isabel Micklem1, Maёlle Connan2, Christopher McQuaid1 0348 - Biodiversity of on tea plant () in South Africa: a complete study...... 364 0103 - The effect of bush encroachment on Pholoshi Maake1, Eddie Ueckermann2 ant communities at Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, KwaZulu-Natal...... 378 0123 - Patterns of land use influence ant diversity Nomathamsanqa Mkhize1, Caswell Munyai1, Rob in the savanna lowveld of Swaziland...... 365 Slotow1, Stefan Foord2 S.M. Lukhele1, C. Reynolds2,3, R.A. McCleery2, C.N. Magagula1

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 19 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0221 - Quantifying roadkills in different roads of 0349 - Changes in bat activity over an altitudinal Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park: what are the contributing gradient in the Kunene region, Namibia...... 392 factors?...... 379 Lina Mushabati1, Seth Eiseb1, Petr Benda2, Theresa Laverty3 Muzi Nicholas Mkhohlwa, Colleen Downs 0351 - Brown locust outbreaks in the Karoo: 0158 - Spatio-temporal variation of invertebrate historic records and a plan to understand the communities in temporary vs semi-permanent origins of outbreaks...... 393 wetlands...... 380 Zwivhuya Leonard Ndou1,2, Vaughn Richmond Swart2, Musa Mlambo1,2 Johannes Robert Henschel1,2, Schalk vdM Louw2

0091 - DNA barcoding of collembolan species found 0155 - Food relocation and burial behaviour in on Marion Island...... 381 the dung beetle Pachylomera femoralis Kirby Nkitseng Modise, Bettine van Vuuren (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)...... 394 Alex Nepomuceno, Catherine Sole, Werner Strümpher, 0028 - Species diversity of lepidopteran stem borers Christian Pirk, Clarke Scholtz in Botswana...... 382 Eva Moeng1, Reyard Mutamiswa1, Des Conlong2,3, 0365 - Development of minimum intervention Yoseph Assefa4, Casper Nyamukondiwa1, Bruno Le Ru5,6 techniques to reduce variability in mopane worm supply for harvesting...... 395 0295 - Are there structural differences in the flight Zwannda Nethavhani1, Ruan Veldtman2, Stefan Foord1 feathers of Procellariiformes related to their use for underwater ‘flight’?...... 383 0161 - Explaining ant species richness patterns Ditiro Moloto, Peter Ryan across an elevation gradient...... 396 Sarah Newman, Tom Bishop, Mark Robertson 0402 - Trimen’s false tiger moth: biology and potential control options...... 384 0287 - Home range size and movement patterns of Courtney Morris1, Jeanne De Waal2, Antoinette Cape porcupines in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa...... 397 Malan1, Shelley Johnson1 Samukelisiwe Ngcobo, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Amy- Lee Wilson, Colleen Downs 0304 - Virulence of Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) to the Russian 0097 - The phylogeography of ectoparasites with wheat aphid and potential use thereof as an respect to their hosts...... 398 endophytic biocontrol agent in wheat, Triticum Nkosinathi Ntuli, Bettine van Vuuren, Jacobus Visser aestivum...... 385 Lisemelo Motholo1,2, Justin Hatting2, Toi Tsilo2, Oriel 0099 - Sexual selection and speciation in Malawian Thekisoe1 cichlid fishes...... 399 Nonhlanhla Nyalungu, Vanessa Couldridge 0394 - The cascading trophic accumulation of aldicarb in a carrion ecosystem: the forensic 0346 - Parasitic and free-living interactions implications...... 386 between the indigenous tick Rhipicephalus Tshepiso Motolo, Sonja Brink, Ellie van Dalen decoloratus and the invasive tick Rhipicephalus microplus on and off bovine hosts in the Eastern 0120 - The progressive establishment of the Asian Cape province...... 400 fruit fly Bactocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Nkululeko Nyangiwe1, Josephus J. Fourie2, Julian E. Botswana...... 387 Liebenberg2, Clinton Austin4, Chandra Bushan5 Rebaone Motswagole, Casper Nyamukondiwa 0172 - The characterisation of the role of 0442 - Integrated management of Solanum commensal gut bacteria on the life history of mauritianum (bugweed) in the Highveld region of the major malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis South Africa...... 388 (Diptera: Culicidae)...... 401 Sanele Mtetwa1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Ed Witkowski1 Kirsten Barnard2, Alexander Jeanrenaud2, Basil Brooke1,2, Shüné Oliver1,2 0316 - Does biological control of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) promote arthropod diversity?...... 389 0241 - A sweeter taste than blood? Attraction of Ludzula Mukwevho1 Aedes and Culex mosquitoes to fruits and flowers...... 402 Priyanka Pachuwah1, Andreas Jürgens1,2, Steven D. Johnson1 0130 - Post-release evaluation of the biological control programme against jointed cactus (Opuntia 0223 - Longevity, fertility and fecundity of adult aurantiaca Lindley (Cactaceae))...... 390 blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) held at varying Thifhelimbilu Mulateli, Iain Paterson, Martin Hill densities: implications for use in bioconversion of waste...... 403 0224 - A trait-based approach in understanding Nina Parry1, Elsje Pieterse2, Chris Weldon1 ant community assemblies in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa ...... 391 0220 - Post cold treatment effects on false codling Mulalo Muluvhahothe1, Caswell Munyai2, Stefan Foord3 moth...... 404 Mellissa Peyper1, Sean Moore1,2, Wayne Kirkman1,2

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 20 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0165 - Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of 0004 - How conservation endocrinology can be a sheep in three agro-ecological zones of the Maseru potent tool for species conservation practices in District...... 405 South Africa...... 417 Moeketsi Phalatsi1, Mpho Phoofolo1, Matsolo Juan Scheun Seloanyane1, Mamasupha Sole1, Mokete Motente1 0034 - The population structure and regenerating 0049 - Mass reared insects as animal feed and patterns of Salix babylonica (weeping willow) in implications for table egg production...... 406 South Africa...... 418 Elsje Pieterse1, Davina Hopley1 Serole Sehona1, Thierry Hoareau2, Peter le Roux1, Michelle Greve1 0050 - Mass-reared insect meal as animal feed and its implications for meat production...... 407 0035 - The population structure and regenerating Elsje Pieterse1, L.C. Hoffman1, K. Salie1, C.W. patterns of Salix babylonica (weeping willow) in Cruywagen1, G. Esposito1, P. Haabroek1, T. Uushona1, South Africa...... 419 H. Driemeyer1, A.W.H. Van der Merwe1, F.J.H. Albertyn1 Serole Sehona, Thierry Hoareau, Peter le Roux, Michelle Greve 0051 - Use of Hermetia illucens for the conversion of faecal matter to animal feed...... 408 0031 - The inclusion of basic research plans in Elsje Pieterse1, L.C. Hoffman1, A. Van Schoor1 government funded youth programmes as a means to promote research and encourage critical 0300 - Does variation in trophic niche use influence thinking in South Africa’s youth...... 420 mass gain of underyearling southern elephant seals Vincent Shacks, Mandy Noffke, Lizeka Gqumani, Mirounga leonina?...... 409 Lance Anders, Sakhile Sithole, Robert Slater Nicolas Prinsloo1,2, Nico de Bruyn1,2, Martin Postma1,2, Nico Lübcker1,2 0215 - Hadeda ibis (Bostrychia hagedash) urban nesting, roosting and activity in Pietermaritzburg, 0190 - The effects and management of the invasive KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa...... 421 species in Buffelsdraai Preshnee Singh, Colleen Downs Landfill Site...... 410 Rerani Ramaano, Zivanai Tsvuura, Hloniphani Mthunzi 0253 - A survey of entomopathogenic Beauveria spp. in South African plantantions...... 422 0436 - Interception of invasive Lepidoptera in Z. Wilhelm de Beer1, Herman de Bruin2, Wilma J. Nel1, South Africa...... 411 Bernard Slippers2 Humbulani Ramukhesa, Saadiek Rosenberg 0341 - A pilot study of the colour vision model of 0069 - Environmental flow requirements and Diptera on South African fly species...... 423 response of macro-invertebrate populations in the Carryn Smith, Steven Johnson, Adam Shuttleworth Luvuvhu River catchment...... 412 Pfananani Ramulifho, Stefan Foord 0383 - Identification of molecular diversification between South African RWA Diuraphis noxia biotypes .424 0381 - Detection of Banana bunchy top virus Scott Sydenham, Vicki Tolmay, Bongiwe Nhlapho (BBTV) in the aphid vector Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae)...... 413 0384 - Description of the life stages of beetles in the Nicola Robbertse1,3, Kerstin Krüger1, Elize Jooste2,3 carrion ecosystem of the central Free State ...... 425 Moeti, Abel Thabo1, Brink, Sonja L 1 & Louw, Schalk1 0311 - Life history traits of the marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae): 0414 - Mapping and monitoring of alien invasive potential consequences of host specialisation...... 414 plants in Kruger National Park...... 426 Petrus Roets1, Henrika Bosua1, Ruth Archer2, Thembeka Thwala1, Llewellyn Foxcroft2 Christopher Weldon1 0036 - Evidence of multiple divergent 0344 - For and against: towards the use of mitochondrial lineages within the Southern endophytes for the control of the stalk borer African diplopod genus Bicoxidens Attems, 1928 Eldana saccharina (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in (Spirostreptida)...... 427 sugarcane...... 415 Tawanda Tinago1, Tarombera Mwabvu2, Angus H. H. Nongcebo Memela1,2, Sharon McFarlane1, Des Macdonald3 Conlong1,2, R. Stuart Rutherford1,2, Stefan Schmidt2 0242 - Water and nitrogen additions in a Kruger 0027 - Morphological, acoustic and genetic savanna result in cascading effects on biodiversity ...... 428 divergence in the bladder grasshopper...... 416 Matthew Trisos1, Catherine Parr2, Mike Picker1, Lars Rekha Sathyan, Adriaan Engelbrecht, Vanessa Couldridge Hedin3, Edmund February1

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 21 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0236 - Comparing genetic patterns in native and 0390 - The effects of season and breeding on introduced species...... 429 metabolism in three species from the genus Mark Turnbull1, Chris Chimimba2, Bettine Jansen van Euplectes (Aves)...... 439 Vuuren1 Stacey L. Webb2,1, Nomakwezi Mzilikazi2, Graham I.H. Kerley2,1, Mark Brown3 0026 - Beta diversity of arthropods across the complementary zones of the Kogelberg Biosphere 0200 - Geographic variation and plasticity in Reserve...... 430 climate stress resistance of Ceratitis capitata Julia van Schalkwyk, James Pryke, Michael Samways, (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)...... 440 René Gaigher Christopher Weldon1, Casper Nyamukondiwa2, Minette Karsten3, Katherine Mitchell3, Steven Chown4, 0153 - Hypopharyngeal gland development of John Terblanche3 South African honey bee subspecies...... 431 Zoe van Vuuren, Christian Pirk 0398 - DNA Barcoding of Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Free State province, South Africa...... 441 0012 - Taxonomic review of the genus Marginella Liezl Whitehead, Vaughn Swart, Marieka Gryzenhout (Gastropoda: Marginellidae)...... 432 Stephan Veldsman1 0256 - Evidence for convergent evolution of ambrosia fungi in the Ophiostomatales (Ascomycota)..442 0118 - Mite diversity survey focussing on grapevine Miranda Erasmus, Tuan A. Duong, Michael J. motherblocks and nurseries in the Wellington Wingfield, Z. Wilhelm de Beer (Western Cape) region...... 433 Mia Vermaak, Pia Addison, Ruan Veldtman 0258 - Novel fungal symbionts of Dendroctonus valens (Curculionidae, Scolytinae)...... 443 0437 - Invasions in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve: Seonju Marincowtiz, Stephen J. Taerum, Tuan A. What’s the IAP Problem?...... 434 Duong, Michael J. Wingfield, Z. Wilhelm de Beer Cath Vise 0259 - Fungal associates of -infesting bark 0102 - Shivaphis celti (Hemiptera: Aphididae), a beetles and their phoretic mites from Yunnan newly introduced woolly aphid infesting white province, China...... 444 stinkwood trees in South Africa...... 435 Runlei Chang, Tuan A. Duong, Stephen A. Taerum, Diedrich Visser1, Ian Millar2 Michael J. Wingfield, Z. Wilhelm de Beer

0106 - Observations on the biology of the trumpet 0098 - Ant diversity and composition in the bagworm, Trachypteryx rhodoxantha Hampson reforested landscape of Buffelsdraai landfill, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae, Phycitinae)...... 436 KwaZulu-Natal...... 445 Diedrich Visser1, Vivienne Uys2 Sbongiseni Xolo1, Stefan Foord2, Rob Slotow1, Caswell Munyai1 0367 - The interaction of lepidopteran pests with Bt crops: evaluating the assumptions central to the 0016 - Epigaeic arthropod response to fynbos fires high-dose/refuge IRM strategy...... 437 in the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve and Andri Visser1, Johnnie Van den Berg1, Hannalene Du Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, Western Cape...... 446 Plessis1, Annemie Erasmus2 Inam Yekwayo1, James Pryke2, Rene Gaigher2, Michael Samways1 0116 - New record of a cerambycid in the South African sugarcane industry...... 438 Mike Way1, Desmond Conlong1,2, Stuart Rutherford1, Deborah Sweby1, Denise Gillespie1, Rowan Stranack1, Beth Grobbelaar3

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 22 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Programme

Monday 3 July 2017

TIME DIAMOND RUBY AUDITORIUM EMERALD AMETHYST ROOM AUDITORIUM (capacity: (capacity: 136) AUDITORIUM (capacity: 140) 450) (capacity: 100) 15:00-18:00 REGISTRATION in the Central Foyer 18:00-18:30 Registrations closed 18:30-20:30 WELCOMING RECEPTION in the Central Foyer

Tuesday 4 July 2017

TIME DIAMOND RUBY AUDITORIUM EMERALD AMETHYST ROOM AUDITORIUM (capacity: (capacity: 136) AUDITORIUM (capacity: 140) 450) (capacity: 100) 08:00-09:00 REGISTRATION in the Central Foyer 09:00-09:30 Welcome and opening address Overflow seating with live stream 09:30-10:30 PLENARY SPEAKER: PROF. PHIL STEVENSON Overflow seating with live stream 10:30-11:00 BREAK - Morning tea in the Central Foyer RESPONSES SCIENCE FOR DISEASES, PARASITES BIOGEOGRAPHY, TO CHANGING SOCIETY: AND VECTORS TAXONOMY AND ENVIRONMENTS CONDUCTING SYSTEMATICS RESEARCH AND TEACHING THAT TRULY REACHES SOCIETY Chair: Michelle Thompson Aliza le Roux Darren Pietersen Sasha Hoffman 11:00-11:15 0015. S. Cunningham. PLENARY SPEAKER 0413. D. Kleynhans. 0043. I. Millar. Trade-offs between foraging EMIL VON MALTITZ Diversity and Prevalence Current progress in and thermoregulation of Bartonella in Gerbillus providing digital access to underpin sublethal costs of nanus from Saudi Arabia the primary type specimen climate change in birds holdings of the South African National Collection of Insects 11:15-11:30 0017. D. Ehlers Smith. PLENARY (Continued) 0146. S. Heighton. Scaly 0008. D. Bakkes. Thresholds in forest- bacteria: the quest to Evaluation of measurement fragment size are indicated identify pangolin pathogens error in rotational mounting by a reduction in avian of Rhipicephalus (Acari: functional diversity and Ixodida: Ixodidae) species forest specialists in geometric morphometrics 11:30-11:45 0018. Y. Ehlers Smith. The 0164. C. Acker-Cooper. 0188. L. Retief. Detection 0208. A. Gilbert. Seasonal importance of microhabitat Nurturing Citizen Scientists of novel haemoplasma abundance of forensically structure in maintaining through local employment strains in four species of related flies from greater forest mammal diversity in the conservation sector free-living bathyergids from Johannesburg and abundance in a mixed the Western Cape Province, land-use mosaic South Africa 11:45-12:00 0022. A. McKechnie. 0129. M. Hamer. 0182. L. Lobb. 0019. S. van Noort. Phylogenetic variation Generating foundational Optimisation and Assessing species richness in heat tolerance and biodiversity information evaluation of novel adult of one of Africa’s most evaporative cooling that addresses the needs of trapping methods to be diverse insect families capacity among Kalahari society used in surveillance of the (Ichneumonidae, Desert birds malaria vector Anopheles Hymenoptera) arabiensis

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 23 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

12:00-12:15 0047. M. Maseko. 0180. M. Cherry. Research 0312. S. Eiseb. Prevalence 0255. S. Faure. Systematics Response of Crested and politics: Mbeki’s of haemoparasites on of the Afrotropical Guinea-fowl (Guttera denialism of HIV-AIDS small mammals in fallow- Chalcididae (Chalcidoidea: edouardi), a forest lands within Mukwe Hymenoptera) specialist, to spatial Constituency, Kavango East variation in land use in Region, Namibia iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa 12:15-12:30 0046. M. Rat. 0423. N. Mzilikazi. 0197. A. le Grange. 0127. G. Daniel. The impact of elevated Enhancing equity of Prevalence and diversity of Taxonomic overview temperatures on social student access, success and tick-borne Anaplasmataceae of the tribe Sisyphini networks of a highly throughput using funding in indigenous, commensal (Scarabaeinae: communal passerine rodents (Rodentia: Muridae Scarabaeidae: Coleoptera) and Nesomyidae) from in southern Africa Gauteng Province, South Africa 12:30-12:45 0131. M. Leitner. 0228. A. le Roux. 0071. D. Tagwireyi. 0021. P. Taylor. Integrative Bush encroachment slows Must science #fall for a real Seroprevalence and taxonomy resolves species decomposition and termite connection to be forged associated risk factors limits and identification of activity in an African with society? of Toxoplasma gondii cryptic small rhinolophid savanna infection in domestic bats in Southern Africa animals in the O.R Tambo District, South Africa 12:45-13:00 0345. K Alujević. Open discussion 0334. E. Roos. 0337. D. Main. Phylogeny The evolution of complex IP-10 a promising of the genus Chamaeleo phenotypes in lizards: can biomarker for the detection and an investigation of multiple physiological of Mycobacterium bovid cryptic speciation in the functions be optimized at infection in warthogs common flap-necked the same time? chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis) 13:00-13:15 0033. C. Owen. A potential Open discussion 0240. H. Thatcher. Can 0186. W. Conradie. new methodology for parasitic load be used Unmasking evolutionary determining thermal to measure the effect of diversity among two closely tolerance in insects: Are anthropogenic disturbance related South African current methods accurate on Vervet Monkeys legless skink species enough? (Chlorocebus aethiops) (Acontinae: Acontias) using molecular data 13:15-14:30 LUNCH on the Deck 13:30-14:30 Lunchtime workshop: Career paths in the Ruby auditorium RESPONSES SOCIAL INSECTS IN DISEASES, PARASITES BIOGEOGRAPHY, TO CHANGING AFRICA: UNITING A AND VECTORS TAXONOMY AND ENVIRONMENTS CROSS-DISCIPLINARY (Continued) SYSTEMATICS (Continued) RESEARCH (Continued) COMMUNITY Chair: Sarita Maree Tom Bishop Armanda Bastos Chris Chimimba 14:30:14:45 0073. N. Weyer. 0089. R. Crewe. 0342. P. Tshikae. 0085. B. Jansen van Kalahari aardvarks on the Sex pheromone doubles as A review of odyssean Vuuren. Genetic edge: drought-induced social regulator in honey malaria outbreaks in South information at different resource deficiency may bee societies Africa 2014-2017 spatial scales: Southern compromise aardvark Ocean islands as study sites survival under climate change 14:45-15:00 0075. N. Gotcha. Plasticity 0041. E. Mauda. Changes 0007. C. de Beer. 0092. D. Monsanto. and cross tolerance to in landuse alter ant Evaluation of Tiny Targets Unravelling the fine-scale heterogenous environments: diversity, assemblages and as additional control spatial genetic structure of a divergent stress responses dominant functional traits technique for Glossina springtail on sub-Antarctic co-evolved in an African in African savannas austeni and Glossina Marion Island fruit fly brevipalpis populations in South Africa

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 24 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

15:00-15:15 0140. S. Malematja. Heat 0152. L. Bester. 0056. G. Munhenga. 0100. H. Webster. tolerance and evaporative Temperature, pesticides and Development of sex The spatial genetic structure cooling capacity in speckled honey bees - A hot mess? separation tools to in the eastern rock elephant mousebirds (Colius eliminate female Anopheles shrew, inferred from striatus) arabiensis during mass mitochondrial and nuclear production: Progress and data challenges 15:15-15:30 0063. A. Bourne. 0194. M. Robertson. 0105. H. Human. 0114. L. Tensen. Field-testing a non-invasive Elevation gradients: What is sustaining the Population connectivity of doubly labelled water natural laboratories to ‘capensis calamity’? two large carnivore species technique for measuring better understand diversity in Zimbabwe physiological heat stress in patterns and processes Southern Pied Babblers 15:30-15:45 0145. S. Naidoo. 0177. S. Mustafa. Mass 0385. J. Coertzen. 0014. J. Visser. Evolution Feast now, pay later: reproduction in the small The dissemination of fungal of the South African The cost offForaging at hive beetle, Aethina tumida: pathogens on avocado Bathyergidae: Patterns and wastewater works for an key to suppression of trees in South Africa, with processes urban adapter, the Banana its honey bee host, Apis reference to the vector Bat (Neoromicia nana) mellifera, and an example potential of insects of “emancipation” in beetles 15:45-16:00 0163. M. Noakes. 0078. C. Munyai. Impacts 0084. M. Kaiser. 0193. D. Pietersen. Phenotypic flexibility of grazing, fire and blue A mark-release-recapture Taxonomy of the avian in heat tolerance of a gum plantation on ant pilot trial using colonised genera Anthus, Macronyx passerine species: a diversity at Ukulinga Anopheles arabiensis in and Tmetothylacus (Aves: direct test of behavioural Research farm in Mamfene, KwaZulu-Natal Motacillidae) in sub- and physiological Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu- Saharan Africa acclimatisation to hotter Natal conditions 16:00-16:30 BREAK - Afternoon tea in the Central Foyer RESPONSES SOCIAL INSECTS IN DISEASES, PARASITES BIOGEOGRAPHY, TO CHANGING AFRICA: UNITING A AND VECTORS TAXONOMY AND ENVIRONMENTS CROSS-DISCIPLINARY (Continued) SYSTEMATICS (Continued) RESEARCH (Continued) COMMUNITY (Continued) Chair: Michelle Thompson Heather Campbell Armanda Bastos Sarita Maree 16:30-16:45 0175. A. Jeanrenaud. 0428. C. Pirk. 0066. E. Agubuzo. 0037. M. Hamer. The Interspecific competition Interface between managed Effect of radiation on Natural Science Collections between Culex and wild honey bees in longevity of an Anopheles Facility quinquefasciatus and South Africa arabiensis strain targeted Anopheles arabiensis under for SIT releases polluted conditions 16:45-17:00 0216. B. Smit. 0151. T. Bishop. 0189. M. Samuel. The 0417. A. Ellis. Physiological Life on the Dragon’s Back: effect of inorganic fertiliser The importance and underpinnings of local the cold, not the heat, pollution on the life history evolution of the adaptation in a southern limits the distribution and of the Anopheles arabiensis underappreciated African endemic bird behaviour of montane ants vector mosquito keystone fly pollinators of Namaqualand 17:00-17:15 0235. A. Botha. The effect 0179. F. Mumoki. 0330. B. Kay. 0095. J. Kemp. of diet restriction on core Apis mellifera scutellata Evaluation and comparison Herbivorous insect body temperature patterns queens can control of various plant extracts for communities are coupled in captive African buffalo reproductive parasitism in the management of Lucilia to plant species and exposed to hot summer A. m. capensis clones by sericata phylogenetic community conditions blocking production of the composition across short “queen substance” spatial scales in the Cape Floristic Region 17:15-17:30 0211. K. Oswald. 0372. S. Foord. 0029. A. Burke. Winter is 0117. J. Harrison. Do seasonal physiological Habitat, aspect and coming: the overwintering Rhinoceros beetles of responses to heat explain elevation interact to survival strategy of the southern Africa: a planned climate change vulnerability affect the relative roles of African malaria vectors, book in a Fynbos endemic bird? turnover and nestedness in and their responses to dry- explaining ant beta diversity season conditions across the Soutpansberg

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 25 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

17:30-18:30 ESSA AGM in the Ruby auditorium END DAY 1 19:00-23:00 STUDENT FUNCTION at Aandklas, Hatfield

Wednesday 5 July 2017 TIME DIAMOND RUBY AUDITORIUM EMERALD AMETHYST ROOM AUDITORIUM (capacity: (capacity: 136) AUDITORIUM (capacity: (capacity: 140) 450) 100) 08:30-09:00 REGISTRATION in the Central Foyer 09:00-10:00 PLENARY SPEAKER: PROF. DANIEL SIMBERLOFF Overflow seating with live stream ANNUAL RESEARCH RESPONSES REPRODUCTION AND BIOGEOGRAPHY, SYMPOSIUM ON TO CHANGING DEVELOPMENT TAXONOMY AND THE MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENTS SYSTEMATICS OF BIOLOGICAL (Continued) (Continued) INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Chair: Hildegard Klein Pieter Olivier Ezette du Rand Sandra Mustafa 10:00-10:15 MANAGEMENT 0251. A. Ganswindt. 0201. C. Weldon. Thermal 0254. B. Grobbelaar. PROCESSES AND Non-invasive monitoring preference of male Ceratitis Longhorn beetles: the SOCIAL EFFECTS of endocrine markers in capitata (Wiedemann) good, the bad and the ugly 0038. S. Kumschick. A wildlife (Diptera: Tephritidae) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) risk analysis framework for reflects higher sexual the listing of alien species performance at warmer under regulations temperatures 10:15-10:30 0076. A. Novoa. Initiating 0215. P. Singh. 0204. Y. Dahan-Moss. 0343. Z. Mbo. global action for managing Hadeda ibis (Bostrychia Study of the sexual A revision of the endemic cactus invasions hagedash) urban nesting, maturity and mating of the South African spider genus roosting and activity in Anopheles funestus male Drassodella Hewitt, 1916 Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu- (Araneae: Gallieniellidae) Natal, South Africa 10:30-10:45 SPEED TALKS 0273. E. Kheswa. Habitat 0308. M. van Rooyen. 0347. P. Maake. New 0101. E. J. Jones use and predator influence Impaired reproductive predatory mites’ species 0358. N. Senoge on honey badgers in performance of female of the genera Eustigmaeus 0357. K. Jama iSimangaliso Wetland Park, Southern white rhinoceros Berlese, 1910 and 0353. B. Slippers South Africa (Ceratotherium simum Eryngiopus Summers, 1964 simum) in captive from citrus in Florida, USA environments (Acari: Stigmaeidae)

10:45-11:00 0169. K. T. Faulkner 0275. T. van de Ven. 0354. K. Medger. 0171. P. Tshililo. Integrated Prioritising surveillance To fledge or not to fledge? Effects of food restriction taxonomy of the endemic for marine organisms Hot days limit hornbill and photoperiod on Karoo agile grasshoppers transported as stowaways reproductive success reproduction in male spiny (Orthoptera: Acrididae: on ships mice: Evidence for terminal Euryphyminae) investment? 11:00-11:30 BREAK - Morning tea in the Central Foyer ANNUAL RESEARCH RESPONSES REPRODUCTION MOVEMENT SYMPOSIUM ON TO CHANGING AND DEVELOPMENT THE MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENTS (Continued) OF BIOLOGICAL (Continued) INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (Continued) Chair: Hildegard Klein Andrew McKechnie Marietjie Oosthuizen Sandra Mustafa 11:30-11:45 0421. D. le Maitre. 0281. N. Pattinson. 0133. K. Pentz. 0332. C. Tocco. Guidelines and tools for Seasonal behavioural How do pollinating fig Built for business? Dung planning and management responses of an arid- wasp mothers adjust their beetle morphology and time of alien plant species zone passerine in a hot sex ratios? of flight invasions environment

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 26 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

11:45-12:00 0396. R. Thifhulufhelwi. 0325. M. Molepo. Foraging 0013. S. Mnguni. 0187. A. Rebelo. Re-thinking Invasive Alien behaviour and thermal Behavioural observation Frog Olympics: Plant control as a social physiology in Cape experiments of cryptic exploring the locomotory process in a complex Sugarbirds: Sex-specific species of Eccritotarsus ecomorphology of the system: The case of the responses to temperature sp. (Carvalho) (Hemiptera: pyxicephalid radiation in Blyde Catchment Miridae), biological control southern Africa agents of water hyacinth 12:00-12:15 SPEED TALKS 0338. I. Minnaar. POPULATION 0405. E. Snelling. Scaling 0392. L Molekoa Thermal adaptation of AND COMMUNITY of the muscle-tendon 0397. J. Mukarugwiro the harlequin ladybird, ECOLOGY energy recovery system 0370. A. L. Padayachee Harmonia axyridis, to 0061. M. Wondafrash. in the lower hindlimbs of 0053. B. Nxele variable environments: Novel natural enemy the kangaroo Macropus a multigenerational encounters of an invasive fuliginosus experiment forest insect pest 12:15-12:30 0391. J. le Roux. 0380. S. Coetzee. Thermal 0239. M. Trisos. Disturbing 0248. M. Mole. Understanding the impacts tolerance in the grain resource hotspots: drought Do elephants migrate? of invasive legumes on chinch bug, Macchiademus impacts on vegetation and soil microbial community diplopterus, and the insect communities around composition and function influence of controlled termite mounds in South Africa’s Cape atmospheres for post- Floristic Region harvest control 12:30-12:45 0362. A. Qongqo. The role 0403. K. Krüger. Response 0292. J.-H. Daneel. Natal 0191. C. Price. of phytopathogenic fungi of aphids to heat waves and fly versus the Cape fly Aspects of the spatial in limiting plant invasions: drought (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the and population ecology The case of Australian Limpopo and Mpumalanga of two terrapin species in Banksia (Proteaceae) in provinces, South Africa KwaZulu-Natal, South South Africa Africa 12:45-13:00 SPEED TALKS 0410. K. Haylock. Sable 0294. A. Manrakhan. The 0064. M. Kral. 0074. K. V. Nkuna antelope display flexibility Oriental fruit fly: Four years Small mammal landscape 0183. D. Saccaggi in body temperature after first establishment in corridor usage in a 0329. B. Hurley regulation and behavioural the northern areas of South fragmented grassland patterns during the dry Africa ecosystem in the season Mpumalanga Province, South Africa 13:00-13:15 0088. M. P. Hill. Open discussion 0302. O. Mlonyeni. 0157. E. Church. Intersite Community based Diversity in Sirex- movements and associations implementation is vital to Amylostereum-Deladenus of southern elephant seals the wide-scale success of complex: Understanding (Mirounga leonina) ashore weed biological control in pest invasion and guiding at Marion Island South Africa management through biological control 13:15-14:30 LUNCH on the Deck 13:30-14:30 Lunchtime workshop: Applications for funding in the Ruby auditorium ANNUAL RESEARCH SOUTHERN AFRICAN POPULATION SUSTAINABLE SYMPOSIUM ON SOIL BIOTA IN A AND COMMUNITY EXPLOITATION AND THE MANAGEMENT CHANGING CLIMATE ECOLOGY (Continued) PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (Continued) Chair: Brett Hurley Charlene Janion- Mark Robetson Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder Scheepers 14:30:14:45 PLENARY SPEAKER: 0356. C. Janion- 0054. R. Mutamiswa. 0024. H. Machekano. DR. JIM TAYLOR Scheepers. Species diversity and Diamondback moth A need for knowledge abundance of lepidopteran pest status in Botswana: of soil biota ecological stem borer natural enemies current control methods, function in southern Africa in Botswana perceptions and knowledge on alternative pest management options

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 27 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

14:45-15:00 PLENARY (Continued) 0364. W. Swart. 0210. K. R. Pillay. 0058. M. Acheampong. Direct and indirect effects Aspects of the ecology of Suitability of of abiotic factors on the vervet monkeys in urban entomopathogenic fungal rhizosphere microbiome eThekwini, KwaZulu-Natal, isolates for microbial of selected plants: South Africa control of citrus pests: Implications for measuring biological traits and effect the impact of climate of formulation change 15:00-15:15 PLENARY (Continued) 0154. A. Jacobs. 0229. J. M. Greef. 0107. W. Kirkman. Soil Fusarium survey of the Dispersal and mating Postharvest detection of grassland biome of South patterns of the parasitic Thaumatotibia leucotreta in Africa nematode, Spirocerca lupi citrus fruit in South Africa 15:15-15:30 NEW INVADERS 0262. H. Badenhorst. The 0340. S. Hoffmann. 0110. G. Prinsloo. Session chair: effect of pollutants and Dispersal patterns and Response of wheat aphids Brett Hurley agricultural practices on soil animal personality in to plants treated with SPEED TALKS mesofaunal assemblages the eastern rock sengi volatile substance (Elephantulus myurus) 0268.P. Dlamini 0059. G. Wilson 0195. A. Gouws 0409. L. Foxcroft 15:30-15:45 0205. B. Isabirye. 0237. J. A. Neethling. How 0230. M. Louw. Densities 0135. T. Sikhakhane. Global invasive spread and the lack of importance in of Arthroleptella lightfooti Exploring genetic risk of the phytophagous soil economy has affected across the Cape Peninsula: approaches for Russian fall armyworm: Climate pseudoscorpion (Arachnida: Preliminary results from wheat aphid (Diuraphis change implications. Pseudoscorpiones) research acoustic spatial capture- noxia) resistance breeding recapture in wheat 15:45-16:00 0082. D. Visser. Invasions 0199. M. Blanckenberg. 0426. H. Lutermann. 0149. T. Bapela. Increasing by Tuta absoluta and Resurrection ecology of Variation of morphometric wheat resistance to Russian Spodoptera frugiperda: invertebrates in temporary and demographic wheat aphid Diuraphis What is the threat to wetlands in the Cape parameters in eastern rock noxia (Kurdjumov) vegetable production in Floristic region: effects of sengi populations (Hemoptera: Aphididae) South Africa? urbanisation and fire biotypes 16:00-16:30 BREAK - Afternoon tea in the Central Foyer ANNUAL RESEARCH SOUTHERN AFRICAN POPULATION SUSTAINABLE SYMPOSIUM ON SOIL BIOTA IN A AND COMMUNITY EXPLOITATION THE MANAGEMENT CHANGING CLIMATE ECOLOGY (Continued) AND PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL (Continued) (Continued) INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (Continued) Chair: Charlene Janion- Tom Bishop Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder Scheepers 16:30-16:45 SPEED TALKS 0136. S. van der Merwe. 0112. R. Lerm. Almost a 0168. M. James. 0320. H. du Plessis Soil biota as bioindicators decade of water-dependent Local entomopathogenic 0386. T. Smit of erosion levels and fire bird monitoring along the nematodes can they help 0339. I. Minnaar disturbances in afromontane Olifants River, Kruger NP control the Mediterranean grassland areas within the fruit fly? Golden Gate Highlands National Park

16:45-17:00 0283. J. Queffelec. 0144. J. Botham. 0139. C. Nyamukondiwa. 0196. C. Gevers. Influence of reproductive Forest patch status and Dominance of spotted The complex Leptocybe biology on the invasive soil health indices along stemborer, Chilo partellus invasa gall community on capacity of hymenoptera a topographical gradient Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Eucalyptus species: Sirex noctilio as a within afromontane Crambidae) over case study grasslands indigenous stemborer species in Africa’s changing climates 17:00-17:15 SPEED TALKS 0284. S. Louw. Managing 0299. K. Fitza. 0207. F. Bekker. 0418. R. Stals 0080. change in cropping system Genetic diversity of The area-wide spatio- J. H. Venter soils requires strategic Deladenus siricidicola, the temporal distribution 0147. T. Nelufule thinking biological control agent of of Ceratitis capitata 0070. C. Shivambu the woodwasp Sirex noctilio (Wiedemann) populations in the Western Cape, South Africa

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 28 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

17:15-17:30 0318. R. Smith Open discussion 0209. N. P. Ngubane. 0213. C. Love. Monitoring 0438. G. Venturi Arthropods associated with population trends of false 0322. L. G. Madire blueberry plants (Vaccinium codling moth, carob moth 0439. J. Musedeli sp.) in the Mpumalanga and and Mediterranean fruit fly Western Cape Provinces of on multi-crop farms in the South Africa Western Cape 17:30-18:30 ZSSA AGM in the Ruby auditorium 18:30-20:30 POSTER VIEWING FUNCTION in the Exhibition Hall END DAY 2

Thursday 6 July 2017

TIME DIAMOND RUBY AUDITORIUM EMERALD AMETHYST ROOM AUDITORIUM (capacity: (capacity: 136) AUDITORIUM (capacity: (capacity: 140) 450) 100) 08:30-09:00 REGISTRATION in the Central Foyer 09:00-10:00 PLENARY SPEAKER: PROF. BILL KARASOV Overflow seating with live stream ANNUAL RESEARCH CONSERVATION OF NUTRIENTS AND SUSTAINABLE SYMPOSIUM ON BIODIVERSITY AND TOXINS EXPLOITATION AND THE MANAGEMENT POPULATIONS PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA Chair: Nic Venter Katarina Medger Quentin Guignard Kerstin Krüger 10:00-10:15 BIOCONTROL 0265. P. Olivier. Extinction 0081. A. Hammerbacher. 0243. C. Mole. Exploitation 0044. G. Sutton. Does debt and species credit Behavioral response or valid justification? The Hypogeococcus festerianus in coastal forests: does of the bark beetle, Ips use of animal specimens in successfully control the restoration lead to typographus, to commonly forensic science research cactaceous weed Cereus conservation? associated Ophiosomatoid jamacaruin South Africa? fungi

10:15-10:30 0276. J. A. Coetzee. 0020. L. Thompson. 0104. K. Malod. 0244. B. Dlamini. Testing the thermal limits of Breeding ecology of the Food, sex and death: any Entomopathogens isolated Eccritotarsus catarinensis: Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes compromises? Nutritional from local deciduous fruit Acclimation or heritability? monachus in the Kruger-to- geometry of a specialist orchards and vineyards to Canyons Biosphere Region, pest fruit fly, Ceratitis control of the banded fruit South Africa cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: weevil, Phlyctinus callosus Tephritidae) 10:30-10:45 SPEED TALKS 0032. C. Downs. 0142. C. Ngcamphalala. 0246. L. Mohase. South 0060. S. F. Mvandaba Impact of habitat Flower length is more African Russian wheat 0379. B. Cowie fragmentation and habitat important than width in aphid (Diuraphis noxia) 0030. L. G. Madire structure on the occupancy determining foraging biotypes induce differential 0184. P. Naidu of forest mammals in preferences of white-bellied responses in wheat varieties eThekwini Municipality sunbirds (Cinnyris talatala) grown in the highlands of Lesotho 10:45-11:00 0113. S. Bush. Host 0252. M. Burke. 0150. E. du Rand. 0247. J. Hatting. Effect of specificity of the parasitoid Microsatellite variation in Detoxification ability of an insecticide application Psyllaephagus bliteus a a population-level study honeybee larvae has been at different frequencies on biological control agent of of the endangered bearded underestimated nut development in pecan Glycaspis brimblecombei vulture Gyptaeus barbatus trees, Carya illinoinensis (Juglandaceae) 11:00-11:30 BREAK - Morning tea in the Central Foyer

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 29 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

ANNUAL RESEARCH CONSERVATION COMMUNICATION SUSTAINABLE SYMPOSIUM ON OF BIODIVERSITY EXPLOITATION THE MANAGEMENT AND POPULATIONS AND PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL (Continued) (Continued) INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (Continued) Chair: Chair: Nic Venter Katarina Medger Quentin Guignard Monica Leitner 11:30-11:45 0274. P. C. Muskett. Post 0083. C. Deacon. 0222. K. Govender. 0052. L. van Emmenes. release evaluation and Conservation planning for Rodent responses to volatile Hermetia illucens sausages thermal physiology of one of the rarest and most compounds provides as human food the Pereskia stem-wilter, threatened damselflies in insights into the function Catorhintha schaffneri the world of floral scent in mammal pollinated plants 11:45-12:00 0366. D. Marlin. 0094. S. Hugo. New 0238. P. Pachuwah. The 0119. S. Netshifhefhe. Host-preference of methods for analysing role of floral and fruit scent Human uses and indigenous the beetle Diorhabda species communities: compounds as mosquito knowledge of edible carinulata on invasive and multivariate modelling and attractants: developing new termites indigenous Tamarix spp. Bayesian ordination methods for monitoring mosquito populations 12:00-12:15 SPEED TALKS 0122. M. Eckert. Diversity 0271. V. Couldridge. 0219. N. Parry. Evaluation 0400. S. Mbonani and distribution of litter Factors affecting nocturnal of three Chrysomya spp. 0065. J. Hoffmann and topsoil arthropods in signalling behaviour in and Lucilia sericata 0359. T. Abels timber plantation landscape the bladder grasshopper, (Diptera: Calliphoridae) for mosaics: The biodiversity Bullacris unicolor the bioconversion of waste value of hydromorphic products grasslands

12:15-12:30 0159. J. Musedeli. 0125. T. Mzumara-Gawa. 0206. I. Mutavhatsindi. 0373. D.V. Fourie. A promising leaf-mining The changing face of The effect of foraging Investigation of possible flea beetle,Epitrix sp., southern Africa’s Mopane habitat on the intensity of pyrethroid resistance for the biological control woodlands: implications for acoustic signals in development in two-spotted of Cestrum species conservation of threatened echolocation of the bats; stinkbug, Bathycoelia (Solanaceae) species and avian functional Neoromicia capensis distincta (Hemiptera: diversity (Vespertilionidae) and Pentatomidae) on Tadarida aegyptiaca macadamia in South Africa (Molossidae) 12:30-12:45 0048. H. Klein. 0162. C. Cormac. 0327. M. Tjiurutue. 0234. M. Woods. Attempts at biological Determining population Messages from the other The determination of control of small round- dynamics of the oide: Parasites receive nutrient requirements and leaved prickly pear, Endangered Kloof Frog, damage cues from their host development of artificial Opuntia engelmanii, in Natalobatrachus bonebergi, plants diets for the mass rearing South Africa through landscape genetics of insects of economic and monitoring importance 12:45-13:00 SPEED TALKS 0192. V. Thabethe. 0406. R. La Grange. 0257. L. Torrance. 0389. K. Musengi Supplementary feeding The role of olfaction in Management strategies to 0399. P. Mudau of African woolly-neck host plant location of the control the Cape grapevine 0173. N. Magengelele storks (Ciconia microscelis) leafhopper vector of aster leafminer, Holocacista 0121. I. Egbon may explains their recent yellows phytoplasma in capensis (Lepidoptera: expansion in KwaZulu- grapevine Heliozelidae), in South Natal, South Africa Africa

13:00-13:15 0141. I. Paterson. 0202. S. Bohn. 0419. A. Shuttleworth. 0128. G. Dittrich- Optimisation of biological Tall timber: Habitat Scent chemistry of the Schröder. control implementation selection of a tree-roosting bizarre carrion-mimic The Leptocybe invasa strategies bat during the reproductive Sarcophyte sanguinea genome: a window to season (Balanophoraceae) understanding the biology of a serious invasive Eucalyptus pest 13:15-14:30 LUNCH on the Deck 13:30-14:30 Lunchtime workshop: Career skills in the Ruby auditorium

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 30 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

ANNUAL RESEARCH CONSERVATION OPEN SESSION 1 SUSTAINABLE SYMPOSIUM ON OF BIODIVERSITY EXPLOITATION THE MANAGEMENT AND POPULATIONS AND PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL (Continued) (Continued) INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (Continued) Chair: Samantha Naidoo Heike Lutermann Sasha Hoffman 14:30:14:45 PLENARY SPEAKER: 0227. A. Purdon. 0291. D. Finaughty. 0261. V. Steyn. PROF. BRIAN VAN Predicting ecological Carrion feeding ecology of Mechanisms mediating WILGEN benchmarks for savannah the Cape Grey Mongoose false codling moth elephant populations: and its forensic implications mating disruption, using providing context to counts point-source pheromone dispensers 14:45-15:00 PLENARY (Continued) 0231. T. Sethusa. SANBI’s 0025. K. Williams. 0279. S. Schoeman. Case role in fostering sustained The temporal occurrence studies regarding the effect and informed support for of flesh flies (Diptera, of tree manipulation on the animal conservation Sarcophagidae) at commercial management carrion-baited traps in of key insect pests in two Grahamstown, South Africa subtropical tree crops 15:00-15:15 PLENARY (Continued) 0005. A. Mariam. 0314. H. Bosua. 0289. J. Adendorff. Explaining extinction risk Performance of honeybees Antioxidant enzymes pattern in the African (Apis mellifera scutellata: in wheat play a role Cyprinidae: It is all about Lepeletier) in laboratory in Alexin™-mediated wrong origin and wrong conditions: effects of resistance to Russian wheat location diet state (liquid or solid) aphid (Diuraphis noxia) on survival and nutrient regulation 15:15-15:30 AQUATICS 0309. J. Theron. Response 0297. N. Lubcker. 0298. T. Grout. Session chair: of spider diversity to Whiskers of southern Undercover complications: Iain Paterson landscape and patch elephant seals as matrix for The trend for growing SPEED TALKS heterogeneity in remnant obtaining fine-scale dietary citrus under net provides natural patches within data new opportunities for pest 0286. C. Makehle agricultural landscapes of management research 0132. N. Petela the Cape Floristic Region 0324. S. Ngxande-Koza 0090. G. Martin 15:30-15:45 SPEED TALKS 0280. R. Guldemond. The 0307. D. Angst. 0323. R. Erasmus. 0278. N. Baso questionable impact of New insights into the life Development of stem borers 0040. S. N. Kenfack elephants on others history of the dodo from on Bt and non-Bt maize Voukeng bone histology plant crosses 0371. N. Venter 0303. M. S. Ndlovu 15:45-16:00 0174. S. Marr. Evaluating 0249. J. Streicher. Effects 0288. A. Chinsamy-Turan. 0328. W. Weeks. invasion risk for freshwater of differing land use on the Palaeobiology of the Evaluation of four fishes in South Africa presence and habitat use of giant insular extinct bird, Brassicaceae types in terms various mongoose species Aepyornis maximus of insect attraction and nematode bio-fumigant potential in the North-West Province 16:00-16:30 BREAK - Afternoon tea in the Central Foyer ANNUAL RESEARCH CONSERVATION OPEN SESSION 2 SUSTAINABLE SYMPOSIUM ON OF BIODIVERSITY EXPLOITATION THE MANAGEMENT AND POPULATIONS AND PRODUCTION OF BIOLOGICAL (Continued) (Continued) INVASIONS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA (Continued) Chair: Iain Paterson Margaux Rat Kevin Malod Monica Leitner 16:30-16:45 0232. L. Mofu. Assessing 0306. S. Parbhu. 0126. M. Brigham. 0424. B. Slippers. the relative impact potential Genotypic and phenotypic Thermoregulation by Molecular and chemical of successfully introduced characterisation of captive captive and free-ranging ecology are important fishes in man-made aquatic lion (Panthera leo) Egyptian rousette bats for the management of environments populations in South Africa (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in emerging pests in plantation South Africa forestry

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 31 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

16:45-17:00 0331. L. Bloy. 0267. M. Freeman. Matrix 0368. S. Ackermann. 0415. V. Swart. An assessment of whether transformation alters Circadian rhythms of An ecological analysis of thermal tolerance is a species-area relationships in locomotor activity in stink bug and lepidopteran driving factor of non-native fragmented coastal forests captive Emin’s mole- borer complexes associated fish invasion fronts rats, Heliophobius emini with pecan and citrus (Rodentia: Bathyergidae) orchards 17:00-17:15 SPEED TALKS 0313. A. Thompson. 0310. P. Roets. 0416. S. Thackeray. 0333. D. Khosa Katydids (Orthoptera: Life history changes in the Secondary pest outbreaks: 0181. S. Motitsoe Tettigoniidae) respond to marula fruit fly, Ceratitis The relationship between habitat quality and not to cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Ectomyelois ceratoniae the zones of a biosphere Tephritidae) in response Zeller and mealybug in reserve to selection for age of Navel oranges reproduction 17:15-17:30 H. Zimmermann. Video 0388. S. Willows-Munro. 0212. B. Hannweg. 0422. V. Tolmay. presentation Conservation genetics: Association between an Resistance reaction of Knockout: the spectacular Vultures in crisis artificial and natural habitat selected advanced bread control of the boxing of the Eastern Cape redfin wheat linesand cultivars glove cactus using a newly minnow to all four known biotypes introduced natural enemy of Russian wheat aphid (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in South Africa END DAY 3 18:30-20:30 CONFERENCE DINNER AND AWARDS in the Exhibition Hall

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 32 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Plenary speaker abstracts

2017

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 33 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Sex, drugs and ecosystem services: the ecological functions of nectar toxins

Philip C Stevenson Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB, United Kingdom & Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham, Kent, ME4 4TB United Kingdom.

Plants invest significant resources producing nectar to reward flower visiting pollinators. Paradoxically, nectars often contain toxic compounds that protect plants against herbivore antagonists so could disrupt pollinator mutualisms and reduce plant fitness. Alternatively, they could benefit both plant and pollinator. The defensive role of plant compounds is well established their function in nectar is less well understood. However, increasing evidence supports beneficial ecological functions for nectar toxins. For example, grayanotoxin in Rhododendron ponticum L. nectar is selectively toxic to different flower visitors and by excluding some pollinators may impose chemical based selection for preferred pollinators optimising pollination efficiency. Highly adapted floral nectaries inAconitum species are accessible only to long-tongued bees but are occasionally robbed by short-tongued species biting through the corolla. The nectar contains alkaloids toxic to both bee species but the pollinator tolerates higher concentrations so selective toxicity of nectar provides additional protection against nectar thieves. The antimicrobial monoterpene thymol occurs in Thymus vulgaris nectar and is biological active against gut parasites of bumblebees so management of landscapes with ‘medicinal’ plants could enable bees to reduce disease load or even self-medicate. Perhaps the most surprising effect of nectar chemicals is caffeine, a deterrent compound at high concentration, but in nectar of Coffee and Citrus species is low where, undetected by bees, enhances bee memory for learned floral cues associated with food reward. Effectively it drugging pollinators into greater floral fidelity and so enhances pollen transfer. These findings could help devise novel technologies for improving ecosystems services.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 34 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Invasion biology and management: Progress, problems, and polemics

Daniel Simberloff University of Tennessee

Modern invasion biology is a young field, beginning in the 1980s. Nevertheless, we now know of drastic impacts of hundreds of invaders. They eat native species, overgrow them, outcompete them, infect them, hybridize with them, and have myriad other impacts. Impacts affecting entire ecosystems have been increasingly documented, particularly as ecological research on aboveground- belowground interactions has increased. Despite this hecatomb, the past few years have seen several criticisms of the field of invasion biology and management. Among other bones of contention, critics charge that the field is infected with xenophobia, claim that the damage caused by biological invasions is overblown, and argue that, even if effects of biological invasions are substantial, we can’t do much about the phenomenon in the face of globalization, so we shouldn’t waste our resources trying. These criticisms are misguided. In particular, successful management projects (including eradications) are proliferating, with several evolving new approaches and ambitious goals.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 35 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Climate change and ecotoxicology: predicting toxicant exposure and impacts on ectotherms in warming environments

Karasov, W.H., Brown, C.T., and J.M. Yahn.

As climate warms, are vertebrate and invertebrate ectotherms under greater risk to toxicants? We studied in a model ectotherm (northern leopard frogs, Lithobates (Rana) pipiens) at several temperatures the impacts of dietary exposure to environmentally relevant levels of two model persistent organic pollutants - polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs; we use congeners 70 and 126) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs; we use the congener mixture DE-71TM). We hypothesized that the increased temperatures associated with climate change (i) will increase food and hence toxicant intake rate and elimination rates that influence overall exposure (i.e., bioaccumulation – the ratio of toxicant in tissue/food), and (ii) will increase contaminant toxicity. We reared tadpoles at temperatures between 18 and 28 oC, measured toxicant bioaccumulation and elimination, and tested for impacts on features of (i) whole-animal energetics of tadpoles and (ii) immune function of post-metamorphic frogs. Over the range 23-28 oC, respiration, which drives food and toxicant intake rate, and toxicant elimination, increased similarly. For both toxicants, bioaccumulation did not change significantly with increased rearing temperature, indicating that faster toxicant uptake at warmer temperature was balanced by faster toxicant elimination. We found that effects of toxicants and of increased temperature were additive, and not synergistic, on features of energetics. For PBDE, for example, respiration, digestive efficiency, growth and development of tadpoles were increased at warmer rearing temperatures, but negative effects of PBDEs, when they occurred, were not magnified. Overall, warmer rearing temperature depressed innate immune function of metamorphs regardless of toxicant exposure level, and warmer rearing temperature enhanced a negative effect of PCBs on antibody production (a synergistic effect). Both of these effects might make amphibians more susceptible to pathogens in warming environments. The principles and approaches that are discussed should be applicable to other vertebrate and invertebrate ectotherms. Funding provided by the National Sea Grant College Program, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce (Grant no. NA10OAR4170070, Project R/HCE-14) and the UW- Madison Dept. Forest and Wildlife Ecology.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 36 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Work Skills, Education for Sustainable Development in a safe and just space for humanity

Dr Jim Taylor (WESSA Director of Environmental Education) [email protected]

”We are experiencing a very chaotic time, where humanity determines the outcome for the Planet – sustainability or collapse …?” Steffen (2008)

The unanimous approval of the Sustainable Development Goals by 193 countries in September 2015 represents one of the most significant policy shifts in recent history. Officially, at least, the environment movement and actions towards sustainability are at the forefront of global policy. Do the SDG’s represent a dream come true or does achieving more sustainable life-style choices remain the big challenge for humanity?

Pressing issues such as Invasive alien species are placing the Earth’s life support systems including air, water, biodiversity and food production at risk. These risks are currently exceeding the planetary boundaries. We also need to work within the limits of human well-being, however, and ensure that social issues like decent health-care, quality education and nutritious food are adequately provided for. In short we are seeking a ‘safe and just space for humanity’. These concepts will be explored with methodologies, tools and practices. These include Work Skills Training, Working for Eco-Systems and citizen science approaches.

Since invasive alien risks are challenges that are created by humans any response that holds hope for longer term solutions need to be human-based. Meaningful Education for Sustainable Development processes are recommended along with co-engaged ‘action learning.’

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 37 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

South Africa’s first national status report on biological invasions

Brian W. van Wilgen Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, South Africa

This presentation provides a preliminary assessment of the status of biological invasions in South Africa. In terms of regulations under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act, the South African National Biodiversity Institute is required to produce a report on the status of invasive species, and on the effectiveness of control interventions and regulations, every three years. The team responsible for compiling the report have developed a set of indicators that assess the main aspects of invasions, as well the effectiveness of control measures, and of the regulations. One of the aims of this talk is to obtain feedback on the preliminary findings. Preliminary data on the number of alien species inthe country, and their status in terms of distribution, dominance and impact will be presented, as well as the degree to which particular areas are invaded. An assessment of the effectiveness of control is difficult, as there are almost no adequate management plans that indicate the intended goals of control measures in particular areas, and no adequate monitoring and assessment of outcomes. While there are some localised successes, there is also a great deal of evidence that control measures have been ineffective in many areas. The regulations have been in place for less than three years, and it is probably premature to expect that their effectiveness could be assessed at this early stage. The status report on biological invasions has to be repeated every three years, so it will in future offer the opportunity to track invasions over time.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 38 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Oral abstracts

2017

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 39 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0359 - Establishment of the biological control agent, Zygogramma bicolorata on Parthenium hysterophorus in South Africa: is soil moisture important?

Tristan Abels1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Ed Witkowski1, Lorraine Strathie3 1University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, 3Agricultural Research Council - Plant Protection Research Institute, Hilton, South Africa

The biological control agent Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) has been introduced into South Africa to control famine weed, Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae: Heliantheae). The beetle has not established at many P. hysterophorus sites at which it was released, despite its thermal physiology suggesting that it should be compatible with the climate. Zygogramma bicolorata diapauses and pupates in the soil; so is soil moisture a limiting factor for the beetles’ establishment in South Africa? A 100 m transect was established in a field of P. hysterophorus at the only site where the beetle had been present consistently since its release in 2013, although in an erratic geographic pattern. The transect was laid from a ravine outwards, providing a soil moisture gradient. The number of beetles, as well as their feeding damage on P. hysterophorus and soil moisture was measured every 10 m along the transect monthly, so that beetle establishment and effectiveness in terms of defoliation could be measured in relation to soil moisture. The critical soil moisture level impacting on beetle presence was found to be between 15 and 20%. At and above this soil moisture level, the beetles became more abundant, and defoliation of P. hysterophorus increased from less than 10% to up to 45% per plant. In conclusion, the ability of the beetle to establish at a site, as well as its effectiveness against P. hysterophorus, is at least partially affected by soil moisture.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 40 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0058 - Suitability of entomopathogenic fungal isolates for microbial control of citrus pests: biological traits and effect of formulation

Mavis Acheampong1, Martin Hill1, Sean Moore1,2, Candice Coombes1 1Rhodes University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2Citrus Research International, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Recent research has identified promising native isolates of entomopathogenic fungi for their potential to control key citrus insect pests in South Africa. From 62 isolates identified, three (one Beauveria bassiana and two Metarhizium anisopliae) were recommended for further studies and subsequent development into biocontrol agents purely based on virulence. Although field trials against false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a key citrus pest, have been extremely positive, efficacy against citrus mealybug and thrips in field trials has been disappointing. Understanding the full array of biological traits of these fungal isolates for selecting the most suitable candidates for biological control of citrus pests is paramount, rather than just focussing on virulence. Temperature tolerance (8-40 °C), determined by radial growth of seven selected fungal isolates in comparison with two commercial mycopesticides, was studied in the laboratory. All fungal isolates generally grew between 16-27 °C and optimally at 20 and 27 °C. At the optimal temperatures, the two M. anisopliae isolates recommended for further studies recorded significantly higher radial growth (2.04-3.04 mm/day) compared to B. bassiana isolates (0.58-1.88 mm/day) and the two commercial mycopesticides (1.36-2.44 mm /day). At 8 °C, growth was marginal for all B. bassiana isolates and the B. bassiana commercial product (0.11-0.20 mm/ day) and completely absent for all M. anisopliae isolates including the commercial M. anisopliae product. The upper thermal threshold for all isolates was 35 °C. The moisture requirements, UV sensitivity, and endophytic benefits of these isolates are also being addressed in this study.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 41 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0164 - Nurturing Citizen Scientists through local employment in the conservation sector

Cherise Acker-Cooper, Jeanne Tarrant Endangered Wildlife Trust, Modderfontein, South Africa

Wetlands provide essential ecosystem services, purifying valuable water resources. However, these ecosystems are under severe threat from urban encroachment, active drainage, pollution and over-utilisation. The EWT Threatened Amphibian Programme (TAP) is rehabilitating four key wetland sites within the eThekwini Municipal Area that host populations of the endangered Pickersgill’s reed frog, Hyperolius pickersgilli. The project employs 65 people from communities near these wetlands, primarily to remove alien invasive plants and replant indigenous vegetation. Teams working in the field not only receive a source of income from their work, which is funded by the Department of Environmental Affairs Natural Resource Management programme, but also develop a sense of appreciation for wetlands and the associated biodiversity through their work. Through continuous exposure, team members are aware that water resources are being polluted and that ultimately this threatens livelihoods. As a means of measuring our teams’ growing sense of interest and appreciation for their natural surroundings, we have made use of social media to encourage collection of biodiversity records. A WhatsApp group has been created where team members can post their observations. These observers each have their own iSpot account to which records of fauna and flora sightings are submitted. This form of acknowledgement has not only contributed to our programme’s biodiversity monitoring objectives but has resulted in an 82% increase in submissions by team members. The development of effective strategies to develop citizen scientists based within local wetland communities could be a key component of sustainable wetland management practices.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 42 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0368 - Circadian rhythms of locomotor activity in captive Emin’s mole-rats, Heliophobius emini (Rodentia: Bathyergidae)

Simone Ackermann, Nigel Bennett, Maria Oosthuizen University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Despite their subterranean lifestyle and associated adaptations, many African mole-rats (Bathyergidae) exhibit distinct circadian rhythms. We investigated the circadian system of Emin’s mole-rats (Heliophobius emini) by exposing 13 individuals to different lighting regimes. The mole- rats were allowed to entrain to a standard 12h light:12h dark light cycle, followed by a constant darkness (DD) cycle. Most of the mole-rats showed diurnal activity and nine mole-rats entrained to the light cycle, and maintained clear endogenous rhythms throughout DD. After re-entrainment to the 12L:12D cycle, the light cycle was inverted to examine the duration of re-entrainment following a drastic change in the light cycle. Animals were excessively slow to re-entrain to the inverted light cycle. Furthermore, the effect of different ambient temperatures on locomotor activity was investigated by subjecting animals to 20 oC, 25oC and 30 oC a 12D:12L light cycle.H.emini showed marked increases in average activity at 20oC, with the lowest average activity occurring at 30oC. Lastly, mole-rats were presented with a long day (16L:8D) and a short day (8L: 16D) light cycle to examine the effect on their activity. The mole-rats maintained their diurnal preference regardless of day length, condensing activity during the short-day light cycle, while extending their active period during the long-day cycle. These results suggest that H.emini is able to perceive light and entrain their locomotor activity to light cycles albeit weakly. In addition, ambient temperature influences the level of overall activity, indicating that these animals may use behavioural thermoregulation to maintain a constant body temperature.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 43 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0289 - Antioxidant enzymes in wheat play a role in Alexin™ mediated resistance to Russian wheat aphid

Joan Adendorff1, Astrid Jankielsohn2, Schalk vdM. Louw1, Lintle Mohase1 1University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa, 2ARC-Small Grains Institute, Bethlehem, Free State, South Africa

The Russian wheat aphid (RWA, Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov (Hemiptera, Aphididae)) is a wheat pest that can cause high yield losses especially in the Free State dryland wheat producing areas. The use of resistant wheat cultivars has reduced economic damage caused by RWA, but the occurrence of new biotypes can potentially have a negative impact on wheat production in South Africa and alternative control methods have to be investigated. Alexin™ is a nutrient complex with salicylic acid derivatives that increases inherent resistance in plants, acting as a priming agent that provides long-term protection against a broad range of pathogens and pests. Wheat cultivars susceptible or resistant to the South African RWA biotype 2 were treated with Alexin™ (0.375%) before RWA infestation. The treated infested susceptible cultivar showed increased enzyme activities of β-1,3-glucanase and peroxidase, while the resistant cultivar showed suppressed activities. To understand the role of priming in resistance to RWA, we measured the activity of antioxidant enzymes and the levels of antioxidants (H2O2) in primed and infested susceptible or resistant wheat cultivars. These findings are discussed and highlight the role of Alexin™ in regulating the onset of antioxidants in the resistance response to RWA. These results and further research could improve our understanding of the mechanisms behind the defence priming in RWA-wheat interaction, which could promote priming as a valuable tool in sustainable aphid management in wheat production.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 44 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0425 - Endemic grasshopper species distribution in an agro- natural landscape of the Cape Floristic Region, South Africa

Samuel Adu-Acheampong University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana

Conservation biologists and ecologists often make use of models to identify important biotic and abiotic factors that constrain species distributions for conservation decisions to be taken. In line with such practices, we developed species distribution models for four localized, Cape Floristic Region (CFR) endemic, flightless, congeneric Euloryma grasshopper species. We chose this group as use of these models has been little explored for narrow-range endemics with specific traits. Euloryma larsenorum and E. lapollai are associated with fynbos only, while E. umoja and E. ottei are both associated with fynbos and vineyards. We used the Maximum Entropy algorithm, which showed that vegetation type and soil characteristics were the most important environmental factors affecting local distribution of Euloryma species in the CFR. The models also showed that Euloryma species have a very narrow habitat suitability range in the CFR. We further demonstrated that there are no significant differences in the distribution of species associated with fynbos only as well as those associated with both fynbos and vineyards. E. larsenorum and E lapollai are likely to be the most affected species in the event of further habitat transformation from fynbos to agricultural production. This is not likely to be the case for E. umoja and E. ottei, which can tolerate an agricultural environment, although they might survive both sets of environments in accordance with their life history traits.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 45 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0066 - Effect of radiation on longevity of an Anopheles arabiensis strain targeted for SIT releases

Eunice Agubuzo1,2, Malibongwe Zulu1,2, Alan Kamp3, Givemore Munhenga1,2, Lizette Koekemoer1,2 1Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Centre for Opportunistic, Tropical and Hospital Infections, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Special Viral Pathogens Laboratory, Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Sandringham, Johannesburg, South Africa

The use of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) as an Area-Wide Integrated Vector Management (AW-VM) intervention to complement existing vector control strategies is under investigation in South Africa. The success of this technique relies on sterilization of laboratory-reared males for release into wild populations in order to induce sterility. Currently this sterilization is being achieved through ionizing radiation. However, gamma irradiation compromises both physiological and reproductive fitness of the irradiated males. This study was carried out to determine the effect of irradiation on the emergence and longevity of an An. arabiensis strain. Male pupae aged 22–26 hrs was irradiated. The effects of irradiation on adult emergence and resultant adult survivorship were evaluated and results compared against controls. Overall, emergence in both treatments and controls ranged from 70% - 90%. Adult emergence decreased with increasing gamma radiation at higher doses. There was no significant difference in emergence rates between the treatments and control (P = 0.19). The median survival time from 70Gy, 80Gy, 90Gy and 100Gy was 21 days, 14 days, 10 days and 9days, respectively. Log Rank comparison of survival rates showed that there was a significant difference in survival between treatments and controls (P = 0.017). Pre-exposure of pupae to radiation resulted in a reduction in both adult emergence and longevity which was more pronounced at higher irradiation doses. This result might suggest that higher doses increase the chances of somatic damage and are thus not recommended for inducing sterility in this An. arabiensis strain.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 46 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0345 - The evolution of complex phenotypes in lizards: can multiple physiological functions be optimized at the same time?

Karla Alujevic1, Michael Logan2, Jeffrey Streicher3, Susana Clusella-Trullas1 1University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, 2Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Panama City, Panama, 3The Natural History Museum, London, UK

Inter-individual variation in physiological performance represents the substrate upon which selection can act by favouring phenotypes with superior ability to meet ecological challenges (e.g. predator defence and mating success). Selection simultaneously acts upon suites of performance traits that interact to form multivariate phenotypes. Nevertheless, individual measures of performance are often examined in isolation. If different performance functions share a mutual mechanistic basis, they can be correlated. While correlations between traits can permit selection to optimize different trait values simultaneously, some correlations could result in trade-offs, meaning that species must specialize in some performance traits at the expense of others. Three of the central hypotheses underlying thermal performance curve variation within a population include: (i) Faster- Slower (some individuals perform better than others at all temperatures), (ii) Hotter-Colder (some individuals perform better at low temperatures but decrease in performance at high temperatures, and vice versa), and (iii) Generalist-Specialist (some individuals have higher performance at intermediate temperatures and lower performance at low and high temperatures, and vice versa). This study examined inter-individual variation in thermal sensitivity of physiological performance in the lizard Agama atra Daudin, 1802. We quantified the thermal sensitivity of sprint-speed, running endurance and bite-force of 38 lizards from the same population and examined correlations among these traits. We test if performance curve variation follows predictions from thermal adaptation theory and assess covariance among traits. More generally, we discuss possible implications of correlated traits on adaptive evolution of complex phenotypes in the context of environmental change.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 47 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0307 - New insights into the life history of the dodo from bone histology

Delphine Angst1, Anusuya Chinsamy1, Lorna Steel2, Julian Hume0 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Department of Earth Sciences, Natural History Museum, London, UK, 3Bird Group, Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum, Herts, UK

The dodo, Raphus cucullatus, a flightless pigeon endemic to Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, was discovered at the end of the 16th century by sailors that arrived on the island. It became extinct during the late 17th century due to human activities. Although this bird was contemporaneous with humans for almost a century, little is recorded about its ecology. As the microscopic structure of fossil bones retains biological signals, we conducted the first histological analysis of 22 bones of the dodo, including five femora, one humerus, fourteen tibiotarsi and two tarsometatarsi. The presence of medullary bone for two bones indicate that these specimens correspond to ovulating females and by extrapolation we deduced that the dodo bred around August. The study suggests that juveniles grew rapidly to enable them to reach a robust size before the austral summer or cyclone season. Histological evidence of moulting suggests that after summer had passed, moult began in the adults that had just reproduced; the timing of moult derived from bone histology is also corroborated by historical descriptions of the dodo by mariners. This research provides an unprecedented insight into the life history of this iconic bird.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 48 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0262 - The effect of pollutants and agricultural practices on soil mesofaunal assemblages

Hannelene Badenhorst1, Charlene Janion-Scheepers2, Schalk Louw1 1Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa

Soil communities are complex and include representatives from all three domains of life. This enables ample possibilities for multiple food web combinations and interactions which lead to optimal functioning. They furthermore drive the resilience of soils in the presence of anthropogenic influences, such as biocide application, mining activities and agricultural practices. Although mining and agriculture are two of the major role players of the South African economy, these practices can have devastating effects on the environment in the presence of poor management. The importance of soil communities and the need to protect soil biocenoses has been recognised and pursued elsewhere in the world, with promising outcomes and successful strategies to evaluate soil health. The aim of this study was to observe soil community responses to various anthropogenic influences in agricultural landscapes. Sampling was conducted under various conditions on five farms in the Free State province between 2011 and 2014. Soil samples were taken from the porosphere of randomly selected plants and the mesofauna quantitatively and qualitatively analysed. Disturbances reduced the diversity and complexity of soil mesofauna assemblages at all locations. However, in disturbance trials collembolan species played an important role in terms of abundance and presence-absence, with certain species showing a high tolerance to changing conditions. The severity and replication of disturbances, coupled with changing environmental conditions, had an influence on the resilience of soils and disrupted recovery timeframes at each locality. From our results we discuss the potential use of Collembola as indicators of disturbance.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 49 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0008 - Evaluation of measurement error in rotational mounting of Rhipicephalus (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae) species in geometric morphometrics

Deon Bakkes Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum; Parasites, Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases; Agricultural Research Council – Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Geometric morphometric analysis in combination with modern computational power has revived the study of morphology in contemporary biology. Precise measurements of morphological shape features can be obtained to generate detailed datasets for studying even minimal variation. An advantage of geometric morphometrics is ease of use and affordability, which facilitates rapid acquisition of large amounts of data. One key challenge is the issue of 2D photographs that serve as proxies for 3D structures. These proxies ‘miss’ the Z-dimension of depth variability, introducing additional noise into a dataset. 3D scanners or digitizers can solve this issue, but are costly and present complexities in analysis. As such, the ease of application in 2D proxies means they will continue to be used well into the future. Rather than limiting studies by enforcing expensive or complex protocols, we should aim to optimise 2D shape proxies and explicitly state and measure error. Reducing measurement error is crucial in obtaining accurate and precise estimates of shape. In microphotography of arthropods that present some variation in Z-dimension, a rotational mounting surface should be capable of reducing measurement error associated with positioning. This study quantifies positioning error in the symmetric and asymmetric components of shape. Application of this method for studying shape change at the species level is validated for future use.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 50 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0149 - Increasing wheat resistance to Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) biotypes

Theresa Bapela1,2, Vicki Tolmay1,2, Toi Tsilo1,2 1Agricultural Research Council, Small Grain Institute, Free State, South Africa, 2University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

The Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) has gained economic importance due to its occurrence in many cereal producing regions including South Africa, Kenya, USA, Mexico, Russia, Czech Republic, Afghanistan, Iran and many others. The cereal pest particularly affects wheat, oat, barley and rye. Leaf rolling, white or yellow longitudinal leaf stripes, purple discoloration and stunted growth characterize RWA post-infestation and damage. Insecticides used to be the most frequently applied method of reducing pest populations, however the ability of aphids to hide inside rolled/curlled leaves reduced the reliance of chemical use. Host plant resistance or use of resistant cultivars has proved to be the most effective and reliable way of managing this pest. This presentation reports on identifying sources of resistance to South African D. noxia biotypes to aid in increasing the RWA resistant germplasm. This will be achieved by phenotyping genotypes of interest, infestation with the four South African biotypes, i.e. RWASA1, RWASA2, RWASA3 and RWSA4 and evaluating their reactions to these biotypes. The results obtained from this research will be useful in identifying genotypes that can be incorporated in the RWA pre-breeding and breeding programmes at the ARC-Small Grain Institute.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 51 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0278 - The role of silicon in the biological control of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub (Pontederiaceae)

Nompumelelo Baso, Julie Coetzee Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Silicon (Si) is not considered an essential nutrient in higher plants since many of them can grow and reproduce successfully under low Si conditions. Nevertheless, this nutrient has been found to be very advantageous to stressed plants, providing protection against a number of biotic and abiotic stresses, including herbivory. While recent research highlights the importance of Si in aquatic plants, not much is known about its role in aquatic plant-insect interactions, and therefore the consequences for biological control. The aim of this study was to determine the role of silicon in the defense mechanisms of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms- Laub (Pontederiaceae) against a suite of biological control agents, Neochetina eichhorniae (Warner) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), Eccritotarsus catarinensis Carvalho (Hemiptera: Miridae), and Megamelus scutellaris Berg. (Hemiptera: Delphacidae). In the presence of high levels of water silicon, biological control of water hyacinth was decreased and the rate of this decrease was related to the biocontrol agent used. Feeding by N. eichhorniae was significantly reduced in comparison to feeding by the two sap suckers, E. catarinensis and M. scutellaris. This is an essential investigation in the field of biological control, because high nutrient availability promotes the uptake of Si in plants, and since water hyacinth occurs in the most eutrophic systems in South Africa, the potential of Si uptake is likely to be substantial.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 52 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0207 - The area-wide spatio-temporal distribution of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) populations in the Western Cape, South Africa

Francois Bekker1, Adriaan Van Niekerk1, Matthew Addison2, Pia Addison1 1Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, 2Hortgro Science, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa

Area-wide pest control is expensive to implement and therefore it is important to investigate ways in which to optimise and improve the impact of these programmes. Effective planning and implementation of management actions is of vital importance, be it SIT or aerial application of bait sprays. The area-wide spatio-temporal dynamics of the mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), was investigated to evaluate the effect of landscape elements and a variety of environmental factors, on the pest distribution. We utilised fruit fly monitoring data obtained from the trapping network of a local area-wide fruit fly control programme, which covered two heterogeneous fruit production areas. Geographic information systems (GIS) together with a variety of spatial analysis techniques and geostatistical procedures were used to describe the spatio-temporal distribution of the pest population and to investigate possible relationships between the fruit fly distribution patterns, landscape elements and environmental factors. Some studies have looked at spatial patterns of C. capitata within the landscape. However, very few studies have explored the spatio-temporal patterns of C. capitata on such a large scale as was done in this study. Results show that during periods of high population numbers, fruit fly “hotspots” are observed in areas of close proximity to urban areas. However, the underlying mechanisms that might explain these “hotspots” are still to be investigated. The outcomes of this research will assist managers of area-wide fruit fly programmes to plan and apply management actions, and thereby improve the effectiveness of control programmes.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 53 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0152 - Temperature, pesticides and honey bees - a hot mess?

Laura Bester, Christian Pirk University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Pollinators, specifically honey bees, are an integral part of agricultural production. Pesticides utilized in agriculture and commercial beekeeping practices have been shown to have varying sub- lethal effects at individual level but there is potential for such effects to have amplified, cumulative effects at colony level.

Pesticides affect thermoregulation, reduce flight muscle function and development, disrupt neural pathways controlling flight, reduce wing development, cause malformations, increase susceptibility to diseases that reduce flighty capacity, and affect foraging ability and learning behaviour. These documented effects may influence individual and colony level thermoregulatory activities, especially under future predicted climate warming conditions. Individual Apis mellifera scutellata (Lepeletier, 1836) flight efficiency and individual lethal temperature thresholds were determined both with and without prior exposure to three separate neonicotinoid pesticides.

Flight efficiency was evaluated using flight mills. We recorded a larger number of non-flight runs in the pesticide-treated bees than the control. Pesticide treated bees also appeared to have a slightly reduced flight efficiency compared to the control.

Individual thermal tolerance of A. m. scutellata was determined to be at approximately 53-54°C, which is higher than in the European subspecies and will allow them to buffer against the predicted temperature increases from climate warming in the future.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 54 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0151 - Life on the Dragon’s Back: the cold, not the heat, limits the distribution and behaviour of montane ants

Tom Bishop1, Mark Robertson1, Berndt Janse van Rensburg3,4, Catherine Parr2 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK, 3University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, 4University of the Witswatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) are often cited as being highly thermophilic (heat-loving), and this has led to a range of studies investigating how their maximum thermal tolerances link to their geographic distributions and activity patterns. There is a lack of data, however, on how the lower thermal tolerances of ants may constrain their distributions and behaviour. To address this gap we sampled ants across a 1500 m elevational gradient in southern Africa. We estimated the upper (CTmax) and lower (CTmin) thermal tolerances of 31 and 28 species, respectively. We also monitored ant abundances and soil temperatures across the gradient for over six years. We found that the average CTmin declined with increasing elevation. In addition, the response of ant abundance to temperature changes through time was dependent on species CTmin but not CTmax. Species that could withstand the cold, with a low CTmin, were active across a range of temperatures but those species unable to cope with cold, having a higher CTmin, were only active at higher environmental temperatures. This mechanistic link between physiology, behaviour and the environment is discussed in relation to other broad macrophysiological patterns and in the context of other physiological work on ants. We suggest that, in this environment at least, the concept of ants being cryophobic (cold-fearing) is more useful term than the traditional label of being thermophilic.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 55 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0199 - Resurrection ecology of invertebrates in temporary wetlands in the Cape Floristic region: effects of urbanisation and fire

Michelle Blanckenberg1, Musa Mlambo2, Cecile Reed1 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Department of Freshwater Invertebrates, Albany Museum, Grahamstown, South Africa

Despite their importance to regional biodiversity, temporary wetland invertebrate communities are under-conserved and generally understudied, especially in the dry phase. Resurrection ecology of invertebrate propagules in dried soil sediments, from Cape Sand Fynbos temporary wetlands, was investigated in 2016. Firstly, the effects of urbanization on hatching success were tested by comparing a set of wetlands from a conserved area (relatively little urban influence) to an equal set from an open, urban space (urban-influenced). Secondly, to test the effects of fire, part of the soil samples was experimentally exposed to fire (burned) and compared to unburned samples. No significant differences existed in diversity patterns of invertebrate hatchlings between conserved and urban wetlands. These results suggest that human activity (elevated nutrients and litter pollution) did not impact invertebrate propagules. Although aquatic species dominated the community composition of the hatchlings, surprisingly, a handful of terrestrial species also hatched out from the dried soil sediments, raising some interesting questions about their potential to withstand alternating dry and wet phases. Alternately, fire had a significantly negative impact on invertebrate diversity measures and community composition, with burned samples exhibiting much reduced hatching success. Predictions on the effects of climate change suggest that fire frequency might increase in the future, while fire intensity is also slated to increase due to high flammability of invasive species that have transformed the landscape of this region. Adaptive fire management strategies that take into consideration both the results of this study andthe predicted nature of fire frequency and intensity, are greatly needed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 56 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0331 - An assessment of whether thermal tolerance is a driving factor of non-native fish invasion fronts

Lesley Bloy1,2, Bianca Hannweg1,2, Helen Dallas4, Olaf Weyl2,3 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3Centre for Invasion Biology, Grahamstown, South Africa, 4Freshwater Research Centre, Grahamstown, South Africa

Non-native fish invasions are the primary threat to headwater stream fishes that are otherwise isolated from human-mediated impacts. Invasion of headwater streams is often mediated by an environmental match between the tolerances of the invader and the receiving environment. Consequently, invasion fronts shift both spatially and temporally. This study assesses longitudinal distributions of native and non-native fishes in headwater tributaries of the Swartkops River making use of snorkel surveys. The thermal regime of the stream was mapped using one year of temperature data recorded hourly by Hobo temperature loggers. To test the hypothesis that the thermal regime of the stream determines the position of the alien fish invasion front and the downstream distribution of the native Eastern Cape redfin minnow afer, thermal preference and tolerances were compared to the thermal regime of the stream. For alien fishes thermal tolerances were available from the literature. For P. afer thermal tolerance experiments were conducted to determine the critical thermal maximum of the endangered Eastern Cape redfin. A non-lethal endpoint, the temperature at which the fish lost equilibrium, was usedto determine Critical Thermal Maximum. The mean winter CTM of P. afer was found to be 29.9 ± 0.7 °C, while the mean summer CTM was 35.2 ± 0.5°C. These results are discussed in the context of fish invasion fronts and the distribution of P. afer in the Blindekloof stream.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 57 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0202 - Tall timber: habitat selection of a tree-roosting bat during the reproductive season

Shelby Bohn, Mark Brigham University of Regina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada

Habitat is a basic requirement for animal survival, but habitat characteristics are prioritized differently between species and life stages. Different species of tree-roosting bats select habitat based on features such as favourable microclimate, capacity for conspecifics, or protection against predators, and these priorities can change as an animal’s circumstances change. The habitat requirements of the silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans), a North American tree-roosting species and regional migrant, are relatively well studied during spring and fall when solitary non- reproductive individuals roost underneath loose bark. However, less is known about the habitat requirements of reproductive females during the summer, when they form small maternity colonies in tree hollows and are under different ecological pressures than their migrating counterparts. I quantified habitat characteristics of tree roosts used by reproductive female silver-haired bats in Saskatchewan, Canada to better understand the priorities of these bats as they give birth and care for pups. These bats select deciduous trees with features that might help to protect against predators including roost trees that are well above the canopy of surrounding forest. As one of the three species of bat most frequently killed by wind turbines in North America, identifying and preserving summer habitat may have important implications for conservation and natural resource use.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 58 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0314 - Performance of honeybees (Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier) under laboratory conditions: effects of diet state (liquid or solid) on survival and nutrient regulation

Henrika Bosua1, Susan Nicolson1, Ruth Archer2, Christian Pirk1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK

Animals need to regulate their intake of specific nutrients to optimise the expression of traits such as longevity. However, the effect of diet state (liquid/solid) on nutrient regulation and longevity is unknown. We explored the effect of diet state on honeybee nutrient regulation, as bees consume food in both liquid (jelly, honey) and solid (pollen) states. Using the geometric framework of nutrition, we tested honeybee survival and ability to regulate intake of protein and carbohydrates on both liquid and solid diets. During a choice trial bees were provided with diet pairs of either two protein- containing diets or a protein diet vs a sucrose diet. In a no-choice trial bees were constrained to a single diet. Nutrient regulation was poor for both diet states, but especially on liquid diets where protein consumption increased as dietary protein increased. Constrained to a single diet, bees prioritised carbohydrate over protein consumption, while protein, carbohydrate and total water consumption were all higher on liquid than on solid diets. Total water intake (water drank + water from food) was highest on liquid diets. Diet state and P:C ratio both affected survival. On liquid diets survival decreased as protein consumption increased, while highest survival on solid diets was on intermediate P:C ratios. Diet state introduces a third component, moisture content, to nutrient regulation. The distinct differences between liquid and solid diets could indicate the bees are attempting to regulate their water intake or that nutrient dilution affects their ability to detect nutrients and regulate nutrient intake.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 59 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0235 - The effect of diet restriction on core body temperature patterns in captive African buffalo exposed to hot summer conditions

Arista Botha, Andrea Fuller, Robyn Hetem University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Seasonal fluctuations in body temperature rhythm have been associated with changes in resource availability, with large mammals showing a reduced minimum body temperature when energy is limited during the cool dry season. To investigate the interplay between resource availability and ambient temperatures in driving changes in body temperature rhythm, we investigated the effect of diet restriction on a bulk grazer, the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer Sparrman, 1779), during summer. One group of 12 sub-adult buffalo (six male, six female) were given an ad-lib diet of Lucerne and teff hay for the entire study. A second group of 10 sub-adult buffalo (six male, four female) were given a diet of no lucerne and 25% less teff hay than the control group for a three- month period. At the end of the diet restriction period the control group gained 16,6 (±3,6) % of their body mass and the diet restricted group lost 3,4 (±4,1) % of their body mass. However, during the hot summer period (black globe temperature average 31°C, minimum 20°C and maximum 46°C), our feed-restricted buffalo did not display an altered body temperature rhythm (daily average body temperature t20=0.16, p=0.87; daily minimum body temperature t20=0.26, p=0.79; daily maximum body temperature t20=1.88, p=0.07; daily fluctuation in body temperature t20=1.35, p=0.19), possibly due to the high ambient temperatures preventing a drop in body temperature. Furthermore, we will explore the effects of weather and blood biochemistry measurements on individual variances in response to diet restriction in the African buffalo.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 60 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0144 - Forest patch status and soil health indices along a topographical gradient within afromontane grasslands

Jason Botham1, Vaughn Swart1, Emile Bredenhand2, Charles Haddad1 1University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa, 2University of the Free State, Phutaditjaba, Free State, South Africa

Forest patches are known to influence arthropod assemblages and the conservation of species diversity. While certain patches are brought about by anthropogenic influence, the occurrence of natural patches due to differing topographical conditions and climate change provide areas of isolation accommodated by several arthropod species. This is due to the direct link between soil health and the health of forest patches. Of particular focus is the status of the soil, leaf litter and tree canopies of forest patches. Seasonal changes within this stratification determine the likelihood of succession at differing altitudes. However, succession is also dependent upon surrounding vegetation types, allowing forest areas to accommodate a wider range of species during seasonal migrations. Distances between patches may increase over time due to environmental conditions and the attrition of these patches. Such distancing can have a negative impact upon vegetation dispersal, affecting arthropod species dependent upon forest ecosystems and their genetic variation. Furthermore, soil health of surrounding grasslands is a factor when considering the potential of forest expansion during changing conditions. This project aims to obtain data regarding the impact of various altitudes on the assemblages and dynamics of arthropods within forest patches. Viability of these patches as refugia during changing environmental conditions, as well as their potential to expand based on surrounding soil health, will be monitored. Additionally, the impact of these forest patches and their location may contribute to the reproductive isolation of certain exogenic and endogaeic species over time, creating island effects and contributing towards speciation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 61 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0063 - Field-testing a non-invasive doubly labelled water technique for measuring physiological heat stress in southern pied babblers

Amanda Bourne1, Andrew McKechnie2, Amanda Ridley1,3, Susan Cunningham1 1Percy FitzPatrick Institute, Cape Town, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia

Doubly labelled water (DLW) is routinely used to measure energy expenditure, water turnover, and hydration in free-ranging animals. Traditionally, such measurements involve (1) capture of the study animal, (2) injection with an isotope solution, (3) captivity for at least one hour prior to release, and (4) re-capture, as well as three blood samples typically drawn within a 24-hour period. Methods that minimise stress to the animal caused by captivity and handling are desirable to reduce impacts of stress on physiological measurements. During summer 2016/2017, we field- tested a novel non-invasive DLW technique in southern pied babblers in the Kalahari Desert. The technique, first piloted in Arabian babblers by Anavaet al. (Functional Ecology, 2000) but seldom used since, involves injecting DLW into a beetle larva and feeding it to the birds. Body water samples are collected from faeces rather than blood. We additionally conducted a validation study with eight birds to confirm that body water from faeces and blood are in isotopic equilibrium. We found that faecal water is in isotopic equilibrium with body water, and can thus be used as a viable source of body water samples for daily energy expenditure, daily water turnover, and dehydration measurements using DLW. Our preliminary field testing shows that non-invasive DLW is both feasible and comparable with conventional DLW in terms of results. This allows researchers to obtain sound physiological measurements while minimising distress to study animals - an attribute that may be of particular value in populations monitored in long term studies.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 62 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0126 - Thermoregulation by captive and free-ranging Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) in South Africa

Mark Brigham1, Robert Barclay2, David Jacobs3, Craig Harding3, Andrew McKechnie4, Stewart McCullough4, Wanda Markotter4, Janusz Paweska5 1University of Regina, Regina, SK, Canada, 2University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada, 3University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 4University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 5National Institute of Communicable Diseases, Sandringham, South Africa

Many bats, including some small-bodied tropical and subtropical Pteropodidae, use torpor to offset energetic constraints. We tested the hypothesis that medium-sized (110–160 g) cave- roosting Egyptian rousette bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) at the southern extent of their range are able to employ torpor. We measured daytime body temperatures (Tb) of nine wild individuals using implanted temperature-sensitive radiotransmitters. The bats roosted in a cave on Table Mountain, Cape Town, South Africa (a typically cool and wet area). Daily mean cave temperature (Tc) ranged between 7°C and 12°C (mean 9.3°C). All wild individuals exhibited a circadian cycle in Tb, with an average of 37.7°C upon return from foraging, decreasing to 35.5°C by mid-day. Before emergence for feeding, Tb increased to about 37°C. No individual allowed Tb to drop below 34°C indicating (assuming a threshold temperature of 30°C) that individuals in this population do not use torpor. Bats were active throughout the day within the roost and metabolic heat production may have contributed to the maintenance of rest-phase Tb. Ten individuals implanted with temperature- sensitive passive integrated transponder tags were held in captivity at temperatures of 25–30°C and subjected to food deprivation for 2–3 days. The lowest Tb recorded for any captive individual was 33.4°C despite losing an average of 10% of their initial body mass. Despite exposure to cool Ta in the cave, and often cold, wet, and windy conditions while foraging, or substantial food restriction in captive bats, R. aegyptiacus did not resort to using torpor.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 63 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0029 - Winter is coming: the overwintering survival strategy of African malaria vectors and their physiological and behavioural responses to simulated dry-season conditions

Ashley Burke1,2, Innocent Kambule3, Frances Duncan3, Basil Brooke2,1 1Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic & Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

The dry-season survival mechanisms of African malaria vector mosquitoes remain largely unknown. Malaria transmission in the region of Mamfene, KwaZulu Natal, declines over the dry winter months where only a few female vector mosquitoes and very few males appear in resting traps. This vulnerable dry-season Anopheles mosquito population may present a valuable opportunity for vector control. Metabolic rate suppression has been shown to be an indicator of diapause in insects as reduced metabolism is required to conserve energy during unfavourable environmental conditions. This research aimed to study the response of the southern African malaria vectors Anopheles arabiensis and An. funestus to simulated winter day-length and temperature regimes in an attempt to induce diapause in the adult stage. This was performed on colonised material maintained in an insectary. The longevity, fecundity and fertility, and mating success of mosquitoes placed under simulated winter conditions was monitored and compared to a control sample. The metabolic rates of wild-caught malaria vector mosquitoes collected mid-summer and mid-winter were measured and compared to one another. Any significantly supressed metabolism will indicate a state of diapause in the mosquitoes. This study determines whether malaria vector mosquitoes can breed at low levels during the winter environmental conditions or whether they are more likely to enter diapause. Should they continue to breed, then targeted vector control may be effective (such as Sterile Insect Technique), but should they enter diapause, then this strategy will be ineffective.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 64 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0113 - Host specificity of the parasitoid Psyllaephagus bliteus, a biological control agent of Glycaspis brimblecombei

Samantha Bush1, Bernard Slippers2, Brett Hurley1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Psyllaephagus bliteus (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) has been used as a biological control agent against Glycaspis brimblecombei (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Psyllaephagus bliteus has also been found with its pest host, with no intentional introduction, in various countries and more recently in South Africa. Despite the detection of P. bliteus in South Africa, studies previously initiated to investigate host specificity were continued in order to determine potential risks to non-target hosts. Non-target hosts tested included the only native lerp psyllid in South Africa, Retroacizzia mopanei, and two free-living psyllids and one lerp psyllid that are not native but feed on the same host, namely Eucalyptus species. Psyllaephagus bliteus was monitored during no-choice tests for antennation, probing and oviposition behaviours towards the test insects. In addition P. bliteus was enclosed on live plants infested with the test insects which were then monitored for offspring of P. bliteus. Retroacizzia mopanei and the non-native free living psyllids were not attacked, but P. bliteus did develop on the non-native lerp pysllid, Spondyliaspis cf. plicatuloides (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). The results indicate that the risk of P. bliteus to native insects is low, but that the biological agent is not entirely specific to Glycaspis species. Inclusion of potential hosts from the native range on the same host can thus be valuable in understanding the host specificity of potential biological control agents.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 65 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0180 - Research and politics: Mbeki’s denialism of HIV-AIDS

Michael Cherry Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

In 1999, South African President Thabo Mbeki’s statement that government would not take the ‘”irresponsible” step of supplying antiretroviral drug AZT to people who have HIV/AIDS until it could be established that the drug imposed no health risk, caused immense public confusion. According to his spokesman, the president obtained his information on AZT from the internet. The problem with this is that anyone can set up their own website - unlike articles in scientific journals, which are subject to peer review - without being responsible for the veracity of the information it contains. Two independent studies have concluded that the lack of an anti-retroviral drug programme caused the loss of more than 330,000 lives and that 35,000 babies were needlessly born with HIV, before South Africa finally abandoned AIDS denialism when Mbeki left office in 2008. Here I examine the history of the interaction between scientists and politicians during this period.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 66 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0288 - Palaeobiology of the giant insular extinct bird, Aepyornis maximus

Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan1, Delphine Angst1, Aurore Canoville1,2, Ursula Gohlich3 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Steinmann Institute, Bonn, Germany, 3Vienna Museum, Vienna, Austria

Aepyornis maximus, popularly known as the elephant bird from Madagascar, is considered to be one of the largest birds that ever lived. It is taxonomically identified as a ratite, and it is most closely related to the New Zealand kiwi (Apteryx). It is generally considered that Aepyornis became extinct as a result of over-exploitation by humans. Originally several species were recognised in the genus Aepyornis, but today only A. maximus is generally considered a valid taxon. Twenty-nine (29) skeletal elements were obtained for histological assessment: 17 bones (including 5 juveniles) were from the Vienna Museum of Natural History, and 12 adult bones were from the Natural History Museum in Paris. The material consists of an exceptional growth series of 7 femora, 7 tarsometatarsi and 8 tibiotarsi, as well as other additional skeletal elements. Thin sections of all skeletal elements were prepared and analysed under an E200 Nikon petrographic microscope at the University of Cape Town. Our results revealed possibly embryonic, as well as postnatal bone histology of this taxon. In addition, we were able to deduce how bone accreted in the femora, tarsometatarsi and tibiotarsi through ontogeny. The study revealed that like their modern relative, Apteryx, they experienced punctuated growth and took more than a decade to reach skeletal maturity. Our histological findings provide novel information about the life history of this giant, recently extinct island bird.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 67 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0157 - Intersite movements and associations of southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) ashore at Marion Island

Erin Church, Marthan Bester, P. J. Nico De Bruyn University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) periodically haul out during the year to moult, to breed or for a winter rest. During a haulout period, elephant seals remain ashore until they have finished moulting, breeding or resting, although movement between beaches during a haulout is known to occur. Multiple logistic regression analyses showed that some southern elephant seals change haulout locations within haulout periods, with gender, age, and breeding status influencing such movements. The type of haulout also affects the nature of intersite movements on the island. During haulout periods aggregations form, but whether these constitute preferred aggregations which affect the choice of haulout locations is unknown. Therefore associations between individuals were investigated as explanatory variables of the observed intersite movements. MRQAP and GAI tests indicated that while the inherent gregariousness of the species explained most of the associations, age was a useful predictor of associations. There was significant evidence for long-term associations between individuals (between breeding seasons), but there was little indication that these associations would affect intersite movement dynamics. Intersite movements could possibly constitute avoidance behaviour, e.g. harassment by males or inbreeding of southern elephant seals at Marion Island. Long-term preferred association may indicate conspecific recognition in the species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 68 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0385 - The dissemination of fungal pathogens on avocado trees in South Africa, with reference to vector potential of insect pests

Jolene Coertzen, De Villiers Fourie Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Fungal and plant associations have evolved over a long period, making fungi an important group of organisms which can colonize living plants. Fungi have adapted to survive by utilising several mechanisms to disperse reproductive propagules which aids the spread of disease. Insect vectors are one of the most important dispersal methods that fungi use. They transport fragments of hyphae by moving from plant to plant and create wounds during oviposition and feeding where spores can be deposited. Pathogens and vectors can have detrimental effects on crops such as orchards. The first part of the study focuses on the insect-fungal associations and the dissemination of fungi through vectors in relation to other dispersal techniques. The second part focuses on the role of Hemiptera, specifically the coconut bug, in damaging avocado fruit and transmitting fungal pathogens. Sampling was done on three sites in the Nelspruit region during 2016. Insect, leaf and fruit samples were taken from three sites and plated out on selective growth media. The samples were incubated for four weeks at 25˚C to allow for sufficient fungal growth. Fungi were identified, examining fruiting structures and using appropriate identification methods. A variety of pathogenic and non-pathogenic fungi were isolated from the leaves and fruits. Fungal pathogens associated with blackspot and anthracnose on avocados were isolated and special reference will be given to these fungi. A comparison of the fungi found on the insects and avocados will reveal whether the insects act as vectors of fungal diseases on avocados.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 69 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0380 - Thermal tolerance in the grain chinch bug, Macchiademus diplopterus, and the influence of controlled atmospheres for post-harvest control

Stephan Coetzee1, Leigh Boardman2, John Terblanche1, Shelley Johnson1 1Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA

The grain chinch bug, Macchiademus diplopterus (Distant), is an endemic phytosanitary pest in the Western Cape, South Africa. Aestivating grain chinch bugs seek shelter during summer, and may infest fruit orchards near grain fields, ultimately posing a phytosanitary risk to countries importing fruit from South Africa. Restrictions are imposed to prevent unwanted phytosanitary pest introductions; however, post-harvest control measures against grain chinch bug are lacking. Also, little is known about the physiology of grain chinch bug and how physical treatments, such as temperature treatments, affect survival. The thermal tolerance (critical thermal minimum,

(CTmin), and critical thermal maximum, (CTmax)) of the grain chinch bug were determined for adult bugs collected at different times during the seasonal cycle and therefore in different physiological states (active, early aestivation, middle aestivation, and late aestivation). The influence of different controlled atmospheres (CA) on the thermal tolerance of grain chinch bugs was also investigated. Data showed that tolerance to both low and high temperatures increases the longer grain chinch bugs are in aestivation. Early aestivating bugs CTmin was 2.6 ± 0.3 °C, which decreased to 1.9 ± 0.2

°C by late aestivation (p = 0.0075). CTmax increased from 49.6 ± 0.6 °C during early aestivation to 50.7 ± 0.2 °C by late aestivation (p = 0.0406). Under CA conditions, tolerance levels are reduced, as CTmin increased by up to 2 °C, and CTmax decreased by up to 3 °C. The implications of this for the development of post-harvest disinfestation treatments for grain chinch bug are discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 70 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0276 - Testing the thermal limits of Eccritotarsus catarinensis Carvalho (Hemiptera: Miridae): acclimation or heritability?

Jordan Porter2, Julie Coetzee1, Candice Owen3, Steve Compton2,3 1Centre for Biological Control, Botany Department, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Leeds University, Leeds, UK, 3Centre for Biological Control, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Aspects of the thermal physiology of the water hyacinth mirid, Eccritotarsus catarinensis Carvalho (Hemiptera: Miridae) have been extensively investigated over the past 20 years in an attempt to understand and improve establishment success. This study assessed whether a shift in the thermal profile of a population from one of the coldest water hyacinth sites in South Africa, on the Kubusi River (Eastern Cape), has occurred as a response to long term (between generations) exposure (18 years) to unfavourable conditions, thereby developing a cold-tolerant population of the mirid. Variation in thermal tolerances of field and laboratory populations was also assessed to determine the effect of short term (within generation) acclimation. These factors were assessed using critical thermal (CT) limit determination. Results indicate that the field population had a significantly lower CTmin and CTmax than the population maintained under laboratory conditions since the first release, suggesting acclimation to cold field conditions. Furthermore, CTmin determination of E. catarinensis populations acclimatized to different thermal conditions demonstrated that thermal tolerance is a plastic trait capable of short-term changes, because the CTMin of the cold adapted population increased significantly under short term warm temperature acclimation, but decreased significantly in the laboratory population in response to cold temperature acclimation. This study provides unequivocal support for the plastic nature of a trait previously thought to be static, with significant implications for future assessments of climatic matches between biocontrol agents and their possible areas of release.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 71 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0186 - Unmasking evolutionary diversity among two closely related South African legless skink species (Acontinae: Acontias) using molecular data

Theo Busschau1, Werner Conradie2,3, Adriaan Jordaan4, Saverl Daniels1 1University of Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa, 2South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa, 3Port Elizabeth Museum, P.O. Box 13147, Humewood 6013, South Africa, 4University of the Free State, P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa

We examined species boundaries among two phylogenetically closely related and morphologically similar South African fossorial legless skink species, Acontias breviceps and Acontias gracilicauda. Samples of these two species were collected throughout their distribution ranges and sequenced for three DNA loci (two mitochondrial loci, 16S rRNA and cytochrome b (Cyt b), plus the nuclear locus prolactin). Phylogenetic relationships were determined using maximum parsimony, Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood analyses of the combined DNA sequence data set. The total evidence topology retrieved two paraphyletic clades in both Acontias species with strong statistical support. The phylogenetic results revealed that A. breviceps specimens from the Eastern Cape province were basal (Clade 1), while the Highveld specimens of A. breviceps from the Mpumalanga province (Clade 2) were retrieved as sister to A. gracilicauda (Clade 1). In addition, the A. gracilicauda specimens from the interior of the Northern Cape province (Clade 2) were found embedded within the A. occidentalis species complex. These clades were characterised by marked sequence divergence for the Cyt b locus. Furthermore, no maternal or nuclear haplotypes were shared between clades within both A. breviceps and A. gracilicauda, alluding to genetic and reproductive isolation. The results provide overwhelming evidence to assign A. breviceps from the Mpumalanga Highveld to a novel species. Further sampling is required accurately to delineate species boundaries within A. gracilicauda. The conservation implications of our results are briefly discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 72 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0162 - Determining population dynamics of the endangered Kloof frog, Natalobatrachus bonebergi, through landscape genetics and monitoring towards improving conservation interventions

Jeanne Tarrant1, Adrian Armstrong2, Cameron Price3, Sandi Willows-Munro3, Werner Conradie4,5, C. Cormack 1Endangered Wildlife Trust, Modderfontein, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Cascades, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 4Port Elizabeth Museum, Humewood, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 5Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, George Campus, South Africa

The Kloof frog, Natalobatrachus bonebergi, is endemic to South Africa, restricted to lowland riparian forest in the Eastern Cape, northwards to southern Zululand. This habitat specialist occurs in closed-canopy forest patches. It is endangered due to an area of occupancy of 188 km², a severely fragmented distribution and declining quality of habitat. Our project aims better to understand the species’ distribution through ecological niche modelling and ground-truthing surveys. We will collect and analyse DNA samples from throughout the range to determine population genetics. Understanding phlylogeography is critical for developing effective conservation plans. This will also provide population estimates, augmenting existing monitoring efforts. Monitoring protocols were initiated in 2013 using Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife norms and standards. Data on egg clump counts are collected throughout the year at two sites in KwaZulu-Natal and three reserves in the Eastern Cape. Our most comprehensive dataset is from Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve. The primary response variable for detecting trends is ‘total number of egg clumps’ along the monitoring transect, and a secondary response variable is ‘mean number of eggs per clutch’, both of which give an indication of breeding activity and potential population size. Additional variables are also recorded to gather information on habitat preferences and detect emerging threats. Monitoring has shown the species to have a protracted breeding season, but that recent drought conditions have affected breeding activity. These efforts are a joint collaboration between provincial conservation authorities, academic institutions, NGOs and volunteers, demonstrating the valuable contributions of citizen scientists to conservation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 73 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0271 - Factors affecting nocturnal signalling behaviour in the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor

Vanessa Couldridge, Tarne Johannes University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa

While sexual selection is believed to be a major driving force behind the evolution of acoustic signals, ecological selective pressures have received comparatively little attention, despite the potential for ecological interactions to impact signalling significantly. Bladder grasshoppers (Orthoptera; Pneumoroidea) are a unique group of endemic southern African insects adapted for long range acoustic communication. The aim of this study was to characterise nocturnal patterns of signalling in Bullacris unicolor (Linnaeus, 1758) and relate this to biotic and abiotic factors, thereby providing insights into the potential ecological drivers of acoustic signalling. Field data were collected via passive acoustic monitoring over a three-week period. Results indicate that B. unicolor calls preferentially at certain times of the night, with peak signalling activity between 2:30 and 3:00 AM. Furthermore, the timing of their calls greatly reduces overlap with both acoustic competitors and predatory bats, which both have peak activity levels much earlier in the evening. Significant relationships were also found between calling activity and environmental variables, indicating that B. unicolor is more likely to call on warmer and less humid nights. However, over the course of a single night they call at times corresponding to lower temperatures and higher humidity, indicating that these relationships are complex. These results suggest that both biotic and abiotic factors influence the signalling behaviour of bladder grasshoppers. Further studies conducted in a wider range of habitats will help better to understand to what extent signalling behaviour has diverged among populations and species that inhabit different ecological environments.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 74 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0379 - A dirty agent: photosynthetic response of Parthenium hysterophorus to defoliation by the leaf-feeding beetle Zygogramma bicolorata

Blair Cowie1,2, Ed Witkowski1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Lorraine Strathie3, Jeremy Goodall3,1, Nic Venter1 1University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg / Gauteng, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Johannesburg / Gauteng, South Africa, 3Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research Institute, Hilton / KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The annual shrub, Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae), is a severe noxious weed of global significance, having been targeted for numerous control programmes. Recent biological control efforts in South Africa have seen a total of four agents released to date, one of the most promising being the leaf-feeding beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), released in 2013. Studies surrounding the ecophysiological interactions of insect herbivores and their target weeds remain under-represented in the biological control literature. Leaf-feeding by Z. bicolorata metabolically impaired P. hysterophorus leaves, resulting in a ~36% reduction in photosynthesis. Photosynthetic reduction was attributed to the removal of leaf tissue as well as the introduction of deleterious microbes by Z. bicolorata. Both adult beetles and their larvae were found to carry high abundances of bacterial and fungal microbes. Nevertheless, in response to Z. bicolorata herbivory, adjacent undamaged leaves showed an up-regulation in photosynthesis of ~11%. Despite the ability to photosynthetically up-regulate in response to herbivory, P. hysterophorus is unlikely to overcome the physiological implications associated with Z. bicolorata feeding and ingress of microbes. Given the effectiveness of Z. bicolorata as a biological control agent, efforts should be made to maximise the beetle numbers in the field.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 75 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0089 - Sex pheromone doubles as social regulator in honey bee societies

Robin Crewe University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Highly eusocial bees such as honey bees (> 20 000 individuals/colony) are characterized by female individuals that have divergent phenotypes, one specialized for reproduction (gyne) and the others performing all maintenance functions (workers) with drastically reduced ability to reproduce. The key question to be explored will be the way in which the queen uses a mandibular gland pheromone that serves both as a sex pheromone to attract males and as a social regulator to control the reproductive activities of the workers and ensure that the colony acts as a well- functioning superorganism. Potential disruptions to this system of chemical regulation in large colonies can illuminate how the system might have evolved in primitively eusocial ancestors.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 76 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0015 - Trade-offs between foraging and thermoregulation underpin sublethal costs of climate change in birds

Susan Cunningham1, Kate du Plessis1, Tanja van de Ven1, Ryan Olinger1, Rowan Martin1, Thomas Flower4,1, Amanda Ridley3,1, Andrew McKechnie2 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, 4Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, Canada

For endotherms like birds, the costs of keeping cool are high, especially as air temperatures approach body temperature. Physiological mechanisms for keeping cool can involve the use of ‘adaptive hyperthermia’ and rapidly increasing expenditure of water with attendant risks of dehydration. In the face of these challenges, birds often use behavioural thermoregulation: curbing activity to reduce metabolic heat production, and choosing cool, sheltered locations within the landscape to minimise environmental heat load. However, these behavioural changes may carry important lost-opportunity costs, especially with respect to foraging. These sublethal costs can lead to loss of fitness. We present results from studies of four bird species from the Kalahari desert, southern pied babblers (Turdoides bicolor Jardine, 1831), southern fiscals (Lanius collaris Linnaeus, 1776), fork-tailed drongos (Dicrurus adsimilis Bechstein, 1794) and southern yellow- billed hornbills (Tockus leucomelas Lichtenstein, 1842). In each species we found that temperature thresholds or inflection points exist above which behavioural changes for thermoregulation result in loss of foraging opportunities with knock-on effects for body mass maintenance and breeding success. Thresholds are species-specific, but all fall within the mid-30°C range of air temperatures. We discuss the potential for these thresholds to be used in modelling of climate change vulnerability.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 77 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0204 - Study of the sexual maturity and mating of the male of An. funestus

Yael Dahan-Moss1,2, Christina Moletsane1, Zilindile Zulu1, Duma Mnisi1, Jacek Zawada1,2, Lizette Koekemoer1,2 1National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Anopheles funestus is a major malaria vector in Africa and targeting its fertility serves as an attractive control strategy. This required understanding the essential sexual maturation events that occur in the An. funestus male such as the genitalia rotation and functioning of the antennae. Our aim was to understand the sexual development and mating of the male of An. funestus. Examination of the genitalia rotation in An. funestus males confirmed that 88% of 28-hour-old and 100% of 36-hour-old An. funestus males had fully rotated genitalia. Almost all (95%) of the An. funestus males that were 28 to 44 hours old had fully functioning antennae that were erect at the time of the insectary “dusk” cycle. Thirty An. funestus males and females were placed in cages of different sizes (5, 10 and 20L) for 5 and 17 days and allowed to mate. Five-day-old males and females were able to mate and 3-23% of females had sperm in their spermatheca. The percentage of insemination varied between the cages of different sizes. 33- 37% of females were inseminated when An. funestus males and females were allowed to mate for 17 days. The change between the insemination percentage of females that mated for 5 versus 17 days was significant in the 5L cage (p<0.05). This study offers important information regarding the sexual maturation of the male of An. funestus and provides a stepping stone towards understanding its mating process.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 78 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0292 - Natal fly versus the Cape fly (Diptera: Tephritidae) in the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces, South Africa

John-Henry Daneel1, Aruna Manrakhan1, Johnnie Van Den Berg2 1Citrus Research International, P.O. Box 28, Nelspruit, South Africa, 2Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Ceratitis rosa Karsch, the Natal fly, an indigenous pest of commercial fruit including citrus in South Africa, was recently split into two species: Ceratitis rosa Karsch and Ceratitis quilicii De Meyer, Mwatawala & Virgilio. A study was therefore initiated in 2016 to determine the relative abundance of Natal fly and the Cape fly in the northern citrus growing areas of South Africa. In a separate study, the suitability of four different citrus hosts (Citrus limon, C. paradisi, C. reticulata and C. sinensis) for fly development was determined. The relative abundance of the Natal fly and Cape fly was determined by trapping and fruit sampling on nine farms located at three different altitudes in the northern areas of South Africa. For the developmental study, eggs of both species were simultaneously inoculated into each of the four citrus species. The development of the immature stages of the two fruit fly species were then determined over a period of 15 days by daily dissection of fruit which were inoculated. Results from the trapping showed the dominance of the Cape fly in the northern areas of South Africa. The Natal fly and the Cape fly were present within the same sites, however, at the higher altitudes (> 900 m above sea level) Natal fly was absent. Citrus sinensis was the most suitable for larval development among the four citrus species tested. There were differences in the developmental rates of immature stages of Natal fly and Cape fly within the same citrus species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 79 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0127 - Taxonomic overview of the tribe Sisyphini (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) in southern Africa

Gimo Daniel, Adrian Davis, Catherine Sole, Clarke Scholtz Scarab Research Group, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Members of the tribe Sisyphini Mulsant, 1842 are easily recognized by the presence of eight antennomeres and a relatively short body that is laterally compressed and flattened, especially at the side of the pronotum. Using alpha taxonomy we revise the sisyphine fauna from southern Africa. The tribe Sisyphini includes two genera with 31 valid species, four of which are new:

Sisyphus sp1. nov; Sisyphus sp2. nov; Sisyphus sp3. nov; and Neosisyphus sp1. nov. In both genera, a species-group classification is proposed. Sisyphus Latreille, 1807: muricatus species- group; goryi species-group; umbraphilus species-group; costatus species-group; and seminulum species-group. Neosisyphus Müller, 1942: barbarossa species-group; spinipes species-group; rubrus species-group, quadricollis species-group and tibialis species-group. Sisyphus crispatus Gory, 1833 is proposed as a nomen dubium. Sisyphus natalensis Balthazar, 1968 (syn. nov) and Sisyphus bornemisszanus Endrödi, 1983 (syn. nov) are synonymized with Sisyphus sordidus Boheman, 1857. Lectotypes and paralectotypes are designated for Sisyphus costatus (Thunberg, 1818); Sisyphus seminulum Gerstaecker, 1871; Sisyphus nanniscus Péringuey, 1901; Neosisyphus barbarossa (Wiedemann, 1823) and Neosisyphus spinipes (Thunberg, 1818). Diagnoses, photographs of habitus and male genitalia and lists of examined material and distribution maps are presented for all species. Furthermore, an identification key to the southern African sisyphine species is provided.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 80 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0007 - Evaluation of Tiny Targets as an additional control technique for Glossina austeni and Glossina brevipalpis populations in South Africa

Chantel de Beer1, Gert Venter1, Johan Esterhuizen2 1Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa 2Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK

Tiny Targets, a novel vector control device for riverine tsetse species, works on the same principles as the traditional large savannah-type targets. Although it is eight times smaller (0.25 x 0.5m), thus utilising less cloth and insecticide than traditional targets (1 x 1.5m), it has the same killing efficiency. Comparable behaviour and habitat preferences of these riverine species with that of South African tsetse species, suggested a potential for the use of these Tiny Targets in KwaZulu- Natal. The efficiency of the Tiny Targets for killing South African tsetse species (forest and savannah) were compared to that of three conventional killing/collection devices. Evaluations were done in field cages and a 4 x 4 Latin square design in the field. Field cage evaluations indicated that the Tiny Target was as efficient as the XT sticky trap forGlossina austeni Newstead. The Tiny Target performed poorly for Glossina brevipalpis Newstead in the field cage evaluation. In the field evaluations, the overall numbers collected of G. austeni were very low and no conclusions for G. austeni could be drawn. For G. brevipalpis the large savannah-type target was significantly better than the Tiny Target. It is concluded that the Tiny Target cannot be used as a killing device for this species. However, it does show potential for investigations into a medium-sized target, which will be more cost-efficient than the large targets, for the SouthAfrican tsetse species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 81 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0083 - Conservation planning for one of the rarest and most threatened damselflies in the world

Charl Deacon, Michael Samways Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

The Spesbona Spesbona angusta is Red Listed as Endangered, and occurs today at only one known locality in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), making it one of the rarest insects in the world. It has some unusual characteristics, including rapid and reversible colour change in both sexes, and a larva with frilled lamellae that lives in a micro-habitat free of competitors and large dragonfly predators. We defined the characteristics of its habitat and recorded some other unusual behavioural traits, including the adult male’s ability to sail on the water surface, very particular site selection for oviposition, and female approach to males, all in the context of its conservation. We used satellite imagery to determine the location of habitats and to identify uninhabited suitable habitats within its locality. We further used infrared imagery to identify warmer and cooler habitats within the area. Details of its occurrence were mapped, based on data acquired throughout the flight season. We established that its population moves around its locality as the season progresses. We also determined its environmental requirements for conservation. Furthermore, we show its umbrella value for representing two other threatened odonate species, the Endangered mauve bluet Proischnura polychromatica and the Vulnerable gilded presba Syncordulia legator, as well as some other CFR endemic odonates. Conservation of Spesbona requires continual monitoring and removal of invasive alien trees as a priority. Translocation should also be considered as various risks to this one locality are high. A potential site is identified.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 82 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0128 - The Leptocybe invasa genome: a window to understanding the biology of a serious invasive Eucalyptus pest

Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder1,2, Brett P. Hurley1,2, Michael J. Wingfield1,2, Alisa Postma Smidt1,4, Bernard Slippers1,3 1Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria,, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria,, Pretoria, South Africa, 3Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 4Department of Biochemistry, University of Pretoria,, Pretoria, South Africa

Leptocybe invasa (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is one of the most threatening invasive insect pests of non-native Eucalyptus trees in plantation forestry. This wasp induces galls in young plant tissue resulting in stunted growth and, in some cases, tree death. In less than a decade, L. invasa has spread to all areas where Eucalyptus spp. are planted. Feasible control methods are limited to planting tolerant Eucalyptus spp. and biological control. The insect’s success as an invasive species has in part been attributed to its thelytokous reproduction, where female offspring are produced clonally. Rare male specimens have, however, been observed and the mating and sex determination system of this wasp is not well understood. We have sequenced the genome of L. invasa in order to understand the characteristics that make this wasp a successful invader. Of particular interest were for example the routes of introduction and sex determination pathways. A draft genome assembly for the wasp was produced using Illumina HiSeq paired-end and Nextera mate pair reads, which generated a genome size of 350 Mb. The genome was used to mine for microsatellite markers which were used to characterise global routes of invasion. Ongoing research concerns the identity, structure and diversity of genes involved in sex determination. These will allow us better to understand the molecular mechanisms controlling this important component of L. invasa and its potential influence on invasion.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 83 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0268 - The role of frugivorous birds in seed dispersal and germination of the invasive plant species Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius) and Indian laurel (Litsea glutinosa)

Pumla Dlamini1, Costas Zachariades3, Colleen Downs1,2 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 2Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3Plant Protection Research Institute, Agricultural Research Council, Hilton, South Africa

Plant invasions are a major threat to biodiversity, and one of the reasons for their success can be linked to the role of avian frugivores. By ingesting and excreting/regurgitating viable seeds, avian frugivores are able to promote germination and disperse the seeds of invasive fruiting plants. Both the Brazilian pepper tree (Schinus terebinthifolius) and Indian laurel (Litsea glutinosa) are Category 1b (NEM:BA) invasive species in South Africa. We examined the effect of indigenous Cape white-eyes (Zosterops virens), red-winged starlings (Onychognathus morio), speckled mouse birds (Colius striatus) and dark-capped bulbuls (Pycnonotus tricolor) on germination and dispersal of S. terebinthifolius and L. glutinosa and compared these to whole and manually de- pulped fruit. We examined which of these avian species had the greatest effect on germination and dispersal of S. terebinthifolius and L. glutinosa by comparing their respective seed retention times and amount of fruit consumed. All the avian species readily ate the fruit of S. terebinthifolius and, through pulp removal by gut passage, positively affected its dispersal, germination time, and consequently invasive success. Most of the bird species readily consumed L. glutinosa (though less than S. terebinthifolius), with speckled mousebirds being the only exception. However, ingestion of L. glutinosa fruit had no positive effect on germination as none of the seeds germinated. Further studies need to be conducted on L. glutinosa to determine the mechanisms behind its invasive success as this study was unable to show whether avian species play a role in the germination of this invasive plant.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 84 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0244 - Entomopathogens isolated from local deciduous fruit orchards and vineyards in efforts to control the banded fruit weevil (BFW), Phlyctinus callosus (Schoenherr) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Bonginkhosi Dlamini, Antoinette Malan, Pia Addison Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa

Phlyctinus callosus is an important pest of deciduous fruit and grapevine in South Africa. Control of BFW is important due to the damage caused to fruits, leaves, and roots, and because exports are subject to phytosanitary regulations. Trunk barriers can be used to prevent from reaching the fruit but this method is labour-intensive. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) are effective biocontrol agents for the control of soil-borne and above-ground insect pests. Soils from fruit orchards and vineyards in the Western Cape province of South Africa were sampled for both entomopathogens. A total of 70 soil samples was collected from cultivated habitats, including from organic and commercial deciduous fruit orchards and vineyards. A total of fifteen (21.4%) and thirty-five (50%) samples baited with Tenebrio molitor L. (mealworm) larvae yielded EPNs and EPF, respectively. Thirty fungi isolates from the genera Beauveria and Metarhizium were isolated from the baited soil samples. Different local species of EPNs were used to screen the larval and the adult stages of P. callosus. Results of the study indicate that soil from deciduous fruit orchards and vineyards of the Western Cape contains entomopathogens that can be utilised as biocontrol agents for managing both soil-borne and above-ground insect pests. Promising results obtained with Heterorhabditis indica for the control of the adult weevil will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 85 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0032 - Impact of habitat fragmentation and habitat structure on the occupancy of forest mammals in eThekwini Municipality

Manqoba Zungu, Mfundo Maseko, Riddhika Kalle, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Better management and knowledge of the effect of habitat fragmentation on mammal occupancy and abundance is crucial for species conservation. In South Africa, very few studies have documented the occurrence (hence the persistence) of forest mammals on remnant fragments within urban mosaics. Metropolitan areas are ideal for studying the effect of habitat fragmentation because they represent areas with high human populations and have small amounts of suitable wildlife habitat. In these landscapes, dispersal of mammals occurs mostly within fragments because the surrounding landscape is difficult to cross. We estimated occupancy and relative abundance of forest mammals in response to habitat fragmentation in the eThekwini Municipality. Occupancy modelling revealed the importance of landscape structure to several mammals. Occupancy estimates for Cape porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis), blue duiker (Philantomba monticola), red duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) increased with the relative amount of forest coverage and declined with an increase in urban development. On the other hand, occupancy estimates for large-spotted genet (Genetta tigrina) and vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) were not affected by the level of development. Habitat structure had a minimal impact on occupancy estimates, with a higher representation of different layers of the forest associated with high mammal occupancy and abundance. Our models showed the sensitivity of some mammals towards the loss of their natural habitat, while others appeared to be highly tolerant to such human-induced habitat changes. Feasible management implications for conserving diverse mammalian assemblages in forest-urban mosaics are highlighted.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 86 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0320 - Modelling the overwintering limits and range dynamics of Spodoptera frugiperda in southern Africa using CLIMEX

Hannalene Du Plessis1, Darren Kriticos2,3, Johnnie Van den Berg1 1Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2CSIRO, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia, 3The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia

The fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: ) is a major pest of maize and sorghum in North America. Although it is a tropical species, it spreads annually from its overwintering sites in southern Florida and southern Texas into mid-latitudes in North America. Spodoptera frugiperda invaded South Africa during the 2017 summer grain production season. It is unknown whether a core population will be able to overwinter in the warmer subtropical areas of South Africa or neighbouring countries. If so, subsequent generations can spread from these overwintering sites into the maize producing areas and the pest can remain as an annual, persistent pest with a high pest status. If overwintering in South Africa is impossible due to cold stress, re-infestation could occur from tropical areas in Africa when conditions for dispersal of are favourable. It will then be an ephemeral pest with varying pest status which may not occur annually. A CLIMEX model was fitted to the distribution of S. frugiperda in North America, paying particular attention to capturing the spatial limits for overwintering and seasonal migration. The resulting model was used to estimate its potential occurrence on maize crops in South Africa. Maps defining the areas that are likely to be suitable for persistent populations of S. frugiperda and those suitable for seasonal range expansion and contraction are presented, along with videos illustrating the dynamic nature of its range. The model provides a set of testable hypotheses regarding the range dynamics of this important pest.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 87 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0150 - Detoxification ability of honeybee larvae has been underestimated

Esther E. du Rand1,2, Hannelie Human2, Salome Smit3, Zeno Apostolides1, Susan W. Nicolson2, Christian C.W. Pirk2 1Department of Biochemistry, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3Proteomics Unit, Central Analytical Facility, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Honeybee larvae (Apis mellifera) are exposed to naturally occurring and synthetic toxins present in pollen and nectar through consumption of brood food. Despite the potential links between pesticides and declining bee populations across the globe, toxicology information on honeybee larvae is scarce and detoxification mechanisms in this development stage are virtually unknown. The characteristic intensive brood care displayed by honeybees includes progressive feeding throughout larval development. It is therefore generally assumed that the larvae rely on adult bees to detoxify for them and that this development stage exhibits a diminished ability to detoxify naturally occurring dietary toxins. Our study proves the opposite. We examined the proteomic and metabolomic responses of in vitro reared larvae fed nicotine (an alkaloid found in nectar and pollen) to understand how larvae cope on a metabolic level with dietary toxins. Larvae were able to detoxify the natural dietary toxin as effectively as adults through an inducible detoxification mechanism. This suggests that if larvae are more sensitive to a specific dietary toxin than adult bees, diminished detoxification ability is not a contributing factor as generally assumed. Apart from the detoxification processes, our results also describe the effects of the dietary toxin on larval survival, mass gain, primary metabolism and growth. These findings broaden the current understanding of detoxification biochemistry at different organizational levels, bringing us closer to the ultimate goal of understanding the capacity of the colony as a superorganism to tolerate and resist toxic compounds, including pesticides, in the environment.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 88 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0122 - Diversity and distribution of litter and topsoil arthropods in timber plantation landscape mosaics: the biodiversity value of hydromorphic grasslands

M. Eckert, R. Gaigher, J.S. Pryke, M.J. Samways Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Ecological networks (ENs) have been applied on a large scale in exotic timber plantations in South Africa to mitigate the impacts of forestry by connecting remnant natural areas of high conservation value across the landscape. Natural remnants, such as Afromontane forests and grasslands, have received much attention with regards to their conservation value within these ENs, yet the value of grassland on hydromorphic soils still remains poorly understood.

The diversity and assemblage structure of topsoil and leaf litter arthropods were examined in hydromorphic grasslands to determine its biodiversity value relative to other dominant biotopes (Afromontane forests, dry grasslands and pine plantations) within an EN-plantation landscape mosaic.

The natural untransformed biotopes (i.e. natural forest, dry and hydromorphic grassland) had a higher diversity of species compared to the transformed biotope (i.e. pine forest). Hydromorphic grasslands, in particular, had a relatively high proportion of unique species and differed significantly from other dominant biotopes with regards to arthropod assemblage structure, but not species richness. Dry and hydromorphic grasslands had a high proportion of shared species, although their assemblage structure differed significantly due to differences in soil characteristics, including soil compaction, pH and moisture. Herbivore, omnivore and predator assemblage structure differed significantly between dry and hydromorphic grasslands due to the variation of the abovementioned soil characteristics and the amount of available habitat in the surrounding landscape.

This study found hydromorphic grasslands to be a unique and valuable landscape element, as it contributes to landscape heterogeneity and overall biodiversity within the production landscape.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 89 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0121 - Enemy release and evolution of traits in the invasive cactus Pereskia aculeata

Ikponmwosa Egbon1,2, Stephen Compton2,3, Iain Paterson2 1Animal and Environmental Biology Department, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria, 2Zoology and Entomology Department, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3School of Biology, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK

Transport of plant species beyond their native ranges to novel habitats often leaves them free of natural enemies. This creates ‘enemy-free space’ where alien plants reallocate defence resources towards growth and reproduction, and they may become invasive, as suggested by the ‘Evolution of Increased Competitive Ability’ (EICA) hypothesis. Pereskia aculeata Miller is an invasive alien cactus in South Africa that is native to South and Central America. Native variants in South America may be unlike South African invasive populations introduced over 150 years ago. To explore the role of ‘enemy release’ in the invasive populations of P. aculeata, shoot heights and lengths of fifteen genotypes, and susceptibility of ten genotypes to the specialist shoot herbivore Catorhintha schaffneri Brailovsky & Garcia (Coreidae), were compared in common garden experiments. Greater plant heights were observed among all (but one) invasive genotypes compared to native-range genotypes. In addition, slightly higher mean shoot lengths among introduced genotypes showed that they tended to grow more vigorously than native-range genotypes. Invasive genotypes were often more susceptible to herbivory than native genotypes. The data partially support the predictions of the EICA hypothesis because invasive genotypes generally grow taller more quickly and are more susceptible to damage from a specialist herbivore than most native genotypes. This higher level of susceptibility to herbivore damage suggests that C. schaffneri may be more damaging in South Africa where it has been introduced as a biological control agent than it is in the native range.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 90 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0312 - Prevalence of haemoparasites on small mammals in fallow lands within Mukwe Constituency, Kavango East Region, Namibia

Saima Kapia1, Seth Eiseb1, Loth Mulungu2, Ginethon Mhamphi2, Steven Belmain3 1University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia, 2Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, 3University of Greenwich, Kent, UK

Fallow lands act as refuge sites for small mammals infesting cultivated agricultural crop fields and nearby homesteads; however, the prevalence of blood parasites that they carry is unknown. Therefore this study aimed to collate baseline information on the prevalence of blood parasites in blood impression smears from rodents, shrews and sengis in fallow lands from the Kavango East region of Namibia. For the study a total of 297 small mammals were examined: Aethomys chrysophilus (de Winton, 1897) (n=11), Crocidura sp. (n=2), Elephantulus brachyrhynchus (A. Smith, 1836) (n=9), Gerbilliscus leucogaster (Peters, 1852) (n=49), Saccostomus campestris Peters, 1846 (n=49), Steatomys pratensis Peters, 1846 (n=16) and Mastomys natalensis (Smith, 1834) (n=161). Crocidura species had a high prevalence of micrococci (50%) and bipolar coccobacilli (50%), while M. natalensis (4%) and S. pratensis (6.3%) had a low prevalence of micrococci. The prevalence of pleomorphic rods was high in G. leucogaster (2%) and S. campestris (2.04%) and absent in all other species except M. natalensis. Mastomys natalensis had the highest number of blood impression smears processed compared to Crocidura species but the prevalence of haemoparasites was low.

The presence of pleomorphic rods and bipolar coccobacilli in M. natalensis, G. leucogaster and S. campestris might indicate possible presence of the bacterium Yersinia pestis (Lehmann & Neumann, 1896). Therefore, there is a need for possible plague surveillance in the region and further investigation on the antigens of the bacteria from the small mammals and vectors (fleas) for the possible presence of plague.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 91 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0417 - The importance and evolution of the underappreciated keystone fly pollinators of Namaqualand

Allan Ellis Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Namaqualand is famous for its spring mass flowering displays and reliant on them economically for ecotourism revenue. As many plant species in these displays are annuals, they are dependent on successful reproduction for persistence in the system, and yet we know little about the pollination interactions upon which reproduction is contingent. In this talk I emphasize the importance of flower visiting Diptera as pollinators of the Namaqualand flora. I will highlight the most important fly pollinator groups and the plants that rely on them, often exclusively, and demonstrate the importance of these flies as selective agents shaping the floral diversity that makes the Namaqua flower displays so special. I will then focus on the little we do know about the evolution of the fly pollinators themselves, showing that their evolutionary history is broadly congruent with the spectacular diversification of the Succulent Karoo flora. More research effort is urgently required to understand the requirements of these underappreciated, and yet critical, keystone pollinators on which the ecological and evolutionary integrity of the economically important mass flowering displays of Namaqualand depends.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 92 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0323 - Development of stem borers on Bt and non-Bt maize plant crosses

Reynardt Erasmus1, Hannalene Du Plessis1, Johnnie Van den Berg1, Annemie Erasmus3, Angelika Hilbeck2, Miluse Trtikova2 1NWU, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2ETH, Zurich, Switzerland, 3ARC Grain Crops Institute, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Genetically modified maize, expressing the Cry1Ab insecticidal protein has been commercialised in South Africa for the control of Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). The aim of this study was to determine the effects of introgression of the Cry1Ab transgene into OPVs on the Cry1Ab protein concentration and the effects thereof on the survival and development of B. fusca. Bt transgene introgression was done by crossing a transgenic donor cultivar containing the Cry1Ab gene with a commercially available OPV as well as with a non-Bt cultivar, which is isogenic to the Bt cultivar. The effect of Bt transgene introgression into maize on the survival and development of a resistant and a susceptible B. fusca population was evaluated by means of feeding studies with the different maize plant treatments. Larval survival and mean larval mass were recorded. Transgene expression and Bt protein concentration were determined using RT- PCR and ELISA, respectively. Significant differences in Cry1Ab protein expression were observed between and within the Bt maize plant crosses. There was no significant difference in mean larval mass between resistant larvae feeding on the respective maize plant treatments. Significantly more larvae from the susceptible population that fed on plants from the non-Bt cultivars survived than larvae that fed on the Bt parental cultivar and Bt maize plant crosses. Results suggest that Bt transgene introgression will produce progeny that will express the Cry1Ab protein at sufficient concentrations to control larvae of a susceptible B. fusca population effectively.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 93 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0169 - Prioritising surveillance for marine organisms transported as stowaways on ships

Katelyn T. Faulkner1,2, Mark P. Robertson2, Mathieu Rouget3,4, John R. Wilson1,5 1Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Claremont, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa, 3CIRAD, UMR PVBMT, La Réunion, France, 4School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa, 5Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa

Many marine species have been introduced to South Africa through shipping, and the number of these introductions and rate at which they are occurring is increasing. Furthermore, many species with an invasion history that are absent from South Africa (watch list species), have been introduced elsewhere through shipping. Currently this vector is not managed, and priorities for future efforts need to be identified. We used global ship movement data and environmental matching to identify shipping routes to South Africa that are likely to introduce many marine species with the potential to establish. Distribution data were used to identify watch list species that could be introduced through these high risk routes. Shipping routes from Asia, especially Singapore, are likely to introduce many species with the potential to establish, but the high risk routes differ among the South African ports. Of the major South African ports, Durban has the highest risk of being invaded, as many species are likely to be introduced and establish in this port. High risk routes could facilitate the introduction of 23 watch list species. Our results indicate that port- specific prevention strategies should be developed, and that Durban should receive a large portion of the available resources. This method provides a simple way to identify management priorities, which will be required when the International Maritime Organisation’s Ballast Water Management Convention enters into force. Finally, the knowledge generated will be vital when shipping as a pathway of introduction is assessed for the National Status Report on Biological Invasions.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 94 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0255 - Systematics of the Afrotropical Chalcididae (Chalcidoidea: Hymenoptera)

Sariana Faure1, Steve Compton1, Simon van Noort2, Astrid Cruaud3, Jean-Yves Rasplus3, Gerard Delvare4, Sabine Nidelet5 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Natural History Department, Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa, 3INRA, UMR1062 CBGP, F-34988, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France, 4Cirad, INRA, UMR 1062 CBGP CS30016, F-34988, Montferrier-sur-Lez, France, 5Montpellier GenomiX, c/o Institut de Génomique Fonctionelle, Montpellier, France

Chalcidoidea are numerically, biologically and morphologically one of the most diverse groups of parasitic Hymenoptera. Morphologically, there exists incredible diversity with a range in size from over 25 mm to 0.13 mm, with equivalent diversity in host relationships and ecology. Morphological plasticity has often confounded assessment of chalcid relationships, leading to instability in chalcidoid classification. The family Chalcididae contains 1450 described species in 87 genera. All species in this family are parasitoids or hyperparasitoids. They attack various other insects, sometimes ovipositing in the egg or early larval stages, with the adult emerging from the host’s pupa, which makes them ecologically and economically important. Despite this, the evolutionary relationships within the Chalcididae are poorly known and much of their taxonomy is out of date. We assessed the phylogeny of the mostly Afrotropical genera, as well as some world genera within the Chalcididae using molecular and morphological tools. Next-generation sequencing was used on 41 species of 39 chalcidid genera, 27 of which fall under the Afrotropical group, to produce 925 loci for which at least 60% of the taxa had a sequence. These data were used to construct a phylogenetic tree to investigate the relationships between genera, which showed varying support for the existing higher classification: Haltichellinae were supported as monophyletic, but Chalcidinae merged as paraphyletic and Epitraninae and Dirhininae as polyphyletic. Morphological character states were also scored for each genus as input into phylogenetic analyses and production of interactive identification keys to genera in the Afrotropical region.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 95 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0291 - Carrion feeding ecology of the Cape grey mongoose and its forensic implications

Devin Finaughty, Alan Morris University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

Scavenging of carrion by vertebrates is an integral part of almost all ecosystems, serving to facilitate environmental nutrient cycling. Its role in this regard, and the many factors that influence it, have been exhaustively researched. More recently, focus has shifted to scavenging in a forensic context, with special attention given to its taphonomic effect - that is, how it influences soft-tissue decomposition. Recent research has highlighted that its effect on the decomposition process, and, by extension, the post-mortem interval estimate, may be significant. Taphonomic research conducted in Cape Town from 2014-2016 revealed extensive vertebrate scavenging of porcine remains by Cape grey mongoose (Galerella pulverulenta). Using motion-activated wildlife trail cameras, 56,657 photographs captured across winter-summer 2015/16 revealed almost continuous daily scavenging by mongooses. At least one, but up to four, individuals were observed, following a strictly diurnal cycle. Though some behavioural and ranging observations support those already published for this species, this extent of carrion feeding has not been previously documented. Additional observations included no distinct pattern of carcass destruction and negligible hard tissue damage. These observations - similarly novel for this species - contrast with those of scavengers in overseas forensic contexts. Taken together, they emphasise the need to include cataloguing of vertebrate scavenger activity in taphonomic experimental design, especially where forensically-significant outcomes are concerned - heretofore largely neglected in the literature. Current and future research is presented exploring scavenging in the local context in greater detail, with special focus on quantification of the taphonomic effect.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 96 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0299 - Genetic diversity of Deladenus siricidicola, the biological control agent of the woodwasp Sirex noctilio

Katrin Fitza1,2, Jeff Garnas1, Matt Ayres1, Flora Krivak-Tetley1, Kevin Dodds1, Maria Lombardero1, Ecki Brockerhoff1, Michael Wingfield1, Bernard Slippers1 1Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The success of biological control agents is in part dependent on their ability to survive and reproduce across a breadth of environmental conditions. As such, the relationship between additive genetic variance and adaptive capacity has been used as a rationale for augmenting genetic diversity in biocontrol populations. The nematode Deladenus siricidicola has been applied as a control agent against the woodwasp Sirex noctilio since 1976. Previous studies of populations of D. siricidicola have shown high levels of homozygosity in areas of the Southern Hemisphere where the nematode has been released in the field as biological control. Here we aimed to investigate the overall genetic diversity of D. siricidicola populations from both native and non-native regions, as well as the ability of different lineages from these regions to interbreed in the laboratory. The genetic diversity of D. siricidicola samples from Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, South Africa, Spain, USA and New Zealand was assessed using both microsatellites and sequencing data of the cytochrome oxidase 1 locus. We found three lineages among D. siricidicola samples broadly represented by the North American, Southern Hemisphere and Spanish samples. The Chilean samples appear to represent an admixed population of the North American and the Southern Hemisphere lineages. The different lineages were successfully mated on plates producing ‘hybrid’ offspring. The knowledge and global collections of D. siricidicola emerging from the study now provide a tool to increase diversity in Sirex noctilio biological control programmes via breeding in culture.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 97 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0372 - Habitat, aspect and elevation interact to affect the relative roles of turnover and nestedness in explaining ant beta diversity across the Soutpansberg

Stefan Foord1, Caswell Munyai2 1University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa, 2University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Understanding broad-scale patterns in community composition has both theoretical and practical implications. Key to this understanding is identifying the drivers of beta diversity in both space and time. Here we report on the long-term (8 year) variation in ant (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) assemblages across a north-south elevational transect of an inselberg in the tropics of Africa. Ants were trapped twice a year (wet and dry season) over a period of 8 years. Each of the 16 surveys consisted of 11 sites at 200 m elevational intervals. At a site there were four replicates, each consisting of 5 × 2 pitfall grids with 10 m separating each pitfall and > 300 m between each replicate. The elevational range was 800 – 1700 m a.s.l. The relative role of elevation, habitat and season in explaining the decay in both turnover and nestedness of beta diversity were assessed using Generalized Linear Mixed Effects Models. Although turnover made a proportionally larger contribution to beta diversity, rates of decay depended on all three explanatory variables. Turnover drove decay within habitats, particularly on the northern aspect, and nestedness between habitats on the southern aspect. Turnover peaked during dry seasons, while nestedness’ influence peaked during the rainy season. Dispersal from lower-elevation sites on the southern aspect is important in structuring assemblages higher up on the mountain, while assemblages on the northern aspect form distinct communities at each elevation. Repeated measures of these patterns over time provide a robust assessment of these results.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 98 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0373 - Investigation of possible pyrethroid resistance development in two-spotted stinkbug, Bathycoelia distincta (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae) on macadamia in South Africa

De Villiers Fourie1, Schalk Louw1, Schalk Schoeman2 1University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council, Nelspruit, South Africa

The growing development of pesticide resistance by agricultural pests is arguably one of the primary concerns and challenges facing pest management globally. Instances of genetic resistance developing to an array of pesticide and bio-pesticide substances are growing at an alarming rate. The production and export of subtropical fruit in South Africa is one of the fastest growing industries in agriculture and South Africa already ranks amongst the top global exporters of macadamia and avocado. Over many years, the two-spotted stinkbug, Bathycoelia distincta, has reached key-pest status on both these crops, as well as several other economically important fruit. It is also regarded as the most damaging pest belonging to the sucking bug complex on these crops. This led to the establishment of the Stinkbug Working Group, a collaboration of scientists and experts from around the country with the aim of developing holistic management strategies towards the control of the sucking bug complex on subtropical fruit. Of the 32 pesticide products registered for the control of this complex, 28 contain synthetic pyrethroids as an active ingredient. While effective for many years, recent reports suggest the development of resistance in isolated B. distincta populations. Initial bio-assays conducted by the working group seemed to confirm these fears. The aim of this study is to examine, in collaboration with the Stinkbug Working Group and International Resistance Action Committee (IRAC) whether multi-generational genetic resistance is developing towards synthetic pyrethroids and aid in the development and establishment of a resistance management programme.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 99 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0409 - Below-ground impacts of selected invasive alien plants in Kruger National Park, South Africa

Llewellyn Foxcroft1,2, Ana Novoa2, Johannes Le Roux2 1South African National Parks, Skukuza, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Quantitative studies on the impacts of invasive alien plants (IAPs) are becoming more frequent; however, many of these focus on aspects related to, for example, changes in biodiversity, hydrological processes and ecosystem properties such as fire. Furthermore, very few of these studies examine impacts to below-ground aspects such as nutrients and microbial communities. We selected two species of IAPs of special concern in Kruger National Park (KNP) to explore these possible impacts, namely Opuntia stricta and Parthenium hysterophorus L. (famine weed). Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw. (sour prickly pear) was introduced into KNP in the mid-1950s and has subsequently spread over an extensive area but is thus far being successfully controlled by biological agents. In contrast, Parthenium hysterophorus is invading rapidly across the southern region of KNP, with extensive areas increasingly dominated by this species. We assessed the effects of O. stricta and P. hysterophorus on ß-1,4-glucosidase (carbon), urease (nitrogen) and phosphatase (phosphate), as essential components of ecosystem function. The functional capacity of the soil microbial community that drives these cycles varies among soils dominated by different plant species. We therefore examined changes in structure and composition of soil microbial communities in response to O. stricta and P. hysterophorus invasions.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 100 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0267 - Matrix transformation alters species-area relationships in fragmented coastal forests

Marc Freeman, Pieter Olivier, Rudi van Aarde University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Fragmentation of continuous habitats leads to species losses in small isolated fragments. However, matrix habitats surrounding remnant fragments may play an important role in reducing or enhancing such losses. We aim to determine whether matrix habitats amplify or reduce area effects in a fragmented landscape. Birds were surveyed within 29 and 30 forest fragments embedded within two contrasting matrix types: natural and transformed. We first fitted eight species-area models to evaluate species-area relationships (SARs) in both matrix types. We calculated Pielou’s evenness and nestedness indices to determine if matrix type influences evenness and nestedness amongst forest bird assemblages. Finally, we used binomial logistic regressions to determine the relationship between the presence of each species and forest fragment area in each matrix type. The SARs for habitat-generalists were weak within transformed and natural matrices. For forest- specialists, the SAR was weak when the matrix was natural, but strong when the matrix was transformed. It then resembled that of real islands systems. Forest-specialist assemblages were also significantly nested by area within transformed, but not natural matrices. Moreover, fragment area significantly affected the occurrence of 11 forest-specialist species in transformed matrices, compared to only one species in natural matrices. For both matrices evenness decreased with fragment area. Our results suggest that forest-specialist bird species may conform to island biogeographic predictions of species loss when embedded within transformed, but not natural matrices. Species losses from small forest fragments may, therefore, be prevented by conserving natural- or restoring transformed matrices, and not only increasing forest area.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 101 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0251 - Non-invasive monitoring of endocrine markers in wildlife

Andre Ganswindt1,2 1Endocrine Research Laboratory, Dept. of Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Mammal Research Institute, Dept. of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Wildlife plays an important role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of nature. However, due to progressing global urbanisation, more and more wild animals are managed to balance the needs for wildlife with the needs of people. Under these circumstances, the ability to monitor key reproductive events, such as ovulation and pregnancy, greatly facilitate attempts to control wildlife populations. Animal welfare is nowadays also a key issue when managing wild animals. Especially the avoidance of stress, defined as a state of perturbed homeostasis, plays an increasingly important role in wildlife management. As stress is generally regarded as antipathetic to welfare, things can get complicated when wildlife encounter unfamiliar stressors related to management interventions, especially over a prolonged period of time.

Monitoring alterations in hormone concentration is a precise and widely accepted approach for examining reproductive function and responses to stressors. Although hormones can be measured in various biological matrices, non-invasive methods have gained popularity as a more practical approach for assessing ovarian, testicular and adrenocortical activity in especially intractable wildlife species. By using a series of case studies focussing on aspects like throat coloration in southern ground hornbills, cyclicity patterns in white rhinoceros, or the effect of various living conditions in golden langurs, this presentation will underline the importance of non-invasive hormone analysis as a valuable tool for monitoring regulative endocrine mechanisms linked to reproduction and stress in wildlife.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 102 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0196 - The complex Leptocybe invasa gall community on Eucalyptus

Caitlin R. Gevers1,2, Gudrun Dittrich-Schröder1,2, Samantha J. Bush1,2, Andrew Morris3, Ilaria Germishuizen3, Bernard Slippers1,2, Brett P. Hurley1,2 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 3Institute of Commercial Forestry Research (ICFR), Pietermaritzburg, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa

Leptocybe invasa (Fisher & La Salle) is an invasive gall wasp and pest on Eucalyptus trees and has become widely distributed in Africa, Asia, Europe and the Americas. The galls induced by this wasp are also inhabited by other wasps. In South Africa, this includes an introduced biological control agent, Selitrichodes neseri (Kelly & La Salle); two known parasitoids that were not intentionally introduced, namely Megastigmus zebrinus (Grissell) and Quadrastichus mendelli (Kim & La Salle) and Megastigmus pretorianensis (Doğanlar), whose role in the gall is uncertain. In addition, a morphologically similar second lineage or new species of L. invasa was detected in South Africa in 2015. To determine the distribution and prevalence of these species, a national monitoring scheme was initiated, where galled material was collected at infested sites across South Africa and emerging adults collected and identified. Morphology, together with species- specific primers and PCR RFLP analyses were used to differentiate between the various species and lineages. The result from the pilot trial of the national monitoring indicates that S. neseri and the Megastigmus species have spread throughout South Africa, but Q. mendelli has a limited distribution. Further sampling is needed to determine the distribution of the two L. invasa strains, and the role of the different gall-inhabiting species. Understanding the roles of each gall inhabitant will be beneficial for optimal control of the two L. invasa lineages in the future.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 103 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0208 - Seasonal abundance of forensically related flies from greater Johannesburg

Allison Gilbert1,2, Richard Hunt2, Maureen Coetzee1,2 1Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic and Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa

Seasonal abundance of forensically related flies was examined within the greater Johannesburg area. Samples were collected for seven days fortnightly from three sites over twelve months. The sites were chosen in an urban, rural and industrial area of the city. Samples were collected using a modified RedTop Fly Trap™ and baited with pork liver. The dominant Diptera families were the Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae and Muscidae. Of the Calliphoridae the dominant genera were Lucilia, Chrysomya and Calliphora. All organisms that occurred in the traps were recorded and thus also included insects from the orders Hymenoptera and Coleoptera. Of the Diptera collected, comparisons were done regarding species diversity and presence for each season and each location. Morphometric characteristics per species were also recorded to compare the potential differences between populations from each location. Morphological differences between populations as well as differences between the seasons will be presented.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 104 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0075 - Plasticity and cross tolerance to heterogenous environments: divergent stress responses co-evolved in an African fruit fly

Nonofo Gotcha1, John, S. Terblanche2, Casper Nyamukondiwa1 1Botswana International University of Science and Technology, P/Bag 16, Palapye, Botswana, 2Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa, 3Botswana International University of Science and Technology, P/Bag 16, Palapye, Botswana

Plastic adjustments of physiological tolerance to a particular stressor can result in fitness benefits for resistance that might manifest not only in that same environment, but might also be advantageous when faced with alternative environmental stressors, a phenomenon termed cross- tolerance. The nature and magnitude of cross-tolerance responses can provide important insights into the underlying genetic architecture, potential constraints on, or versatility of, an organism’s stress responses. Here, we tested for cross-tolerance to abiotic factors likely contributing to insect population dynamics and geographic range limits: heat, cold, desiccation and starvation resistance in adult Ceratitis rosa (Karsch) (Diptera: Tephritidae) following acclimation to all of these isolated individual conditions prior to stress assay. Traits of stress resistance scored included critical thermal limits, chill coma recovery time (CCRT), heat knockdown time (HKDT), desiccation and starvation resistance. In agreement with other studies, we found that acclimation to one stress typically increased resistance for that same stress experienced later in life. A more novel outcome, however, is that we found substantial evidence for cross-tolerance. We found an improvement in heat tolerance (CTmax) following starvation or desiccation hardening; improved desiccation resistance following cold acclimation, and enhanced starvation resistance following desiccation hardening, indicating pronounced cross tolerance to these environmental stressors for the traits examined. The results of this study have two major implications: 1) that these traits likely co-evolved to cope with diverse or simultaneous stressors, and 2) that a set of common underlying physiological mechanisms might exist between apparently divergent stress responses in this species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 105 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0195 - Estimating the distribution, spread and abundance of Acacia dealbata in the northern Eastern Cape

Aidan Gouws, Charlie Shackleton Dept. of Environmental Science, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa

Biological invasions interact with numerous social and ecological components within and across a range of spatio-temporal scales. In order effectively to manage a highly invasive species such as Acacia dealbata, it is crucial to understand the interactions of these within the landscape, including both the historical progression of the invasion and the current abundance of the invader. This study sought to understand the nature and extent of the A. dealbata invasion in the northern Eastern Cape. Research was conducted in nine villages in rural Matatiele, Mount Fletcher and Maclear, selected for the pervasiveness of A. dealbata around these villages. Using a quantitative, systems-based approach, a time-series of aerial photographs were classified into designated land cover and use categories in ArcGIS to track the changes in the location, distribution and rate of spread of A. dealbata, while standard vegetation surveying techniques were used to determine the current abundance and growth of A. dealbata in selected locations and landscapes. Analyses are currently in progress. However, preliminary observations from the GIS analysis suggest that A. dealbata has spread significantly since the 1950s, particularly into surrounding abandoned cultivated lands and grasslands. Upon the completion of analyses, landscape simulation and system dynamics models will be developed to determine the possible future extent of A. dealbata, as well as the resulting implications for rural livelihoods under different control projections.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 106 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0222 - Rodent responses to volatile compounds provide insights into the function of floral scent in mammal-pollinated plants

Keeveshnee Govender, Steven Dene Johnson University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Flowers pollinated by mammals such as bats and rodents have evolved in dozens of plant families. Volatiles are considered to play a key role in the attraction of mammals to these flowers. Volatiles that attract bats to flowers have been identified in previous studies, but the chemical ecology of rodent-plant interactions has scarcely been investigated. Volatile signals are likely important in rodent pollination systems because rodents are generally nocturnal and rely heavily on olfaction to locate food. The aim of this study was to identify compounds that may play a functional role in the attraction of rodents to flowers. Eighteen volatile compounds were identified in headspace samples taken from rodent-pollinated flowers in southern Africa and used in experiments that involved four native rodent species (Aethomys namaquensis, Rhabdomys pumilio; Rhabdomys dilectus and Mastomys natalensis). Compounds were tested individually in unrewarded y-maze experiments to determine their attractiveness to rodents. In addition, associative conditioning experiments using artificial nectar as a reward were conducted to determine the learning abilities of rodents when their food is associated with particular volatiles. Rodents generally responded positively to aliphatic compounds (ketones, esters, and acids) and responded negatively to aromatic compounds and a sulphide compound that is known to be attractive to bats. Associative conditioning generally resulted in little change in the attractiveness of compounds. It was concluded that oxygenated aliphatic compounds, particularly ketones and esters, are key attractants of rodents to flowers adapted for pollination by these animals.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 107 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0229 - Dispersal and mating patterns of the parasitic nematode, Spirocerca lupi

Jaco M. Greeff1, Kerry Reid1, Janishtha R. Mitha1, Sarah J. Clift2, Pamela J. de Waal1 1Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Section Pathology, Department of Paraclinical Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The nematode Spirocerca lupi (Rudolphi, 1809) causes a potentially lethal disease in its final host Canis familiaris Linnaeus, 1758. The life cycle of Spirocerca lupi is well known and includes aspects that can be managed to control the disease. However, little or nothing is known about its dispersal and mating strategies, which also have practical implications. Here we genotyped 130 worms at nine microsatellite loci to quantify their dispersal and mating strategies. To measure long distance dispersal we compared worms from Pretoria, Durban and Grahamstown to each other. We found that while they are significantly different from one another, these differences are very small suggesting efficient long distance dispersal. Such dispersal may be the result of movement of infected dogs and/or intermediate beetle hosts and would result in the rapid spread of resistance genes. To quantify the level of inbreeding and the level of admixture between parasite populations from different hosts we looked at how S. lupi genetic variation was structured among and within individual C. familiaris hosts. These analyses revealed that populations amalgamate frequently enough to prevent complete inbreeding. Furthermore, there was no evidence of inbreeding avoidance or inbreeding depression. These findings suggest that a control strategy that reduces worm population density will not benefit from the side consequence of increased relatedness between potential mates.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 108 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0254 - Longhorn beetles: the good, the bad and the ugly (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Elizabeth Grobbelaar Agricultural Research Council, Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa

Longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae) occur worldwide, with some 35 000 described species. Southern Africa is home to 111 beetle families, Cerambycidae being the fifth-largest of them. The South African National Collection of Insects (SANC), housing a collection of about 15 000 cerambycids, was given a major upgrade about three years ago. A well-organised collection reflecting the current taxonomy and classification of the family is crucial to the identification processes. Over the past two years significant work has been done based on material our collection.

The true female of the eye-catching Afraustraloderes rassei Bouyer and a new species, Pixodarus spiniscapus Bjørnstad & Grobbelaar, both from the subfamily Prioninae, were newly described in 2016.

Collaborative work between ARC-PPRI, the ARC-Vegetable and Ornamental Plant Institute, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, and the Great Lakes Forestry Research Centre, Canada, saw trials conducted at ARC-Roodeplaat in 2015-2016. Nine cerambycid species were trapped, most being Arhopalus syriacus (Reitter) (Spondylidinae), an alien invasive that attacks . Previously, A. syriacus was thought only to occur in the winter rainfall region of South Africa. SANC specimens confirm its occurrence in Gauteng, KwaZulu- Natal, Mpumalanga, Swaziland and the Western Cape. A mixed series of Arhopalus specimens was discovered in SANC, which revealed A. ferus (Mulsant), also an alien invasive, as a new country record for South Africa and already present by 1972.

Early in 2017 immatures and adults of a prionine were submitted to the SANC Identification Service, and a new sugarcane pest, Cacosceles (Zelogenes) newmani (Thomson), was identified.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 109 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0298 - Undercover complications: the trend for growing citrus under net provides new opportunities for pest management research

Tim Grout Citrus Research International, Nelspruit, Mpumalanga, South Africa

Extreme weather events such as hail storms and excessive temperatures that result in sunburn are obvious reasons to protect high value citrus orchards under nets but growers are finding that they also get less wind damage, and with certain cultivars they can improve fruit set and fruit size. All of these advantages are resulting in a rapid proliferation of citrus under cover, but resultant changes in pest status cannot be explained by physical exclusion of natural enemies alone. It is very likely that the reduced transmission of UV-B radiation through the net cover is affecting the palatability of plant tissue to arthropod pests and changing the behaviour of pests and their natural enemies. UV-B radiation levels correlate with levels of phenolics such as flavonoids in plant tissue. Reduced levels of these compounds result in increased consumption by some insect herbivores while the behaviour of insects that are normally attracted to foliage with high levels of phenolics, may change. Under normal conditions of sunlight, spider mites (Tetranychidae) are most abundant on abaxial leaf surfaces, but when UV-B levels are reduced this avoidance behaviour may change and egg hatchability increase. Host substrate location by pests and prey location by natural enemies can be affected by reduced UV-B radiation and degradation of pesticide residues is slower. Clearly, much research is required before we fully understand the dynamics of this new, artificial ecosystem.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 110 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0280 - The questionable impact of elephants on others

Robert Guldemond, Andrew Purdon, Rudi van Aarde Conservation Ecology Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach, 1797) is an iconic species, and decisions on their management is emotive and is seldom supported by science. To reconcile widely divergent opinions on the impact of elephants on other species we conducted a meta- analysis of 367 peer-reviewed papers published from 1947 until the end of 2015. These studies covered 80 sites across sub-Saharan Africa. Only 51 of these papers met the minimum standards of a meta-analysis. According to this analysis, elephants reduced tree structure, tree numbers, tree diversity, and population growth rates of small mammals, but had no cascading effects on other co-occurring invertebrates and vertebrate species or soil properties. Elephant density and the presence of artificial water and fences failed to explain this impact. This may be due to the influence of density on habitat selection and/or the effect of artificial water sources on habitat use. For instance, in Kruger National Park increased elephant density reduced habitat selection while water provisioning enlarged the area occupied by elephants, thereby masking impact and changing effect sizes from negative to positive values. Adaptive behavioural responses of elephants and their generalist diet may mask impact, which may be best managed through the restoration of the spatial axis along which elephants operate.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 111 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0037 - The Natural Science Collections Facility

Michelle Hamer SANBI, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The importance of natural science collections and the challenges facing these in South Africa have been highlighted by the zoology and entomology research community for many years. An assessment of the collections in 2010 suggested that lack of a broader strategy and purpose, poor data management and accessibility, inappropriate governance structures and a lack of resourcing were major risks to the collections. In 2014 the Department of Science & Technology (DST) included the natural science collections in their South African Research Infrastructure Roadmap (SARIR). The Natural Science Collections Facility (NSCF) is a distributed network of institutions holding collections with a co-ordinating hub based at SANBI. The five main objectives of the NSCF are: 1. To secure the collections and ensure accessibility for research; 2. To ensure that specimen data are accessible and used for managing collections, research and decision-making; 3.To promote research on collections and associated data that addresses issues of national and global relevance; 4. To ensure that services are provided to identify biological specimens; 5. To ensure that collections are used for serving broader society through education, citizen science and public understanding projects that increase appreciation for South Africa’s unique biodiversity assets. In order to achieve these objectives, the current fragmented natural science collections landscape will need to be transformed to one where there is collaborative and participatory planning and implementation, and there will need to be activities that ensure that there is appropriate capacity to curate and research collections, and to manage data.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 112 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0129 - Generating foundational biodiversity information that addresses the needs of society

Michelle Hamer, Lita Pauw SANBI, Pretoria, South Africa

Science for society should support evidence-based decision-making. In the field of biodiversity the evidence required includes scientific assessments of the status of components of biodiversity; documented records of where critical components of biodiversity are distributed; and for sustainable use of natural resources, data on population size and distribution and the ability accurately to distinguish the species or population that is being exploited (either legally or illegally). These requirements are directly linked to being able to identify species and populations (taxonomy, including DNA barcoding and population genetics), and to having accurate distribution data with an indication of changes over time (surveys, mobilization of data from natural science collections that span both geological and historical time frames).

While South Africa has a solid track record in research in taxonomy and systematics and holds extensive natural science collections, there have been a number of challenges that have limited the use of the data and knowledge generated through this research for decision-making for society. The Foundational Biodiversity Information Programme (FBIP) was established by the Department of Science & Technology (DST) in 2013 in order to unblock the value chain for foundational biodiversity data generation through to the ultimate outcomes of service delivery and job creation. This presentation will explain the value chain concept, the mechanisms of unblocking the flow of data and provide some examples of projects where foundational biodiversity data have had an impact in terms of decision-making for South African society. Some of the remaining challenges will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 113 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0081 - Behavioral response of the bark beetle, Ips typographus, to commonly associated ophiosomatoid fungi

Dineshkumar Kandasamy2, Almuth Hammerbacher1 1Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany

The invasive European bark beetle, Ips typographus L. is the most serious killer of Norway spruce trees (Picea abies) in Europe. The ophiostomatoid fungi Endoconidiophora polonica, Ophiostoma bicolor, Grosmannia penicillata and Grosmannia europhioides have a close association with the beetle. The basis of this association is not known, but it is thought that the fungus detoxifies host defence compounds, concentrates vital nutrients and provides necessary sterols to increase bark beetle fitness, and the beetle in turn facilitates fungal transmission from tree to tree. Through GC-MS analysis, we found several de novo synthesized volatile organic compounds, as well as oxygenated monoterpenes and volatile phenolics from ophiostomatoid fungi. Testing these fungal compounds on the antennae of beetles using single sensillum recording (SSR) revealed eight new olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) classes specific for fungal volatiles, clearly showing that the beetle can smell the fungus. No-contact and contact behavioural experiments with different fungi showed that adult I. typographus are highly attracted to food sources colonized by its dominant fungal associates but not to saprophytic fungi. Volatile compounds produced by fungi act as a recognition signal 1) for bark beetles to locate nutrient sources which have been modified by fungi, 2) to ensure that the symbiosis between beetle and fungus, which seems crucial to both partners, is maintained.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 114 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0212 - Association between an artificial and a natural habitat of the Eastern Cape redfin minnow

Bianca Hannweg1,2, Lesley Bloy1,2, Sean Marr2,3, Olaf Weyl2,3 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2South African Institute of Aquatic Biodiversity, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3Centre for Invasion Biology, Grahamstown, South Africa

This paper assesses the preferred micro- and macrohabitat utilization of the Eastern Cape redfin minnow (Pseudobarbus afer) and whether natural habitat is preferred over artificial habitat for foraging and refuge. Habitat utilization by P. afer was monitored in four pools in the Fernkloof tributary of the Swartkops River fortnightly over a two-month period using action cameras as a non-intrusive and non-harmful method. Five habitat types in each pool were monitored through the use of photos and single videos and these remained constant throughout all pools (inflow, outflow, wooded debris, fern roots and deep middle). In addition to the natural habitat monitored, artificial habitat was added to each pool in order to compare utilization byP. afer between natural and artificial habitat. Artificial habitat was constructed as a pyramid made from nine 30 cm long PVC pipes attached to one another with cable ties anchored in the substrate. Habitat utilization by P. afer was quantified through the use of photos and a MaxN was determined for the number of P. afer found in each habitat at a specific time. Videos were used in order to qualify the behaviour (foraging or hiding) of P. afer. Results are discussed in the context of using artificial habitat for native fish conservation in degraded habitats.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 115 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0117 - Rhinoceros beetles of southern Africa: a planned book

James Harrison University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

South Africa has a well-established history of entomologists working on its diverse scarab beetle fauna. Péringuey (1901) and other authors put in place a framework for what we know about our scarabs. In the last few decades studies with a wide range of focusses have covered especially the Scarabaeoidea, Trogidae, Scarabaeidae and its subfamilies Cetoniinae and Scarabaeinae. Two books provide entomologists and laypeople with a wonderful opportunity to learn about the “Fruit chafers of South Africa” and “The African dung beetle genera.” For anyone interested in the taxonomy of South African Dynastinae, Ferreira’s (1965), “Os Dinastíneos da Região Etiópica”, Endrödi’s (1985), “The Dynastinae of the World”, and Krajcik’s (2005), “Dynastinae of the world checklist” are compulsory reading. South Africa has approximately 50-60 species in about 19 genera. These genera: Cyphonistes, Heteroligus, Heteronychus, Oryctes and Temnorhynchus include species with the potential of becoming crop pests. Apart from the pest species and those readily attracted to light and baited traps, most of the South African Dynastinae are seldom encountered and consequently museum collections are often sparse in holdings for the termitophilous and suspected predacious taxa. All-in-all we know little about the biology and larval stages of many of our rhino beetle species. An overview of the taxonomy, phylogeny, natural history and pest status will be given for the South African dynastines. Finally, a request for records and specimens as contributions to a planned “Field guide to the rhinoceros beetles of southern Africa” will be made.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 116 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0247 - Effect of an insecticide application at different frequencies on nut development in pecan trees, Carya illinoinensis (Juglandaceae)

Justin Hatting1, Hardus Du Toit2 1ARC-Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, Free State, South Africa, 2South African Pecan Nut Producers’ Association, Totiusdal, Gauteng, South Africa

Contract research by the ARC-Small Grain Institute for the SA Pecan Nut Producers’ Association was initiated in late 2013 on the development of an IPM strategy against insect pests of Carya illinoinensis (Wangenh.) Koch (Juglandaceae). The project entails bi-monthly surveys to characterise the species complex of pest and beneficial insects as well as chemical trials to quantify the impact of insect pests on nut weight/development when applied at different frequencies throughout the growth season. After harvest, 10% of the nuts from each tree were weighed (in shell and nutmeat) and inspected for damage. The results showed that control trees (serviced by a strong natural enemy component) yielded nuts of statistically equal weight to that of trees sprayed 1x to 3x. Moreover, aphid populations, typically peaking during February to April, seem not to affect nut weight as the February and April applications failed to statistically increase nut weight compared to controls. Notably, a significant increase in nut weight was noted from trees sprayed 4x (bi-monthly from October to April). By comparing the effect of 3x versus 4x applications, the October application (only included in the 4x application) seems to have the greatest impact on nut weight. Amongst others, three primary insect pests occur during October, viz., a plant bug (Miridae), sunflower seed bug, Agonoscelis versicolor (Fabricius) and snout weevils (Curculionidae). As October represents the late bud to pollination phase in the Hartswater area, the feeding behaviour of these insects needs to be investigated better to understand the physiological affect thereof on early-stage nut set/development.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 117 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0410 - Sable antelope display flexibility in body temperature regulation and behavioural patterns during the dry season

Kiara A. Haylock1, Francesca Parrini1, W. Maartin Strauss2,3, Piet Beytell4, Carl-Heinz Moeller4, Robyn S. Hetem2,5 1Centre for African Ecology, School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Department of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa, 4Directorate of Natural Resource Management, Ministry of Environment & Tourism, Windhoek, Namibia, 5School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

The dry season is a stressful period for antelopes since reduced resource availability may exacerbate thermal stresses. Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger (Harris, 1838)) exhibit behavioural flexibility in range extent and activity during the dry season, but it is unknown whether such behavioural flexibility completely buffers the restricted resource availability. Over an eight-month period, we measured body temperature and locomotor activity using biologging and determined home and core range extent of seven free-living GPS collared sable in the semi-arid Zambezi region of Namibia, one of the more arid regions within sable’s distribution range. Sable increased their home (F4,6=8.3, p=0.0002) and core (F4,6=6.2, p=0.0014) range extent during the dry period with ranges peaking in size (home range: 17.6±7.5 km2; core range: 1.9±0.8 km2) following rainfall.

Sable decreased diurnal activity by ~58% when conditions were hot and dry (F4,6=41.8, p<0.0001), without altering total 24-hour activity (F4,6=1.0, p=0.4226). Despite these behavioural changes we observed perturbations in the body temperature rhythms of sable during the dry season with a reduction in 24-hour minimum body temperature during cool-dry conditions (F4,6=8.5, p=0.0002) and an increase in 24-hour maximum body temperature during hot-dry conditions (F4,6=11.7, p<0.0001). Consequently sable displayed larger 24-hour amplitudes of body temperature rhythm during resource-limited dry periods, with 24-hour body temperature amplitude reaching 4.3ºC on occasion, compared to resource-adequate periods following rainfall where sable maintained homeothermy (F4,6=11.2, p<0.0001). This study provides initial evidence for resource stress- related changes in body temperature regulation of sable antelope during the dry season despite behavioural plasticity.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 118 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0146 - Scaly bacteria: the quest to identify pangolin pathogens

Sean Heighton, Darren Pietersen, Armanda Bastos Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Increased contact between multi-host populations due to climate change, habitat alteration and trade in animals is increasingly gaining recognition as a catalyst for pathogen emergence. Multidirectional pathogen transmission events across a multidimensional transmission interface have led to major disease epidemics in wildlife, human and domestic animal populations worldwide. The recent spate in illegal trade of the already vulnerable Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) has highlighted the potential concern over health risks; however, baseline data on diseases of pangolins are currently lacking. To address the paucity of data on diseases of pangolins, the first-ever baseline data of S. temminckii’s bacterial prevalence and diversity were generated using 16S rRNA gene PCR amplification and Ion Torrent 16S metagenomics approaches, followed by genus-specific PCR amplification. PCR amplification resulted in the first identification ofClostridium haemolyticum in South Africa and Clostridium algidicarnis in wild animal tissue, whilst the metagenomics approach confirmed that bacterial diversity in this understudied mammalian host spans five phyla with soil-borne Firmicutes predominating. These baseline data will be used to determine the disease risks that handling and trafficking ofS. temminckii may pose, provide valuable population health measures and a reference database for future multidirectional transmission events involving pangolins.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 119 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0088 - Community based implementation is vital to the wide-scale success of weed biological control in South Africa

M.P. Hill1, J.A. Coetzee2, I.D. Paterson1, G.D. Martin1, J. Hill1, K. Weaver1 1Centre for Biological Control, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Centre for Biological Control, Department of Botany, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Biological control offers a highly cost effective and ecologically sustainable tool for the suppression of invasive alien plants. However, the actual implementation of weed biological (mass-rearing, releases, redistribution, monitoring of the impact of the agents) has been relatively neglected in South Africa, resulting in less-than-optimal outcomes for some projects e.g. against various cactus species, invasive perennial trees, and water weeds. In South Africa, as in many other countries, agents have traditionally been mass-reared and released by the researchers and a few landowners, but from 1996 onwards, with the advent of the Working for Water Programme, a far more inclusive approach to the implementation of this science was adopted. Many dedicated implementation officers were appointed in the various provinces of South Africa, whose role it is to coordinate mass-rearing, release and establishment of biocontrol agents. Weed biological control implementation, especially as deployed against aquatic weed species, has been rolled out to a number of schools, conservation groups and non-governmental agencies resulting in an increased awareness of the benefits of biological control by the public. Further, a programme that trains and permanently employs physically challenged individuals in aquatic-weed biological control has been highly successful. The key to the considerable success of the aquatic- weeds biocontrol programme has been the ongoing and detailed record-keeping that has ensured that field-information regarding releases and establishment of agents is provided to the researchers, who are then, in turn, able to offer guidance for the implementing personnel in the field, country- wide.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 120 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0065 - Potential factors influencing the establishment success of Dicomada rufa, a biological control agent for Hakea sericea in South Africa

Kelby English1, John Hoffmann1, Candice Lyons2 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council - Plant Protection Research Institute, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa

Hakea sericea Shrad. & J.C.Wendl. (Proteaceae) (silky hakea) is one of the most prominent and successful plant invaders of the South African fynbos biome. Native to Australia, it was brought into South Africa over 100 years ago, and in the 1970s formed the subject of the first biological control programme researched by a full team of South Africans. One of the most recent biological control agents used against H. sericea is Dicomada rufa Blackburn (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a flowerbud-feeding weevil, first introduced in 2006. However, since its release, the weevil has only established at southern Cape sites and not Western Cape sites. The reasons for the discrepancy at sites remain unknown; however, unsuitable environmental conditions are suspected to be preventing the weevil’s establishment in the Western Cape. In order to investigate this possibility, critical thermal limits and lethal temperature limits of D. rufa will be determined along with temperature ranges at sites across both regions. The data will be used to determine whether or not environmental factors are indeed preventing establishment of D. rufa in the Western Cape.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 121 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0340 - Dispersal patterns and animal personality in the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus)

Sasha Hoffmann1, Heike Lutermann1, Heather Webster2, Nigel Bennett1, Bettine van Vuuren2 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Dispersal patterns are thought to be linked to mating systems of species, with the majority of mammalian species being polygynous and exhibiting male-biased dispersal patterns. However, in monogamous mammals, sex-biased dispersal is either absent or female-biased. This is likely due to the requirement for both parents to participate in resource defence to ensure successful reproduction. Studies have also shown other factors, such as the personality of an animal, to be a predictor of dispersal behaviour. We tested both of these hypotheses in a southern African endemic, the eastern rock sengi (Elephantulus myurus). All sengi species are currently considered to be monogamous; however, to date no studies have investigated their dispersal patterns. Over a 5-year period, we studied dispersal patterns of 184 (102♂, 82♀) sengis in northern South Africa. We sampled sengis during eleven trips across eight sites within our study area. We sampled the different sites multiple times per trip, allowing us to track movements of individuals between and within our sites, as well as across time. We investigated the pairwise relatedness scores of 14225 dyads and found evidence for male-biased dispersal. We also investigated juvenile dispersal by looking at 24 parent-offspring dyads, with mother capture site as a proxy for juvenile origin, combined with 43 sengis, identified as juveniles, caught more than once. This allowed usto calculate the distance a juvenile moved from first capture site, or natal site, and last place caught. We found that less proactive juveniles, i.e. less exploratory, less aggressive and shy, dispersed further.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 122 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0094 - New methods for analysing species communities: multivariate modelling and Bayesian ordination

Sanet Hugo1,2, Res Altwegg2,3, Terence Bellingan4,5, Olaf Weyl1,5 1South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB), Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2Centre for Statistics in Ecology, Environment and Conservation; University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 3African Climate and Development Initiative; University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 4Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 5Centre for Invasion Biology, SAIAB, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Recent developments in ecological statistics include techniques that use a model-based approach to analyse species assemblage data. These are comparable to classic techniques such as multidimensional scaling (MDS), similarity percentage (SIMPER) and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). However, the developers addressed several serious problems that were afflicting the classic multivariate techniques (see Wang et al., 2012, Methods in Ecology and Evolution 3: 471-474, and Hui et al., 2014, Methods in Ecology and Evolution 6: 399-411). For example, the new modelling techniques have greater overall statistical power and, unlike classic tests, are not over-influenced by a few dominant species. In addition, the new techniques are highly flexible, can analyse counts, presence-only, percentage cover and biomass as response variables, and can take into account environmental predictors, species traits, and unknown covariates. Using two real species distribution datasets, we demonstrate how the new techniques can be used to present species community data visually (equivalent to unconstrained ordination) and to test hypotheses about environmental covariates. The second southern African bird atlas project provides a huge amount of unstructured survey data for which sampling effort is highly variable among sampling sites. We compare this to an aquatic invertebrate dataset collected from the Keiskamma River system during a structured survey, where sampling effort is similar among sampling sites.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 123 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0105 - What is sustaining the ‘capensis calamity’?

Hannelie Human, Christian Pirk University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Commercial crop production relies heavily on pollination services of honeybees (Apis mellifera). A mellifera contribute at least US$215 billion to the world economy, making them the most valuable pollinators from an economic point of view. Global declines of honeybees and other pollinators resulted in a greater awareness about the importance of pollination. Honeybees in particular are facing various threats, e.g. pathogens, parasites, insufficient nutrition and pesticides, but no single cause has been identified as the causative factor for these colony losses. Despite no reports of exceptional losses in South Africa we found that migratory beekeepers suffered significantly higher colony losses in this country than elsewhere. Migratory beekeeping facilitates in the transmission of parasites and diseases, e.g. the capensis clone. During 1990-1992 A. m. capensis colonies were introduced through migratory beekeeping into commercial apiaries in Gauteng where they evolved into social parasites. Apis m. scutellata queens are unable to prevent capensis workers from diploid egg laying and thus the production of female offspring. This infestation subsequently leads to the death of host colonies. Migratory beekeeping spread the capensis parasite throughout the summer rainfall area, an invasion that resulted in the loss of more than 54 000 colonies. Despite control measures and legislation that banned movement of Cape honeybees into the savannah honeybee region the ‘capensis calamity’ still persists after 27 years.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 124 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0329 - Management of insect pests in planted forests: challenges for developing economies

Brett Hurley1, Bernard Slippers1, Shiroma Sathyapala2, Michael Wingfield1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), Rome, Italy

Various strategies have been proposed to manage the increasing threat that insect pests pose to plantations of non-native trees. However, the implementation of these strategies can be especially challenging in developing economies, such as in countries of sub-Saharan Africa. As in other parts of the world, invasions of non-native insect pests in this region are increasing due to increased trade, inadequate quarantine regulations and / or their implementation. Some of these invasions result in substantial socio-economic and environmental losses. In addition, new host associations of native insects on non-native tree hosts continue to occur. Identification of these insect pests is becoming increasingly difficult due to declining taxonomic expertise, and a lack of resources and research capacity hinders the widespread and effective deployment of resistant trees and biological control agents. The necessity to engage with an extremely diverse stakeholder community also complicates implementing management strategies. We propose that a regional strategy is needed for developing countries such as those in sub-Saharan Africa, where limited resources can be optimized and shared risks managed collectively. This strategy should look beyond the standard recommendations and include the development of an inter-regional phytosanitary agency, exploitation of new technologies to identify insect pests and the utilization of “citizen science” projects. Local capacity is also needed to develop and test trees for pest tolerance and to deploy biological control agents. Ideally, research and capacity development should, at least initially, be concentrated in centres of excellence to reduce costs and to optimize efforts.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 125 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0205 - Global invasive spread and risk of the phytophagous fall armyworm: climate change implications

Brian Isabirye1, Ivan Rwomushana2, Anne Akol3, Alex Mayamba4, Frank Kagoda5, Sevgan Subramanian2 1Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA), Entebbe, Uganda, 2African Insect Science for Food and Health (ICIPE), Nairobi, Kenya, 3College of Natural Sciences, Department of Biological Sciences, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda, 4National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL), Kampala, Uganda, 5Crops Resources Department, Buginyanya Zonal Agricultural Research and Development Institute, Mbale, Uganda

Anthropogenic factors are increasingly exacerbating the spread and impact of invasive species. Consequently, efforts that enhance foreknowledge and early warning have gained prominence in strategic integrated pest management programmes. Endemic to tropical and subtropical regions of Central and South America, the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) is successfully expanding its range with recent invasions reported in Sub-Saharan Africa and Europe. With nearly 100 hosts, the pest inflicts most damage to staple cereal crops such as maize, wheat, sorghum, millet and rice, and non-cereal crops such as cotton, soybeans, groundnut, peanut, potato, sweet potato, spinach, tomato, sweet peppers, cabbage, tobacco, and pasture grasses (hence its impact on livestock production). Based on current species incidence records, and the most biologically relevant climatic data, we used an ensemble of profile, regression and machine learning algorithms to model the current and future potential global S. frugiperda ranges. Models calibrated with records from both the endemic and invaded ranges were projected onto current and future climate options. The models successfully identified the current known range, as well as climatically novel regions well suited currently and in the future. The most suitable current ranges were recorded in Northern and South America, Mexico, Asia, Western Europe, and Sub- Saharan Africa. Much of the Middle East, North Africa and Turkey are currently predicted to be marginal. Future projected conditions suggest increasing climatic favorability, enhancing complex redistribution and range shifts in endemic and invaded, as well as new ranges elsewhere, which might increase prospects of outbreaks and damage in such places.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 126 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0154 - Soil Fusarium survey of the grassland biome of South Africa

Adriaana Jacobs1, Lydia Mojela2, Eduard Venter2, Brett Summerell3 1ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Botany and Plant Biotechnology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Royal Botanic Gardens & Domain Trust Sydney, Sydney, Australia

The genus Fusarium was established to accommodate phialidic fungi with fusiform macroconidia borne on monophialides and microconidia borne on mono- and polyphialides. Species in this genus are characterised by significant variation in morphological characters that can be used for identification. However, many species have proven very difficult to identify based on morphology alone and, therefore, extensive phylogenetic protocols were developed to aid in species identification and descriptions. During the currentFusarium soil survey, morphological characters and phylogenetic relationships were used to demarcate species in the genus Fusarium obtained from undisturbed soils in the grassland biome of the Gauteng and Free State provinces. The South African species composition of the grassland biome was further compared with comparative biomes in Australia. These comparisons ensured an integrated approach to Fusarium species associated with soil in grassland biomes located in the southern hemisphere. This research is a crucial baseline study to identify the species richness of the fusaria in the grassland biome of South Africa. Identification of the full distribution range of the fusaria will provide data towards the planned data-portals for soil and phytopathogenic fungi that underlies quarantine control during trade with South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 127 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0357 - Assessing the eradication feasibility of Chondrilla juncea L. (Skeleton weed)

Kanyisa Jama, Sihle Manzana South African National Biodiversity Institute, East London, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Chondrilla juncea L. (Skeleton weed) (Asteraceae) is a perennial herb native to Western Europe, North Africa and Central Asia. Skeleton weed was first recorded in South Africa in 2004, in a maize field in Mtati village, Peddie, Eastern Cape. It is listed as category 1a on the National Environmental Management Biodiversity Act 2004 Alien and Invasive Species Regulations 2014. SANBI is assessing the eradication feasibility of this species. Surveys conducted by local youth, employed and trained by SANBI, in Peddie revealed that the species is abundant in maize fields and home gardens across nine villages which are close to Mtati village. The species is an aggressive invader that severely affects crop production, and managing this species is challenging, as there is no registered herbicide and no biological control agents. The use of herbicide is not suitable in subsistence gardens as residual herbicides may affect food production. In other countries skeleton weed is managed through an integrated approach using various methods (chemical, mechanical and biological control) and SANBI is investigating control programmes that are suitable and feasible for South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 128 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0168 - Local entomopathogenic nematodes -­ can they help control the Mediterranean fruit fly?

Monique James, Antoinette Malan, Pia Addison Stellenbosch University, Western Cape, South Africa

The polyphagous Mediterranean fruit fly,Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), which is an economically important pest of fruit production globally, including in South Africa, spends part of its life cycle in the soil as a final instar larva and pupa. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) of the families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae are insect-killing parasites that occur naturally in soils worldwide. The main aim of this study was to identify local EPN species highly pathogenic against Medfly larvae entering the soil to pupate. Several soil samples were taken from fruit orchards in the Western Cape province and baited with susceptible host insects, including the target pest. The identity of the EPNs isolated was verified using molecular techniques. The pathogenicity of five local EPN species was screened in the laboratory by inoculating single last-instar Medfly larvae with 100 infective juveniles (IJs) in 50µl of water. After 48 hours, high Medfly larval mortality was obtained, with no significant difference between the nematode species, and the experiment was repeated at a lower concentration of nematodes. The pathogenicity of the virulent EPNs, Heterorhabditis noenieputensis (Malan, Knoetze & Tiedt), along with Steinernema yirgalemense (Nguyen, Tesfamarian, Gozel, Gaugler & Adams), was further tested by inoculating 100 ml of sterilised sand with 2000 IJs. After 24 hours, ten last-instar Medfly larvae were added to the sand. High mortality of Medfly larvae, usingH. noenieputensis, provides a promising local EPN species which could be used as a biological control agent against the Medfly, within an integrated pest management system.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 129 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0356 - A need for knowledge of soil biota ecological function in southern Africa

Dr. Charlene Janion-Scheepers Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town, Western Cape, 8002, South Africa

Globally the importance of soil biota has been recognised and a rich soil diversity has been recorded. However, how this diversity contributes to soil function is less clear. Populations and communities of soil biota, as with any other biota, have to be understood in terms of distribution and abundance, their interaction amongst one another and the abiotic component of soil and how this contributes to energy transformation and flux. South Africa also has a very rich soil biota, as demonstrated recently. However, as elsewhere in the world, ecological information is lacking for several taxa. Here we review the existing ecological knowledge of soil biota in South Africa that contributes to an understanding of soil ecosystem function and relevant ecosystem services. Leading specialists and taxonomists were invited to review groups of soil-dwelling taxa in South Africa and provide information on their known general ecology. For South Africa, reasonably well- studied groups regarding their ecological traits include earthworms, myriapods, spiders, mites, termites, dung beetles and ants. In this context, there is an especially urgent need to investigate the ecological impact of introduced species on the indigenous biota. We also discuss manners in which we can go ahead to advance and improve our knowledge in this regard and how this can be applied in agriculture, forestry, soil management in general and conservation, amongst others.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 130 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0175 - Interspecific competition between Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles arabiensis under polluted conditions

Alexander Jeanrenaud2, Kirsten Barnard2, Basil Brooke1,2, Shüné Oliver1,2 1National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Sandringham, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 2University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Culex quinquefasciatus Say and Anopheles arabiensis Patton are often found breeding in the same water bodies, and therefore may be subject to interspecific competition. Although this competition has been studied before, the effects of pollution and the existence of a resistance phenotype on this interaction has not been examined before. Three laboratory strains were used in this study: QUINQS (Cx. quinequefasciatus - insecticide resistant), SENN (An. arabiensis – insecticide susceptible) and SENN DDT (An. arabiensis - insecticide resistant). The relative larval toxicity of fertilizer or metals to these strains was determined by quantifying their lethal dose. Hatchling larvae from each of these strains were exposed to either inorganic fertilizer or copper nitrate and the development rate and success between QUINQS and either SENN or SENN DDT was determined. Finally, all three strains were offered a choice of an ovipositioning site that was either clean or polluted. The resistant strains had a significantly higher tolerance to metal and fertilizer, and all three strains had an exceptionally high tolerance for lead nitrate. The QUINQS strain outcompeted both An. arabiensis strains, while the SENN DDT strain developed better than the SENN strain under polluted conditions. All strains were also capable of developing to adulthood under conditions of legally allowed pollution limits. All three strains preferentially laid eggs in polluted water, but hatching success was severely compromised. This study concludes that insecticide resistant larvae have an advantage in polluted conditions, and that An. arabiensis were at a marked disadvantage when competing against Cx. quinquefasciatus.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 131 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0101 - An assessment of the status of alien ferns in South Africa

Emily Joy Jones1,2, Tineke Kraaij1, Desika Moodley2 1Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, George, South Africa, 2Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Cape Town, South Africa

One of the greatest threats to native biota worldwide is the presence of alien and invasive plants. Ferns have a long evolutionary history and are incredibly diverse with more than 12 000 known species globally, of which at least 60 species are invasive. Globally, Pteridophytes (ferns) are largely underrepresented in invasion biology literature and studies tend to focus on specific species rather than Pteridophyta as a whole. Studies that screen for invasiveness within a particular plant taxonomic grouping are useful in providing inventories of both existing alien species and potential invaders which then affords predictive ability. In South Africa less than a handful of fern species are listed by the Invasive Alien Plant Species Regulations under NEMBA, while alien ferns are generally underrepresented in species inventories. To date the current status of alien ferns in South Africa has not yet been assessed systematically. This study will consider three spatial scales by (1) developing a global inventory of alien fern species and exploring the traits associated with invasiveness, (2) inventorising historical introductions of alien ferns in South Africa, and through field surveys determine the invasion status and appropriate regulatory and management response per species, (3) evaluating the invasion threat posed by the Australian tree fern (Sphaeropteris cooperi) in the Southern Cape and provide recommendations for its management. The findings should highlight certain problematic traits and taxa within Pteridophyta which will inform future risk assessments and strategies that need to be adopted effectively to manage alien ferns.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 132 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0084 - A mark-release-recapture pilot trial using colonized Anopheles arabiensis in Mamfene, KwaZulu-Natal

Maria Kaiser1,2, Givemore Munhenga2,1, Oliver Wood1,2, Leanne Lobb1,2, Jabulani Zikhali1, Nelius Venter1,2, Jacek Zawada1,2, Erica Erlank1,2, Basil Brooke2,1, Lizette Koekemoer1,2 1Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic & Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa

A pilot mark-release-recapture trial was conducted in Mamfene, KwaZulu-Natal - a site earmarked for assessing the feasibility of controlling the major malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis using the sterile insect technique (SIT). Anopheles arabiensis is difficult to control using indoor spraying of residual insecticides because it displays variable feeding and resting behaviour. The aim of this pilot study was to determine the logistics and feasibility of releasing marked, colony produced An. arabiensis males so as to obtain a population size estimate of this species at this site. Approximately 10 000 An. arabiensis KWAG colony males were harvested over four days. These were marked in the laboratory using fluorescent dust and transported to the Mamfene field site by road. Black cloth tubes were deployed as resting traps at radii of 50 m, 100 m, 200 m and 400 m around the release site, prior to release, for capturing mosquitoes. Mosquitoes were collected from the cloth tubes daily for 7 consecutive days post-release. Collected mosquitoes were morphologically identified to Anopheles species complex and scanned for fluorescent dust using a UV torchlight. Forty-nine anophelines were collected. Of these, 44 were referable to the An. gambiae complex by morphology, 7 of which were recaptured marked males. The population size was estimated using the Lincoln-Petersen Index. The estimate before molecular species-specific identification is approximately 30, 000 An. gambiae complex mosquitoes per 0.503km2. This study confirms that release and recapture of colonised mosquitoes is feasible and provides a preliminary population size estimate of An. arabiensis at this site, pending molecular species identification.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 133 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0330 - Evaluation and comparison of various plant extracts for the management of Lucilia sericata

Ms. Bianca Jayde Kay Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, South Africa

Cutaneous myiasis (sheep strike), resulting from dipteran larval infestations, is of great economic importance in sheep-producing countries across the world. In particular, Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) causes significant damage in many temperate regions, including parts of the Southern Hemisphere. Chemical control methods used against this pest, though effective, have some major disadvantages, such as the development of resistance and environmental contamination. As an alternative, new target-specific and environmentally safe insecticides are being explored worldwide. Currently, bioinsecticides, particularly those derived from plant origin, have been increasingly evaluated in controlling insects of veterinary importance. In order to search for effective and eco-friendly control agents, inverted cone trap choice tests were used in the preliminary assessment of the repellent action of various plant extracts against L. sericata. Percent repellency (%R) and index of reaction (IR) induced by the extracts largely differed. Leaf extracts of Zanthoxylum spp. proved to be the most effective, with 89.3% repellency and an IR of -80.7. Seed extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis also showed high potential, with 80.8% repellency and an IR of -83.9. The results revealed that the extracts of these two plants have control potential against L. sericata and should be further explored as a component of an integrated management program. Additional assessment will include supplementary repellency testing, larvicidal and ovicidal evaluation, as well as the use of chromatography to determine the active compounds present in each extract.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 134 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0095 - Herbivorous insect community composition is coupled to plant species and plant phylogenetic community composition across short spatial scales in the Cape Floristic Region

Jurene Kemp1, Peter Linder2, Allan Ellis1 1Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland

Insect distribution patterns can result from historical contingency (biogeography and dispersal limitation), abiotic filtering, and biotic factors (ecological interactions and evolutionary associations). Here we analyse turnover of plant and insect herbivore community composition at multiple spatial scales to tease apart these influences. While positive associations between plant and insect turnover across broad spatial scales could arise through any of these influences, strong association at very local scales is only likely if insect distributions are determined primarily by biotic factors (i.e. host specificity). We sampled communities of Restionaceae and their associated herbivores in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) using a spatially nested sampling design on three spatially separated mountain blocks with similar climates, thus controlling for broad abiotic influences. We quantified insect and plant turnover at multiple spatial scales. Insect species turnover was significantly related to plant species and phylogenetic turnover at local, as well as broad, spatial scales, suggesting that insect distribution patterns are mainly structured by host specificity. Both plant and insect communities show near complete turnover at small spatial scales. Further, insect turnover increased significantly with increasing geographic separation (e.g. between mountains), suggesting an additional influence of biogeographical factors on insect distributions in the CFR.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 135 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0273 - Habitat use by honey badgers and the influence of predators in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa

Enhle Kheswa1, Tharmalingam Ramesh1,2, Riddhika Kalle1,3, Colleen Downs1 1School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 2Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatty, Coimbatore, 641108, Tamil Nadu, India, 3School of Ecology and Environment Studies, Nalanda University, Rajgir, 803116, Bihar, India

Generally changes in land use and land cover impact wildlife negatively. The effects of land use change on many elusive mesocarnivores is poorly known. In addition to habitat transformation, the presence and habitat use of mesocarnivores can be driven by the distribution of large predators. Consequently, we investigated the occurrence of the relatively poorly known honey badger Mellivora capensis (Schreber, 1776) in iSimangaliso Wetland Park (IWP, St. Lucia, South Africa). Although the IWP is a protected area there are areas of forestry plantations (agroforestry) on its western shore, while areas on its eastern shore and western shore have been rehabilitated to natural vegetation. We used single-season camera trap data from a grid of 118 trap stations for 24 days. Mean estimated occupancy of honey badger was 0.38 ± 0.08 and detection probability of 0.12 ± 0.03, with a naïve occupancy estimate of 0.25. Distance to water and higher number of trees in the plantations were positively associated with honey badger occupancy. Leopard Panthera p. pardus (Linnaeus, 1758) presence had a negative effect on honey badger detections while spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben, 1777) presence was positively related to honey badger detections. Our findings showed that leopards are suggested as predators of the honey badger, while hyenas are cohabitant species with honey badger. This suggests that the modified habitats, in comparison to native vegetation, support higher honey badger populations in the IWP.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 136 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0333 - The extent of black bass distribution in South Africa

Dumisani Khosa1,2, Sean Marr2, Ryan Wasserman2,4, Olaf Weyl2,3 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3Centre for Invasion Biology, Grahamstown, South Africa, 4Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia

Freshwater fishes are the only taxa that continue to be introduced when their detrimental impacts on native freshwater biodiversity have been repeatedly demonstrated. In particular, species introduced widely for recreational angling are a major threat to freshwater biodiversity. In South Africa, four black bass () species were introduced to boost recreational angling. Subsequently, these species have been spread throughout the country. While there has been considerable effort to document the introductions of alien fishes there is often a paucity of information on their subsequent establishment, spread and abundance. This paucity can be attributed to the substantial cost of carrying out large-scale post-introduction assessments. This study sought to bridge this knowledge gap by using multiple information sources (unpublished data, scientific literature, angling magazines, fisheries databases and social media) to estimate the current spatial distribution of the four Micropterus species in South Africa. A database of Micropterus species records in South Africa was established and distribution maps generated using QGIS software. Micropterus species were recorded in all Water Management Areas across South Africa, with the largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) accounting for 50% of the records, smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu (Lacepède, 1802) 35% and spotted bass, Micropterus punctulatus (Rafinesque, 1819) 15%. Florida bass (a sub-species) were integrated within largemouth bass records. Seventy percent of the records were collected in river sections, while 21% were in large impoundments. The method used in this study was useful and cost-effective in giving information about the current distribution status of Micropterus species in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 137 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0107 - Postharvest detection of Thaumatotibia leucotreta in citrus fruit in South Africa

Wayne Kirkman1, Sean Moore1,2, Martin Hill2, Frikkie de Beer3, Jacobus Hoffmann3, Rui Krause4, Timothy Gibson5 1Citrus Research International, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 3Nuclear Energy Corporation of South Africa, Gauteng, South Africa, 4Department of Chemistry, Rhodes University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 5RoboScientific, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK

False codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is an internal pest of citrus in South Africa, and its postharvest detection will be of great value to the industry, particularly for export fruit. Micro-focus X-ray tomography detected 100% of T. leucotreta infestations, just one day after infestation but this took 35 min per fruit. Subsequently, emphasis has been placed on the speed of the scans and this was reduced to 1 min and 26 s. Satsuma mandarin fruit infested between eight and 16 days previously were scanned, and 100% of T. leucotreta penetrations could be detected. In a study on Delta Valencia, all infestations five days and older could be detected. Damage from all second instar and larger larvae was detected. Larvae which had entered the flesh could be detected, while damage in the rind and albedo (blind penetrations) could not be detected. At three days after infestation 90% of infestations could be detected. Additionally, volatile emission techniques have been evaluated using GC- MS. Results showed that D-limonene, caryophyllene and naphthalene levels were affected by T. leucotreta infestation. An electronic nose was evaluated for T. leucotreta detection. The unit is able to detect T. leucotreta infestation, and variability of results is being reduced by eliminating volatile contamination in the laboratory. GC-DMS technology will be tested for detection of T. leucotreta infestation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 138 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0048 - Attempts at biological control of small round-leaved prickly pear (Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm.) (Cactaceae) in South Africa

Hildegard Klein ARC-PPRI, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Opuntia engelmannii Salm-Dyck ex Engelm., a native of Mexico and the USA, is invading the central and southern parts of South Africa. It is highly variable, with some variants previously recognised as separate species, e.g. O. tardospina and O. lindheimeri. The cochineal insect, Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae), and the moth Cactoblastis cactorum (Berg) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), which control related cactus weeds, colonise O. engelmannii in some areas, but cannot exert effective biocontrol. With funding from DEA, a number of D. opuntiae populations were recently collected on O. engelmannii in the USA in an attempt to find a cochineal biotype that is more damaging to this weed. Developmental and impact trials under quarantine conditions showed differences between three variants of the target weed, as well as differences between the cochineal populations collected in different parts of the USA. Two of these populations have the potential to control the Eastern Cape variant, previously known as O. tardospina. Most of the USA cochineal populations cause severe damage to the Free State and Northern Cape variant of the cactus, but only one of them is able to complete its life cycle on that cactus. The involvement of a pathogen in this interaction is being investigated. More collections of cochineal in USA or Mexico might be required before a suitable biocontrol agent for this cactus variant can be found.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 139 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0413 - Diversity and prevalence of Bartonella in Gerbillus nanus from Saudi Arabia

Dewald Kleynhans1, Luiza Hatyoka1, Joshua Sarli1, Abdulaziz Alagaili2, Nigel Bennett1, Armanda Bastos1 1Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2KSU Mammals Research Chair, Department of Zoology, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Bartonella is re-emerging as a zoonotic pathogen and the causative agent of several human diseases. Data regarding its prevalence and diversity in wildlife from the Arabian Peninsula is lacking, even though some reports for human cases of Bartonella infections exist for this region. This study represents the first of its kind to investigate the prevalence of Bartonella in a wild rodent species from the Arabian Peninsula. A total of 138 Baluchistan gerbils (Gerbillus nanus) were screened for Bartonella by PCR using a two-gene (gltA and nuoG) approach. An overall abundance of 68% was recovered, which is similar to that found in other species belonging to the same family from the region. Bartonella diversity was high, with five genotypes forming two distinct clades being recovered. The first clade was closely related to Bartonella elizabethae, a zoonotic species, and could potentially be of public health importance. The remaining four genotypes were closely related to one another and together represent the second clade. This clade was found to be distinct from all recognized Bartonella species and seems to be restricted to species classified under Gerbillinae. This study confirms the presence of Bartonella in Gerbillus nanus as well as the existence of an undescribed, possibly Gerbillinae-specific Bartonella clade and indicates the likely importance of Gerbillus nanus as anatural reservoir in Saudi Arabia.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 140 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0403 - Response of aphids to heat waves and drought

Kerstin Krüger, Lezel Beetge University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

A rise in ambient temperatures may lead to an increase in the abundance of aphids based on a simple model developed for seed potato-producing regions in South Africa. To elucidate the combined effect of heat and drought stress on aphid abundance, the influence of high day-night temperatures and moderate water-deficit stress on the development, survival and reproduction of the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphorbiae (Thomas) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), on potato was determined in the laboratory. The results were compared with field data. Aphids have been monitored weekly throughout the year with Rothamsted-type suction traps since 2006. Heat stress reduced nymphal survival and reproduction of M. euphorbiae in the laboratory. The effect of water-stress depended on temperature. Water stress reduced nymphal and adult survival at high but not at ambient day-night temperatures. Lower night temperatures aided in the recovery from heat stress. Based on the laboratory study, M. euphorbiae population growth could be reduced during heat waves, especially when combined with drought stress. The field data suggest that an increase in temperature may result in increased aphid population growth. However, aphid population growth may be reduced during heat waves at temperatures at which aphid development declines and flight ceases, especially when combined with drought. Longer-term aphid monitoring data from various regions in South Africa support the laboratory results. The findings are of importance to aphid population regulation in view of the predicted regional increases in droughts and heat waves due to climate change.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 141 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0064 - Small mammal landscape corridor usage in a fragmented grassland ecosystem in Mpumalanga province, South Africa

Michelle Kral, Chris Chimimba, Mark Robertson Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Controversy surrounds the use of landscape corridors by terrestrial mammals in a fragmented landscape and about how characteristics such as corridor width influence usage. Addressing this issue is mainly restricted by a lack of empirical data, so there is a need for further research to generate data on mammal corridor usage, as mammals are the most sensitive to potential threats on a fragmented landscape scale. In the Mpumalanga province in South Africa, the Mpumalanga Biodiversity Sector Plan (MBSP) was developed, containing a corridor connectivity map based on landscape features and electrical circuit theory. We aimed to resolve the lack of empirical data within the MBSP by investigating the number of mammal species and individuals that made use of these landscape corridors in a fragmented grassland ecosystem and if this was influenced by corridor width. Small mammals were trapped using grids of 100 Sherman live traps inside, outside and in the opening of corridors with widths of 50-100 m (narrow), 100-200 m (medium) and 300- 400 m (wide). Corridors in the province were actively used and, significantly, small mammals were most abundant inside the corridors. Most abundant species included Namaqua rock mouse (Micaelamys namaquensis), multimammate mouse (Mastomys sp.) and four-striped grass mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio). Preliminary results showed that corridor width is not a significant predictor of either number of individuals or species richness. Even narrow corridors facilitated movement of small mammals. Therefore, these corridors should be given priority for conservation planning in the developing landscape of Mpumalanga.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 142 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0038 - A risk analysis framework for the listing of alien species under regulations

Sabrina Kumschick1,2, John Wilson2,1, Llewellyn Foxcroft3,1 1Centre for Invasion Biology, Western Cape, South Africa, 2SANBI, Western Cape, South Africa, 3SANParks, Mpumalanga, South Africa

While many alien taxa are highly beneficial, some can have significant undesirable negative impacts on the recipient environment and socio-economy. In order to deal with such undesirable consequences and to mitigate future impacts, frameworks for the regulation of alien taxa have been developed all over the world. Such regulations often include lists of species for which certain activities are prohibited or restricted. Decisions on these lists require a scientific analysis of risk under a formal framework. The process of risk analysis is composed of hazard identification, risk assessment, risk management, and risk communication. In the context of alien taxa, hazard identification is the process of identifying which alien taxa are to be analysed; risk assessment consists of the likelihood and consequences of a given alien taxon causing negative impacts; risk management deals with options to reduce the risk including within the context of potential benefits; and finally risk communication is about how the information is made accessible. We present a framework for analysing the risk of alien taxa under the NEM:BA Alien and Invasive Species Regulations of 2014. In outlining a series of questions related to a taxon’s likelihood of invasion and the consequences thereof, i.e. the potential impacts, the study provides a structure for collating data relevant to the process of listing taxa as well as a process for developing recommendations.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 143 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0406 - The role of olfaction in host plant location of the leafhopper vector of aster yellows phytoplasma in grapevine

M. Roleen La Grange1, Michelle L. Schröder1, Rickard Ignell2, Robert Glinwood2, Marc Bouwer1, Kerstin Krüger1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden

Olfactory stimuli emitted from phytoplasma-infected plants can influence host plant selection by insect vectors by being more attractive than stimuli from uninfected plants. The leafhopper vector of aster yellows phytoplasma in grapevine in South Africa, Mgenia fuscovaria Stål (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), preferred aster yellows-infected to uninfected grapevine branches. In order to determine the influence of aster yellows infection on host plant selection of M. fuscovaria in the absence of visual stimuli, the volatile profiles of infected and uninfected grapevine were compared in summer and autumn and matched with behavioural and electrophysiological responses of the leafhopper. The volatile profiles of infected and uninfected branches differed qualitatively as well as quantitatively. The leafhopper showed no consistent preference towards volatiles from infected compared with uninfected branches or purified air in Y-tube olfactometer tests. In electrophysiological tests the leafhopper displayed weak responses to grapevine volatiles collected in summer. The behavioural assays suggest that M. fuscovaria is not preferentially attracted towards infected grapevine branches based solely on olfactory stimuli but rather by visual stimuli or a combination of both. In general, olfactory stimuli may be largely supplementary to other stimuli, such as visual cues, in host plant selection of M. fuscovaria.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 144 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0197 - Prevalence and diversity of tick-borne Anaplasmataceae in indigenous commensal rodents (Rodentia: Muridae and Nesomyidae) from Gauteng province, South Africa

Anja le Grange1, Helene Brettschneider1, Christian T Chimimba1,2, Armanda DS Bastos1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology (CIB), Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Anaplasma and Ehrlichia species have been known to veterinary medicine for a long time, but the emergence of human pathogens in the last 20 years has renewed interest in these bacterial genera. Despite this, the prevalence and diversity of zoonotic Anaplasma and Ehrlichia in Africa is understudied, particularly with respect to the role of small mammals. The aim of the present study was to investigate the prevalence and diversity of tick-borne Anaplasmataceae in indigenous, commensal rodents in South Africa. A total of 175 kidney samples from six indigenous murid and nesomyid rodent species sampled in commensal settings were screened for Anaplasmataceae DNA using a primer set that targets the 16S rRNA gene. Two Anaplasmataceae genera were identified in 60 of 175 commensal rodents, corresponding to an overall prevalence of 34.3%. A generalized linear mixed model was used to test for differences between bacterial infection with reference to rodent species and sex. Significant differences in bacterial prevalence were found between the rodent species but not between sexes. Anaplasma bovis-like bacteria were detected in five murid rodent species (Aethomys ineptus, Lemniscomys rosalia, Mastomys coucha, Otomys angoniensis and Rhabdomys dilectus) sampled with an overall prevalence of 35.9%. Ehrlichia ewingii, a zoonotic species mainly infecting immune-compromised individuals, was only detected in Mastomys coucha with a prevalence of 5.5%. This study represents the first report of A. bovis and E. ewingii in commensal South African rodents and could have important veterinary and medical implications, especially for people living in resource poor communities.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 145 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0421 - Guidelines and tools for planning and management of alien plant species invasions

David Le Maitre1,2, Greg Forsyth1 1Natural Resources and the Environment, CSIR, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Section 76 of the Natural Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act requires all Organs of State to prepare invasive species monitoring, control and eradication plans for land areas under their control. Guideline documents are available which describe the content of the plan and give guidance on its execution, including monitoring the outcomes. Section 73 requires all landowners to deal with invasions under the duty of care, but does not require such detailed plans. However, there are no guidelines on how to estimate the resources that will be required successfully to execute such plans. The presentation describes the Management Unit Control Planning tool, which has been designed to provide an estimate of the resources that will be required for successful completion, given a set of annual budgets. Like all plans, the tool requires some preparatory work and data collection. The first step is to agree with stakeholders on the specific area that they wish to clear. The participants then establish a mutually agreed objective, set priorities for which areas to clear first, and agree on how they will measure progress. Data on the current invasions and the priorities are loaded into the tool and it then generates a 20-year plan for the clearing based on the priorities and existing invasions and pre-determined budgets. The budgets and priorities can be modified to allow the participants to reach consensus on the plan and implement it. We believe this tool can make a significant contribution to effective alien plant control.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 146 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0228 - Must science #fall for a real connection to be forged with society?

Aliza le Roux, Melissa Hansen University of the Free State-Qwaqwa, Phuthaditjhaba, Free State, South Africa

Over the past two years, numerous student-led protests erupted across South African university campuses, driven by dissatisfaction with still deeply felt imbalances experienced by first- generation students. While the #feesmustfall protests have prompted radical financial changes across academic institutions, the #sciencemustfall movement spurned scorn from many scientists. Nevertheless, the movement is seen by many as a call for a change in the way we practice or teach science. This call is often dismissed or ignored, and the decolonization of our academic institutions is a topic primarily addressed by humanities scholars and social scientists. The question must be asked, “Should we change the way science is taught and practiced?”. But more importantly, can we – the entomologists, the zoologists, the natural scientists – change our ways if the process remains a philosophical debate amongst academics outside the natural sciences?

This paper reports on research conducted at a rural, historically disadvantaged university campus in the Free State Province. We conducted open-ended interviews with staff and students from various faculties, in order to investigate how opinions about the “fall” and decolonization of science might differ amongst students and researchers from distinct philosophical backgrounds. Here, we present qualitative data on the distinct responses amongst students and staff members, highlighting varying opinions on the fallist debate, as well as practical suggestions on the way forward. To our knowledge, this is the first empirical investigation of responses to the #sciencemustfall movement, providing insights from both future and practicing natural scientists.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 147 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0391 - Understanding the impacts of invasive legumes on soil microbial community composition and function in South Africa’s Cape Floristic Region

Johannes Le Roux, Allan Ellis, Jan-Hendrik Keet, Cang Hui Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Soil microbial communities fulfil important roles in ecosystem functioning such as the decomposition of organic matter and the cycling of nutrients. Invasive plants may impact these processes, as their densities are often correlated with higher organic inputs and decomposition rates, with subsequent increases in soil mineralization, nitrification and carbon content. Invasive nitrogen-fixing legumes, such as Australian acacias, can further modify soil nitrogen accumulation and transformation rates. Here, comparing pairs of acacia-invaded and uninvaded sites in South Africa’s Cape Floristic Region, we aimed to investigate whether the presence of invasive acacia populations induce changes in soil chemistry, seasonal soil microbial community function (enzymatic activities), and soil microbial community composition. Compositionally, we found that the soil microbiomes of different univaded sites were distinct while those of invaded sites converged. Our enzyme activity analyses indicated significant seasonal differences within sites, but these differences were not consistent between invaded and univaded sites per season. Specifically, significant differences were found between some acacia invaded and uninvaded sites across seasons, whereby acacias increased enzyme activity, especially for phosphate metabolism. We found the opposite trend in the functioning of urease, i.e. nitrogen metabolism, where the presence of acacias seem to decrease activity. Interestingly, carbon cycling as measured by β-glucosidase activity, seemed to be the least affected by the presence of acacias. Overall, our data suggest that invasive acacias have the capacity to significantly alter soil conditions microbial community composition and function.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 148 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0131 - Bush encroachment slows decomposition and termite activity in an African savanna

Monica Leitner1, Andrew Davies2,3, Catherine Parr4,5, Paul Eggleton6, Mark Robertson2 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 3Department of Global Ecology, Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, California, USA, 4School of Environmental Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK, 5School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 6Life Sciences Department, Natural History Museum, London, UK

Bush encroachment, the widespread proliferation of native woody species, threatens the biodiversity and ecological functioning of grassland and savanna ecosystems and can lead to a complete switch from open habitats to dense thickets. Plant litter decomposition is a fundamental ecosystem process in nutrient cycling and global carbon dynamics, yet little is known about how bush encroachment might alter this process. We compared decay rates of heavily encroached sites with adjacent open savanna in the Madikwe Game Reserve, South Africa. We also assessed the effect of bush encroachment on the activity levels of termites, dominant decomposers in savannas for which the effects of bush encroachment are unknown. We found a significant reduction in decomposition rates within encroached areas, with grass litter taking twice as long to decay compared with litter in open savannas. The activity of fungus-growing termites was also substantially lower in encroached sites, particularly during the dry season when activity levels were reduced to almost zero. The lack of turnover in termite assemblages between encroached and non-encroached sites, coupled with significantly lower termite abundance, suggests that bush encroachment created an unfavourable environment for savanna termites, which are likely specialised for open habitats. We provide the first quantification of bush encroachment posing a significant threat to the current functioning of African savanna ecosystems through its reduction in termite activity and consequent slowing of above-ground decomposition. This is concerning given that bush encroachment is intensifying with climate change, and suggests imminent changes to the carbon balance and biodiversity of grassy biomes.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 149 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0112 - Almost a decade of water-dependent bird monitoring along the Olifants River, Kruger NP

Rion Lerm1, André Botha2 1SAEON, Ndlovu Node, South Africa, 2Endangered Wildlife Trust, Birds of Prey Programme, South Africa

River systems are dynamic where both biotic and abiotic drivers (ENVs) can shape the landscape and its communities across relatively short temporal scales. Floods, for example, have long-term effects on the system’s geology, plant composition and structure. Thus, animal communities reliant on these are also expected to show changes in abundance and composition. The Endangered Wildlife Trust’s Pel’s Fishing Owl Survey initially focused on recording this endangered species, but eventually all water-dependent birds were recorded from 2007 2015 inside the Kruger National Park along a ~80 km stretch of the Olifants River. Nearly 10 000 water-dependent birds were recorded across the project’s life apart from hippopotamus and Nile crocodile abundances. In an attempt to understand the drivers that shape this water-dependent bird community we compared the geo tagged records to that of environmental factors such as water cover, sand cover, hippo abundances and crocodile abundances along the river. There was a significant increase in water-dependent birds since 2011, but only eight species included in the models showed significant relationships with environmental factors over a three-year period from 2013 2015 when satellite imagery was available. Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca) abundance was positively correlated with hippopotamus abundance and other ENVs and was to be expected as commensalism between these two species has been recorded elsewhere. This simple, long- term bird census dataset together with remote sensing imagery and generalised linear modelling provided some interesting findings regarding the different drivers that shape waterbird communities in a protected area.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 150 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0230 - Densities of Arthroleptella lightfooti across the Cape Peninsula: preliminary results from acoustic spatial capture-recapture

Marike Louw1, Res Altwegg2, Andrew Turner3, Jasper Slingsby4, Ben Stevenson5, David Borchers6, John Measey1 1University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 3Western Cape Nature Conservation Board, Western Cape, South Africa, 4South African Environmental Observation Network, Western Cape, South Africa, 5University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, 6University of St. Andrews, Fife, UK

The Cape Peninsula moss frog, Arthroleptella lightfooti, is a visually cryptic species that is endemic to the peninsula and is considered near threatened by the IUCN, the greatest threats being invasive woody vegetation and too frequent or intense fire. Traditional capture-recapture techniques are difficult to employ in studying visually cryptic species. Acoustic spatial capture- recapture (aSCR) provides a non-invasive means to study vocalizing animals and is used to obtain quantitative estimates of calling animal densities. We used aSCR to obtain density estimates of calling A. lightfooti across their entire distribution on the Cape Peninsula. Acoustic arrays of six microphones and a recorder were set up at sites (n=39) across the distribution range of A. lightfooti from August to October 2016 and the recordings were analysed using the R package “ascr”. We present the first calling density distribution across the entire range of any frog. Calling density distributions of the frogs are heterogeneous across the Cape Peninsula, with some sites having high densities of frogs calling (1120.7±60 calling frogs per hectare), and other sites having low densities (41.7±3.1 calling frogs per hectare). This technique can be of conservation importance as it can aid in investigating the major threats to A. lightfooti and other calling taxa in addition to determining factors that are most influential in affecting calling population densities. Acoustic spatial capture-recapture can therefore provide valuable input for the management of natural areas on the Cape Peninsula.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 151 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0284 - Managing change in cropping system soils requires strategic thinking

Schalk Louw University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Managing crop agriculture in the context of snowballing broad-based change is the challenge facing farmers at the moment. Proactively to respond to this challenge translates into choosing and adopting mitigation strategies and to adjust accordingly. By 2050 global human numbers will increase by more than 30%, implying a 70% larger food requirement than at present against a backdrop of up to 40% further land degradation. This presents a bleak picture, and arable land for crop production, competing with stock production, will be under immense pressure, leading to intensified land use exploitation. The current state of affairs in crop agriculture management is sophisticated and complex. However, an overriding factor is that of climate change, which is on the up, resulting in a breakdown of the integrity, stability and productivity of farming systems. Albeit that this is so relevant, there is a concerning stagnancy in innovative, systems thinking in order to address the issue. A call is therefore made that change awareness and change impact mitigation should become a priority for landowners in general. This paper addresses change awareness by primarily focussing on soil and refers to the following aspects: climate change and climate- smart agriculture; conservation agriculture; food webs; alien invasions; plant-soil feedbacks; decomposition and soil organic matter; landscape scale perspective and integrated, holistic system analysis, amongst others. In order to establish a working model regarding the above- mentioned, the adaptation cycle, embedded in integrated adaptation science and incorporating environmental and socio-economic components as variables for analysis and implementation, is recommended.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 152 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0213 - Monitoring population trends of false codling moth, carob moth and Mediterranean fruit fly on multi-crop farms in the Western Cape

Claire Love, Martin Gilbert Citrus Research International, P.O. Box 2201, Matieland, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa

False codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) and Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata Wiedemann (Diptera: Tephritidae) are problematic pests of a variety of crops. In the Western Cape, multi-crop farms are common and the presence of different fruit crops in close proximity to one another has implications for pest activity and control. Pheromone or attractant traps were used to monitor adult presence weekly, while fruit scouting and/or fruit infestation analysis determined larval presence. Two farms were used, the first with citrus, grapes and stonefruit and the second with citrus and pomegranates. These farms were in geographically separate locations. At farm one (Riebeek-Kasteel), FCM and fruit fly were monitored, while all three species were monitored at farm two (Porterville). FCM flight activity did not relate to ripening fruit, but rather activity increased for all crops between January and March at farm one, with greatly reduced activity in 2017 due to improved control. At farm two, FCM peaked in pomegranates and citrus between October and December, as well as in April/May. In 2015/16, carob moth activity peaked at the end of October in citrus and in January for pomegranates, but trap catches in early 2017 more than doubled in pomegranates. Mediterranean fruit fly activity showed increased catches around fruit harvest, but substantial peaks also occurred long after fruit harvest. Fruit fly numbers in pomegranates were low at the second farm. Scouting and fruit infestation analysis is ongoing and implications will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 153 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0297 - Keratinous tissue as a matrix for obtaining time-based biochemical data

Nico Lubcker1, Ryan Reisinger1, Chris Oosthuizen1, Richard Condit2, Roxanne Beltran3, Andre van Tonder1, Pierre Pistorius4, Nico de Bruyn1, Kailen Padayachee5, Gerhard Malan5, Pieter Swart6, Grant Hall1, Stephan Woodborne1, Marthan Bester1

Sequentially sampled keratinous tissue provides a chronology of biochemical data. Herein, we quantified the whisker (vibrissa) growth parameters of southern elephant seals (SES), Mirounga leonina, at Marion Island in the Southern Ocean, as an example, to demonstrate how time- based interpretations of the steroid and isotopic data captured along the length of the whiskers are obtainable. The whisker regrowth rate was described using the von Bertalanffy growth function, indicating that the growth rate decreased as the asymptotic length of the whiskers was approached. We then used δ15N and δ13C stable isotopes measured chronologically in the whisker regrowths (n = 14) to quantify the contribution of crustaceans to the diet of juvenile SES at Marion Island. A mixing model predicted that 76% of their diets comprised of crustaceans. This first utilisation of whisker regrowths increased the resolution of dietary information available for SES. We also aim to present our results regarding the first, successful chronologically extractions of hormones captured along the length of SES whiskers. Information regarding the trophic ecology and physiological ecology of juvenile SES aids our understanding of their role in the marine ecosystem, pivotal to their future utility as sentinels to gauge ocean health. Other examples of the use of keratinous tissue (feathers) will also be presented, and the potential caveats of the use of stable isotopes in keratinous tissues as non-invasive sampling tool will be addressed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 154 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0426 - Variation of morphometric and demographic parameters in eastern rock sengi populations

Dina Fagir, Sasha Hoffmann, Heike Lutermann University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Many mammalian species exhibit variation in body size across geographical as well as temporal scales. Based on Palaearctic vertebrates, Bergmann (1848) was the first to suggest that the frequently observed increase in body size with increasing latitude within and across species is a result of the energetic challenges posed by the unfavourable surface to volume ratio for smaller animals in colder environments. The aim of the current study was to evaluate geographic and temporal variation in body size and demography of two populations of eastern rock sengis (Elephantulus myurus) from South Africa and provide the first test of Bergmann’s rule in an African mammal. During 54,516 trap nights between April 2010 and February 2013 we captured a total of 230 sengis 404 times in Goro Game Reserve, Limpopo Province and Telperion Nature Reserve and collected data on body size and demography. Both populations exhibited an even sex ratio. However, body mass and length were ca. 30 and 35% greater in Telperion compared to Goro but did not differ between the sexes. While pregnant females were most commonly observed in spring in Telperion, reproduction extended well into summer in Goro and the proportion of juveniles in the captured population (13.7%) was greater in the latter. In support of Bergmann’s rule our findings suggest that even at the small latitudinal scale of ca. 300 km sengis exhibit a substantial difference in body size. They furthermore suggest that the climatic differences in the two localities may lead to considerable intraspecific divergence in population dynamics.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 155 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0347 - New predatory mite species of the genera Eustigmaeus Berlese, 1910 and Eryngiopus Summers, 1964 from citrus in Florida, USA (Acari: Stigmaeidae)

Pholoshoi Maake1, Eddie Ueckermann2, Carl Childers3 1Biosystematics Division, ARC - Plant Protection Research, Pretoria, South Africa, 2School of Biological Sciences/ Zoology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 3University of Florida, Citrus Research and Education Centre, Florida, USA

The family Stigmaeidae Oudemans, 1931, at present comprises 32 valid genera and more than 500 described species. Stigmaeids are well known predators of different phytophagous insects and mites in various horticultural crops. According to the recent state-wide survey of Stigmaeidae within Florida (USA) between 1975 and 2013, Childers and Ueckermann (2014) found ten species of stigmaeid mites in five genera, amongst those Eustigmaeus and Eryngiopus. These included new records and an undescribed species, which were only referred to and accessioned in the National Collection of Arachnida (NCA-ARC) as Eustigmaeus n. sp. and Eryngiopus n. sp. All mites are permanently mounted for identification under the 100X oil-immersion objective of a research microscope. The unidentified specimens are described herein as new species, Eustigmaeus floridensis n. sp. and Eryngiopus audreae n. sp.. Since additional species have been described from other parts of the USA, the genera thus comprise a substantial array of species in the USA alone, which are very uniform in their generic features. Although problems in identification have been reduced for these genera in other countries, identification of taxa from the USA remains problematic, mostly due to the inadequate descriptions and illustrations of species’ characters. Hence it seemed desirable to amend, where possible, the prior species identification keys for all species of the genera occurring in the USA, including new species we considered in this paper. The holotypes and some paratypes will be deposited in the NCA, Agricultural Research Council, Plant Protection Research Institute, Biosystematics Division, Pretoria, South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 156 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0322 - Biological control against two Australian invaders, Acacia longifolia and A. pycnantha in South Africa - Are we winning the war?

Pride Mudavanhu, Lulama Madire ARC – PPRI, Alien Weed Biocontrol, Entomology Department, Vredenburg Campus, P/Bag X5017, Stellenbosch, South Africa

One of the most invasive tree genera in the world is Acacia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae). Acacia longifolia (Andrews) Willdenow and A. pycnantha Bentham are native to Australia and were historically rated amongst the worst invaders in South Africa. Nevertheless, biological control has been the primary focus of research since the 1970s, as a long term and sustainable management tool for these alien tree weed species. Despite their persistence in riparian zones and on mountain slopes as well as high annual seed production and substantial regeneration after fire outbreaks, we hypothesise that they are no longer a problem due to the long term presence of biocontrol in conjunction with fires and clearing efforts. Due to the conflict of interest with respect to their utilisation and management, biocontrol against these alien invaders has been limited to the use of insect agents that only preclude or reduce their reproductive capacity. This compromise ensures that management efforts do not interfere with the beneficial and economically exploitable attributes of these tree species. However, the apparent inadequacy to effect immediate control and short-term reductions in parent plant densities has created perceptions that biological control of these acacias has largely been unsuccessful. As part of ongoing post-release evaluation, this study assesses the progress of biocontrol against these tree weed species thus far.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 157 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0024 - Diamondback moth pest status in Botswana: current control methods, perceptions and knowledge of alternative pest management options

Honest Machekano1, Brighton, M. Mvumi2, Casper Nyamukondiwa1 1Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Botswana International University of Science and Technology, P. Bag 16, Palapye, Botswana, 2Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Engineering, University of Zimbabwe, P. O Box MP 167, Mt Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe

While the diamondback moth (DBM), Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae), is a well- known economic pest of brassicas, little is known about its pest status, ecology and management practices in Botswana. Using the snowball sampling technique, a nationwide survey was conducted involving 102 Brassica farmers in the 2014/15 austral summer. DBM was ranked as the most problematic pest with the highest prevalence by 76% of the farmers. Above 80% of the respondents believed Brassica production could improve household livelihoods if DBM is successfully managed. More than 50% of the farmers perceived an increase in DBM pest pressure during the past ten years, and 80% experienced field losses of 50% or more, citing continuous host availability, poor crop protection practices and climate as major reasons. Only 52% could identify DBM larvae, with 81% of farmers acknowledging the need for training in pest identification and management strategies. Synthetic insecticides are used by 96% of the farmers to manage DBM. Most farmers were unaware of biological control (93%), integrated pest management (IPM) (63%) and other non-chemical control methods. Nevertheless, 52% + indicated a willingness to adopt IPM, with 40% believing in its potential efficacy. The survey showed an overreliance on synthetic insecticides and knowledge paucity on sustainable management options for DBM in Botswana. The results provide a foundation for capacity building, and baseline data for agricultural extension service providers, policy makers and researchers to shift focus towards frameworks/activities that improve farmers’ knowledge and skills in sound, environmentally safe and sustainable pest management options.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 158 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0030 - Pre-release assessment of the root-feeding flea beetle, Heikertingerella sp. (Coleoptera: Alticini), on an invasive tree, Tecoma stans, under quarantine laboratory conditions

Lulama Gracious Madire Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa

Heikertingerella sp. (Coleoptera: Alticini), a root-feeding flea beetle from Mexico, was introduced into ARC-PPRI quarantine in Pretoria, South Africa in 2013. Adult beetles feed on the leaves, creating small round holes with rough edges whilst the larvae feed on the roots of Tecoma stans L. (Bignoniaceae). Host-specificity tests were conducted to determine the safety and efficacy of Heikertingerella sp. as a potential biological control agent for T. stans. Results obtained thus far are very promising, highlighting that the beetle is highly host-specific. To assess the efficacy of this candidate agent, plant growth in relation to insect density was measured in quarantine. Twelve seedlings of 20 cm height were selected and divided into three groups. The first group of four was not infested with insects, and the second group was infested with two pairs of insects (low density), and the last group was infested with five pairs of insects per plant (high density). Both low and high-density treatments caused a significant impact, with a dry mass reduction of 29% on the below- and 23% above-ground biomass when compared to controls. There was also a reduction of 43% and 46% on leaf density at both low and high density treatments, respectively. However, neither treatment had a significant impact on stem diameter and stem height. The release of this flea beetle will add more pressure to the population densities of T. stans in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 159 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0173 - The impact of the indigenous seed wasp Megastigmus transvaalensis, a new association herbivore on Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi (Anacardiaceae) in South Africa

Nwabisa Magengelele1, Unathi L.P Heshula2, Martin Hill1, Steve Compton1 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Fort Hare University, Alice, South Africa

The indigenous wasp Megastigmus transvaalensis (Hussey) (Hymenoptera: Torymidae), is a seed predator of plants in the family Anacardiaceae. Its native hosts include species in the genus Rhus but it has expanded its host range, forming a new association in South Africa with the invasive Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi and Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae), both native to South America. This study sought to determine the biocontrol value of M. transvaalensis for both Schinus species. Selected Schinus trees from four Eastern Cape towns were sampled at regular intervals to determine the presence and impact of the wasp. Preliminary results showed that although the wasp was found at all Schinus spp. sites, only 20% seed damage was recorded on S. terebinthifolius. Seeds of S. molle have not yet been sampled. On both S. terebinthifolius and Rhus dentata two unidentified wasp species have emerged from their seeds; these are currently being identified. Phenology is being recorded on each tree to understand its role on host expansion by the wasp. Wasp behaviour on Rhus sp., previously unrecorded as hosts, will be observed to understand the host expansion to Schinus when there are other Rhus trees in the vicinity of known host trees. This study of seed predation may assist in better understanding the effect of the wasp in limiting, or accelerating the spread of Schinus spp., and improve understanding of the mechanisms that contribute to host expansion.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 160 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0337 - Phylogeny of the genus Chamaeleo and an investigation of cryptic speciation in the common flap-necked chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis)

Devon Main1, Krystal Tolley2,3, Bettine van Vuuren1 1Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Applied Biodiversity Research Division, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Claremont, Cape Town, South Africa, 3Department of Botany and Zoology, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, Cape Town, South Africa

Cryptic diversity has become increasingly more apparent in the kingdom of life with the inclusion of molecular techniques for species delimitation. Unfortunately much of this diversity may go extinct before it is even recognized. The Chamaeleonidae are a unique family of Gondwanan squamates. Notable levels of cryptic diversity have been recorded in some of its taxa, particularly in the genera Bradypodion and Rhampholeon. Chamaeleo is a genus of typical, pan-African chameleons that also includes all those native to Europe, Asia and the Middle East. Until recently, Chamaeleo also comprised the sub-genus Trioceros which has subsequently been elevated to genus status. This, together with a paucity of phylogenetic research on Chamaeleo, suggests that its taxonomy deserves a more comprehensive phylogenetic review. The flap-necked chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis) is a chameleon widespread across sub-Saharan Africa, but a recent preliminary study suggests that C. dilepis as it currently stands may actually comprise multiple distinct species. Using 312 tissue samples encompassing 12 representative species of Chamaeleo and including two mitochondrial markers (16S and ND4) and two nuclear markers (RAG1 and C-MOS) and conducting Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses, the aims of the present study were to determine phylogenetic structure and resolve evolutionary relationships between species within Chamaeleo. In addition to this, a bGMYC analysis of 241 C. dilepis samples, spanning a large representative of the species’ natural range, will be aimed at investigating cryptic speciation within this lineage and ascertaining whether C. dilepis is indeed a single species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 161 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0286 - Eichhornia crassipes responses to Megamelus scutellaris feeding under varied nitrogen and temperature

Chumakwande Makehle1, Martin Hill1, Unathi-Nkosi Heshula2 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2University of Fort Hare, Alice, South Africa

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes Mart.-Solms is an erect, short stemmed, free floating plant with showy flowers. The plant originates from the South American lowland tropics in the Amazon basin, then spread by introductions around 1800 to the U.S., due to its ornamental property value in ponds and garden pools, followed by other tropical and subtropical regions. Water hyacinth is regarded as an invasive aquatic weed with notable ecological and socio-economical deleterious impacts. Literature suggests biocontrol is the best option for water hyacinth control. Biological control of water hyacinth in South Africa has led to the release of seven arthropods and one pathogen. Megamelus scutellaris is the most recently released biocontrol agent in South Africa. Nutrients and temperature are important factors in water hyacinth biological control. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the response of the agent to high and low nutrition under varied temperatures.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 162 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0140 - Heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity in speckled mousebirds (Colius striatus)

Sekgwari Malematja, Matthew Noakes, Andrew McKechnie University of Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Speckled mousebirds (Colius striatus Gmelin, 1789) are highly heterothermic and may exhibit body temperatures (Tb) equivalent to 15-20 °C below normothermy when in torpor. However, their thermoregulatory responses to high air temperatures ( Ta) remain unclear, and in particular whether their Tb is also comparatively labile above the normothermic range. We predicted that C. striatus exhibit relatively modest heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity at high Ta. We measured Tb, evaporative water loss (EWL) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) in birds experiencing a ramped profile of Ta between 20°C and 44°C. Both Tb and EWL began increasing above Ta = 35 - 37°C, reaching maxima of 44.2°C and 2.0 g.h-1, respectively. The thermoneutral zone (TNZ) of these birds appeared to be in the range of 33.3°C < Ta < 41.1°C. The maximum ratio of evaporative heat loss (EHL) to metabolic heat production (MHP) was 1.57 ± 0.120, comparatively low compared to some other taxa. Although the rate of increase in Tb was relatively rapid, C. striatus maintained a relatively narrow range of Tbs at high Tas. The rate of increase in EWL was similar to other previously studied taxa, and overall the mousebirds showed relatively modest heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity. We also used EWL weather data to model future changes in water demands for this species in Pretoria, and estimate that resting water requirements on extremely hot days will increase by approximately 70% by the end of the 21st Century.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 163 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0104 - Food, sex and death: any compromises? Nutritional geometry of a specialist pest fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Kevin Malod1, Ruth Archer2, John Hunt2,3, Sue Nicolson1, Chris Weldon1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK, 3School of Science and Health, Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia

In insects, lifespan and reproduction are strongly associated with nutrition. The ratio of nutrients consumed throughout life directly impacts life expectancy and available resources for reproduction. The geometric framework (GF) is a nutritional model that explores how animals regulate intake of multiple nutrients and their correlation with life history traits. Studies using the GF on host- generalist tephritid flies have highlighted trade-offs between longevity and reproductive effort in relation to the protein to carbohydrate (P:C) ratio consumed. However, it may be that host- specialists exhibit different optima that prolong lifespan during periods of host unavailability. In this study, a nutritional geometry approach consisting of no-choice and choice feeding experiments was used to determine for the marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker), the nutritional optima for lifespan (LS), lifetime egg production (LRE) and daily egg production (DRE), as well as the area in the nutrient space that females and males defend when given the opportunity to regulate consumption. Female LS was optimised at a 0:1 P:C ratio, whereas optimal LRE was at a 1:6 ratio and DRE around a 1:2.5 ratio. In males, LS was also optimised at a low P:C ratio of 1:10. However, when given the opportunity to regulate, both sexes defended a 1:3 ratio. Our results show that this host-specialist species experiences moderate trade-offs and prioritises a nutrient intake optimal for female reproductive effort. However, even when LRE and DRE were optimised, they were still lower than in host-generalist tephritids, which may promote the extended lifespan characteristic of C. cosyra.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 164 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0294 - The Oriental fruit fly: four years after first establishment in the northern areas of South Africa

Aruna Manrakhan1, Christopher Weldon2, Pia Addison3, Minette Karsten3, Louisa Makumbe2, Welma Pieterse3, Charmaine Theron2, Xolani Sibiya2, John-Henry Daneel1 1Citrus Research International, Nelspruit, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

The Oriental fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel, is an invasive exotic fruit fly pest that was first declared present in the northern areas of South Africa in 2013. Currently the pest is still restricted in its distribution in South Africa, being present in the northern and north-eastern areas of the country. In the northern areas where the pest has been established for four years, trapping data are indicating increases in populations of the pest with catches occurring almost throughout the year. The aim of this paper is to review the research being conducted on B. dorsalis in South Africa, which will contribute towards better management of the pest in the country. Studies are being conducted on the biology of the pest to determine its (1) host utilisation, (2) dispersal capacity, and (3) mating and feeding behaviour. With regard to pest management, the efficacy of monitoring and control methods for B. dorsalis have been tested in the northern areas of South Africa. Further studies are required to optimise monitoring and control of the pest. Some research gaps include the search for a better female attractant and effective biological control methods for this pest.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 165 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0005 - Explaining extinction risk pattern in the African Cyprinidae: it is all about wrong origin and wrong location

Adeoba Mariam1, Yessoufou Kowiyou2 1Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Department of Geography, Environmental management and Energy studies, University of Johannesburg, Department of Geography, Environmental management and Energy studies, University of Johannesburg, South Africa

The sixth mass extinction period is around the corner, especially in the tropics. Evidence reveals that freshwater ecosystems might be more threatened especially by human-induced disruptions, hence more investigations to understand the drivers of extinction risk should be embraced. Such understanding is hindered by the lack of relevant and sufficient information on the conservation status of several species. The aim of the present study was to build a model that explains current patterns of extinction risk in the African Cyprinidae and use this model to predict the conservation status of species that have not yet been assessed. To this end, the cumulative link mixed effect models were fitted to ecological and biological data of the African Cyprinidae. Five categories of threats were identified with over-exploitation and pollution being the most predominant, particularly in eastern and southern Africa. The overall predictive power of the best model is 47%, showing that geographical origin of the species and their locations predispose them to extinction risk. Interestingly, the model prediction also indicates that the conservation status of species not yet assessed is all of least concern, reflecting the pattern of extinction risk within the set of the assessed African Cyprinidae (74% are nonthreatened). To prevent the current pattern of extinction risk of the African freshwater fishes from becoming dramatic, this is contingent upon not only our ability to prioritize conservation efforts (based on species biogeography), but also our ability to control fishing activities in a sustainable manner.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 166 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0366 - Host-preference of the beetle Diorhabda carinulata on invasive and indigenous Tamarix species (Tamaricaceae) in South Africa

Danica Marlin1, Etienne Smit1, Marcus Byrne1,2 1School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

At least two species of Tamarix L. are invasive globally, including South Africa. Several species of leaf-feeding beetles in the genus Diorhabda Weise (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) have been used successfully in the USA as biocontrol agents of invasive Tamarix spp. In South Africa, however, a proposed biocontrol programme is complicated by the presence of the indigenous T. usneoides E. Mey. ex Bunge, and the inherent value of introduced Tamarix spp. which are used in phytoremediation of mine tailings. Host-specificity ofD. carinulata (Desbrochers) was tested in open-field choice tests (in the USA) and laboratory choice and no-choice tests (in South Africa), against invasive T. ramosissima Ledeb., T. chinensis Lour. and their hybrids, and the non-target indigenous T. usneoides. Open-field choice tests showed that D. carinulata preferred the target species, but readily moved onto and laid eggs on T. usneoides when the target species were removed from the trial. In laboratory paired-choice tests, for feeding and oviposition, the adult beetles preferred T. usneoides over T. chinensis, but preferred T. ramosissima over T. usneoides. The laboratory no-choice tests showed that the egg-to-adult survival rate of the beetles was higher on T. usneoides than T. ramosissima, and females reared on T. usneoides were more fecund (47.8 eggs/female) than those reared on T. ramosissima (22.6 eggs/female). Furthermore, a climatic suitability model showed that no area in South Africa would be suitable for the beetles. Thus, D. carinulata is not considered a suitable biocontrol agent for invasive Tamarix in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 167 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0174 - Evaluating invasion risk for freshwater fishes in South Africa

Sean Marr1,2, Bruce Ellender1,2, Darragh Woodford2,3, Mhairi Alexander4,5, Ryan Wasserman1,6, Philip Ivey7, Tzungai Zengeya7, Olaf Weyl1,2 1South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, SAIAB, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 3School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 4Institute for Biomedical and Environmental Health Research (IBEHR), School of Science and Sport, University of the West of Scotland, Paisley, Scotland, UK, 5Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, 6School of Science, Monash University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 7South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

South Africa, as a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity, has an obligation to identify, prioritise and manage alien species and their introduction pathways. However, this requires knowledge of the introduction pathways, factors influencing establishment success, invasive potential, current distributions and ecological impacts. In this presentation, the trait-based Fish Invasiveness Scoring Kit (FISK) was assessed to determine its utility to predict the invasion risk posed by fish species proposed for introduction into South Africa. The calibration of FISK for South Africa was conducted retrospectively on species that have historically been introduced into the wild and for which the current invasion status is known; invasive (n=16) and non-invasive (n=11) species. We found that a FISK score of 14 delineated between species that could become invasive in South Africa and those that are unlikely to become invasive. We then used the Calibrated FISK to evaluate whether three species recently proposed for importation for aquaculture could be invasive in South Africa. We found that of the three species, Wels catfish (Siluris glanis) had a high risk of becoming invasive in South Africa, Barramundi (Lates calcarifer) had an upper medium risk of becoming invasive and was thus likely to be invasive, and Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) had a lower medium risk of becoming invasive and was unlikely to be invasive in South Africa. The use of FISK demonstrated its potential as a risk assessment tool to evaluate the invasion risk posed by species proposed for use in aquaculture.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 168 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0090 - Biological control of Salvinia molesta in South Africa revisited

Grant Martin, Julie Coetzee, Philip Weyl, Mathew Parkinson, Martin Hill Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

The aquatic weed Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch. (Salviniaceae) was first recorded in South Africa in the early 1900s, and by the 1960s was regarded as one of South Africa’s worst aquatic weeds. Following the release of the weevil, Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder and Sands (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in 1985, the weed is now considered under complete biological control. However, the post-release evaluation of this biological control programme has been ad hoc; thus, in order to assess its effectiveness, annual quantitative surveys of South African freshwater systems have been undertaken since 2008, and here we present the findings of the assessments ofS. molesta infestations. Of the 57 S. molesta sites visited annually in South Africa between 2008 and 2016, the weevil has established at all of them. Eighteen sites are under complete biological control, where the weed no longer poses a threat to the system; 19 are under substantial biological control, where biological control has reduced the impact of the weed; while control is considered negligible at only one infestation, the control at some sites is yet to be determined. Analysis of site-specific characteristics suggests management is easiest at small sites and more difficult at larger and shaded sites. Our findings show that S. molesta remains under good biological control in South Africa; however, some sites require intermittent strategic management, such as augmentive releases of agents in order to maintain control.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 169 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0047 - Response of crested Guinea-fowl (Guttera edouardi), a forest specialist, to spatial variation in land use in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa

Mfundo Maseko, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Riddhika Kalle, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Globally anthropogenic pressures on natural environments have caused species decline. Ground dwelling bird species declined in numbers because of loss of habitat and nesting sites. Protected areas (PAs) are generally perceived as areas with little disturbance; however, many have/are also subjected to anthropogenic land use change, such as agroforestry. Consequently, we investigated the presence and habitat use of a terrestrial avian species, the crested Guinea-fowl (Guttera edouardi Hartlaub, 1867), in iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa, a PA with varying land use change. We used single-season camera trap data from 99 trap stations across 24 days, and single season occupancy models to quantify the influence of habitat conversion and habitat characteristics on occupancy and detection probability of crested Guinea-fowl. The average site occupancy (±standard error) and detection probability (±standard error) was 0.40 ± 0.07 and 0.43 ± 0.06 respectively from the top models. The most influential variables were natural forests, shrub cover, leaf litter, weed dominance, distance to water and narrow paths. The natural forests, weed dominance and shrub cover positively influenced the occupancy of crested Guinea-fowl. Leaf litter and distance to water had a positive influence on detection probability while narrow paths had a negative influence. Our findings highlight the importance of natural forests to the survival of crested Guinea-fowl in landscapes modified for agroforestry. Management initiatives are mandatory to ensure protection of adequate natural habitat for the conservation of forest specialists.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 170 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0435 - Changes in landuse alter ant diversity, assemblages and dominant functional traits in African savannas

Evans V. Mauda1, Grant S. Joseph2,3, Colleen L. Seymour3,4, Thinandavha C. Munyai5, Stefan H. Foord2 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2SARChI- Chair on Biodiversity Value and Change, Department of Zoology, School of Mathematical and Natural Science, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo, South Africa, 3Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DST/NRF Centre of Excellence, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 4South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 5School of Life Science, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg Campus, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Africa’s savannas are undergoing rapid conversion from rangelands into villages and croplands. Invertebrates, and ants in particular, are sensitive indicators of habitat fragmentation. We investigated how rangelands, villages and croplands differ in ant species and functional diversity, and assemblage composition. We sampled ants using pitfall traps at 42 sites (14 replicates each in rangeland, cropland, and village) in northern South African savannas. We investigated the impact of land use, season, and multiple soils and vegetation habitat variables on ant species diversity, assemblage composition and functional diversity. Rangelands had the greatest ant species richness, and this was more pronounced in the wet season. Richness declined with increasing soil clay content. Ant assemblages were distinctly different between land use types. Rangeland harboured the greatest diversity of indicator species and also contained the greatest functional diversity. Rangelands accommodated more scavengers, granivores, and plant-matter feeding ants than cropland, and the representation of these groups varied with season. Ants play essential roles in soil nutrient cycling, plant and seedling recruitment and impact other arthropod communities through predation and aphidoculous behaviour that in turn influences entire food webs. Thus, the reduced species richness, changes in assemblage composition and the loss of functional traits in ant assemblages found in cropland and villages is potentially problematic. Left unchallenged, these new forms of land use threaten to alter the entire African savanna system, impacting not only future ecological, but also human wellbeing.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 171 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0343 - A revision of the endemic South African spider genus Drassodella Hewitt, 1916 (Araneae: Gallieniellidae)

Zingisile Mbo, Charles Haddad University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa

The genus Drassodella Hewitt, 1916 is one of four Afrotropical genera of Gallieniellidae, following the recent transfer of Toxoniella Jocqué & Warui, 2002 to Liocranidae. Drassodella is presently represented by seven species, all endemic to South Africa. The type material of six described species has been examined: D. salisburyi Hewitt, 1916, D. melana Tucker, 1923, D. septemmaculata (Strand, 1909), D. quinquelabecula Tucker, 1923, D. vasivulva Tucker, 1923, and D. tenebrosa Lawrence, 1938, while recent field work yielded fresh females of D. purcelli Tucker, 1923. A further 12 new species are recognised from museum collections and recent field work. Based on the genitalic structure, there appear to be two distinct species groups. The D. melana species group, which includes D. melana and eight new species mainly distributed in eastern and northern South Africa, is characterised by very conservative genitalic morphology in both sexes. Females have a broad, transverse anterior epigynal hood, several times broader than long and sharply tapering at the lateral ends, while the male palp has an embolus forming a broad arc distally on the tegulum, with a fine tip, one or two prolateral prongs at the embolus base, and a hook-shaped median apophysis. The D. salisburyi species group, distributed in the southern half of South Africa, includes the remaining 10 species, of which four are new. Females display considerable variation in the structure of the epigynal hoods, lateral ridges and spermathecae, while the shape of the male palpal embolus, median apophysis and tibial apophysis also varies considerably.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 172 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0400 - A comparison of plant vigour between Tamarix species and hybrids and their susceptibility to Opsius stactogalus in South Africa

Siphosenkosi Mbonani, Solomon Newete, Danica Marlin, Nic Venter University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Tamarix spp. remain major terrestrial invaders of riparian areas across the world, including South Africa. The aim of this study was to investigate the differences in plant vigour of Tamarix parental species,T. usneoides (an indigenous Southern African species) and T. ramosissima and T. chinensis (two alien invasive species) (Caryophyllales:Tamaricaceae) and their hybrids, and to determine their susceptibility to feeding by the cosmopolitan sap-sucking Tamarix leafhopper, Opsius stactogalus Fieber.(Hemiptera: Cicadellidae), in South Africa. Plant vigour was determined by recording growth parameters such as average shoot length, the number of new buds and the number of nodes per taxon. The results showed that T. usneoides produced the greatest number of new buds per week compared to the exotic Tamarix species and their hybrids. The exotic Tamarix species were found to be no more vigorous than the native T. usneoides and their hybrids. Leafhopper damage was greater on the exotic and the hybrid plants compared to the native Tamarix. The results showed a significant decrease of up to 25% in stomatal conductance in all taxa after leafhopper inoculation. Field collections indicate that the leafhopper preferentially feeds on the native T. usneoides. The exotic Tamarix species are not necessarily better suited to South African conditions than the indigenous Tamarix. The fact that the Tamarix leafhopper feeds on all the Tamarix species and their hybrids including the native T. usneoides raises a concern with respect to the Tamarix beetle which is currently under quarantine study, with regards to its likelihood of host specificity.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 173 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0022 - Phylogenetic variation in heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity among Kalahari Desert birds

Andrew McKechnie1, Matthew Noakes1, Ben Smit2, Maxine Whitfield2, Blair Wolf3 1DST-NRF Centre of Excellence at the Percy FitzPatrick Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 3Biology Department, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, USA

Birds inhabiting hot environments rely heavily on evaporative cooling to avoid hyperthermia, but little is known about the upper limits to avian heat tolerance. During the last five years, we have investigated body temperatures, evaporative water loss and metabolic rates during acute heat stress in phylogenetically diverse taxa in southern Africa’s Kalahari Desert. Among three ploceid passerines, heat tolerance was positively related to body mass, with larger species tolerating higher air temperatures. In contrast, among three columbids heat tolerance scaled negatively with body mass, with smaller species tolerating higher temperatures. All three columbids showed only small increases in metabolic rate at high air temperatures. Moreover, Namaqua Doves (Oena capensis) showed an exceptionally pronounced evaporative cooling capacity, with nearly 500 % of metabolic heat production being dissipated evaporatively. Unexpectedly, evaporative cooling in Burchell’s sandgrouse (Pterocles burchelli), a member of the arid-adapted order Pterocliformes, was far less efficient than in columbids and involved substantial increases in metabolic rate at high air temperatures. We have also investigated intraspecific variation in heat tolerance among populations of White-browed sparrow-weavers (Plocepasser mahali) across a ~10 °C gradient in maximum summer air temperatures. Individuals at a hot desert site showed significantly greater heat tolerance in summer compared to populations at cooler sites, but this difference was not evident in winter. These data provide the first evidence for seasonal acclimatization in avian heat tolerance and evaporative cooling capacity, and raise a number of questions regarding the roles of phenotypic plasticity versus local adaptation as determinants of physiological variation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 174 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0354 - Effects of food restriction and photoperiod on reproduction in male spiny mice: evidence for terminal investment?

Ruan de Bruin1, Nigel C. Bennett1, Andre Ganswindt2,1, Katarina Medger1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Many small mammals breed seasonally due to the high costs associated with reproduction and the suitability of environmental conditions, which change seasonally in most habitats. Photoperiod and food availability are two of the most important factors influencing reproduction in seasonal breeders. To test the effects of photoperiod and food availability on reproduction in spiny mice (Acomys spinosissimus), males were either fed ad libitum, or a 10% restricted diet. Males on both food regimes were also exposed to a long-day (14h light: 10h dark, LD) or short-day photoperiod (10h light: 14h dark, SD). Testicular volume, seminiferous tubule diameter and faecal androgen metabolite (FAM) concentrations were compared between the four different treatments at the end of the eight-week experimental period. In food-restricted males, testes size and seminiferous tubule diameter, but not FAM concentration, were significantly increased when on LD compared to SD. Surprisingly, testes size and FAM concentrations were greater in restricted than non- restricted males exposed to LD photoperiods. No differences between photoperiods were found when males were not restricted, and there was no difference between restricted and non-restricted males on SD. The chosen photoperiodic lengths may not have been enough to elicit a clear reproductive effect despite earlier findings of reproductive photoresponsiveness in male spiny mice. The greater reproductive activity in the restricted than the non-restricted LD exposed males may suggest a terminal investment strategy in this species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 175 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0043 - Current progress in providing digital access to the primary type specimen holdings of the South African National Collection of Insects

Ian Millar Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, South Africa

The South African National Collection of Insects (SANC) currently houses nearly 3000 primary type specimens. Inventories of the type specimens in this collection were last published more than 40 years ago. These lists are becoming increasingly outdated as additional type material is accessioned in the National Collection. A funding grant from the Foundational Biodiversity Information Programme (FBIP) of the National Research Foundation (NRF) has enabled progress to be made in documenting the types in the SANC. This has been achieved by expanding an existing database of the collecting and other information associated with 2500 of the primary types in the SANC. The database has been enhanced through the addition of data records for the primary types of 240 scale insect and mealybug species (Hemiptera: Coccoidea) and 125 termite species (Blattodea). An electronic inventory of about 2800 of the primary types in the SANC will be generated from the improved database, and will be made available on the internet. The funding grant has also enabled the digitization of the 240 Coccoidea primary type specimens, by capturing numerous images of the various morphological features of each type, using an advanced digital microscopy facility which was previously funded by the NRF. These images will provide an extensive digital record of the scale insect and mealybug types, and will be made accessible on the internet through the Encyclopedia of Life.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 176 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0339 - Plasticity of traits of competing invasive and native ladybirds in a changing environment

Ingrid Minnaar1, Cang Hui2,3, Susana Clusella-Trullas1 1Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3The African Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cape Town 7945, Cape Town, South Africa

Phenotypic plasticity has been proposed as one of the primary mechanisms conferring invasive species the ability to tolerate and spread in novel conditions, and some empirical evidence supports this hypothesis. Due to their ability to respond quickly to novel conditions, invasive species may also outperform native species when facing global environmental change. However, most tests of these hypotheses are limited to the examination of a single trait’s plasticity and do not model species’ responses to climate change while incorporating the plasticity of multiple traits. Here, we assess the plasticity of multiple physiological and life-history traits in the invasive harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas), and the native ladybird, lunata (Fabricius). These two species co-occur in South Africa and compete for resources. Second-generation ladybirds were reared in the laboratory from field-collected individuals and acclimated for seven days to either a cold, optimal or warm thermal environment. The plasticity of lower and upper temperature tolerance, starvation resistance and life-history parameters were assessed for both species. We then used these data to model population growth of both species in current and future climate scenarios. The approach developed in this study illustrates how phenotypic plasticity of key traits can be incorporated into predictions of native and invasive species’ responses to rapidly changing environments.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 177 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0338 - Thermal adaptation of the harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis, to variable environments: a multigenerational experiment

Ingrid Minnaar1, Johannes Le Roux1, Cang Hui2,3, Susana Clusella-Trullas1 1Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Mathematical Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Matieland 7602, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3The African Institute for Mathematical Sciences, Cape Town 7945, Cape Town, South Africa

Organisms need to track environmental conditions in order to persist in changing habitats. In the short term, individuals can acclimatize to their current environment, a form of phenotypic plasticity. In the longer term, offspring and parent responses can match if environmental change is predictable and experienced across generations, a concept coined “adaptive transgenerational plasticity”. Alternatively, if environmental change is unpredictable, offspring can have multiple phenotypes, a “safe” reaction norm or bet-hedging strategy, with the expectation that at least some will possess optimal phenotypes. Invasive species provide excellent model systems to test for determinants of phenotypic plasticity as their invasion success is often attributed to the ability to respond rapidly and favourably to changing environments. In South Africa, the globally invasive harlequin ladybird, Harmonia axyridis (Pallas), has spread to all nine provinces in a relatively short time, and thus its rapid adjustment to new environments has most likely facilitated its expansion and invasion success. We investigated the short-term adaptive potential of H. axyridis across multiple generations using a full-sib breeding design, and tested whether maternal heat exposure carries over across multiple generations. We exposed mothers to either a warm or optimal thermal environment, and we then exposed second and third generation offspring to matched or mismatched environments. We measured upper thermal tolerance and life-history parameters, and compared the direction and magnitude of plasticity of these traits across generations. In addition to testing theoretical models of adaptation to variable environments, this study examines the adaptive potential of H. axyridis to a changing climate.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 178 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0302 - Diversity in the Sirex-Amylostereum-Deladenus complex: understanding pest invasion and guiding management through biological control

X. Osmond Mlonyeni, Brenda D. Wingfield, Jaco M. Greeff, Michael J. Wingfield, Bernard Slippers University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Sirex noctilio Fabricius is native to Eurasia, but is an invasive pest in various parts of the world where it kills susceptible Pinus spp. Together with its fungal symbiont, Amylostereum areolatum (Chaillet ex Fries) Biodin, this invasive pest has caused substantial damage to Pinus plantations in the southern hemisphere for more than a century. The primary biological control agent is the parasitic nematode, Deladenus siricidicola Bedding, which has shown variable success between different invaded regions. Understanding the diversity of the Sirex-Amylostereum-Deladenus complex is of increasing importance in understanding the invasion patterns of these organisms and guiding management strategies. We therefore explored and developed tools for studying the diversity of D. siricidicola, S. noctilio, and A. areolatum, both with respect to molecular diversity and phenotypic traits such as potential virulence and reproduction of the nematode on different strains of the fungus. Within South Africa, the molecular markers revealed a lack of diversity in D. siricidicola compared to its complex invasion history and substantially more diversity in S. noctilio and A. areolatum. Culture work, however, suggests that there is significant diversity within the available D. siricidicola populations to allow for the possible selection of more efficient strains for the biological control programme.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 179 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0013 - Behavioural observation experiments on cryptic species of Eccritotarsus (Hemiptera: Miridae), biological control agents of water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Martius) Solms-Laubach (Pontederiaceae)

Sandiso Mnguni1, Unathi-Nkosi LP Heshula2,1, Iain P Paterson1, Julie A Coetzee1 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2Fort Hare University, Alice, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) (Hemiptera: Miridae) is one of several biological control agents used against water hyacinth that has recently separated into two reproductively isolated cryptic species. Both species were originally collected in their native ranges in South America (Brazil and Peru). The aim of this project was to understand the mating behaviour of the species and to investigate behavioural traits that have resulted in reproductive isolation. Behavioural observations (choice and no-choice) replicates were conducted. All 30 choice replicates had a 2:1 sex ratio, while 30 no-choice replicates had a 1:1 sex ratio, and this was done within and between populations. In no-choice experiments, the highest number of mating incidences and average total mating duration was found within populations (BrazilfemaleXBrazilmale & PerufemaleXPerumale) than between populations (BrazilfemaleXPerumale & PerufemaleXBrazilmale). PerufemaleXPerumale had the highest number of single (36.67%) and multiple (27.27%) mating incidences, and the highest average total mating duration (16.40 mins) compared to other treatments. BrazilfemaleXPerumale had the lowest number of single mating (6.67%) and no multiple mating incidences were recorded, as well as the lowest average total mating duration (1.60 mins). In choice experiments, BrazilfemaleXBrazilmaleXPerumale had the highest single (53.3%) and multiple (31.3%) mating incidences, and the highest average total mating duration (13.7 mins) compared to other treatments. Furthermore, the Brazilian females and Peruvian males only chose to mate with their respective conspecifics. These results suggest that behavioural and/or mechanical prezygotic reproductive isolation mechanisms are present in these cryptic species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 180 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0232 - Assessing the relative impact potential of successfully introduced fishes in man-made aquatic environments

Lubabalo Mofu1,2, Darragh Woodford3,4, Ryan Wasserman3,5, Olaf Weyl2,3 1Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3Centre for Invasion Biology, SAIAB, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown, South Africa, 4Centre for Invasion Biology, School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits, Johannesburg, South Africa, 5School of Science, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 47500, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia

Understanding the ecological impacts of successfully established species is essential as new invasion threats continue to emerge. The “Relative Impact Potential” (RIP) metric has recently been developed to quantify the predatory effects of invasive species and relies on functional response and abundance information. This study assessed the shape and magnitude of the functional response (resource uptake as a function of resource density) of an invasive species, Gambusia affinis vs. two native species, Oreochromis mossambicus and Glossogobius callidus towards their natural prey, Chironomidae. This information will be incorporated with the abundance of the species within these man-made aquatic environments, where they have successfully colonized. All fish species displayed an inversely density-dependent predation of chironomids that increased linearly with prey availability at low densities, but decreased with further prey supply, thus a type II functional response. The invasive G. affinis consumed significantly more prey overall than did the native G. callidus and O. mossambicus. The relative impact potential is the product of the fish functional response and abundance. The RIP will be calculated using empirically-derived estimates of the functional response of an invasive species and compared with RIP values for their native trophic analogues. The abundance will be estimated from surveys conducted since 2011 till recently. The use of functional responses with predator abundances in novel habitats could be used to predict current and future impact of invasive species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 181 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0246 - South African Russian wheat aphid biotypes induce differential responses in farmers’ wheat varieties grown in the highlands of Lesotho

Lintle Mohase1, Pitso Masupha1, Astrid Jankielson2 1Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2ARC-Small Grain, Bethlehem, South Africa

Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov), is a pest of wheat and other cereals. The South African RWA biotypes were discovered in the highlands of Lesotho and the continuous decline in wheat yield in this region might, in part, be attributed to the presence of these biotypes in these wheat producing areas. This study shows the physiological responses of popular wheat varieties to the four RWA biotypes, three of which have already been discovered in Lesotho. Dryland wheat cultivars (two cultivars on the market in South Africa and two Lesotho farmers’ varieties) were cultivated under greenhouse conditions, infested with four South African RWA biotypes, and defence related enzyme activities and induced phenotypic symptoms assessed. None of the biotypes induced activities of peroxidase, β-1,3-glucanase or phenylalanine ammonia lyase in PAN3118 or Makalaote, and the cultivars were susceptible according to phenotypic screening. Biotype 1 induced early peroxidase and phenylalanine ammonia lyase but delayed β-1,3-glucanase activities in PAN3379, which was classified as moderately resistant. The other three biotypes induced enzyme activities and less damage, and the cultivar was rated resistant. Biotype 2 induced enzyme activities in Bolane and was rated moderately resistant. Other biotypes induced delayed or completely suppressed enzyme activities and susceptible symptoms in Bolane. These results indicate that RWA is a potential threat to wheat cultivation in Lesotho. It is imperative to manage the impact of aphids on wheat performance through improving resistance of the adapted Lesotho varieties, introducing aphid-resistant cultivars and implementing integrated pest management strategies.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 182 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0248 - Do elephants migrate?

Michael Mole, Andrew Purdon, Rudi van Aarde Conservation Ecology Research Unit, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The ideal protected area not only protects the species within it but also provides for and maintains ecological processes that are vital for its persistence. However, some processes such as migration require space, and some protected areas may not provide enough. Anthropogenic forces further threaten to fragment and isolate protected areas, making widely roaming species and the ecological processes they rely on vulnerable. A landscape-based conservation approach that focuses on a network of functional linkages is a recognised solution. However, this approach requires knowledge regarding if, where and why animals migrate. With the aforementioned conservation framework in mind, we analysed movement data from 139 savannah elephants (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach, 1797) distributed within eight populations across southern Africa. Following a pre-described two-step modelling process in which annual migratory movements were classified, we identified 25 migratory animals and 31 migratory paths within six of our sampled populations. Of these migrations, 28 crossed national park boundaries and 11 international borders. The duration and distances of migrations varied greatly between individuals and years. However, across populations, the timing of migration seemed to be initiated by the onset of rainfall and increased primary productivity. We conclude that the savannah elephant is a partially migratory species like most other vertebrate species. Catering for partial migration can provide a conservation framework to resolve issues related to isolation and fragmentation of protected areas. We discuss these results in the setting of present day conservation networks with advice for future conservation actions.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 183 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0243 - Exploitation or valid justification? The use of animal specimens in forensic science research

Calvin Mole, Marise Heyns University of Cape Town, Division of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Cape Town, South Africa

A moral dilemma exists in biomedical research relating to the use of animal or human tissue under the auspices of scientific research. In human ethics, researchers are asked to justify why the use of humans is necessary if a suitable animal model exists. Conversely, in animal ethics, a researcher must justify why research cannot be carried out on humans or a suitable synthetic model. In the case of medical procedure or therapeutics testing, the use of animal models is often justified. However, in forensic research the justification may be less evident, particularly when research involves the infliction of trauma to living animals. To determine how the forensic science community is dealing with this dilemma, a systematic review of literature within major forensic science journals was conducted. The frequency and trends of the use of animals in forensic sciences was investigated for the period 1 January 2012 to 31 December 2016. Trends relating to the type and number of specimens used; method of analgesia, anaesthesia and euthanasia; and clear statements acknowledging ethical clearance from an institutional review board were analysed. The review revealed 157 studies that utilised animals in various forms as analogues for human tissue. The most common specimens utilised were various species of mice, rats, rabbits and pigs, with many being sacrificed solely for the purpose of a single study. It is evident that more needs to be done to uphold the basic ethical principles of reduction, refinement and replacement in the use of animals for research purposes.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 184 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0392 - Hyperspectral Remote Sensing to discriminate between Tamarix species and their hybrids in South Africa

Lerato Molekoa, Solomon Newete, Marcus Byrne, Elhadi Adams Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

In South Africa, there are three main Tamarix species, the native Tamarix usneoides and two exotics, T. ramosissima and T. chinensis. The exotic species have a high tolerance for alkaline and saline soils. The identification of the different Tamarix species is difficult because they are morphologically indistinguishable in the field and hybridization can occur between the native and exotic species. This makes it difficult to map and monitor the extent of the Tamarix invasion for planning of management. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing (HRS) can be used to differentiate between such structurally complex species through the identification of their unique spectral characteristics using satellite imagery or field spectroscopy. An Analytical Spectral Device (ASD) was used to measure the spectral reflectance of the three Tamarix species and their hybrids, with key objectives of being able to distinguish between the Tamarix species and their hybrids based on (a) the specific wavelength of importance using the guided regularized random forest (GRRF) and (b) resampling the hyperspectral data to different airborne or satellite remote sensing data of different accuracies. The random forest (RF) algorithm was used to identify wavebands which demonstrated variability between the species. These wavelengths were 99.17% and 76.5% accurate for leaf and canopy level, respectively, showing that spectral reflectance measurements can be used to differentiate between the Tamarix taxa both at canopy and leaf level.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 185 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0325 - Foraging behaviour and thermal physiology in Cape sugarbirds: sex-specific responses to temperature

Mokgatla Molepo1, Ben Smit1, Susan Cunningham2, Alan Lee2 1Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 2University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Body size (Mb) determines an animal’s energy and water demands for thermoregulation. Sexual size dimorphism in Mb is common across many species, but its physiological consequences remain poorly understood. We used Cape sugarbird (Promerops cafer Linnaeus, 1758) to determine if there are differences between males and females in 1) daily feeding patterns at different air temperatures (wild birds), and 2) thermoregulatory responses at hot temperatures (under laboratory conditions). We conducted behavioural observations and also obtained physiological measurements, using a field laboratory setup, in wild birds of both sexes. The physiology data showed that females (mean body mass, 33 grams) had higher rates of whole-animal evaporative water loss and metabolic heat production compared with males (36 grams). Mean body temperature did not vary with sex when birds were exposed to a stable air temperature of 42°C. However, the results showed that the smallest females (<30 grams) displayed a gradual elevation in their body temperature during the experiments. In contrast, larger females and males regulated a stable body temperature under these hot conditions. The behavioural data showed that females have higher proportional feeding rates than males, visiting flowers more often than males and continued to feed even under high air temperatures. These findings suggest that female Cape sugarbirds are more prone to energy-, water- and thermal stress during hot and dry summers in the Fynbos region. These findings could explain why only female sugarbirds show reduced body mass during warm and dry periods over the last 30 years (SAFRING data).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 186 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0092 - Unravelling the fine-scale spatial genetic structure of a springtail on sub-Antarctic Marion Island

Daniela Monsanto1, Peter Teske1, Ian Meiklejohn2, Bettine van Vuuren1 1Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Department of Geography, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Landscape genetics aims to understand the spatial patterns of species in their habitat matrix and studies how factors shape movement. Marion Island presents a very good natural laboratory as the habitat matrix is very heterogeneous, with the influence of a variable climate and a complex landscape shaped by glaciation and volcanism. At the scale of the island, these patterns manifest as complex genetic groups with distinct evolutionary histories and low gene flow across barriers. To date, a single study focusing on a fine scale reported that genetic connectivity broke down at ~10 m in a keystone plant species. Dispersal was also in the direction of the prevailing wind. In the current study, we aim to extend local scale studies using the springtail, Cryptopygus antarcticus travei as a model. We developed a microsatellite library, and using 21 informative markers, we will genotype more than 880 individuals from 44 sites. Our sampling regime is a ‘cross’, with one leg in the direction of the wind and the other perpendicular to the wind. Our analyses will test the hypothesis that abiotic factors strongly limit local scale dispersal, notably wind, landscape, and water drainage. This hypothesis was informed by a preliminary study, which revealed a significant genetic break across a landscape ridge.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 187 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0181 - Quantifying the ecological benefits through biodiversity contributions of the biological control of invasive alien aquatic weeds in South Africa

Samuel Motitsoe1, Martin Hill1, Julie Coetzee2, Jaclyn Hill1, Phumelele Gama3 1Center for Biological Control, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Center for Biological Control, Botany Department, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3Botany Department, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Invasive free-floating macrophytes are known to have negative effects on aquatic biodiversity as well as ecosystem structure and functioning. However, quantifying these effects has historically been challenging. Furthermore, the overall effects of biological control on ecosystem health and recovery remain poorly understood. This study aims to estimate ecosystem health and recovery by monitoring changes in aquatic biodiversity (i.e. microalgae, aquatic invertebrates and adult dragonflies) and changes in ecosystem trophic structure pre and post successful biological control of Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell by Cyrtobagous salviniae Calder and Sands. The study employed both mesocosm (3 treatments = control, agent-free salvinia and salvinia with agents) and field experiments (2 treatments = before and after biological control). This presentation will discuss the initial phase of both the mesocosm and field study findings. Briefly, the mesocosm “before invasion” phase findings are still pending, whereas for the field study, salvinia mats showed serious modification in the system physiochemical characteristics (e.g. limited/no light penetration). To some extent this led to a complete shift in microalgae community composition, a decline in aquatic invertebrate abundances and adult male species richness. Thus, the weed has shown serious ecological (aquatic biodiversity and ecosystem services) and socio- economic (poor freshwater quality and quantity) implications for freshwater systems. We therefore anticipate that the application of biological control of alien aquatic weeds will provide an opportunity for ecosystem recovery and further regain the ecosystem services and good water quality.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 188 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0397 - Mapping distribution of water hyacinth in Rwanda using multispectral remote sensing imagery

Jeanne Mukarugwiro, Solomon Newete, Elhadi Adam, Marcus Byrne University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms) is an invasive aquatic macrophyte associated with major negative economic and ecological impacts in Rwanda and other East African countries since the plant’s establishment in the country in the 1960s. Reliable estimates of water hyacinth distribution and its extent are required to determine the severity of the problem and identify the most infested water bodies requiring management action. To provide such estimates we processed and analyzed remotely sensed imagery based on Landsat 8 images of Rwanda. To ground truth the remote sensing data, we collected direct data of plant density from 145 points along rivers and lakes. Water hyacinth coverage was quantified using a supervised classification based on Maximum likelihood. Water indices such as the Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI), continuum removal of water absorptions and average reflectance in the shortwave infrared (SWIR) inputs were used to differentiate water hyacinth from other aquatic species using the high water content of its leaves. Results confirmed that the most infested rivers are Mukungwa, Nyabarongo and Akagera, as well as most of the lakes in the Eastern province of the country, including Lake Hago as the most infested, Lake Rwanyakizinga and Lake Rweru. These findings will assist the government of Rwanda and its partners to put in place sustainable methods that can be used to manage and control the water hyacinth invasion.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 189 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0179 - Apis mellifera scutellata queens can control reproductive parasitism in A. m. capensis clones by blocking production of the “queen substance”

Fiona N. Mumoki, Abdullahi A. Yusuf, Robin M. Crewe, Christian W. W. Pirk University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Order in social insect colonies is maintained through complex communication signals whose production is caste-specific and regulated by prevailing social contexts. In honeybees, queen mandibular gland (MG) pheromone (QMP) controls reproductive dominance by inhibiting ovary activation and production of QMP in workers. Biosynthesis of components of the MG fatty acids begins with stearic acid which undergoes caste-selective hydroxylation and oxidation to produce various fatty acids including 9-ODA, 9-HDA, 10-HDAA and 10-HDA. In this study, the MG profiles of intraspecific social parasites Apis mellifera capensis (Escholtz) clones infecting queen-right (QR) and queen-less (QL) Apis mellifera scutellata (Lepeletier) colonies were assessed using gas chromatography. Presence of spermatheca (key diagnostic feature of the clone) and level of ovary activation were scored. Our findings reveal that clones infecting QL colonies predominantly produced 9-ODA and 9-HDA and had fully activated ovaries, while clones from QR colonies had an accumulation of 9-HDA and 10-HDA accompanied by inactivated ovaries. Most signals from QL clones were queen-like and those from QR clones worker-like, demonstrating that while QMP produced by A. m. scutellata queens inhibits dominance in A. m. scutellata workers at the hydroxylation level (leading to ω hydroxylation), clones can bypass this inhibition. The QMP then acts on the clone’s hydroxylation products by inhibiting the oxidation of 9-HDA into the “queen substance” 9-ODA. This is the first report showing thatA. m. scutellata queen can control reproductive dominance in A. m. capensis clones and contributes to our understanding of how context governs behaviour in social insects.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 190 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0056 - Development of sex separation tools to eliminate female Anopheles arabiensis during mass production: progress and challenges

Givemore Munhenga1,2, Lerato Malakoane2, Leonard C. Dandalo2, Oliver R. Wood2, Leanne N. Lobb2, Basil D. Brooke1,2, Maria Kaiser2, Lizette L. Koekemoer0 1Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic & Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Gauteng, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Gauteng, Johannesburg, South Africa

Over the past six years South Africa has been optimising various technical aspects of the sterile insect technique (SIT) for control of the malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis. One of the critical steps needed for applying a mosquito SIT is having an efficient sex separating system to eliminate female mosquitoes from the production line before irradiation and field releases. Female mosquitoes cannot be released because of their capacity as disease vectors. Additionally, male- only releases increase SIT programme efficiency because released sterile males will only focus on mating with wild females. The aim of this project is to explore the use of classical genetics and the exclusive blood feeding behaviour of mosquito females to accomplish female elimination.

This work describes the successful development of an An. arabiensis genetic sexing strain (GSS) utilising dieldrin resistance as a selectable marker while containing a South African genetic background. Results on the reproductive and physiological fitness as well as strain stability will be presented. Data on the effectiveness/efficacy of other environmentally-acceptable insecticides that also target GABA receptors will be discussed. In view of the challenges being faced in using the newly developed sexing strain, results on alternative sex-sorting systems based on (i) blood feeding behaviour of adult females, and (ii) sex linkage of a selectable temperature sensitivity gene in which temperature conditions favour the production of males only will also be presented.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 191 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0078 - Impacts of grazing, fire and blue gum plantation on ant diversity at Ukulinga research farm in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal

Caswell Munyai, Sbongiseni Xolo, Zuziwe Nyawo University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Invertebrates constitute the bulk of diversity in terrestrial ecosystems. However, their distribution, abundance and sensitivity to habitat change is largely unknown. Inventory programmes are of particular importance if we are to improve the conservation status of invertebrates and thereby understand their biology. Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) were sampled using pitfall traps across seven habitat types representing grazed, ungrazed, burnt, unburnt, woodland, open grassland and blue gum plantation. We provide a checklist and baseline data for monitoring the response of ants to various disturbances, e.g. fire, grazing and alien plant invasive. The first survey yielded a total of 55 ant species in 22 genera and five subfamilies. The most diverse and abundant subfamily was Myrmicinae with 29 species, comprising 86% of the total abundance in the study. Inventory completion based on six different richness estimators varied from 52 to 95% in different sites; however, it was generally higher for most sites indicating that most species were sampled. The blue gum plantation site had the highest species richness (25 species) and abundance (32% of the total abundance) while the ungrazed habitat had the lowest species richness (17 species). Ant abundance was highest in disturbed sites (burnt and grazed sites) and lowest in control sites (unburnt and ungrazed), while open habitat sites (open grass) had lower ant abundance compared to closed habitat sites (woodland and invaded sites).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 192 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0159 - A promising leaf-mining flea beetle, Epitrix sp. (Chrysomelidae), for biological control of Cestrum species (Solanaceae) in South Africa

Tshililo Emmanuel Mphephu, David Okhi Simelane, Jufter Musedeli Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Several Cestrum species (Solanaceae), commonly known as inkberries, are declared weeds in South Africa, and two (Cestrum parqui and C. laevigatum) of these have become highly invasive in the country. Cestrum parqui is common in the inland provinces of Gauteng, North West, the Free State and Mpumalanga, while, C. laevigatum is highly abundant along the coastal regions of KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape. Both species are native to Central and South America, hence surveys and the search for potential biological control agents were resumed in Argentina in 2012. Among several natural enemies found in the native region, a leaf-mining flea beetle Epitrix sp. (Chrysomelidae) was selected as a promising candidate agent and was introduced into quarantine in South Africa in 2015. Host-specificity tests and biological attributes have shown some positive results, including a high degree of host-specificity and severe damage by both immature and adult stages, which cause significant defoliation on the plant. The flea beetle species has a very short generation period, with rapid population growth rates. The flea beetle has been exposed to 21 plant species under no-choice conditions, and 18 of these species are in the family Solanaceae. The beetle has only caused significant damage and developed successfully on both C. parqui and C. laevigatum. Whilst further tests should be conducted, these results demonstrate that Epitrix sp. is adequately host-specific to be a biological control agent for both Cestrum species, and could minimise the threat posed by these weeds in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 193 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0439 - Interaction between the root-feeding beetle Longitarsus bethae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) and the root- knot nematode Meloidogyne javanica (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae): implication on biological control of Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae)

J.N Musedeli1,2, D. O Simelane 2 & M Marais3 1Rhodes University, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa. 2Agricultural Research Council—Plant Health and Protection Research (ARC-PHPR) 3Agricultural Research Council— Biosystematics Division Presenting Author email: [email protected]

Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae), commonly known as Lantana, originally from South America, is an invasive composite of many horticultural hybrids and few wild Lantana species. In South Africa L. camara is established in particularly high densities in the eastern parts of the country such as Kwazulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the Eastern Cape provinces. A biological control programme against this invader is on-going at the Agricultural Research Council-Plant Health protection research (ARC-PHPR). Among the dozens of biological control agents released against L. camara in South Africa, a root feeding flea beetle, Longitarsus bethae Savini & Escalona (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), was released in 2007 because of its capability to damage the root system, a previously unexplored niche. Lantana roots infested with L. bethae are often associated with a root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne javanica Treub (Tylenchida: Heteroderidae), a plant parasite of various plant species in South Africa. Interactions between natural enemies (from different taxa) and how they impact on their invasive hosts have received little research attention. A study was conducted to determine the nature of the relationship between L. bethae and M. javanica, and also ascertain if the individual and combined effects of the insect and the nematode are beneficial to biological control of Lantana. Preliminary findings show that high inoculations of the flea beetle L. bethae larvae are required to induce infection on seedlings of L. camara roots by the nematode M. javanica.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 194 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0389 - Reproductive performance of the ‘stricta’ biotype of Dactylopius opuntiae on Opuntia hosts

Kudakwashe Musengi1, Hildegard Klein2, Marcus Byrne1, 3 1 University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa, 2 ARC-PPRI, Gauteng, South Africa, 3 DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa

The cochineal insect, Dactylopius opuntiae (Cockerell), plays a major role in the control of Opuntia species. Host preferences of the ‘stricta’ biotype are only partially known as it has not been tested against all Opuntia species; however, it has been released in South Africa against Opuntia stricta. The ‘stricta’ biotype of D. opuntiae can potentially be used against one or more Opuntia species. This study assessed the reproductive performance of the ‘stricta’ biotype of D. opuntiae on Opuntia stricta, O. humifusa and O. engelmannii. The life-history parameters recorded were crawler development time and survival, female development time, and the weight and number of crawlers produced by females. Results revealed large differences in the developmental biology and reproductive performance of the ‘stricta’ biotype of D. opuntiae between the Opuntia hosts. There was a significant difference between the hosts in the number of days taken to reach the first moult by the ‘stricta’ biotype of D. opuntiae. This study showed that these Opuntia hosts exhibit varying degrees of acceptability to the ‘stricta’ biotype of D. opuntiae. The acceptability of each host revealed few differences in the chemical and physical properties of each cactus species. It was also shown that O. humifusa is a suitable host for the ‘stricta’ biotype of D. opuntiae, which provides a conducive environment for this cochineal insect to settle and develop faster than on O. engelmannii. The ‘stricta’ biotype could thus result in the successful biocontrol of Opuntia humifusa in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 195 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0274 - Post-release evaluation and thermal physiology of the pereskia stem-wilter, Catorhintha schaffneri (Coreidae), a new biological control agent for Pereskia aculeata (Cactaceae)

Phillippa Claire Muskett1, Iain Douglas Paterson1, Julie Angela Coetzee2 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa 2Department of Botany, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Catorhintha schaffneri Brailovsky and Garcia (Hemiptera: Coreidae) is a biological control agent that was recently accepted for release in South Africa to control Pereskia aculeata Miller (Cactaceae), an invasive creeping cactus. The aim of this study was to conduct post-release research to ensure that C. schaffneri is utilised to its full potential. To achieve this, the thermal physiology of C. schaffneri was investigated to predict where in South Africa the agent is most likely to establish and these predictions, along with other factors which may affect establishment, were then tested by releasing the agent at various field sites across a wide variety of climatic conditions. According to the thermal physiology of C. schaffneri, it was most likely to establish and become effective in the subtropical regions of South Africa. The results from the degree day model and the field releases suggest that cold winters or generally low year-round temperatures appear to limit establishment in the more temperate areas of South Africa. Low humidity, low precipitation and low plant quality, which may have been caused by drought, also appear to have limited the establishment of C. schaffneri in parts of KwaZulu-Natal. This study should increase the impact of C. schaffneri by focusing release efforts to climatically suitable sites and by releasing during the right season.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 196 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0177 - Mass reproduction in the small hive beetle Aethina tumida: key to suppression of its honey bee host (Apis mellifera L.) and an example of “emancipation” in beetles

Sandra Mustafa University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The small hive beetle (Aethina tumida Murray) follows a distinct mass reproduction strategy by which it ensures survival of the population in its native Southern African range and causes absconding in its African honey bee hosts (i.e. Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier and A. m. capensis Escholtz). This is likely also the key to its success as an introduced species around the globe. Various results regarding the reproductive behaviour of A. tumida which support this strategy are presented. Experimental behaviour trials revealed that adult beetles only start mating from around two weeks of age after emergence from the soil and the presence of an aggregation is an essential if not indispensable factor for it to take place. Mating follows a fixed sequel of behaviours in which third party females aggressively intervene. It is discussed how several of these interactions could be interpreted as an indicator for a cryptic female choice strategy and which measures were undertaken to support this theory.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 197 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0054 - Species diversity and abundance of lepidopteran stem borer natural enemies in Botswana

Reyard Mutamiswa1, Eva Moeng1, Bruno Le Ru2, Des Conlong3,5, Yoseph Assefa4, Casper Nyamukondiwa1 1Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana, 2ICIPE, Nairobi, Kenya, 3South African Sugarcane Research Institute (SASRI), Mount Edgecombe, South Africa, 4University of Swaziland, Luyengo, Swaziland, 5Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa

Africa hosts significant lepidopteran stem-borers which are attacked by a diversity of natural enemies in their natural and cultivated environments. To determine diversity and relative abundance of stem-borer natural enemies and associated host plants, field surveys were conducted during the 2014/15 and 2015/16 austral summers on wild and cultivated habitats across Botswana. In cultivated habitats, the common larval parasitoids recorded were Cotesia flavipes and C. sesamiae, and the pupal parasitoids Pediobius furvus and Gambroides nimbipennis, while in wild habitats the larval parasitoids Chelonus curvimaculatus and Goniozus indicus and a pupal parasitoid, Dentichasmias busseolae, were recorded. Furthermore, predatory ants (Linepithema humile, Crematogaster peringueyi and Aenictus sp.) were recorded in both cultivated and wild habitats. Cultivated and wild Poaceae; maize, sorghum, sweet sorghum, Echinochloa pyramidalis; wild Typhaceae, Typha latifolia and wild Cyperaceae-Schoenoplectus corymbosus and Cyperus dives formed the major plants hosting stemborers and related natural enemies. Chilo partellus and Sesamia spp. were the major parasitoid hosts, with C. partellus predominating in cultivated habitats and Sesamia jansei in natural habitats. Larval parasitism ranged between 2.1-34.7% and 3.3-14.3%, while pupal parasitism ranged from 6.1- 10.6% and 6.7-9.1% in cultivated and natural habitats, respectively. Parasitoids’ relative abundance ranged between1.1-41.6% and 4.8-38.1% in cultivated and natural habitats, respectively, with C. flavipes dominating in cultivated and C. curvimaculatus in wild hosts. Overall, our results show that cultivated and wild environments in Botswana harbour parasitoid faunal diversity that may be worth conserving for future efficacy of biological control programmes, and an equally diverse flora hosting these stem-borers.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 198 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0206 - The effect of foraging habitat on the intensity of acoustic signals in echolocation of the bats Neoromicia capensis (Vespertilionidae) and Tadarida aegyptiaca (Molossidae)

Itani Victor Mutavhatsindi1, David Steve Jacobs1, Marc Holderied2 1University of Cape Town, Western Cape province, Cape Town, South Africa, 2University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Intensity of echolocation pulses is an essential parameter because it has an effect on the range at which bats perceive their environment, and most importantly at which they detect prey. Echolocation intensity and therefore its operational range is likely to vary with foraging mode and habitat because these influence the operational range needed by the bat. This study thus attempted to answer the following questions; (1) Is the intensity of animal acoustic signals different in different situations? and (2) Does body size and foraging habitat affect the intensity of animal acoustic signals? There are few studies that report on the intensities of echolocation pulses of free-ranging bats because of the difficulty of measuring the distance of the bat from the recording microphone. This distance is essential in calculating source levels of echolocation pulses. We used multiple microphone arrays to measure source level echolocation intensities at 10 cm from the bats’ mouth of Neoromicia capensis and Tadarida aegyptiaca, two species that differ in size, habitat and foraging mode. We found, as predicted, that T. aegyptiaca, the larger of the two species and an open air aerial hawker, emitted echolocation pulses at higher intensities and therefore had greater detection distances than the smaller, clutter edge aerial hawker, N. capensis. Bats thus vary their echolocation intensities to suit their foraging mode and habitat.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 199 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0060 - Thermal physiology of Stenopelmus rufinasus and Neohydronomus affinis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), two biological control agents released against the invasive aquatic weeds Azolla filiculoidesand Pistia stratiotes in South Africa

Sisanda F. Mvandaba, Julie A. Coetzee, Martin P. Hill, Candice Owen Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Water lettuce, Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae) and red water fern, Azolla filiculoidesLam. (Azollaceae) are floating aquatic macrophytes that have become problematic in water bodies. Two weevils, Neohydronomus affinis Hustache, 1926 and Stenopelmus rufinasus Gyllenhål, 1936 (both Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are successful biological control agents of these two species in South Africa. According to field observations, S. rufinasus is more widely established than N. affinis in cold conditions on weeds. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the thermal requirements of these two species to explain their establishment patterns in the field. Laboratory results have shown that both weevils are widely tolerant to cold temperatures. The CTmin of N. affinis was determined to be 5.5 ± 0.312 ˚C and the CTmax was 44 ± 0.697 ˚C, while the CTmin of S. rufinasus was 5.4 ± 0.333 ˚C and the CTmax was shown to be 44.5 ± 0.168 ˚C. In addition, the lower lethal temperatures were -9.8 ± 0.053 ˚C and -7.2 ± 0.19 ˚C, and the upper lethal temperatures were 42.8 ± 0.053 ˚C and 41.9 ± 0.19 ˚C, respectively. These results suggest that both species should not be limited by cold winter temperatures. This is evident in the field, where S. rufinasus has established widely on A. filiculoides. Even though N. affinis has a similar thermal range, its distribution in South Africa is limited by the distribution of the weed, which is of tropical origin, and therefore restricted to the warmer regions of the country.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 200 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0423 - Enhancing equity of student access, success and throughput using funding

Nomakwezi Mzilikazi1,2 1Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2National Research Foundation, Gauteng, South Africa

South Africa has articulated its ambition to become a knowledge economy in its development blueprint, the National Development Plan 2030. The need to create and nurture a sustainable critical mass of South African knowledge workers and to support a South African knowledge- based economy is well captured in the National Research Foundation’s (NRF) Strategy 2020. The doctoral degree is arguably the key qualification defining the quality of research standards in a country and is also viewed as a driver of research, development and innovation. Doctoral graduates are capable of transferring their intellectual and technical skills to wide-ranging global contexts which are of relevance to a variety of stakeholders such as academia, government, industry, the professions, and civil society. The postgraduate pipeline is characterized by many structural and institutional challenges. Chief amongst those are the low success and progression rates of Blacks and women from Honours through to the doctoral qualification. This paper will discuss the ways in which funding can be used as a lever to enhance access, success and throughput of postgraduates.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 201 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0125 - The changing face of southern Africa’s Mopane woodlands: implications for conservation of threatened species and avian functional diversity

Tiwonge Mzumara-Gawa1, Hemant Tripathi2, Chaona Phiri3, Rowan Martin4 1Museums of Malawi, Chichiri, Blantyre, Malawi, 2University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK, 3BirdWatch Zambia, Lusaka, Central, Zambia, 4World Parrot Trust, London, UK

Colophospermum mopane woodlands, one of the dominant vegetation types in Southern Africa, host a diversity of animals including some specialised to this habitat, among them the near- threatened Lilian’s lovebird (Agapornis lilianae) and the endangered black-cheeked lovebird (A. nigrigensis), both endemic to the mopane woodlands of the Zambezi basin. The structure of Mopane woodlands is impacted by various forms of disturbance including the harvest of large stems for high quality timber, the production of charcoal, clearance for agriculture and browsing by large herbivores. Our study investigated the relationships between mopane woodland structure, the occurrence of Lilian’s lovebirds and avian diversity in Zambia. We further investigated how different forms of disturbance (human vs. wildlife) were linked to woodland structure. Our results show that the occurrence of Lilian’s lovebirds was strongly associated with the presence of large trees which are often selectively logged and that human disturbance reduced avian species richness and functional evenness and consequently led to increase in functional nestedness. The bird communities in more human-disturbed areas are thereby subsets of larger communities in undisturbed mopane woodlands. The commercial demand for Mopane hard wood is rising from both legal and illegal harvesters and the recent CITES decision on regulating international trade on some hard wood species poses a risk of stimulating increased demand for Mopane. Demand for charcoal among rapidly growing urban populations presents an additional threat. The status of Mopane woodlands needs urgent evaluation and appropriate policies established to ensure the important ecosystem services they provide are not degraded.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 202 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0145 - Feast now, pay later: the cost of foraging at wastewater works for an urban adapter, the banana bat (Neoromicia nana)

Samantha Naidoo1,2, Dalene Vosloo3, Corrie Schoeman3 1National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTWs) may provide profitable foraging areas for insectivorous bats because of particularly high abundances of pollution-tolerant chironomid midges. However, there have been no studies to investigate whether African bats utilize WWTWs as foraging grounds, and potential physiological impacts from foraging at such sites. The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of WWTWs on foraging ecology and multiple tiers of physiology (haematology and genotoxicity, detoxification organs and reproduction) in an urban adapter, the banana bat (Neoromicia nana) in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. N. nana at wastewater-polluted sites exhibited significantly higher abundance and feeding activity, and a predominantly dipteran diet compared to a diverse insect diet at unpolluted sites. WWTWs thus provide an abundant short- term food resource for bats. However, we found significantly higher metal levels at wastewater- polluted sites, and in the tissues of these bats compared to unpolluted sites. Further, WWTW bats had significant sub-lethal haematological and genotoxic responses. Thus, longer-term effects should be most evident in organs involved in detoxification. Indeed, the liver and kidneys displayed a disrupted essential metal/ mineral nutrient balance, histopathological tissue damage and whole organ effects. Finally, we found reproductive system alterations in male N. nana at WWTWs. Testosterone hormone concentrations and body condition indices were significantly lower in males at WWTWs than at unpolluted sites, suggesting lower quality male bats at WWTWs. Taken together, these results suggest the potential for serious long-term health risks, negative fitness implications and ultimately, population effects for these top predators within the urban landscape.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 203 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0184 - Comparison of the genetic differentiation and variation of the native and invasive ranges of Nymphaea mexicana (Mexican water lily) in South Africa

Prinavin Naidu, Julie Angela Coetzee, Jaclyn Hill, Craig Peter Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

The Mexican water lily, Nymphaea mexicana (Zucc), is an aquatic perennial, native to the southern USA and Mexico, which has been introduced into South Africa via the ornamental plant trade. It can become weedy quickly with rapid growth and is currently listed as a NEMBA category 1b plant in South Africa due to established populations around the country. Previous studies have found that N. mexicana can produce natural hybrids with N. odorata as well as with other exotic Nymphaea species; however, there have been no reports of hybridisation between the Mexican water lily and indigenous South African water lilies. Genetic studies are imperative in determining if biological control of N. mexicana in South Africa is needed. This study thus compared the amount of genetic variation and genetic differentiation of N. mexicana in parts of its native range (USA and Mexico) and areas of the invasive range (South Africa). We also compared the amount of genetic differentiation and variation of N. mexicana between and within regions of invasion in South Africa, and assessed if hybrids between N. mexicana and indigenous Nymphaea spp. in South Africa exist. Using AFLP molecular markers, the amount of genetic variation and differentiation of N. mexicana was high between the invasive and native range and low within and between areas of the invasive range. This result may be due to rapid asexual reproduction occurring in the invasive range in South Africa, which has more nutrient-rich natural water systems compared to the USA or Mexico.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 204 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0303 - Delta arrow head and its potential suitors

Mpilonhle S. Ndlovu1, Grant D. Martin1, Raelene M. Kwong1,2 1Rhodes University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2La Trobe University, Victoria, Australia

Sagittaria platyphylla (Engelm.) (Alismataceae)(Delta arrow head) is a freshwater aquatic macrophyte that has become an important invasive weed in streams, wetlands and irrigation and drainage systems around South Africa and Australia. A collaborative biological control programme between the two countries was initiated to find solutions against the weed. Native range surveys in the United States of America resulted in the collection of a number of potential biological control agents. Here we present the suitability of the collected agents for release in South Africa. Two of the potential agents, the foliage-feeding Listronotus lutulentus (Bohm) and the root crown feeder Listronotus sordidus (Gyllenhål) (both Coleoptera: Curculionidae) are no longer considered, due to their limited impact on the weed. The tuber-feeding Listronotus frontalis (Bohm) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) remains under consideration as the insect’s host specifity and host range have not been fully investigated. The fruit- and flower-feeding Listronotus appendiculatus (Bohm) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) has shown to be host specific and to damage the plant’s achenes. Achenes are the plant’s primary mechanism of dispersal between and within water bodies, therefore L. appendiculatus shows the greatest promise as an effective management tool against S. platyphylla in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 205 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0237 - How the lack of importance in soil economy has affected pseudoscorpion (Arachnida: Pseudoscorpiones) research

Jan Andries Neethling National Museum Bloemfontein, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Pseudoscorpions, as generalist predators, play a regulatory role on primary and secondary edaphic herbivores, especially on prey such as Collembola. However, as they are usually present in low numbers, the role pseudoscorpions play in soil economy is not considered of much importance (Kevin, 1962; Simon, 1966). This has resulted in a lack of species descriptions, biological data as well as information regarding their potential ecological significance as biological indicators of soil health. South Africa currently has 152 known species in 17 families, with over 70% of these species endemic to the country, ranking the region eighth in the world with regards to pseudoscorpion species richness (Dippenaar-Schoeman & Harvey, 2000; Harvey, 2013). Historically most of the early research, specifically species descriptions, was done by foreign scientists with many of the original descriptions being no more than a single paragraph with a simple accompanying sketch. Due to the lack of local pseudoscorpion specialists, the main focus of modern research has since shifted to the creation of species checklists of the region. However, with a recent order-level revision published by Harvey (1992), as well as molecular work by Murienne et al. (2008), the need for detailed revisions of our indigenous fauna was recognized. Short-term future research will first focus on revisions of previously described species, the description of any new species and reducing the gaps in the largely unsampled areas in the interior of the country, then long-term research on gaining detailed biological and ecological data.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 206 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0147 - Alien terrestrial invertebrate species in the South African pet trade

Takalani Nelufule1,2, Sabrina Kumschick2,3, Mark Robertson1, John Wilson2,3 1Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, South Africa, 22South African National Biodiversity Institute-Invasive Species Programme, Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden, South Africa,3Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, X1, South Africa

Many species are introduced across the globe via the pet trade. Some of these species have been reported to cause negative impacts in natural ecosystems after escaping from captivity. In South Africa, species of alien terrestrial invertebrates are traded for various uses, such as pets and sources of food for pets. It is not known if any of these species pose a risk to the environment or economy of South Africa should they escape or be released. The aim of this study is to determine which species of alien terrestrial invertebrates are being traded in South Africa, determine the trade patterns of these species and to assess the potential impacts of these species using a standard scoring system. A list of alien terrestrial invertebrates that are being traded in South Africa was compiled by visiting online and physical pet shops. Visits were made to pet shops in major cities in three provinces including, KwaZulu-Natal, Gauteng and Western Cape Province. A list of 42 alien terrestrial invertebrate species was compiled. The most popular species in the pet trade were grey crickets (Acheta domestica) and mealworms (Tenebrio molitor). Giant African land snail (Achatina fulica) is found in the pet shops and has been reported to be highly invasive elsewhere. We discuss some of the potential risks associated with the introductions of terrestrial invertebrates for the pet trade in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 207 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0119 - Human uses and indigenous knowledge of edible termites

Shandukani Netshifhefhe1,3, Frances Duncan1, Ednah Kunjeku2 1University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa, 3Gauteng Department of Agriculture and Rural Development, Johannesburg, South Africa

Termites are good sources of edible food, being rich in proteins, fats, vitamins, and many essential mineral nutrients and thus provide food security for poor households. We report on a survey conducted in the major termite consumption areas in the Vhembe District Municipality of Limpopo, South Africa. Our objectives were to identify the edible termite species and find out how they are harvested, prepared, graded, packaged, and marketed. The studies also looked at the socio-economic characteristics of the termite harvesters, marketers, and consumers. A survey was conducted in 48 villages where a total of 104 individuals were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. The results of the survey revealed that only three termite species are consumed: soldiers of Macrotermes falciger (86.65%), M. natalensis (12.25) and M. michaelseni (5.10%). The overwhelming majority of the respondents preferred frying (77.55%) followed by boiling (11.22%) while grilling (1.02%) is least preferred. The majority (80.77%) of the respondents indicated that some religions have restrictions on termite consumption but no ethnic restrictions were reported. The soldier termite biomass of M. falciger varied from 641.3 to 642.8 g (fresh weight/litre). The income derived from selling termites was estimated to range from ZAR 2040 to ZAR 17680 between April 2015 and April 2016. The results of this study showed that edible termites contribute significantly to the livelihoods of many rural families and this indigenous knowledge should be passed on to younger generations.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 208 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0142 - Flower length is more important than width in determining foraging preferences of white-bellied sunbirds (Cinnyris talatala)

Celiwe Ngcamphalala1, Ida Bailey2, Sue Nicolson1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Natural Power, Ochil House, Springkerse Business Park, Stirling, UK

Nectarivorous birds must adjust their feeding behaviour in relation to flower morphology. Floral traits vary greatly between ornithophilous plant species, and birds associate this variation with the ease of nectar extraction. Hummingbirds, sunbirds and honeyeaters are all major flower specialists. However, studies on how flower morphology affects the feeding behaviour of nectarivorous birds have been largely restricted to hummingbirds, while sunbirds and honeyeaters remain relatively unstudied. Given that sunbirds are important pollinators of many African plants, we investigated how flower morphology influences the foraging behaviour of white-bellied sunbirds, Cinnyris talatala (A. Smith, 1836). Using artificial flowers made of clear PVC tubing, filled with 20% w/w sucrose solution, we measured maximum extraction depths of 12 white-bellied sunbirds for 3 mm and 5 mm-wide flowers at both upward and downward orientations. Flower width, but not flower orientation, strongly influenced maximum extraction depth, with the birds probing deeper at wider flowers. Foraging bout dynamics were tested at these two diameters and at two lengths, 14 mm and 27 mm; birds fed faster at the wider and shorter flowers. When length and width were varied simultaneously, sunbirds fed fastest at the short and narrow flowers. When they were given a choice between two floral lengths and two floral diameters, birds preferred short flowers, with diameter having no effect. Floral length appears to be more important than both width and orientation in determining sunbird foraging behaviour. This is perhaps surprising when many sunbird-pollinated plants have downward-facing flowers.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 209 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0209 - Arthropods associated with blueberry plants (Vaccinium sp.) in the Mpumalanga and Western Cape provinces of South Africa

Nompumelelo Pretty Ngubane1,2, Isabel Collett1, Francois Roets2 1Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Blueberry production in South Africa is a fast growing market for international trade, with most propagation material imported from the USA. Pests and diseases of blueberry have been well studied in the USA, but nothing is known about arthropod and fungal associates of blueberry in SA. We assessed the arthropod diversity on blueberry in production areas in the Mpumalanga and Western Cape provinces between August 2015 and July 2016. Arthropods were collected using a Vacuum sampler and directly from plant material collected at these sites. All arthropods were grouped into morphospecies and identified to at least the family level under the microscope. Arthropod diversity and crop damage varied depending on site, agricultural practices and season. Numerous potential pests and beneficial species were identified, most of which had not previously been recorded on blueberry in South Africa. This study provides a strong base for future studies on the pests and beneficial arthropods that influence production in this emerging market.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 210 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0324 - Targeting an emerging weed, Iris pseudacorus L. (Iridaceae), in South Africa using biological control

Samella Ngxande-Koza, Martin Hill, Julie Coetzee Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Iris pseudacorus L. is an aquatic plant belonging to the family Iridaceae. It is native to Europe, north Africa, western Asia and the Mediterranean region and mainly grows on temperate climate regions where it is usually located in or near water. Iris pseudacorus is a robust, clumping herbaceous perennial plant with thick fleshy rhizomes. The rhizomes form horizontal, thick mats with their roots extending vertically to a depth of 10-30cm. It grows to a height of 0.40-1.5m tall with linear leaves and several large and showy yellow flowers. It spreads rapidly by means of seeds and rhizome fragments that are dispersed by moving water. It can outcompete native riparian aquatic plants forming impenetrable thickets. The dense mats compact soils and inhibit seed germination of other plants. It also reduces the habitat available for native fish and waterfowl. The thick rhizome stands reduce streamflow and clog irrigation systems and drainage pipes by trapping sediment. Though in South Africa I. pseudacorus still occurs at low densities, it has been identified as a plant species that needs urgent attention due to its high potential of spreading. Therefore introducing biological control agents for I. pseudacorus is highly considered. Molecular analysis reported the distinction of South African I. pseudacorus populations from the native populations tested (UK and Ireland). The current study will conduct surveys of the native and invaded ranges and understand the mode of reproduction and spread. This information will help find the compatible biological control agents to suppress the spread of I. pseudacorus in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 211 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0074 - Global impact assessment of alien grasses occurring in South Africa

Khesani V. Nkuna1,2, Vernon Visser3, John R. Wilson1,2, Sabrina Kumschick1,2 1Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa, 3SEEC Statistics in Ecology, Environment and Conservation, Department of Statistical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa

Alien grasses have been reported globally to cause problems such as changing fire regimes, out-competing native vegetation and decreasing crop yields, among other impacts. South Africa has a similar number of alien grasses to many other countries, but alien grasses have received relatively little attention, especially when it comes to their potential impacts on the environment and the economy. The aim of this study is to investigate and to assess the potential impacts caused by alien grasses found in South Africa. This is done by looking at the environmental and socio-economic impacts recorded globally for these species. Two impact scoring systems, namely the Environmental Impact Classification of Alien Taxa (EICAT) and the Generic Impact Scoring System (GISS), were used to quantify recorded impacts from published literature and credible databases. The results of this study were used to determine the possibility of these alien grasses causing the same impact here in South Africa as recorded elsewhere and to rank alien grasses according to their impact for management and prioritisation purposes. There seems to be a pattern showing habitats such as riparian and agricultural fields to have high impacts compared to others habitats, such as disturbed roadsides. Some of the recorded impacts have very low probability of occurring in South Africa due to the absence of the species impacted in other alien ranges, for example, hybridization with native species from other alien ranges, which do not occur here in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 212 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0163 - Phenotypic flexibility in heat tolerance of a passerine species: a direct test of behavioural and physiological acclimatisation to hotter conditions

Matthew Noakes1, Michelle Thompson1, Ryno Kemp1, Sekgwari Malematja1, Susie Cunningham2, Andrew McKechnie1 1DST-NRF Centre of Excellence at the Percy FitzPatrick Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, DST-NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

There is increasing evidence that the thermal physiology of birds is more flexible than previously thought, which could have important implications for predicting avian responses to anthropogenic climate change. The aim of this study was to investigate phenotypic flexibility in physiological and behavioural traits related to heat tolerance in white-browed sparrow-weavers (Plocepasser mahali A. Smith, 1836) using aviary translocation experiments. We caught sparrow-weavers at three sites along a climatic and aridity gradient across southern Africa (n=15 per site) and housed them in outdoor aviaries to collect baseline (i.e., pre-translocation) data for about two weeks. We then translocated birds to the hottest of the three sites in the Kalahari Desert and collected post-translocation data continuously for two months. We used telemetry to measure core body temperature (Tb), and monitored the behavioural responses of birds in terms of heat dissipation, activity levels and microsite usage. Preliminary analyses suggest there was no substantial acclimatisation in Tb after translocation, but sparrow-weavers from the most mesic population regulated higher Tb compared to conspecifics from the more arid sites throughout the study period. Moreover, birds from all three sites showed similar pant50 values (air temperature at which 50% of birds were dissipating heat via panting) immediately after translocation, following which pant50 values progressively increased in the most mesic population until it was substantially greater than those of the more arid populations. Interpretation of these results is difficult in the context of the unusually cool weather in the Kalahari Desert this summer (mean daily maximum temperature=34.6°C).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 213 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0076 - Initiating global actions for managing cactus invasions

Ana Novoa1,2, Haylee Kaplan1, Giuseppe Brundu9, Michael Day3, Franz Essl4, Llewellyn Foxcroft5, Guillaume Fried6, Sandy Lloyd7, Elizabete Marchante8, Helia Marchante8,10, David M Richardson2, Arne Witt11, Helmuth Zimmermann12, John Wilson1,2 1Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Claremont, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa, 3Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Brisbane, Australia, 4Division of Conservation Biology, Vegetation and Landscape Ecology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria, 5Conservation Services, South African National Parks, Skukuza, South Africa, 6Laboratoire de la Santé des Végétaux, Anses, Montferrier-sur- Lez, France, 7Weeds Society of Western Australia, Western Australia, Australia, 8Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal, 9University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy, 10Department of Environment, Coimbra Polytechnic Institute, Higher School of Agriculture, Bencanta, Coimbra, Portugal, 11CABI Africa, Nairobi, Kenya, 12Helmuth Zimmermann & Associates (Central), Pretoria, South Africa

The family Cactaceae (1922 species) contains some of the most widespread and damaging invasive plant species in the world. The impacts of cactus invasions on biodiversity, ecosystem functioning, resource availability, national economy, and human health have been recognized for well over a century. The regions with the largest numbers of invasive cactus species are Australia (39 invasive cacti species), South Africa (35), Spain (23), Italy (13), Pacific Islands (13), France (10), Namibia (8), Portugal (7), China (5), Zimbabwe (5), and Hawaii (4). Each of these areas has its own management plan to deal with cactus invasions. Seeking to establish collaboration among these areas, a Global Cactus Working Group (GCWG) was launched by the International Organization of Biocontrol in 2016. The main aim of the GCWG is to share, discuss and promote best management practices of cactus species in their introduced range. As part of the efforts to achieve this, the GCWG developed on-line surveys in French, Italian, Portuguese, and Spanish, aiming to collect knowledge on the management of cactus invasions all over their non-native range. Here, we summarize the outputs of these surveys, including the available management practices, barriers for management and future research projects needed regarding the management of cactus invasions all over the world.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 214 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0053 - The prioritization and management of invasive alien species within the eThekwini municipality

Bheka Nxele, Errol Douwes eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Although effective control of invasive alien species (IAS) is generally considered a costly undertaking, a clear strategy and good planning are key to ensuring optimal efficacy. Ethekwini Municipality has adopted such an approach, based on three core elements, as a means to address the high levels of IAS infestations within the municipal area, and the concomitant complex challenges encountered. Within a bioregion where distribution and density of IAS are not uniform, prioritization of sites and species surveys are considered critical. Prioritisation helps ensure that available budgets are appropriately allocated and that coordinated and involved stakeholder engagement is optimised. The second core element is securing partnerships, as a result of the clear recognition that additional partners significantly improve the long-term sustainability of project success. Building awareness is the third foundational element, and in this regard the municipality has established a platform for delivery of high-quality training to ground staff who actively clear IAS. This work is supported by information tools such as the Beautiful but Dangerous Posters & Flash Cards as well as a website where sightings of selected IAS are captured and acted upon. The assignment of clear roles and responsibilities, within the Strategy and Action Plan, for municipal departments, partner organisations and other stakeholders has helped toensure transparent and rational decision-making and implementation. Examples of large-scale implementation programmes currently operated by eThekwini Municipality include the Community Reforestation Programme, Working for Ecosystems and the Fire & Invasive Species Control Programme.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 215 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0139 - Dominance of spotted stemborer, Chilo partellus Swinhoe (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), over indigenous stemborer species in Africa’s changing climates: ecological and thermal biology perspectives

Casper Nyamukondiwa1, Reyard Mutamiswa1, Frank Chidawanyika2 1Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana, 2Agricultural Research Council, Plant Protection Research Institute, Weeds Division, Hilton, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Africa hosts several economically significant lepidopteran cereal stemborer species belonging to the Crambidae, Noctuidae and Pyralidae. The invasive spotted stemborer, (Chilo partellus Swinhoe), native to Asia, is one of the most damaging cereal stemborers in Africa. The impact of C. partellus on indigenous stemborer species remains unclear but recent work shows its increasing ecological influence and numerical advantage over Sesamia calamistis and Busseola fusca in African landscapes. Here, we discuss C. partellus dominance under Africa’s changing climates and highlight ecological and thermal physiological factors that may contribute to its dominance over indigenous stemborer species. Chilo partellus is an efficient colonizer and competitor and may have an advantage under limited resources typical under climate change. Invasion potential may also probably stem from its short generation time, overwintering physiology, temperature and relative humidity resilience, wide host preferences and asynchrony with its biocontrol agents. Using laboratory experiments, we show that C. partellus has a high basal temperature tolerance and plasticity thereof, compared to S. calamistis and B. fusca. These results indicate that ecophysiology may determine invasion success and thus may explain the relative invasion advantage of C. partellus in African landscapes. We recommend future climate change work be directed towards more comprehensive stemborer total ecology research, stemborer thermal biology and implications on the efficacy of biocontrol. Specifically, knowledge of stemborer-natural enemy evolutionary potential is vital to the understanding of how climate change and variability may shape host-natural enemy interactions, with implications for pest forecasts, prediction models and pest management.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 216 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0265 - Extinction debt and species credit in coastal forests: does restoration lead to conservation?

Pieter Olivier, Victor Rolo, Rudi van Aarde University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Coastal forests in South Africa are in trouble. Nearly 82% have been lost, while remaining fragments are small, isolated, and ‘hemmed in’ by human land-use types. Consequently, coastal forests now harbour an extinction debt. Strategies to prevent species losses typically include increasing forest area and connectivity through restoration. But can such restoration efforts prevent species losses? Here, we report on a 36-year old coastal forest restoration programme and use taxonomic and functional diversity indices to establish if restored forests harbour self-sustaining bird populations. Bird species richness increased over time, while the oldest ‘new-growth’ forests also harboured similar bird assemblages than reference ‘old-growth’ forests in the region. Moreover, relative abundances of all bird functional groups but large frugivores progressed towards old-growth forest values as the forest aged, reaching old-growth forest values after 25 years. These spatio- temporal trends in diversity and functionality suggest that forest restoration leads to conservation - new-growth forests are maintained through natural ecological processes and could play an important role in preventing species losses. However, just as the case of extinction debt following deforestation, the positive effects of improvements in landscape structure will take some time to become evident (i.e. species credit). Some species may also benefit earlier from restored forests than others. Species credit could be boosted by identifying the processes that hamper the persistence of large frugivores, and by carefully selecting restored sites that complement protected areas and considering biogeographic realities.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 217 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0211 - Do seasonal physiological responses to heat explain climate change vulnerability in a Fynbos endemic bird?

Krista Oswald1, Alan Lee2, Ben Smit1 1Nelson Mandela University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2University of Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

Recent studies have shown that a Fynbos endemic, the Cape rockjumper (rockjumper; Chaetops frenatus Temminck, 1826), is at risk from increases in temperature, with greatest population declines observed in regions that experienced warming over the last two decades. Many studies have suggested that a direct link exists between thermoregulatory costs during hot temperatures and such population declines, indicating that physiological traits are key to understanding vulnerability to climate change. In this study we determined whether seasonal thermoregulatory costs at high temperatures are linked to climate change vulnerability in rockjumpers in order to determine if physiological flexibility can be used to infer vulnerability to climate change. We measured resting metabolic rate, evaporative water loss and body temperature at high air temperatures (30 to 42°C) in a wild population of rockjumpers during winter and summer (n = 17 winter, 4 females, 7 males, 4 breeders; n = 17 summer, 6 females, 5 males, 5 immature). We found tentative evidence that rockjumpers have greater costs of cooling in summer compared to winter; however, our results did not indicate these costs were directly linked to population declines. Instead, we suggest that understanding vulnerability to climate change will involve a more holistic examination of physiology, behaviour, and adaptation climate change.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 218 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0033 - A potential new methodology for determining thermal tolerance in insects: are current methods accurate enough?

Candice Owen, Julie Coetzee, Martin Hill Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Traditional methods for determining the thermal tolerance of insects include critical thermal testing, where a set of insects is exposed to a range of temperatures. The temperature at which they lose the ability to self-right, a behavioural response, is recorded. These ranges are used to predict a distributional range in which the species can survive, particularly within the context of biocontrol. Post-release evaluation of many biocontrol projects has shown that these predictions are sometimes incorrect, with failure of establishment despite a pre-determined climatic match between the insect and the area of release. This study aimed at determining if a physiological stress threshold can be determined in insects to allow for a more accurate thermal profile, working with Neochetina eichhorniae Warner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a biocontrol agent on Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Pontederiaceae), as a model organism. The critical thermal range of N. eichhorniae collected off the Kubusi River was established using classical methods. The respiratory rate of specimens collected from the same site at set temperatures was then determined. Results show a difference in upper thermal tolerance points. Classical methods determined a temperature of 47.77°C ±0.15 (SE) for females and 48.2°C ±0.29 (SE) for males to be critical, while respirometry methods indicate that females show respiratory stress between 25°C and 30°C. Males displayed a matching pattern, with indications of stress occurring between 30°C and 35°C. This mismatching between classical and new methodologies may indicate a physiological thermal tolerance limit not previously considered, which may be preventing establishment in ill-matched climates.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 219 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0238 - The role of floral and fruit scent compounds as mosquito attractants: developing new methods for monitoring mosquito populations

Priyanka Pachuwah1, Andreas Jürgens1,2, Steven D. Johnson1 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstrasse 10, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany

Mosquitoes are known for their association with various pathogens and transmit diseases such as malaria. Female mosquitoes require blood meals in order to obtain protein, but also require carbohydrate sources (such as nectar) for various purposes. Studies have demonstrated the use of fruits and flowers as successful mosquito attractants as well as some floral volatiles, suggesting that these could be used as possible attractants in mosquito trap/monitoring systems. The aims of the study were to: (1) determine the attraction of mosquitoes to fruits and flowers in choice tests; and (2) test the effectiveness of a floral scent mixture for attracting mosquitoes in the field. Plants growing in South Africa which are visited by mosquitoes were identified and mosquito preference for these fruits and flowers was assessed. Dominant scent compound classes emitted by the fruit were hydrocarbon esters and for flowers were hydrocarbon alcohols and hydrocarbon esters. Mosquitoes regardless of sex or generic placement (Aedes or Culex) showed a strong preference for all the fruits and flowers during choice tests. The second part of the study was conducted to compare the efficiency of floral volatiles (combination of three floral attractants) to a commercial lure (SweetscentTM; Biogents) in field trials. The floral scent mix attracted significantly higher numbers of mosquitoes than the commercial lure and also trapped higher numbers of females that showed no sign of a blood meal. Further studies need to focus on areas where mosquito-borne diseases are rife, with a particular focus on disease-carrying genera, such as Anopheles (vectors of malaria).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 220 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0370 - Aliens and the city life: how do invasive species travel to and through urban environments?

Ashlyn Levadia Padayachee1,2, Ulrike Irlich3,4, Katelyn Faulkner2,6, Mirijam Gaertner3,4, Şerban Procheş1, John Wilson2,3, Mathieu Rouget5 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, 2Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, South Africa, 3Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 4Centre for Invasion Biology, Environmental Resource Management Department, Cape Town, South Africa, 5UMR PVBMT CIRAD, La Réunion, France, 6Centre for Invasion Biology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Globalisation has resulted in the movement of organisms outside their natural range, often with negative ecological and economic consequences. Cities are hubs of anthropogenic activities, often with both highly transformed and disturbed environments, and the first point of entry for most alien introductions. We compiled a global database of cities using selected demographic, ecological and geographic factors. We then identified the most prominent pathways of introduction and vectors of spread for these cities. Most species were intentionally introduced to cities and were released or escaped from confinement. The majority of alien species then spread within cities through natural means (unaided dispersal, water currents, endozoochory and exozoochory). Pathway prominence varied across taxonomic groups of alien species and for some organisms depended on the geographical, ecological and climatic characteristics of the city. The characteristics of cities also influenced the importance of vectors of spread of alien species. The most important vector of spread was unaided dispersal. To prevent invasions, both intentional and unintentional introduction of alien species to cities must be prevented. Preventing the natural spread of alien species prior to introduction within cities, as well as into adjacent natural environments will be, at best, difficult. However, the pathways that should be prioritised depend on the taxonomic group of target species, the location of the city, its ecological and climatic characteristics. The prominent pathways identified here provide a starting point for decision makers to prioritise pathways for management.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 221 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0306 - Genotypic and phenotypic characterisation of captive lion (Panthera leo) populations in South Africa

Shilpa Parbhu1, Bettine van Vuuren1, Antoinette Kotze2,3 1Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2The National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa, 3Department of Genetics, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

In Africa, there is a decline in lion (Panthera leo) numbers except for regions in the south such as South Africa, Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe. This is in part due to declining habitat, human animal conflicts and to their popularity in the trophy hunting industry. To meet the high demand of lions in the trophy hunting industry, and mitigate the effects on wild population numbers, they are commercially bred in captivity. This gives us the opportunity to study the effects captivity and commercial breeding may have on a population. Some of the negative effects that have been documented in captive animals includes genetic drift (as a result of small population sizes), which could cause a loss of genetic variation. Our work showed that three out of the four captive breeding facilities had low and differing levels of inbreeding which may lead to reduced reproduction and survival rates. We thus compiled DNA profiles of all individuals per facility and compared phenotypic characteristics that included body weight, body length, body height and other measurements. Currently we are assessing whether there is a link between the genetic diversity, or lack thereof, and phenotype. The results of this study are contributing to conservation genetics and phenotypic descriptions of captive lions in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 222 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0219 - The potential of three Chrysomya spp. and Lucilia sericata (Diptera: Calliphoridae) for the bioconversion of waste products

Nina Parry1, Elsje Pieterse2, Chris Weldon1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Fly larvae can be effectively used to reduce various organic waste types and produce value- added products including protein supplements for livestock and oil for biodiesel. Rearing fly larvae on different organic waste products at different larval densities leads to differences in their body composition, and therefore their protein and lipid content. This study assessed the suitability of four blowfly species, Chrysomya chloropyga, C. megacephala, C. putoria and Lucilia sericata to convert kitchen waste (containing 30% fish), abattoir waste and swine manure into body mass. Initial densities of 20, 50 and 100 were placed on each waste type. Pre-pupal mass at wandering, time to onset of wandering, survival, and body composition (water, carbohydrates, lipids and protein) were determined for each species, density and waste type. Kitchen waste and abattoir waste were the two most appropriate waste types for these fly species with regards to final dry mass, survival, and protein and lipid content, whereas swine manure led to low final dry mass, survival, as well as protein and lipid content. Increased density generally led to an increase in survival, although on swine manure there was a reduction in pre-pupal larvae mass. A bioconversion facility that is looking to produce a nutrient rich product while effectively reducing waste should investigate species such as C. putoria and C. megacephala, which are versatile and effective on a range of waste products, as well as being high in protein and lipids.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 223 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0141 - Optimisation of biological control implementation strategies

Iain Paterson, Zezethu Mnqeta, Phillippa Muskett Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa

About R50 million was invested into the implementation of biological control for invasive alien plants in South Africa over the past three years. This investment has undoubtedly increased the efficacy of biological control in the country and has therefore contributed to the protection of South Africa’s natural resources. Given the large investment into biological control implementation it is striking that there are very few studies that aim to improve implementation methods. Knowledge of the most appropriate release strategies for specific biological control agents could increase the rate of establishment and the impact of the agents. For two biological control agents that have been released for the control of the invasive cactus Pereskia aculeata Miller (Cactaceae), the rate of establishment is increased by conducting multiple releases of small numbers of individuals rather than single large releases. For one of these agents, there is evidence that an augmentative release strategy after the agent has established does not increase the level of control. This suggests that after the agent has established at a site, further release efforts at that site are no longer warranted and release efforts should be focused at other sites where the agent has not yet established. Optimising mass-rearing and release strategies could increase the positive impacts of biological control implementation and would result in better utilisation of the limited resources that are available.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 224 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0281 - Seasonal behavioural responses of an arid-zone passerine in a hot environment

Nicholas Pattinson, Ben Smit Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Many arid-zone animals have to forage under extremely hot conditions to maintain water and energy balance. The effect of increasing air temperatures (Ta) on the behavioural patterns of small endothermic animals—characterized by their high energy and water demands—will provide a valuable framework for understanding species vulnerability to climate change. We determined the seasonal behavioural responses to changes in Ta in a ~10-g arid-zone passerine, the rufous- eared warbler (Malcorus pectoralis Smith, 1829) in the Karoo semi-desert, South Africa. Rufous- eared warblers showed significant temperature-dependence in their behaviour. During summer, the warblers frequently experienced Ta exceeding 40 °C in the shade. For all observations < 26 °C compared to > 36 °C, the warblers showed reductions in preening (40% decrease), foraging effort (56% decrease), and foraging success (15% decrease), as well as a significant increase in time spent engaged in evaporative cooling behaviour. Moreover, as Ta increased in summer the warblers shifted increasingly off the ground and out of the full sun, into microsites in the shade (131% increase) and in shrubs (23% increase). In this regard, behaviour varied seasonally, with the time spent in the shade 23% higher, and foraging effort 28% higher, in summer compared to winter across a range of moderate Ta (15 – 30 °C). Our findings emphasize the link between behaviour and temperature in small birds inhabiting hot, arid environments, as well as the importance of understanding these responses for predicting biologically meaningful responses (and hence, vulnerability) of arid-zone avian communities to climactic shifts.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 225 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0133 - How do pollinating fig wasp mothers adjust their sex ratios?

Karina Pentz, Jaco Greeff, Marié Warren University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Pollinating fig wasp mothers maximise their fitness when they lay a greater proportion of sons as more mothers oviposit in one fig. Here we test if and how mothers make this adjustment. It can be done passively by laying sons first, followed by daughters. When mothers lay sons first but cannot lay all their daughter eggs because of a constraint on the total number of eggs due to other mothers’ eggs the fraction of sons is automatically increased. Alternatively, mothers may sense the number of females and facultatively produce a larger fraction of sons when more mothers are present. We used the unique opportunity presented by Ficus s. sycomorus (Linnaeus, 1753), which hosts two distinguishable species of Ceratosolen Mayr,1885, to test these two ideas. We tested the sex ratio adjustment of Ceratosolen galili (Wiebes, 1964) (the cuckoo wasp) on its own and in combination with the bona fide pollinator Ceratosolen arabicus (Mayr, 1906). We found that if clutch sizes are not constrained (going from one to two mothers), mothers use a facultative strategy to adjust their sex ratio. Ceratosolen galili mothers even make an erroneous adjustment when they share a fig withC. arabicus. When oviposition becomes constrained (going from two to three mothers) mothers utilize a passive mode as well to obtain optimal adjustment.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 226 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0132 - Impact of prior feeding by two biocontrol agents, Eccritotarsus catarinensis and Megamelus scutellaris, on their subsequent feeding, and implications for water hyacinth control in South Africa

Nomvume Petela, Julie Coetzee, Martin Hill Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms – Laub (Pontederiaceae) is an invasive aquatic plant in South Africa. Currently, eight biological control agents have been released against the weed, more than anywhere else in the world. Megamelus scutellaris Berg (Hemiptera: Delphacidae) is the most recent agent, released in 2013 against water hyacinth, but little is known about how it will interact with other agents already established in South Africa. A study was conducted to investigate the influence of prior feeding on water hyacinth by either M. scutellaris or Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) (Hemiptera: Miridae) on the performance of both agents. Five treatments were set up which included 20 E. catarinensis or 20 M. scutellaris released onto plants with prior exposure to either 20 E. catarinensis and 20 E. catarinensis or 20 M. scutellaris released onto plants with prior exposure to M. scutellaris; and an insect-free control. The results show no significant differences measured between these insect treatments. Significant differences were only found between the insect treatments and the control, notable in chlorophyll content, number of leaves, number of ramets, leaf surface area, leaf width and plant height. This reinforces the concept of synergism between the agents, and indicates that it does not make a difference to overall control of the weed, whether either agent is subsequently released onto plants that have been previously fed upon by the other agent.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 227 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0399 - Suitability of O. engelmannii as a host of Las Cruces and ‘stricta’ biotypes of Dactylopius opuntiae

Mudau Phuluso1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Danica Marlin1 1University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Opuntia engelmannii (small round-leaved prickly pear) is native to North and Central America and was introduced to Africa as an ornamental plant. It has invaded the grassland, savanna and the Karoo biomes in the Eastern, Northern and Western Cape and Limpopo provinces in South Africa. It displaces the natural vegetation, restricts the movement of grazing animals and lowers the value of pasture land. Opuntia engelmannii is a variable species; there are five forms that are morphologically different from each other. Four of the forms of O. engelmannii are found in South Africa, in Limpopo (Mokopane), two occur in Eastern Cape (Bedford), Northern Cape (Douglas) and one form is located in Loisaba (Kenya). Cochineal insects (Dactylopius opuntiae) are used in the biocontrol of invasive Opuntia species (Cactaceae) around the world. Several biotypes of D. opuntiae were tested to discover if they can be used to control the five forms of O. engelmannii that are found in Africa. The aim of the study was to test the suitability of the Kenyan form of O. engelmannii as a host of the Las Cruces and ‘stricta’ biotypes. The two biotypes failed to complete their life cycles on the host plant. The results suggest that the tested biotypes of D. opuntiae cannot be used to control the Kenyan form of O. engelmannii. More biotypes need to be tested and a molecular study conducted to determine whether the five forms ofO. engelmannii found in Africa are one species or different species called by one name.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 228 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0193 - Taxonomy of the avian genera Anthus, Macronyx and Tmetothylacus (Aves: Motacillidae) in sub-Saharan Africa

Darren Pietersen1, Ian Little2, Andrew McKechnie1, Raymond Jansen3, Armanda Bastos4 1DST-NRF Centre of Excellence at the Percy FitzPatrick Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2The Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Department of Environmental, Water and Earth Sciences, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa, 4Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The difficulty in identifying pipits (Passeriformes: Motacillidae) visually has led to a somewhat unstable taxonomy with a number of sub-specific taxa being transferred between species subsequent to their description, while a number of taxa of dubious validity (and in some instances affinity) are currently recognised. In 1996 and again just after the turn of the century two new pipit taxa were described from South Africa, from ornithologically well-explored regions. Since their description these taxa have been controversial, with some authors questioning their validity and a recent morphological reanalysis suggesting that both purported taxa are composites of a number of previously described taxa, and therefore invalid. An additional source of debate is the inclusion of the yellow-breasted pipit (Anthus chloris Lichtenstein, 1842) in the genus Anthus, while the morphologically and ecologically similar Sharpe’s longclaw (Macronyx sharpie Jackson, 1904) is placed in the genus Macronyx. Subsequent to their description, both species were placed together in a separate genus, Hemimacronyx Roberts, 1922, in light of their similarities, although this latter taxonomic arrangement has been abandoned of late. Using a combination of molecular techniques (including samples from contemporary and museum specimens) and published morphological characteristics, we review the taxonomy of the sub-Saharan African pipits and longclaws, and attempt to bring a measure of stability to this group by presenting the most taxonomically inclusive phylogeny constructed to date. Our results support earlier morphological analyses, and suggest that a number of taxonomic changes are required.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 229 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0210 - Aspects of the ecology of vervet monkeys in urban eThekwini, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Kerushka R. Pillay, Colleen T. Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Generally urbanisation affects biodiversity negatively. However, some species thrive in these environments. One mammalian species that is thriving in a peri-urban environment is the vervet monkey, Chlorocebus aethiops pygerythrus, particularly in urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) Province, South Africa. Increased human population growth and associated urban transformation have increased contact between humans and troops of vervet monkeys that make use of residential and industrial gardens. This has led to increased human-wildlife conflict with vervet monkeys often persecuted because of their damage to human property and harassment. However, little is known about the ecology of urban vervet monkey troops in order to assess and manage this wildlife conflict. Consequently we are determining troop size and fecundity rate for vervet monkey troops (n = 10) along an urban gradient within the peri-urban area of the Buffelsdraai Regional Landfill Site and the Bluff, Durban, KZN. Individual movements (n = 10) are recorded using VHF/ GPS collars placed on one sub-adult male and one adult female per troop for minimum of a year to determine home range size, habitat use, activity and territoriality. Data are also obtained by monitoring the troops monthly to determine troop ecology, fission-fusion events, and human- wildlife (primate) conflict. This longitudinal study will benefit our understanding of the temporal dynamics of urban vervet monkeys and determine which resources need to be conserved to sustain and manage vervet monkey populations with changing land use. Additionally, the data will be valuable for community education and serve as foundational data for human-vervet conflict resolution programmes.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 230 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0428 - Interface between managed and wild honey bees in South Africa

Christian Pirk1, Robin Moritz1,2, Robin Crewe1 1Social Insects Research Group, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Institut für Biologie, Zoologie-Molekulare Ökologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany

To ensure sustainable pollination services one has to understand, manage and conserve pollinators supplying such services for crop production and ecosystems. Beekeeping operations in South Africa rely significantly on catching swarms, utilising mainly the wild population. Nevertheless, our knowledge about the population sizes is little, and treating managed and wild populations as one entity is not taking potential interactions into account which can be beneficial but also deleterious. Such interactions could result in transfer of diseases, pathogens and genetic flow since mating is normally not controlled for. One prime example of such a deleterious interaction between the wild and managed populations of two sister species is the host shift of the mite Varroa destructor (Anderson & Trueman) from the Eastern (Apis cerana Fabricius) to the Western honeybee (Apis mellifera L.). It also shows that the different populations are differentially affected by the host shift: while the populations in Europe mostly collapsed, in Africa and the Americas the impact is less significant and resilience can be observed in these populations. Another example is thecapensis social parasite which causes significant losses in the managed honeybee population in northern South Africa, but where the wild population is unaffected. Such resilience might be a result of the large proportion of wild honeybees, which allows the wild population to adapt to new parasites/ pathogens, without human interference. Therefore, besides taking the interactions into account, it is crucial to have robust data on the population sizes on different spatial scales of the different pollinator species involved.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 231 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0191 - Aspects of the spatial and population ecology of two terrapin species in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Cormac Price, Colleen Downs, Gordon O’Brien University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg/KZN, South Africa

Movement patterns are an important component of the ecology of all animals. Measures of movements, regularity, and distance travelled and home ranges can provide valuable insights into an animal’s behaviour, and what is required to ensure populations remain stable. Terrapins are good indicator species of wetland health because of their reliance on undisturbed or lightly disturbed habitat. South Africa’s freshwater systems are under increasing anthropogenic pressures due to a growing population, land-use change and climate change. It is important to understand how organisms reliant on wetland systems are coping with these pressures to assess their ability to persist here. There is a paucity of general ecology of terrapins in Africa despite their importance in freshwater eco-systems. Neither Pelomedusa galeata (subrufa) (Schoepff, 1792, Bonnaterre, 1789), nor Pelusios sinuatus (Smith, 1838) spatial ecology or home ranges have been studied. Consequently we are investigating aspects of terrapin ecology, using several different techniques. Their home ranges and movements are being studied using novel telemetry monitoring at two different field sites. The tags also record temperature and activity, allowing us to examine trends in individual behaviour/movement in relation to its environment. Non-telemetered animals are being permanently marked on their marginal scutes using a standardised numbering system, and their resighting contributes to determining population dynamics. We present information on the telemetry system used and aspects of the spatial and population ecology of both species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 232 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0110 - Response of wheat aphids to plants treated with volatile substance

Goddy Prinsloo, Pinkie Radebe ARC-Small Grain, Bethlehem, South Africa

Formerly olfactometer tests have shown that several plant-derived volatile substances repelled alate individuals of the wheat aphid species Rhopalosiphum padi, Sitobion avenae, and Metopolophium dirhodum (Hemiptera: Aphididae). This implies that these substances could be used as an alternative control mechanism for aphids involved in the transmission of viral diseases to wheat and barley plants. These aphids are transmitting Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus to wheat planted under irrigation in South Africa, causing up to 33% yield loss to the crop. The volatile substances were tested in the presence of plants in a greenhouse trial before testing them in the field. During the present study, firstly, the colonisation of volatile-treated plants by alate aphids was tested. Secondly, newly established aphid colonies were subjected to volatile treatment in order to determine the effect of these substances on apterae aphids on plants. The effectiveness of these substances to reduce aphid infestation and possible virus transmission to wheat plants will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 233 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0227 - Predicting ecological benchmarks for savannah elephant populations: providing context to counts

Andrew Purdon, Ashley Robson, Trimble Morgan, Rudi van Aarde Conservation Ecology Research Unit, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

While resources go into estimating elephant populations, an ecological benchmark by which to assess counts is lacking. Knowing how many elephants there are and how many poachers kill is important, but on their own, such data lack context. The absence of an ecological context to interpret elephant counts allows room for uncertainty and stagnation in elephant conservation management. We collated savannah elephant (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach, 1797) count data from 73 protected areas across the continent estimated to hold ~50% of Africa’s elephants and extracted densities from 18 broadly stable population time series. We modeled these densities on primary productivity, water availability, and an index of poaching. We used the model to predict stable densities given current conditions and poaching for all 73 populations. Next, to generate ecological benchmarks, we predicted such densities for a scenario of zero poaching. Where historical data are available, they corroborate or exceed benchmarks. According to recent counts, collectively, the 73 savannah elephant populations are at 75% of the size predicted based on current conditions and poaching levels. However, populations are at <25% of ecological benchmarks given a scenario of zero poaching (~967,000) -a collective deficit of ~730,000 elephants. Populations in 30% of the 73 protected areas were <5% of their benchmark. The ecological context provided by these benchmark values, in conjunction with ongoing censuses, allows efficient targeting of conservation efforts.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 234 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0362 - The role of phytopathogenic fungi in limiting plant invasions: The case of Australian Banksia (Proteaceae) in South Africa

Axola Qongqo1 ,2, Sjirk Geerts1, Felix Nchu1 1Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Cape Town, South Africa, 2South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Claremont, South Africa

The genus Banksia L.F (Proteaceae) is native to Australia and was introduced to South Africa in the late 1970s. Currently there are fourteen Banksia species grown in the Cape Floristic Region (CFR) for floriculture and horticulture. Of these fourteen species, namely B. ericifolia andB. integrifolia are invasive and another two species have naturalised. The remaining twelve species are classified as introduced species. Species traits and the environment, influence the differential abundance and Banksia species invasion status in the CFR. The aim of this study is to elucidate factors that may modulate differential abundance of Banksia species. A selective medium was used to isolate the phytopathogen Phytophthora cinnamomi ‘Rands’ (Oomycetes) from Banksias spp. soil samples and infected plant tissue. Fungal isolates were identified by employing morphological (light microscopy) and molecular (internal transcribing spacer) techniques. In order to probe the association between Banksia species antimicrobial activity and Banksia species invasion status, we conducted a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) bioassay of twelve Banksia species against P. cinnamomi. The invasive B. ericifolia and B. integrifolia showed the highest antifungal activity and the introduced species B. hookeriana showed the highest antifungal activity against P. cinnamomi. A species may have morphological invasive traits like the naturalised B. speciosa but still be highly susceptible to phytopathogens. This study suggests that pathogens can act as barriers for a species to transition from an introduced species to be an invasive species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 235 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0283 - Influence of reproductive biology on the invasive capacity of Sirex noctilio (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) as a case study

Joséphine Queffelec1,3, Jeremy Allison2, Bernard Slippers1,3 1Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Canadian Forest Service, Ottawa, Canada, 3Genetics Department; University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The woodwasp (Sirex noctilio) is an invasive species originating from Eurasia and Northern Africa. After a first report out of its native range in New-Zealand in the 1900’s, it spread to nine additional countries over the course of the last century. Because it causes tremendous losses in the forestry economy worldwide, it is important to keep putting effort into its regulation and into the study of its invasion biology. Biogeographers and ecologists usually attempt to predict a species’ success of introduction based on its climate envelope or ecological niche. However, the wide variety of ecosystems within which S. noctilio has been successfully introduced suggests that other factors also play a role. Here we explore how S. noctilio’s reproductive strategies (e.g. parthenogenesis, sex determination mechanisms, mating behaviour) influence its invasive success. Reproductive traits are tightly linked to the genetic variation within a population and, hence, to adaptive capacities. Moreover, reproductive traits may also influence the magnitude of Allee effects or promote expansion of the introduction range. In this presentation, we will compare theoretical models with what is known (including from ongoing experiments) about S. noctilio’s reproductive strategies to understand what makes the woodwasp so successful after introduction events.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 236 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0046 - The impact of elevated temperatures on social networks of a highly communal passerine

Margaux Rat1, Andrew McKechnie1,2, Cedric Sueur3, Susan Cunningham1 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France

Organisms living in arid environments face important risks associated with hyperthermia (e.g dehydration), risks which are expected to become more severe with climate change. To avoid these risks, individuals can modify behaviour by reducing their activity rate or seeking shade, etc. These behavioural modifications may affect social interactions between individuals and may have important impacts on the social structure of a group. Here, we tested whether the social structure of highly communal passerines, sociable weavers (Philetairus socius Latham, 1790), is modified when temperatures increase. For 30 days, we recorded the nature and frequency of interactions at artificial feeders positioned beneath three sociable weaver colonies in the Kalahari Desert and the air temperatures birds were experiencing in order to delineate the social networks of each colony under different thermal conditions. We also conducted focal observations to assess whether heat stress behaviour (i.e. time spent panting) was related to social behaviour. Our results suggest that at high air temperatures (i.e. above 42°C), social networks become less dense, and fragment into smaller social components. These changes in network structure appear to be linked to the severity of heat stress experienced by an individual, as the level of panting was significantly correlated with a reduction in the frequency of association and an increase in avoidance behaviour exhibited towards other group members. Collectively, our results indicate that social interactions between individuals are affected by heat, suggesting climate change may alter the way societies function.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 237 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0187 - Frog Olympics: exploring the locomotor ecomorphology of the pyxicephalid radiation in southern Africa

Alexander Douglas Rebelo1,2, John Measey1 1Centre for Invasion Biology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Bayworld, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Morphological traits determine mechanical properties of a body, which directly influences an organism’s performance output, such as the power and speed of movements. Performance output is relevant for many vital tasks, such as predator escape and foraging. Therefore, species are expected to have morphological traits that maximise fitness with regard to the environment they inhabit. In this study, I investigate whether morphological traits shown to influence locomotor performance in other frog clades achieve the same outcome within a southern African frog radiation. Locomotor performance was tested for 25 pyxicephalid species collected across South Africa. Frogs were filmed jumping, sprinting and swimming to calculate respective velocities, in addition to being chased around a circular track to test both terrestrial and aquatic endurance. Finally, grip performance was tested by rotating frogs on a non-stick surface. Body size, mass, limb length and finger dimensions were measured for each frog tested. Data were analysed within a phylogenetic framework to correct for phylogenetic history. Species morphology had a significant influence on locomotor performance, in agreement with similar relationships found in other frog clades. Body size explained the greatest variation in performance across species, while hindlimb length was positively related to burst performance but negatively with persistent locomotion. It may be that these morphological traits are shaped by the locomotor requirements in different environments that enable clade divergence.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 238 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0188 - Detection of novel haemoplasma strains in four species of free-living bathyergids from the Western Cape province, South Africa

Liezl Retief1, Nigel Bennett2, Armanda Bastos1 1Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2South African Research Chair of Mammal Behavioural Ecology and Physiology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Haemotropic Mycoplasma species (haemoplasmas) are unculturable obligate erythrocyte- infecting bacteria of potential zoonotic concern, for which data on prevalence and diversity in wildlife are limited. Members of the subterranean rodent family Bathyergidae vary in their level of exposure to human-transformed landscapes, with one species, Bathyergus suillus, often captured and consumed by poorer communities, facilitating the spread of potential zoonotic pathogens. Haemoplasma prevalence and diversity was assessed in four bathyergid species whilst simultaneously optimising 16S rRNA PCR assays for improved detection of haemoplasma strains. Bathyergid lung, spleen and liver samples were screened using one published and two novel PCR assays, all targeting the 16S rRNA gene region. Of the 286 samples screened, an overall haemoplasma prevalence of 24.13% was found, with B. suillus having a significantly higher prevalence (41.86%) and diversity (six novel strains were identified) of haemoplasma compared to its close relatives where prevalence ranged from 0%-36% and strain diversity ranged from zero to three strains. Novel PCR assays had both higher sensitivity and specificity than the published PCR assay and phylogenetic analyses revealed that the six novel strains identified in the current study grouped well within their own cluster. Factors such as the human introduction of commensal rodents harbouring Mycoplasma strains likely transferring these strains through cosmopolitan arthropod vectors to indigenous bathyergids, as well as biotic and abiotic factors affecting ectoparasite load, could have influenced haemoplasma prevalence. The PCR assay developed in this study will result in improved knowledge of haemoplasma strain distribution and diversity in indigenous rodent populations.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 239 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0194 - Elevation gradients: natural laboratories better to understand diversity patterns and processes

Mark Robertson University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Biologists have been fascinated by species richness patterns and the mechanisms that drive these patterns. Many studies have investigated species richness patterns across elevation and latitudinal gradients. Elevation gradient studies are particularly valuable for investigating the influence of environmental factors on diversity. Many elevation gradient studies have been conducted on a range of taxa, but very few have undertaken repeat sampling across the gradient, and even fewer have investigated seasonal differences in diversity across elevation gradients. In order to improve our understanding of how diversity changes across gradients and over time, long-term sampling across gradients and in different seasons will likely deliver the best insights. Climate change is likely to have considerable impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem function in southern Africa. Mountain ecosystems are potentially important climate change refugia, although they are likely to experience considerable species turnover. Elevation gradient studies are important for understanding how the environment influences diversity and how this diversity responds to climate change. The Sani Pass ant diversity study in the Maloti-Drakensberg mountains is a long-term elevational gradient study. Ants have been sampled across this gradient from 900 m to 3000 m in two seasons for 11 years. The aims of the project are better to understand drivers of ant diversity and to document changes in ant assemblages over time, particularly in response to climate change. The key findings of this study are presented and discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 240 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0310 - Life history changes in the marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae) in response to selection for age of reproduction

Petrus Roets1, Henrika Bosua1, Ruth Archer2, Christopher Weldon1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University Exeter, Cornwall, UK

Variation in ageing and the intricacies of how small environmental changes can affect lifespan are yet to be resolved. By studying changes in life history traits, valuable information can be gained about how they evolved. We selected on age of reproduction in the marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae), to determine whether selection for age of reproduction affects longevity of both sexes and alters patterns of female and male reproductive effort. The selection regime involved taking eggs from five separate replicate lines at 5, 15 or 25 days after adult eclosion for twenty generations. Flies from selection lines were assayed for longevity and reproductive effort at generations 0, 4, 10, 15 and 20. Longevity of both sexes was determined by tracking daily mortality of flies caged individually. To determine female reproductive effort, the number of eggs laid by a separate cohort of individually held females was noted every five days. Reproductive effort of males aged 5, 15 and 25 days was determined by noting mating behaviour as well as sperm transfer to unselected females. After twenty generations we found that selection for early egg laying led to shorter lifespan, especially in females. This was also associated with earlier onset of oviposition and higher egg laying rate, but lower lifetime fecundity. There were no correlated changes in male reproductive behaviour in response to selection. Longevity of female C. cosyra is sensitive to opportunities for oviposition, which is likely mediated by the energetic costs and stress associated with egg production.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 241 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0334 - IP-10, a promising biomarker for the detection of Mycobacterium bovis infection in warthogs

Eduard O. Roos, Sven D.C. Parsons, Michele A. Miller Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Warthogs are susceptible to infection with Mycobacterium bovis (Karlson & Lessel 1970), which causes bovine tuberculosis (bTB) in a variety of animal species. However, few diagnostic tools can reliably detect infection ante-mortem in most wildlife species. A cytokine release assay was developed as a potential ante-mortem immunoassay. Blood from M. bovis culture positive and negative warthogs was stimulated with mycobacterial antigens using the QuantiFERON In- Tube Gold system. Cytokine concentrations of interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) were measured using an ELISA. IP-10 production was higher in M. bovis-infected (mean OD = 1.05 ± SD 1.025) compared to uninfected (mean OD = 0.09 ± SD 0.21) warthogs (p<0.001). The IP-10 assay sensitivity was 60% (12/20; 95% CI = 39-78%) and specificity 92% (44/48; 95% CI = 80-97%). IP-10 concentration was also greater in warthogs with a positive skin test result (mean OD = 1.46 ± SD 0.97) compared to those that were negative (mean OD = 0.36 ± SD 0.65) (p<0.01). Warthogs that had a visible TB-like lesion had significantly higher IP-10 (mean OD = 0.81 ± SD 1.02) than those that had no-visible TB-like lesions (mean OD = 0.11 ± SD 0.25) at post-mortem (p<0.05). We were unable to detect IFN-γ in stimulated plasma samples despite screening various IFN-γ ELISA antibody combinations. Our findings suggest that IP-10 is produced in response to TB-specific antigens and could be a biomarker for bTB screening of warthogs. Although IFN-γ levels were undetectable in our study, it may warrant further investigation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 242 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0183 - Arthropod pests, agricultural trade and South Africa’s biosecurity

Davina Saccaggi1,2, Isabel Collett1, John Wilson3,4, John Terblanche2 1Plant Health Diagnostic Services, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 4Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Cape Town, South Africa

Terrestrial invertebrates are transported around the world mostly as contaminants of internationally traded agricultural goods. With increasing global trade, the transport and resultant introduction of invasive invertebrates is increasing at an alarming rate. South Africa is not exempt from this trend, and recent literature reports at least twelve new alien insect and mite species detected in South Africa in the past three years alone. At least six of these of these were listed quarantine pests – meaning that agricultural authorities were aware of the risk they posed and therefore on the look-out for them in imported goods – and yet the pests still managed to slip through border biosecurity. Preventing the accidental introduction of insects and mites through agricultural trade faces a number of challenges. Insects and mites are small and often have cryptic habits, broad physiological tolerances and close association with host plants. I will discuss the approaches, constraints and challenges faced by border biosecurity agencies and suggest practical improvements of biosecurity procedures in the South African context.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 243 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0189 - The effect of inorganic fertiliser pollution on the life history of the Anopheles arabiensis vector mosquito

Michael Samuel1,2, Basil Brooke1,2, Shüné Oliver1,2 1Wits Research Institute for Malaria, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic and Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa

Anopheles arabiensis Patton (Diptera: Culicidae) is an important malaria vector species in sub- Saharan Africa, whose distribution includes, but is not limited to, agricultural settings where fertiliser is used. Synthetic fertilisers contain nitrogen, phosphorus and/or potassium, which are likely to contaminate breeding sites. By stimulating the proliferation of microbes and algae which are nutrient sources for mosquito larvae, these pollutants may inadvertently influence the mosquitoes’ life history, leading not only to larger populations, but more effective vectors.

In order to evaluate the impact of urea (N), super-phosphate (P) and potassium chloride (K) on An. arabiensis larval development, hatchlings from two An. arabiensis laboratory strains (SENN, which is insecticide susceptible and SENN-DDT, which is insecticide resistant) were exposed for 14 days to a concentration gradient of each compound, as well as to an NPK fertiliser containing all three elements in equal proportion. Larvae reared in untreated distilled water were used as controls. All larvae were fed daily and the number of pupae was recorded as a proxy for development.

As potassium chloride accelerated larval development, the effect of potassium exposure on insecticide tolerance was also examined for both strains. This examination showed that larval potassium exposure increased adult tolerance to the insecticides deltamethrin and malathion.

These data support previous findings that non-pesticidal agricultural residues have the capacity to alter malaria vector life histories and tolerance to insecticides. These effects may be epidemiologically significant if they lead to enhanced rates of malaria transmission in affected areas including those under insecticide-based vector control.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 244 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0279 - Case studies regarding the effect of tree manipulation on the commercial management of key insect pests in two subtropical tree crops

Schalk Schoeman ARC, Nelspruit, South Africa

Coffee and macadamias are two key subtropical crops in the SADC region. Although coffee remains a very small crop, it is of considerable importance for the subregion as a much needed earner of foreign currency. South Africa is the biggest producer of macadamias globally and the industry contributes significantly in rural areas as a wealth creator. Coffee only produces crop on new growth and if the limited size of the trees is taken into account then clearly some form of rejuvenation will have to take place once the trees have reached their maximum size. Cutting the trees down at 50 cm above ground is a popular method as it allows the trees to return to production relatively quickly. However, the basal part of the main stem is also the preferred habitat for the white coffee stem borer Monochamus leuconotus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The implications of pruning severely infested coffee trees are discussed. The pentatomid Bathycoelia distincta is the main pest of macadamia nuts and prefers to feed in the apical regions of the trees. Macadamias are very tall and voluminous trees with canopy densities and tree heights often exceeding 60 000 m3/ha and 12 m, respectively. Most mechanical orchard sprayers can only effectively spray the basal 6 m of these trees. The effects of poor spray coverage in the apical regions of tall macadamia trees linked with the establishment of large macadamia monocultures in close proximity to each other as well as over-reliance on synthetic pyrethroids probably induced resistance against these pesticides.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 245 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0358 - Population estimates of the invasive common myna (Sturnus tristis) in urban Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Ntaki Senoge, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

In urban areas it is often difficult to make population estimates of invasive birds for management recommendations. However, some birds roost communally and allow us to gather information about them. The invasive common myna (Sturnus tristis, formerly Acridotheres tristis) is one such species and gathers year-round at roosts with relatively predictable times of assembly and departure. Consequently, we estimated common mynas’ monthly population numbers by means of monthly point counts at ten evening roost sites around Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, from June until December 2014. As in previous studies, common mynas followed the pattern of assembling and communally roosting before dusk and leaving again at sunrise. There was a significant difference in common myna numbers counted at roosting sites, with the most birds being counted at the Edendale Hospital roost (2174 ± 301.9), followed by the Northdale suburb roost (838 ± 148.2). Roosts with the lowest monthly numbers were City Hall (86 ± 10.8) and the Oribi SAPS Workshop (59 ± 28.3). However, some roosting sites appear to have only been used temporarily. There were no significant differences in monthly population estimates of the common myna when compared between months. However, the highest mean population estimate was in December (792 ± 486.3), followed by June (708 ± 390.3). The lowest population estimate of the common myna was in October (325 ± 169.8). Most myna roosting sites were found in well-lit urban areas and in trees.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 246 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0231 - SANBI’s role in fostering sustained and informed support for animal conservation

Theresa Sethusa, Michelle Hamer South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa

South Africa is one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries; with biodiversity supporting the provision of essential ecosystem services such as production of clean water, erosion prevention, clean air production and carbon storage. Biodiversity also plays a major role in the country’s economic growth and development by supplying resources to viable industries such as fishing, horticulture and tourism. This national asset is, however, under continued pressure and is at risk of being permanently transformed or lost. It is therefore important for biodiversity to be conserved and protected. Conservation and protection, however, require foundational knowledge. SANBI is mandated to collect and collate foundational biodiversity data through working with various partners, e.g. collections institutions, universities and research institutions. The collated foundational data are then used to assess the risk of extinction as per the IUCN’s criteria and categories, from which Taxa of Conservation Concern are identified and prioritised for conservation. The assessments then feed into making a case for the expansion of protected areas and in Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA) for Strategic Infrastructure projects (SIPs). Taxa threatened by trade and use are protected by legislation, and those threatened by habitat loss are considered in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) processes for any habitat-altering project. This work demonstrates the importance of having sound foundational data for biota to ensure their conservation and of addressing gaps in existing knowledge.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 247 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0070 - Tarantula species in the South African pet trade

Cavin Shivambu1,2, Mark Robertson1, Stefan Foord3, Sabrina Kumschick2,4 1Centre for Excellence in Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, 0002, South Africa, 2South African National Biodiversity Institute-Invasive Species Programme, Kirstenbosch Botanical Gardens, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa, 3Centre for Excellence in Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology, University of Venda, Thohoyandoa, Limpopo, x5050, South Africa, 4Centre for Excellence in Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, Stellenbosch, X1, South Africa

Many species are introduced around the world as part of the pet trade. Some of these species may escape and become invasive. In South Africa, several species of tarantula (Theraphosidae) are kept as pets and are traded. The popularity of tarantula species in the pet trade in South Africa is unknown. It is also not known whether any of these species are likely to be invasive if they are released, or escape from captivity. The aims of this study were to determine how many species are traded, determine which species are the most popular and which are known to be invasive elsewhere. We compiled a species list from online stores, visits to pet stores and through questionnaire surveys. A total of 175 species names were collected. The most popular species in the pet trade were Brachypelma vagans and B. albopilosum. Few species in the pet trade were found to be invasive elsewhere. The increase in the popularity of these species in the South African pet trade may lead to an increased propagule pressure and invasion potential.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 248 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0419 - Scent chemistry of the bizarre carrion-mimic Sarcophyte sanguinea (Balanophoraceae): the importance of dimethyl trisulfide and dimethyl tetrasulfide for the attraction of carrion beetles and flies

Adam Shuttleworth, Steven D. Johnson, Nina Hobbhahn University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Carrion and dung-associated insects are important pollinators for many carrion-mimicking flowers. These flowers exhibit foul odours, and scent chemistry is assumed to represent the primary pollinator attractant. However, the particular volatiles that attract carrion insects to these flowers remain poorly explored. We examined the pollination and scent chemistry of Sarcophyte sanguinea, a putative carrion mimic in eastern South Africa. Plants exhibit a strong foul odour of rotting fish, and visitor observations in the Eastern Cape confirmed that they attract a diverse assemblage of saprophilous insects including various carrion-associated flies (Muscidae, Calliphoridae, and Sarcophagidae), beetles (Thanatophilus sp., Silphidae) and dung beetles (Scarabaeidae). Analysis of the floral odour using coupled gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) revealed that it is dominated by dimethyl disulfide and dimethyl trisulfide, but also contained various other volatiles associated with dung or carrion, including four additional sulphur compounds, trimethyl amine, phenol, p-cresol and indole. Electroantennographic detection (EAD) experiments conducted in parallel with GC-MS analysis of headspace samples (GC-MS-EAD) revealed that silphid beetle antennae respond strongly to dimethyl trisulfide and dimethyl tetrasulfide, while dung beetle antennae respond strongly to dimethyl trisulfide only. Neither responded to dimethyl disulfide or other volatiles present in the headspace samples. EAD experiments with flies and behavioural experiments confirming the attractiveness of these compounds to the different insects remain ongoing, but results at this stage suggest that specific sulphur compounds are important for the attraction of both flies and beetles. The role of dimethyl disulfide and other components of the odour, if any, is not clear.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 249 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0135 - Exploring genetic approaches for Russian wheat aphid resistance breeding in wheat

Thandeka Sikhakhane1,2, Vicki Tolmay1,2, Toi Tsilo1,2 1Agricultural Research Council-Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa, 2University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

The development and validation of molecular markers is important in marker-assisted pre-breeding and breeding of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) against yield and quality-diminishing insect pests. The objectives of the study were: (i) to conduct a preliminary trial to evaluate the suitability of simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers previously reported in the literature for identifying stacked Russian wheat aphid (RWA; Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov (Homoptera: Aphididae)) resistance genes, and (ii) to employ single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and competitive allele-specific polymerase reaction (KASP) markers for the first time in an RWA resistance study as a possible future alternative to the widely used SSR markers. None of the tested SSR markers showed potential for use in marker-assisted selection (MAS), and one developed KASP marker, IWA 5442, was found to be effective in differentiating resistant and susceptible genotypes. This KASP marker will be useful for stacking important RWA resistance genes together in available pre- breeding and breeding wheat cultivars.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 250 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0424 - Molecular and chemical ecology are important for the management of emerging pests in plantation forestry

Bernard Slippers1, Brett Hurley2, Jeremy Allison2,3, Michael J. Wingfield1,2 1Department of Genetics, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Great Lakes Forestry Centre, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada

There has been a dramatic increase in the numbers of invasive alien pests appearing in forest plantations globally. An associated rapid increase in damage due to these invasions has placed severe pressure on the sustainability of the industries that rely on these plantations. A better understanding and monitoring of the pathways and arrivals of these pests is a critical component of programmes to manage this threat. In recent years molecular ecological analyses have provided an increasingly important contribution to characterizing the pathways and the extent of these introductions. The emerging situation is one of complex introduction histories, often with large and multiple events of spread from the native range, and between invaded regions. Chemical ecology provides powerful opportunities to monitor these pathways and arrivals, as well to manage pest impact after arrival. Unfortunately, research in this area has been slow for forest plantation pests, and there is an urgent need to address this situation This talk will discuss selected examples to illustrate how existing and new tools, including genomics and genome editing will increase the potential for both molecular and chemical ecology to promote a more comprehensive understanding of plantation pests and to provide management tools for them.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 251 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0353 - Optimisation of pheromone traps for Coryphodema tristis (Lepidoptera: Cossidae)

Marc Bouwer1, Bernard Slippers2, Michael Wingfield3, Jeremy Allison4,5 1Department of Chemistry/Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria/ Gauteng, South Africa, 2Department of Genetics/Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria/Gauteng, South Africa, 3Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria/Gauteng, South Africa, 4Department of Zoology and Entomology/Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria/Gauteng, South Africa, 5Great Lakes Forestry Centre, Natural Resources Canada, Sault Ste Marie/Ontario, Canada, 6Department of Chemistry/Centre for Chromatography, University of Pretoria, Pretoria/Gauteng, South Africa

The cossid moth Coryphodema tristis (Drury) is a significant pest ofEucalyptus nitens (De and Ma) plantations in South Africa. The gregarious larvae of this pest cause damage by feeding on the tree sapwood and adults emerge in spring each year. The aim of this study was to optimise pheromone traps for operational use in management programmes. This was achieved by investigating different pheromone blend combinations and trap types for efficacy under field conditions. Our results confirm that the cross vane bucket funnel trap baited with a 95:2.5:2.5 volumetric blend of Z9-14:OAc, Z9-14:OH and 14Ac was superior to similarly-baited standard bucket funnel and delta traps. Additionally, we estimated the release rate and ratios of the pheromone compounds loaded into an artificial permeation dispenser through SPME sampling. It was shown that the released blend of pheromone compounds mirrored the dispensed ratios relatively accurately and that release rates are affected by temperature.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 252 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0216 - Physiological underpinnings of local adaptation in a southern African endemic bird

Ben Smit1, Nicholas Pattinson1, Angela Ribeiro2 1Nelson Mandela University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 2University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

The role of physiology in local adaptation is poorly understood, as few studies directly link variation in physiological traits and performance to population genetics. A pattern of local adaptation has been reported in a southern African endemic bird, the Karoo scrub-robin (Cercotrichas coryphaeus Veilot, 1817): this species exhibits strong population divergence in genes associated with energy metabolism. This differentiation occurs along a spatial gradient of environmental heterogeneity, despite extensive gene flow as revealed by variation in neutral genes and morphological data. These puzzling results suggest that divergent selection is favouring particular physiological phenotypes across an environmental gradient. Therefore, we conducted a complementary physiological study better to understand the links between population genetics and environment in the Karoo scrub- robin. We used a field respirometry laboratory to collect metabolic physiology data, namely basal and summit metabolic rates, for 80 adult birds over two seasons along an environmental transect. Our data show phenotypic differences correlating with environmental heterogeneity, confirming that divergent selection is restricting different physiological phenotypes to particular environmental conditions. Our study demonstrates that building a phenotype-genotype-environment framework provides a powerful investigative tool for understanding the role of physiology in early stages of divergence and speciation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 253 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0386 - Invasion of Bactrocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) into vineyards along the lower Orange River, Northern Cape

Tanya Smit, Vaughn Swart, Schalk vdM Louw University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel), also known as the Oriental fruit fly, is a highly polyphagous species and is capable of causing extensive damage to a vast range of crops. This species has become a notorious quarantine pest due to its wide host range, climatic adaptability and dispersive abilities. Since the 2003 discovery of B. dorsalis (Hendel) in Kenya, various nationally coordinated surveillance and management programmes have been launched in South Africa. Grape exports make a vital contribution to the country’s economy, and the presence of a quarantine pest can have devastating effects on the export market. The Orange River Valley is currently the second largest exporter of table grapes, making it exceptionally important to maintain surveillance and management programmes. This study was conducted from August 2014 to July 2016 between Upington and Blouputs, using yellow Chempak bucket traps baited with methyl eugenol placed in a variety of ecological niches for monitoring. No B. dorsalis were sampled during 2014/2015, but suddenly appeared in 2016 in areas where this species had been previously declared as being absent.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 254 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0017 - Thresholds in forest-fragment size are indicated by a reduction in avian functional diversity and forest specialists

David Ehlers Smith1,2, Yvette Ehlers Smith1, Colleen Downs1 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2Claude Leon Foundation, Cape Town, Western Cape, South Africa

Forest fragmentation affects species that have biological traits vulnerable to its effects; typically, those specialised to specific niches/resources are more threatened than generalists without such specialisations. We postulated that functional communities may show a non-linear response to habitat fragmentation within patches of decreasing sizes, if environmental provisioning of specialised niches/resources became compromised at certain critical thresholds. We conducted fixed-radius point-count surveys of the avian forest community of the Indian Ocean Coastal Belt, and calculated a functional diversity score (FRic) in forest patches of varying sizes (0.06-386.9 ha). We compared a linear regression of the effect of patch size on functional diversity to a segmented regression at five bands, as determined by mean patch sizes responsible for the functional diversity scores at < 50%, 50-62.5%, 62.5-75%, 75-87.5% and 87.5-100% of total functional diversity. The segmented regression performed better than the linear regression (segmented regression AIC = 203.5 vs. linear regression AIC = 281) at three thresholds (9, 96 and 157 ha). Using the Indicator Value, we found that forest-dependent specialists were significant indicators of patches > 90 ha maintaining high functional diversity. Species most common in small patches < 9 ha were generalists, and were also present in larger patches, indicating a nested-community subset of the overall population. Specialised niches and concomitant species became locally extinct at critical patch-size thresholds. We recommend maintaining landscape-scale connectivity of patches in addition to targeting patches above thresholds identified in conservation and landscape planning across the anthropogenic-forest mosaic.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 255 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0018 - The importance of microhabitat structure in maintaining forest mammal diversity and abundance in a mixed land- use mosaic

Yvette Ehlers Smith, David Ehlers Smith, Ramesh Tharmalingam, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg/KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

The Indian Ocean Coastal Belt (IOBC) of South Africa is a natural forest-grassland mosaic, nested within an anthropogenic mixed-land-use matrix. Given the ongoing threat of agricultural expansion and urbanisation, we assessed the value of dense bush, a buffer habitat for conserving forest species. We investigated the influence of microhabitat complexity on mammal communities within Coastal Belt Forest and dense bush habitats, using occupancy modelling. We found vertical stratification gradients as observed in studies of tropical forest chronosequence, i.e. increased foliage density in lower habitat layers and decreased foliage density in higher habitat layers for dense bush, and vice versa for forest. Structural composition suggests that dense bush is within a successional stage of secondary forest regeneration. Bushbuck occupancy was higher in forest than dense bush, while the opposite was true for blue duiker. Large-spotted genet, Cape porcupine and marsh mongoose occupancy remained constant between habitats. Grey duiker occupancy varied greatly between dense bush (0.48 ± 0.01) and forest (0.16 ± 0.01). Plant and mammal composition were similar, but forests had higher species richness, mammal abundance and number of climax plants. Dense bush appeared to maintain natural forest assemblages and may play a crucial role in buffering IOBC forest patches, given their highly restricted distribution. However, dense bush habitats have no protection status, but do play a role in the conservation of forest plants and animals.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 256 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0318 - Feeding and developmental responses of Hydrellia egeriae,

a biocontrol agent for Egeria densa, to elevated CO2 levels Rosali Smith1, Julie Coetzee1, Andreas Hussner1 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Heinrich-Heine Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany

The anthropogenic-mediated increase in CO2 has a direct impact on plant-herbivore interactions and is of great interest for the biological control of invasive alien plants. Egeria densa Planchon (Hydrocharitaceae), native to South America, has become the most widely distributed submerged aquatic weed in South Africa. It reproduces asexually or through stem fragmentation and forms dense stands that crowd out native species and obstruct water utilization. The feeding and development responses of Hydrellia egeriae Rodrigues (Diptera: Ephydridae), a biocontrol agent for E. densa, to increased CO2 was investigated, using plants grown at ambient CO2 (400 ppm), 600 ppm and 800 ppm, in low and high dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC). Egeria densa showed an increase in growth rate relative to increasing CO2 and at high DIC concentrations. Leaf tissue also contained less nitrogen compared to plants grown at ambient CO2 levels. Subsequently, leaf- mining larvae consumed more leaf material, but showed a decrease in developmental time and survival relative to increased CO2 levels and high DIC concentrations. Larvae also increased their movement between leaves, which could heighten the visibility of larvae to parasitoids. The effect of climate change on the successful biocontrol of E. densa in South Africa is discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 257 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0405 - Scaling of the muscle-tendon energy recovery system in the lower hindlimbs of the kangaroo Macropus fuliginosus

Edward Snelling University of the Witwatersrand, Gauteng, South Africa

Bipedal hopping is used by members of the superfamily Macropodoidea (e.g. rat-kangaroos, wallabies and kangaroos). Scaling analyses on the ankle extensor muscle-tendon units in the lower hindlimbs of these mammals show that peak tendon stresses increase disproportionately with body size. As such, large kangaroos recover large amounts of strain energy in their tendons, making hopping more efficient, but their tendons risk rupture. I present an intraspecific scaling analysis on the functional morphology of the ankle extensor muscle-tendon units in one of the largest species of hopping mammal, the western grey kangaroo Macropus fuliginosus (Desmarest, 1817). The effective mechanical advantage of the ankle extensors does not vary with post- pouch body mass, scaling with an exponent not significantly different from 0.0. Therefore, larger kangaroos balance rotational moments around the ankle by generating proportionately greater muscle force. Maximum muscle force is proportional to the physiological cross-sectional area, which scales with a mean exponent of only 0.67, rather than 1.0. Therefore, larger kangaroos are limited in their capacity to oppose large external forces around the ankle, potentially compromising fast hopping locomotion. Tendon strain energy capacity increases with a mean exponent of ~1.0, which is much shallower than interspecific analyses on hopping mammals (~1.40 - 1.90). Tendon safety factor is lowest in the gastrocnemius (<2), with extrapolation predicting rupture at 160 kg body mass. Extinct giant kangaroos weighing 250 kg could not engage in fast hopping locomotion using a ‘scaled-up’ lower hindlimb morphology of extant western grey kangaroos.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 258 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0418 - We need a South African inventory of alien beetles

Riaan Stals South African National Collection of Insects, Roodeplaat, Pretoria, South Africa

Invasion biology informs policy, biosecurity measures and environmental management. In turn, taxonomy informs invasion biology. Taxonomic research leads to lists of many kinds, lists of alien invasive species (AIS) potentially included. The recent past brought significant theoretical advances in AIS listing approaches and procedures. Taxonomists’ involvement remains indispensable, since most foundational information lurks in specimen collections, taxonomic literature and the institutional memories of specimen collections. Taxonomists undertaking AIS listing should closely collaborate with invasion biologists towards minimising error and uncertainty, and maximising information on parameters valued by invasion biologists. There is a dearth of quality listings of alien insects in South Africa. That includes the nonexistence of an even fairly comprehensive list or database of alien beetles (Coleoptera). The only alien beetles in South Africa presently adequately catalogued are those deliberately released for weed biocontrol. I have embarked upon making an inventory of the alien beetles known from South Africa. The resulting list will include ancillary information such as geographic origins, introduction modes and dates, and present distributions locally—but only insofar as this is obtainable in a reasonable timespan. Invasion status and subsequent local extinctions may be difficult or impossible to determine. Possible effects of alien beetles will not routinely be included, since such speculation will cause considerable delay. Regular future revisions of the inventory will be facilitated by appropriate database design from the outset. In this presentation, a brief overview of alien beetles in South Africa will illustrate their surprising diversity. Some preliminary figures will be bandied about.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 259 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0261 - Mechanisms mediating false codling moth mating disruption, using point-source pheromone dispensers

Vernon M. Steyn, Daleen Stenekamp, Pia Addison Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Western Cape, South Africa

Mating disruption is the broadcasting of female pheromones within an agricultural system, so as to interfere with or decrease the reproductive potential of the pest insect. Seen as a sustainable, non-chemical management method, it is used in citrus orchards against the false codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick). Although research to support its efficacy against FCM is limited, even more surprising is the lack of understanding of basic physiological and behavioural questions, such as what mechanisms drive success or failure. Recent work has indicated that Lepidoptera are disrupted either competitively or non-competitively. No studies have yet been conducted on FCM to determine its disruptive mechanism. However, studies conducted on closely related species have proposed and critically evaluated a framework along with a dichotomous key for distinguishing between the two mechanisms. This provides a protocol for identifying the underlying disruption mechanism in other species. Here we examined the dosage-response profile as well as the optimal dose from multiple mark-release-recapture (MRR) experiments using sterile FCM. Stone fruit blocks were treated with increasing levels of pheromone dispenser densities which allowed the level of disruption experienced (FCM caught in treated/untreated blocks) to be calculated. The difference between the recapture rates from multiple MRR experiments was analysed and will help to identify the disruption mechanism involved. The efficacy of mating disruption will be discussed and the mechanism that drives its success/failure identified. Such identification is vital to the success of the implemented control, which depends on the underlying behavioural mechanisms of the pest insect.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 260 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0249 - Effects of differing land use on the presence and habitat use of various mongoose species

Jarryd Streicher, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Many small carnivore species are of special conservation concern, and management of their populations is difficult due to their elusive behaviour, diminutive size and crepuscular habits. The range distribution of small carnivores such as large grey mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon Linnaeus, 1758), slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea Rüppell, 1835), white tailed mongoose (Ichneumia albicauda Cuvier, 1829) and marsh or water mongoose (Atilax paludinosus Cuvier, 1829), has remained uncertain for much of the sub-tropical regions of southern Africa due to the scarcity of comprehensive data. Land use change by heterogeneous agriculture is threatening terrestrial biodiversity through fragmentation and habitat loss. The effects alter small carnivore movements, leading to modified species distribution and abundance. These species appear to have a wide spread range across a number of KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) habitats (urban and farmlands). Mongoose provide excellent models of how mesocarnivores deal with or confront land use change. We are investigating how land use change affects aspects of the ecology, especially spatial use and movements, of three mongoose species (water, large grey and white tailed mongoose) within KZN Midlands differing land use, using GPS cell telemetry techniques.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 261 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0044 - Does Hypogeococcus festerianus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae) successfully control the cactaceous weed Cereus jamacaru in South Africa?

Guy Sutton1, Hildegard Klein2, Iain Paterson1 1Biological Control Research Group, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council – Plant Protection Research Institute (ARC-PPRI), Roodeplaat-East, Pretoria, South Africa

The cactaceous weed Cereus jamacaru De Candolle (Cactaceae) is considered to be under complete control in South Africa, due to its introduced biological control agent, Hypogeococcus festerianus (Lizer y Trelles) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae). However, no formal post-release evaluation of this biological control programme has been conducted. This study investigated the efficacy of H. festerianus as a biological control agent of C. jamacaru, by integrating weed growth, fecundity and survival metrics with population dynamics and demographic patterns from 20 sites, 8 sites with biological control agents and 14 sites without. Weed fecundity was negatively correlated with H. festerianus density, with biocontrol sites, on average, producing 90% fewer fruit than control sites. Stand structure in the absence of H. festerianus demonstrated a “reverse J-shaped” age frequency distribution indicative of high recruitment rates and population stability. In contrast, stands infected with H. festerianus were described by bell-shaped distributions and were typified by limited recruitment, or a complete lack thereof. By constraining recruitment and inhibiting stand regeneration, we provide correlative support for H. festerianus biological control efficacy against C. jamacaru in South Africa. Post-release monitoring should be continued, and experimental releases of H. festerianus performed, to investigate the causal relationship between H. festerianus biological control and C. jamacaru performance and population dynamics. Quantitative weed management threshold targets are required before the success of this biological control programme can be suitably evaluated.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 262 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0364 - Direct and indirect effects of abiotic factors on the rhizosphere microbiome of selected plants: implications for measuring the impact of climate change

Wijnand Swart, Marcele Vermeulen University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Plants host many organisms, referred to as the phytobiome, that interact with one another and other plants in many ways that help shape and maintain ecosystem services. These interactions can shape patterns of plant and animal diversity both above- and belowground. In the soil, all microbe-microbe and microbe-plant interactions are driven by root exudates that regulate the composition of organisms in the rhizosphere microbiome, especially bacteria. The net effects of these interactions can either reduce plant health or result in enhanced plant performance. The biotic and abiotic environment of the organisms can have either a direct or indirect impact on the outcome of the interactions. Understanding how these organisms respond to climate change is therefore a research priority that will shed light on important ecosystem functions such as plant community composition, soil carbon storage and net primary productivity. Various advanced biochemical and molecular technologies were used to elucidate the effect of soil moisture, temperature and pH on the diversity of bacterial communities in the rhizosphere of selected plants. In the rhizosphere of Amaranthus cruentus, phenolic root exudates decreased significantly under drought stress, resulting in changes to bacterial diversity as indicated by next generation sequencing (NGS). The microbiome of A. cruentus rhizosphere soil was also clearly differentiated from that of bulk soil. Under heat stress, root exudates increased significantly and caused a decrease in microbial activity. NGS data also confirmed that soil pH is an important factor that can influence the diversity of the rhizosphere populations of wild plants.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 263 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0415 - An ecological analysis of stink bug and lepidopteran borer complexes associated with pecan and citrus orchards

Andre Van Rooyen1, Vaughn Swart1, Sean Moore2 1University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa, 2Citrus Research International, South Africa

This study investigates the insect-plant interactions on citrus fruit and pecan nuts in South Africa. The aims of this study were to determine whether lepidopteran borer pests shuttled between adjacent citrus and pecan orchards, and to establish the cultivar preference of the most prevalent stink bug and borer species in Vaalharts pecan orchards. Pheromone trap data indicated that there was a significant overlap between the populations of false codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick), and carob moth, Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller), between adjacent citrus and pecan orchards. Larval eclosions indicated that false codling moths shuttled between adjacent citrus and pecan orchards. Abundant citrus fruit draws false codling moths from adjacent pecan orchards, which increased infestation in the citrus orchard. No significant evidence of carob moth shuttling was found. Adult false codling moths were found to be active throughout the winter. Adult carob moths were almost entirely absent during the winter months. Constant sanitation should reduce the population of T. leucotreta. The control of E. ceratoniae will be most effective when sanitation is carried out during the winter months. Grey-brown stink bugs, Coenomorpha nervosa (Dallas), were found to be the most prevalent hemipteran pest on pecan trees in the Vaalharts region. Coenomorpha nervosa demonstrated a significant preference for pecan trees of the Wichita cultivar over Choctaw, Barton, and Navaho cultivars. The year-round presence of C. nervosa within the pecan nut trees is also an indication that there is a preference to remain within the orchards that could maintain more favourable conditions.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 264 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0071 - Seroprevalence and associated risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic animals in the O.R. Tambo District, South Africa

Luis Neves1,2, Eric Etter1,3, Whatmore Munetsi Tagwireyi1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo, Mozambique, 3CIRAD, Paris, France

Toxoplasma gondii is a single-celled parasite that infects humans and other animals including birds. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to investigate T. gondii seroprevalence and associated risk factors in small ruminants, pigs, poultry and cats in the Oliver Reginald Tambo District in the Eastern Cape in South Africa between June 2016 and October 2016. Household-level and animal-level data were collected using a close-ended questionnaire. One sample of each present species was collected in each household. The Toxoreagent, a latex agglutination test, was used for T. gondii antibody detection. Positive samples had agglutination patterns at dilutions of 1:64 or greater, except for chickens, whose cut off titre was 1:32. A household was classified as T. gondii seropositive if at least one species tested positive. The study revealed that 78 out of 121 sheep (64.46%), 69 out of 128 goats (53.91%), 36 out of 106 pigs (33.96%), 35 out of 109 cats (32.11%) and 46 out of 137 chickens (33.58%) were seropositive for the parasite. Seropositivity was assessed for association with potential risk factors. Among them, age, location, climate, animal production system, rodent control, cat-feed access and cat faecal disposal were found to be statistically significant using the Chi-Squared test or odds ratio confirmed by the Fisher’s exact test. The relatively high seroprevalence of T. gondii detected in this study suggests that the infection may pose a substantial public health risk through the consumption of T. gondii-infected raw meat as well as contact with cat faeces.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 265 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0021 - Integrative taxonomy resolves species limits and identification of cryptic small rhinolophid bats in Southern Africa, with the description of two new species from Mozambique

Peter Taylor1,4, Steve Goodman2,3, Angus MacDonald4, Leigh Richards6, Woody Cotterill5, Samantha Stoffberg5, Teresa Kearney9, Ara Monadjem7,8, Corrie Schoeman4 1University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo, South Africa, 2Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, USA, 3Association Vahatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 4University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa, 5Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 6Durban Natural Science Museum, Durban, South Africa, 7University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland, 8University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 9Ditsong National Museum of Natural History, Pretoria, South Africa

New and old collections of small Rhinolophus Lacépède, 1799 bats from Liberia, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa revealed cryptic diversity within populations previously referred to R. swinnyi Gough, 1908 and R. landeri Martin, 1838. Specimens from two coastal caves in Mozambique referable to R. swinnyi but slightly larger in body size and having an echolocation CF frequency of around 100 KhZ (cf. 106 kHz in topotypic R. swinnyi), were genetically unrelated to topotypic R. swinnyi from the Eastern Cape, showing closer relationships with R. simulator K. Andersen, 1904. Based on its distinct body and cranial size, baculum and echolocation characteristics we recognised a new name (R. rhodesiae Roberts, 1946) to diagnose this distinct evolutionary species. Likewise, specimens from the same two caves in Mozambique keying out to R. landeri but having a distinctly larger body size, less erect connecting process and lower CF frequencies compared to topotypic R. landeri from West Africa, could be named as a distinct species, R. lobatus Peters, 1852. Craniometric analyses were able to clearly distinguish between three co-occurring species, R. simulator, R.cf. landeri and R. cf. swinnyi. Morphological criteria corresponded exactly with genetic and echolocation criteria.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 266 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0114 - Population connectivity of two large carnivore species in Zimbabwe

Laura Tensen University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Conservationists are interested in the long-term viability of species, and whether their survival probability has decreased due to anthropogenic influences. Large carnivores are particularly vulnerable to human disturbances because of their low population numbers and large area requirements. In Zimbabwe, large-scale persecutions and habitat loss have led to a significant decline in large carnivore numbers. However, stable populations of African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) and lion (Panthera leo) still exist in northern and southern Zimbabwe, where they are confined to protected nature reserves. For the future viability of these populations, it is important that successful dispersal still occurs between reserves to avoid the loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding. This study concerns the ancestry and genetic variation of African wild dog and lion populations in Zimbabwe, and studies the change in frequencies of genes and alleles over space and time to indicate whether dispersal still occurs. Encouragingly, we found levels of successful dispersal in Zimbabwe and no proof of inbreeding within reserves. However, genetic differentiation was evident on a larger scale. This suggests barriers to dispersal and genetic isolation of far- distanced populations, either due to illegal poaching and other unnatural mortalities, or unsuitable habitat in between reserves. We suggest trying to increase habitat corridors for natural dispersal between reserves in Zimbabwe together with efforts to secure a higher survival rate in unprotected areas. Identifying corridors to connect remote populations of endangered species is known to facilitate range-wide conservation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 267 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0192 - Supplementary feeding of African woolly-necked storks (Ciconia microscelis) may explain their recent expansion in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Vuyisile Thabethe University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Land use change is of major concern in developing regions, where urban areas are expanding rapidly. Urbanisation increases natural habitat loss and fragmentation; it also reduces open lands and green corridors. Most indigenous wildlife has been negatively impacted by urbanization. Although urban areas are often degraded, some species can persist in these environments. One animal that has successfully coexisted with humans in recent years is the African woolly-necked stork (Ciconia Microscelis). After nearly disappearing from most of South Africa decades ago, the African woolly-necked stork is now flourishing in suburban areas. However, causes of recent increases in population of this species remain poorly known. We investigated foraging opportunities and habitat associations that might be responsible for the recent expansion of African woolly- necked storks in suburban areas. Public participation was solicited via newspaper articles and subsequent questionnaires to gather data on African woolly-necked storks. Our survey revealed that 63% (equivalent to 187 households) provide supplementary food for African woolly-necked storks in their gardens on a daily basis throughout the year. 46 active nests were identified and analysed. The African woolly-necked storks selected nests in open areas within proximity of water sources, nearer to where they were fed and mostly on large invasive trees. Based on the results obtained in this study, it is suggested that supplementary feeding of African woolly-necked stork by hundreds of households is the primary factor explaining their abundance. Undoubtedly the presence of invasive tree species in formerly treeless areas might also explain their breeding success in suburban areas.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 268 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0416 - Secondary pest outbreaks: the relationship between Ectomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller) and mealybug in Navel oranges

Sean Thackeray1,3, Sean Moore1,2, Martin Hill1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Citrus Research International, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 3Ecoguard Biosciences, Howick, South Africa

The carob moth, Ectomelois ceratoniae (Zeller) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), is a minor pest of citrus in southern Africa and other citrus-producing regions of the world. Outbreak infestations are considered to be a result of high levels of honeydew-producing insects. However, this has only been quantified on grapefruit cultivars. The relationship between carob moth infestation and the presence of mealybug in Navel orange cultivars was determined through laboratory and field studies. A laboratory study showed the survival of carob moth neonate larvae infesting citrus is less than 10% in the absence of mealybug. However, this increased to almost 40% in the presence of mealybug residues and sooty mould. There was a significant relationship between carob moth infestation at harvest and mealybug infestation in the middle months of the growing season. Other studies have shown the potential for the application of the plant growth regulator and synthetic auxin, 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) to decrease the size of the navel- end opening and consequently reduce mealybug infestation. A field study showed that application of 2,4-D at petal drop reduced the size of the navel-end opening, decreasing the proportion of mealybug found in the navel-end, subsequently reducing carob moth infestation, resulting in a direct benefit for producers.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 269 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0309 - Response of spider diversity to landscape and patch heterogeneity in remnant natural patches within agricultural landscapes of the Cape Floristic Region

Jurie Theron, René Gaigher, James Pryke, Michael Samways Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Within the Cape Floristic Region (CFR), remnant fynbos vegetation patches are known to support high levels of insect and plant diversity in the local agricultural landscape. However, little information is available on spider diversity in remnant fynbos patches and on which environmental parameters drive this diversity. Here, we sampled spider diversity within remnant fynbos patches within agricultural areas to identify which landscape and patch variables are important for maintaining spider diversity. Samples were collected from 18 sites, using pitfall trapping and vacuum sampling, over two seasons. Fifteen environmental variables (at the landscape and patch scale) were collected at each site and analysed to determine their influence on spider species richness and assemblage structure of the whole spider assemblage, and for different functional guilds. Local patch variables best predict spider diversity, particularly soil compaction and topographic complexity which negatively influenced overall spider species richness and plant-dwelling spider species richness. This pattern of complexity is mainly driven by common spider species. Plant height positively influenced fairly common spider species. Tree species richness negatively influenced free-living spider richness. Lastly, level of site invasion by alien trees influenced overall and epigaeic spider assemblage structure, while the degree of rockiness also influenced epigaeic assemblages. Spider diversity was more influenced by patch scale variables than the landscape context. This is most likely related to spider mobility. This work supports the efforts of alien tree removal from remnant natural patches within the CFR. Preserving remnant patches of natural vegetation, of all sizes, in production landscapes, benefits spider diversity.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 270 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0396 - Re-thinking invasive alien plant control as a social process in a complex system: the case of the Blyde catchment

Reuben Thifhulufhelwi1,2, Jan Graf1, Charles Chikunda1 1Association for Water and Rural Development, Hoedspruit, South Africa, 2Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Invasive species are major drivers of global change, contributing to ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss worldwide. Degraded ecosystems also increase the vulnerability of people’s livelihoods to current and future global changes. Ecosystem restoration through Invasive Alien Plant (IAP) control is a key strategy in response to South Africa’s ongoing challenges on water security and biodiversity conservation. The Blyde catchment is renowned for its high biodiversity value and critical watersheds, both of which are threatened by IAP invasion, and has seen major restoration efforts through government “Working for” programmes, civil society and the private sector since the mid-1990s. These programmes have operated, and continue to do so, within a complex and dynamic social, organizational, institutional, and political context, with significant implications for natural resource management operations. This includes multiple agencies with overlapping and changing mandates (and inadequate capacities), a transitional institutional environment with regards to land-ownership and associated reform processes, as well as local socio-political dynamics and socio-economic realities. In this paper we demonstrate how Social Learning methodologies can be used in mediation and facilitation processes that strengthen practitioners’ capacity, agency and collective action in addressing the complexities faced in IAP control and related ecosystem restoration practices. The paper further highlights the need for a learning and reflexive operational system that allows for both horizontal and vertical learning within and amongst land managers, land users and land owners in order to enhance the sustainability and institutionalization of ecosystem restoration practices within the larger non-scientific community.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 271 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0313 - Katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) respond to habitat quality and not to the zones of a biosphere reserve

Aileen Thompson, Michael Samways, Corrina Bazelet Stellenbosch Univiersity, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa

Biodiversity hotspots are renowned for being areas of exceptional biodiversity facing high levels of threat and are often seen as the best areas for developing new approaches to conservation. The Cape Floristic Region covers only 4% of South Africa and yet is one of the most biodiverse areas in the world. The Man and the Biosphere Programme addresses some of the challenges facing global biodiversity by establishing biosphere reserves, which consist of three zones with sequential increases of permitted human activity and disturbance in each zone. However, little research has compared biodiversity of the zones and evaluated efficient ways to assess this biodiversity. New assessment approaches are required, with non-invasive acoustic monitoring being one possibility, especially using the highly vociferous katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae). Katydid song profiles were compiled across the three BR zones of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve over five months. Vegetation quality was also measured to allow for direct comparison between katydids and changing habitat quality. Only eight species were recorded over this period, with no changes in the mean species richness or abundances across the zones. Vegetation quality had a greater effect on abundance of species than on species richness, and the timing of sampling had a significant effect on measured richness and abundance. No individual katydid species can be identified as an indicator species, yet when considered as a whole assemblage, katydids were responsive to habitat quality. This lays the foundation upon which a sensitive and non-invasive tool for habitat assessment can be built.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 272 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0020 - Breeding ecology of the hooded vulture, Necrosyrtes monachus, in the Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa

Lindy Thompson1, Colleen Downs1, Andre Botha2, Keith Bildstein3, Campbell Murn4 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Scottsville, South Africa, 2Endangered Wildlife Trust, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, Acopian Center for Conservation Learning, Orwigsburg, USA, 4Hawk Conservancy Trust, Hampshire, UK

The hooded vulture, Necrosyrtes monachus (Temminck, 1823), has declined by >80% in the last 40 years and the species was recently reclassified as Critically Endangered. Although it is widespread throughout Africa, it was, until recently, relatively little studied. We investigated the breeding biology of hooded vultures in the Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Region, South Africa. Nests were located by ground searches along rivers in Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces, and infra-red camera traps were installed at active nests over two breeding seasons. We report on hooded vulture breeding behaviour and breeding success, and highlight visits to the nests by other species during the non-breeding season. Confirmed nest predators included a chacma baboon, Papio ursinus, and a martial eagle, Polemaetus bellicosus. These results will be included in a species management plan for dissemination to land managers and other stakeholders in the Kruger-to-Canyons Biosphere Region.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 273 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0327 - Messages from the other side: parasites receive damage cues from their host plants

Muvari Tjiurutue1,2, Phil Stevenson3, Lynn Adler4 1University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA, 2University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia, 3University of Greenwich, Kew, Richmond, UK, 4University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA

As sessile organisms, plants rely on their environment for cues indicating imminent herbivory. These cues can originate from tissues on the same plant or from different individuals. Since parasitic plants form vascular connections with their host, parasites have the potential to receive cues from hosts that allow them to adjust defences against future herbivory. However, the role of plant communication between hosts and parasites for herbivore defence remains poorly investigated. Here, we examined the effects of damage to lupine hosts (Lupinus texensis) on responses of the attached hemiparasite Castilleja indivisa, and indirectly, on a specialist herbivore of the parasite, buckeyes (Junonia coenia). Lupines produce alkaloids that act as defences against herbivores that can be taken up by the parasite. We found that damage to lupine hosts by beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua) significantly increased jasmonic acid (JA) levels in both the lupine host and parasite, suggesting an uptake of phytohormones or priming of parasite defences by using host cues. However, lupine host damage did not induce changes in alkaloid levels in the hosts or parasites. Interestingly, the parasite had higher concentrations of JA and alkaloids compared to lupine hosts. Buckeye herbivores consumed more parasite tissue when attached to damaged compared to undamaged hosts. We hypothesize that increased JA due to lupine host damage induced higher iridoid glycosides in the parasite, which are feeding stimulants for this specialist herbivore. Our results demonstrated that damage to hosts may affect both parasites and associated herbivores, indicating cascading effects of host damage on multiple trophic levels.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 274 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0332 - Built for business? Dung beetle morphology and time of flight

Claudia Tocco1, Marie Dacke2, Marcus Byrne1 1School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Department of Biology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden

More than 100 species of dung beetles (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) can co-occur at one dung pat. Given that these species are all in the same subfamily, some degree of resource partitioning is expected and most dung beetles do in fact have distinct activity periods during the course of the day or night. However, the morphological adaptations that different species have to allow them to perform in the same habitat, utilising the same food source, have not yet been investigated. In this research we used hourly pitfall trap samples to examine dung beetles from the same genus, which were active during daylight, dusk, and at night. Nocturnal dung beetles were found to have proportionately larger eyes with smooth corneas than the diurnal species, which had distinctly facetted, relatively smaller eyes. The crepuscular species had eyes of an intermediate relative size, with smooth corneas. These results suggest that the activity period of the beetles is reflected in their eye structure. In addition the wing allometry of the species was found to correspond with the visual challenges of flying under the different light conditions, with the species active in low light showing adaptations for slower, more precise flight suggesting that the species also tailor their morphology and consequently their flight behaviour to overcome the demands of food location in low light.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 275 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0422 - Resistance reaction of selected advanced bread wheat lines and cultivars to all four known biotypes of Russian wheat aphid in South Africa

Vicki L Tolmay1, Mardé Booyse2, Thandeka Sikhakhane1 1ARC-Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa, 2ARC-Biometry, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Russian wheat aphid (RWA) (Diuraphis noxia) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) is the most important pest of wheat in South Africa causing severe damage to crops in the summer rainfall production region annually. It is also the only wheat aphid with known and characterised biotypes which differ in their ability to damage cultivated wheat. This presentation reports on the results of seedling resistance screening of elite South African bread wheat lines and numerous old, as well as current cultivars using all four (RWASA1, RWASA2, RWASA3 and RWASA4) of the RWA biotypes present in South Africa. Test entries were planted in cones in a split-plot design experiment which included five control genotypes and three replicates per biotype. A standard 21-day seedling assay and 10-point damage rating scale were used after which data were analysed using ANOVA and a Fisher t test with LSD. Resistance to RWASA1 was most common, with a reasonable numbers of lines showing resistance to RWASA2. Resistance to RWASA3 and RWASA4 was limited. These data will be used to analyse genotypic data from the test entries to study the genetic control of Russian wheat aphid resistance.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 276 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0257 - Management strategies to control the Cape grapevine leafminer, Holocacista capensis (Lepidoptera: Heliozelidae), in South Africa

Leigh Torrance, Antoinette Malan, Pia Addison Stellenbosch University, Western Cape, South Africa

A native leafminer, Holocacista capensis Nieukerken & Geertsema (Lepidoptera: Heliozelidae), was detected in a table grape vineyard in the Western Cape province in January 2012. When conditions are ideal for leafminer development and berry bunches have not yet been harvested, it is often the case that the leafminers’ cocoons are found attached to berries. The moth is of quarantine importance as, in cases where infestation levels are high, cocoons can be attached to grape bunches that are intended for export. Since 2012, considerable effort has been exerted into gaining clarity on the moth’s taxonomy, on developing an attractant, establishing action thresholds associated with bunch infestation and on adult male moth abundance, and exploring the moths’ bioecology and distribution throughout the Western Cape. The aim of this study is to contribute to an integrated pest management strategy focused on the effective control of the leafminer. Firstly, an investigation of the environmental variables affecting leafminer abundance was carried out to predict potential leafminer outbreaks in various locations and under varying conditions in grapevine growing seasons to come. This was achieved by collecting the data associated with various cultivars and their trellising systems, and by comparing adult leafminer population abundances between individual blocks. Thereafter, various chemical and biological control agents were tested against the leafminer. Trials were conducted by exposing 20 to 30 leaf-mining larvae to various chemical products and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN). Larval mortality was recorded after 48 hours. The results indicate that certain chemicals and EPN species can control larval abundances effectively.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 277 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0239 - Disturbing resource hotspots: drought impacts on vegetation and insect communities around termite mounds

Matthew Trisos1, Monica Leitner2, Andrew Davies3, Catherine Parr4, Mike Picker1, Edmund February1 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 3Carnegie Institution for Science, Stanford, USA, 4University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK

Drought is a disturbance that can have substantial ecological impacts, yet the impact of drought on the savanna biome is poorly understood. Over the 2014/15 and 2015/16 growing seasons southern Africa experienced an El Niño Southern Oscillation-induced drought. During the 2015/16 growing season the Kruger National Park experienced the worst drought since 1991/92. By examining the spatial and temporal changes in vegetation, ant, and grasshopper communities of termite mounds, we ask whether these naturally occurring resource hotspots act as drought refugia for both primary producer and primary consumer trophic levels in the semi-arid KNP. In 2012 we sampled both the vegetation and insect communities on termite mounds relative to a paired savanna matrix site. We repeated this sampling in 2016 and compared the two datasets using taxonomic and functional trait analyses. The sampled termite mounds were split between a relatively higher rainfall site at Pretoriuskop and a lower rainfall site near Skukuza. The drought and mammalian herbivory significantly reduced grass biomass especially on the termite mounds where grass is more palatable with a lower carbon to nitrogen ratio. The grasshopper community collapsed yet the ant community demonstrated remarkable resilience. Findings suggest that mean annual rainfall determines the mechanism for drought resilience, with different strategies used for the higher versus the lower rainfall sites.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 278 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0342 - A review of odyssean malaria outbreaks in South Africa 2014-2017

Power Tshikae1, Basil Brooke1,2, Givemore Munhenga1,2, Lucille Blumberg1, Kerrigan McCarthy3, John Frean1,2 1Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic & Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Disease, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 3Outbreak Response Unit, Division of Public Health Surveillance and Response, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa

Three provinces in South Africa - Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal - are endemic for malaria. In addition, non-endemic provinces receive imported malaria cases as well as an unusual category called “odyssean malaria”, caused by the inadvertent importation of infective mosquitoes. Odyssean malaria outbreaks have been formally recorded since 1996, with high case fatality rates. This study reviews odyssean malaria outbreaks in South Africa between 2014 and 2017.Malaria is a notifiable disease, and case investigation includes the likely geographic source of acquisition. Cases without a history of travel to malaria transmission areas are reported to the NICD. An outbreak response team then undertakes a site inspection and investigation, including the examination of potential breeding sites for Anopheles mosquitoes. Proximity to major highways, airports and presence of travellers from known malaria transmission areas is also determined. During the period under review, 42 cases were investigated. The case fatality rate was 17%. Plasmodium falciparum was responsible for all cases. Epidemiological and entomological investigations showed no history of recent travel to malaria regions, blood transfusion or needle- stick injury. No malaria vectors were found. All the patients likely acquired malaria from bites of infective Anopheles mosquitoes transported from malaria-endemic areas. Key contributing factors include proximity to highways, railways, bus/taxi stations, airports and migrant worker camps. Absence of a travel history generally resulted in failure to consider malaria as a cause of illness, resulting in delays in diagnosis and treatment. Malaria should be considered in patients with unexplained acute febrile illness and progressive disease even in non-travellers.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 279 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0171 - Integrated taxonomy of the endemic Karoo agile grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Euryphyminae)

Precious Tshililo Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Although grasshoppers of the Karoo have rarely been surveyed, agile grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae: Euryphyminae), a southern African endemic subfamily, seem to be arid region specialists and are expected to be abundant and have high levels of endemism in the Karoo in comparison with other insect taxa. Existing taxonomic keys are insufficient for differentiating between species morphologically due to high levels of intraspecific and low levels of interspecific variation. Here we address gaps in agile grasshopper taxonomy by completing a taxonomic review of the South African genera of Euryphyminae and then focusing on one problematic genus in order to quantify the levels of inter- and intraspecific variation in this endemic and under-studied subfamily. In the taxonomic review, we first collate all available information from museum and field-collected specimens and publications in order to review our current state of knowledge and apparent gaps. Our preliminary findings show that South Africa is home to 48 described species in 16 genera or 55% of all described Euryphyminae species in the world. These genera can be diagnosed using morphological characters, particularly the male cercus and shape of the pronotum. However, one genus, Euryphymus, has only four described species in South Africa but field collections have identified 15 morphospecies. We hypothesize that the species’ arid environment has sparked extensive local adaptation and that comparison of morphological and mitochondrial variation will shed light on evolutionary and ecological processes acting on this unique subfamily as a whole.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 280 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0275 - To fledge or not to fledge? Hot days limit hornbill reproductive success

Tanja MFN van de Ven1, Susan J Cunningham1, Andrew E McKechnie2 1DST-NRF Centre of Excellence at the FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence at the FitzPatrick Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Southern yellow-billed hornbills (Tockus leucomelas Lichtenstein, 1842) in the southern Kalahari breed during summer when high air temperature could impact reproductive success, especially under ongoing climate change. Sealed within the nest cavity, the female and chicks are safe from predators, therefore fledging success depends largely on chick growth rates. Chick growth depends on provisioning rates and nest temperature, themselves affected by air temperature. We assessed how high air temperature affects chick growth rate and the consequent impacts on fledging success. High daily maximum air temperatures during the nesting period had a negative effect on chick development. This resulted in high chick mortality in the nest, slow chick growth and chicks fledging smaller. The probability of a successful nest was less than 50 % if the mean of daily maximum air temperatures during the period from hatching to fledging exceeded 35 °C. The number of hot days per year has increased in the southern Kalahari over the past two decades. Of the 50 nesting attempts recorded during three breeding seasons, only 42 % were successful. Our findings suggest that, if the current trend of increase in the frequency and intensity of hot days continues, southern yellow-billed hornbill reproductive success will be negatively affected and could place the population in this part of the Kalahari at risk of local extinction.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 281 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0136 - Soil biota as bioindicators of erosion levels and fire disturbances in afromontane grassland areas within the Golden Gate Highlands National Park

Sylvia Van der Merwe1, Vaughn Swart1, Emile Bredenhand2, Charles Haddad1 1University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa, 2University of the Free State, Phutaditjaba, Free State, South Africa

In recent years, ecologists have debated the use of biodiversity, biological richness, and animal and plant abundance as a collective measure of environmental health. Soils are generally essential sources of a large variety of ecosystem services. However, soil is one of the most poorly studied habitats of terrestrial ecosystems. Grassland areas, particularly highland grasslands, have been shown to be amongst the most threatened vegetation types in southern Africa and have been assigned a high priority label for conservation action. Due to grazing as well as environmental shifts, however, erosion in such areas can lead to large problems that often need rehabilitation to be implemented in order to combat any further deterioration. Voluntary fires are known to increase plant growth within arid regions. However, effects of voluntary annual fires on the soil quality within protected areas are still undefined. To date, bioindicators have been used as an indication of environmental health in order to identify the effects of environmental changes on the ecosystem. Seeing that bioindication ultimately aims at the formation of inferences about the quality of the environment at the investigated site, the identification and analysis of bioindicators within protected areas play an integral role in determining effective conservation steps in affected sites. The study aims to establish relevant soil bioindicators within different areas of the Golden Gate Highlands National Park study site and how these biological indicators are affected by changes in soil environments. This could be useful in identifying areas under stress or undergoing potential soil deterioration.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 282 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0052 - Hermetia illucens sausages as human food

Elsje Pieterse, Leah Bessa, L.C. Hoffman, G. Sigge, Liezl van Emmenes Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly / BSF) has been proven to be an excellent animal feed, high in energy and protein, with a amino acid profile closely representing the ideal amino acid profile of many domesticated species as well as humans. BSF larvae were grown on a formulated feed consisting of maize, soya, sunflower oil, vitamins and minerals. Larvae were harvested at19 days of age, purged for three hours and subjected to various processing methods in order to determine their suitability for sausage production. Results showed that blanching was required in order to prevent enzymatic blackening, which occurred within five minutes of death in unblanched specimens. Blanched larvae were subsequenlty tested as a meat replacer in different recipes for making cooked sausages. All prepared sausages were compared to a traditional pork sausage. Recipes contained different levels of soya and BSF and significant differences were observed for moisture, ash, fat, protein, hardness, gumminess, cohesion and springiness. The sausages containing 9% soya and 28% BSF compared best to pork sausages in terms of protein content, texture and sensory characteristics. Microbiological tests showed that all products were safe for human consumption. The results show that insects can be used as a meat replacer in sausages but further research is needed in order to develop processing methods.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 283 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0019 - Assessing species richness of one of Africa’s most diverse insect families (Ichneumonidae, Hymenoptera)

Simon van Noort1,5, Gavin R. Broad2, Pascal Rousse3, Ilari Sääksjärvi4 1Department of Natural History, Iziko South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Department of Life Sciences, the Natural History Museum, London, UK, 3Laboratoire de la Santé des Végétaux, Angers, France, 4Zoological Museum, Biodiversity Unit, Turku, Finland, 5Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

The Ichneumonidae are potentially the most diverse family of animals on the earth with an estimated 100 000 species, of which only 25% have been described. Approximately 2 000 species and 340 genera have been described from the Afrotropical region (Africa south of the Sahara including Madagascar), but there are likely to be more than 10 000 species in the region. As parasitoids of a wide range of insects and arachnids, ichneumonid wasps play a critical ecological role in African ecosystems and have vast potential to be used in biocontrol programmes, yet we know very little about their species richness or their biology. The Afrotropical Hymenoptera Initiative (AHI) is addressing this fundamental gap in our knowledge with taxonomic and biological data, including production of user-friendly identification keys, mobilised via WaspWeb (www.waspweb. org). We assess the current status quo of African ichneumonid knowledge and the challenges we face in the race to document their diversity in the context of increasing habitat degradation and transformation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 284 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0308 - Impaired reproductive performance of female Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium s. simum) in captive environments

Martin van Rooyen, Catherina van Zijl, Natalie Aneck-Hahn, Robert (Bob) Millar University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Captive breeding programmes with the intent of reintroduction may prove critical to the survival of certain species. One such species may be the Southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium s. simum), as poaching threatens their survival in the wild. Therefore, captive breeding of this species functions as a safety net and genetic reservoir. However, captive populations are not self-sustaining. This is due to captive bred females having a lowered reproductive performance. Phytoestrogens have been hypothesised to contribute to this reproductive impairment. Thus, we aimed to quantify the estrogenic activity of the natural and captive diet. Reporter gene assays indicated lower estrogenic activity in the natural diet. We also compared the reproductive performance of wild Southern white rhinoceros females to those in captive environments. Results indicate a delayed age of first reproduction of captive females and although having a shorter average inter-calving interval, captive females reproduce fewer calves over time. This is due to intermittent long inter-calving intervals and early reproductive senescence. Semi-captive management of rhinoceros in Southern Africa has increased with poaching. The long life history of the of Southern white rhinoceros necessitates longer term studies to determine the effects of semi-captive management on the reproductive performance of females.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 285 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0085 - Genetic information at different spatial scales: Southern Ocean islands as study sites

Bettine van Vuuren Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

The importance of understanding and recognizing patterns at different spatial scales is often overlooked in molecular ecological studies, yet when interpreted in concert provides crucial information to understand how individuals move and disperse within their habitat matrix (landscape genetics). At first, genetic patterns across spatial scales (at the scale of the region, the island, and the population) might seem contradictory (such as e.g., a random genetic structure at the scale of the island, yet a neighbourhood / population size of less than 10 metres as was found in Azorella selago). Using genetic information derived for Azorella and various springtail and mite species, I will examine these apparent conflicting genetic signals (derived from both sequence and microsatellite data). At large spatial scales, understanding evolutionary patterns in terrestrial species is often confounded by inaccurate taxonomies, and driven largely by the ability of organisms to disperse within a largely inhospitable matrix. At intermediate spatial scales (i.e., the scale of the island), the history of the islands is important as are factors such as island orientation with regards to prevailing winds / weather patterns or geomorphological features defining the landscape matrix. At small spatial scales, biotic and abiotic factors determine the genetic neighbourhood size, and dispersal within this neighbourhood. I conclude that a full understanding of the interplay between patterns of dispersal and connectivity across spatial scales is crucial to optimal conservation planning. Identifying priority areas for conservation is essential, and under the current variable climate, these areas act as microrefugia for survival.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 286 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0371 - The amphibious invader: Water hyacinth’s physiological strategy to survive stranding and drought events

Nic Venter, Blair Cowie, Ed Witkowski, Gavin Snow, Marcus Byrne Wits University, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Eichhornia crassipes (water hyacinth) mainly occurs as free-floating aquatic plants, but can survive decreasing water levels when rooted in soil. This adaptation to seasonal fluctuations in water level may contribute to its invasive potential, where stranded plants can settle and take root. To understand how water hyacinth plants rooted in saturated soil grow compared to floating plants, we conducted a 33-day growth experiment in a well fertilised outdoor pond. Following that, assuming no further inflow into the system, we investigated the effect of water stress on plants rooted in soil by conducting a progressive simulated drought. Additionally, we investigated simultaneously the effect of nutrient depletion on both the floating and rooted plants in saturated soil. Plant physiological parameters were measured on the three treatments. Water- stressed plants were re-watered after 37 and 44 days to assess mortality at two different drought intensities. Floating plants produced a larger total leaf area compared to saturated soil plants, but both treatments developed a similar number of leaves and ramets. Progressive drought reduced photosynthesis, but rates nevertheless remained relatively high, and only after prolonged drought at 6% soil water content did photosynthesis cease, which was attributed to both stomatal and metabolic limitations. Nutrient stress reduced photosynthesis in floating plants, and to a lesser extent in rooted plants, which was solely attributed to metabolic limitations caused by decreased chlorophyll content. Stranded water hyacinth exhibited a drought avoidance strategy, a trait which may contribute to their ability to invade variable aquatic environments.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 287 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0080 - New alien pests in South Africa: how did they get here and can new incursions be prevented?

Jan Hendrik Venter Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

New plant pests enter South Africa frequently and through different means. An increase of trade and traveling to South Africa may result in new plant pest incursions as they enter through commodities imported. Other pests have entered the African continent elsewhere and simply dispersed or migrated to South Africa. Bactrocera dorsalis was detected in Kenya in 2003 and reported in South Africa in 2010. The invasive lepidopteran pest Tuta absoluta was detected in Morocco in 2008 and in 2016 in South Africa, while Spodoptera frugiperda was first detected in January 2016 in Nigeria and in January 2017 in South Africa. Many serious pests which are found on the continent as far south as Tanzania, but not yet in South Africa, including Diaphorina citri, a vector for the Asian strain of Citrus Greening, and Frankliniella williamsi, a vector for maize chlorotic mottle virus and serious fruit fly pests such as Bactrocera zonata, B. latifrons and Zeugodacus cucurbitae. The Agricultural Pests Act, 1983 (Act No.36 of 1983) and its regulations, the Plant Health Policy and the South African Emergency Plant Pest Response Plan aim to prevent the introduction of plant pests and to ensure early warning systems, but this is mainly aimed and developed at taking trade and travel into consideration and not natural dispersal.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 288 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0438 - Thermal imaging and feeding damage of the biological control agent, Cornops aquaticum, on water hyacinth

Giuseppe Venturi1, Frances Duncan 1 and Marcus James Byrne1 1School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa. [email protected]

Cornops aquaticum is potentially a highly damaging biological control agent on water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, despite the problems with its establishment. However, for exothermic organisms, the role of environmental temperature is a fundamental mediator of the interaction between the alien invasive weed and its natural enemy. This is crucial to the understanding of the control of the alien invasive plant. Leaf surface area removal of C. aquaticum, compared to an undamaged control, was recorded on the 3rd, 4th and 5th leaves over a five day period (15 °C, 25 °C, 35 °C; 1:1 grasshopper : plant). Grasshopper body mass changes were also measured at the different temperatures. Using a thermal camera (FLIR E-60), water hyacinth canopy temperature was monitored over a 24 hour period. Total leaf surface area was only significantly smaller at the 25 °C between control plant and plants that were fed on (t = 2.32df = 46; p = 0.024). Cornops aquaticum showed mass loss at 15 °C and only significantly gained mass at 35 °C. Temperature ranges on the leaves and petiole were 11 °C to 32 °C and 16 °C to 30 °C, respectively. Cornops aquaticum showed changes in body positioning over the course of the day with substantial time spent basking. Earlier instars began basking earlier and for longer, generally on top of the leaves, showing little predator avoidance while adults spent more time clasped to the petioles.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 289 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0014 - Evolution of the South African Bathyergidae: patterns and processes

Jacobus Visser University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Understanding the evolution of life on Earth is to understand the dynamic distribution of genes in space and time. The genetic structure, adaptation and speciation of taxa is linked to their spatio- temporal distribution. As such, biotic factors (life-history, ecology and vagility) along with abiotic factors (historical climate and geological change) are instrumental in determining how genetic variation is distributed. South Africa is a megadiverse country in relation to biodiversity, but also in geological and climatic change. In concert, these have influenced species integrities and genetic isolation among various unrelated taxa occupying a suite of niches. Among these niches, the subterranean environment is of particular interest as it plays host to a variety of specialized animals. As a result of this specialization, subterranean animals exhibit high habitat fidelity and low vagility. In particular, the endemic African mole-rats (Bathyergidae) are small subterranean rodents that have largely been neglected in genetic investigations. Given their sessile nature, the distributions of species within this group have been influenced by both geological events (uplift, drainage evolution and erosion) and climate change (rainfall differences and sea-level fluctuations). The South African endemic bathyergids are therefore good models to investigate the interplay between biotic and abiotic factors in driving speciation and differentiation due to their intimate link with landscape structure. To this end, speciation in the mole-rat genera Bathyergus, Georychus and Cryptomys were investigated across their South African ranges, revealing several species complexes divided by major geographic barriers. These will be discussed in detail.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 290 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0082 - Invasions by Tuta absoluta and Spodoptera frugiperda: what is the threat to vegetable production in South Africa?

Diedrich Visser Agricultural Research Council-Vegetable and Ornamental Plants Institute, Roodeplaat, Pretoria, South Africa

Two invasive pests, the tomato leafminer, Tuta absoluta, and the fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda, were detected in South Africa for the first time in 2016.Tuta absoluta is a serious pest of tomato, and the fall armyworm a serious pest of maize. However, both these pests are known to attack several other vegetable crops as well. The uncertainty accompanying these two invasions is their unknown pest status on alternative crops. Most reports from abroad only indicate that certain vegetables are hosts, without indicating the potential threat that farmers may face. Tuta absoluta leaf miners were found to occur in low numbers in potato fields, but the potential for them to move to tubers is currently not certain. The fall armyworm was reported to attack stems and tubers of potatoes on one farm in Mpumalanga, but the damage was limited and a possible reason for the incidence was the emergence of volunteer maize plants within the potato field. Other important vegetable crops listed as host plants for T. absoluta include capsicum peppers, eggplant and Cape gooseberry; and for the fall armyworm tomato, brassicas, cucurbits, spinach, cowpea and other legumes. Our initial observations indicated that the fall armyworm did not attack most of the listed alternative crops although they were in close proximity of a severely affected maize field. More research is needed to elucidate the status of T. absoluta and S. frugiperda as important pests of vegetable crops, and under which conditions infestations and crop losses may be expected.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 291 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0087 - The StopRats project: The next step in delivering ecologically-based rodent management in Africa.

E.F. von Maltitz1, P.R. Brown2, S.J. Eiseb3, S.M. Goodman4, S.A. Kamara5, J.F. Kirsten1, H. Leirs6, T. Mahlaba7, R.H. Makundi8, P.S. Malebana1, A.W. Massawe8, A. Monadjem7, L.S. Mulungu8, G.R. Singleton9, V.L. Soarimalala4, L. Swanepoel10, P.J. Taylor10, S.R. Belmain11 1ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa, 2CSIRO Ecosystem Sciences, Canberra, Australia, 3University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia, 4Association Vahatra, Antananarivo, Madagascar, 5Concern Worldwide, Freetown, Sierra Leone, 6University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, 7University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland, 8Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania, 9International Rice Research Institute, Metro Manila, The Philippines, 10University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa, 11Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham Maritime, UK

The StopRats project (Sustainable Technologies to Overcome Pest Rodents in Africa Through Science) was funded by the European Union to bring together African rodent experts to strengthen science, technology and innovation on ecologically-based rodent management as a key enabler for poverty reduction, growth and socio-economic development. StopRats aimed to link researchers across Africa and Madagascar and to develop their wider networks with civil society organisations, businesses and policy makers in order to evaluate relevant national/regional policies on rodent management, build capacity in staff and institutions, and increase awareness about rodents, the problems they cause and their ecologically-based management. Research and demonstration activities on the predatory impacts of small carnivores, the use of trapping and trap barrier systems to reduce rodent numbers and hermetic storage to manage post-harvest losses from rodents were evaluated. Based on training models used in Madagascar, regional field biology schools were established in West, East and southern Africa to increase skills of post-graduate students and early career researchers in order to inspire a new generation of rodent experts. StopRats research to document rodent management practices in the target countries of Namibia, Madagascar, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Swaziland and Tanzania will be presented.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 292 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0040 - Assessment of the socio-economic impacts of Eichhornia crassipes (Mart- Solms) Laubach. (water hyacinth) in the Wouri Basin (Douala-Cameroon) and management options

Sonia Nadege Kenfack Voukeng1, Philip Weyl2, Martin Hill1, Napoleon Chi Forpah3 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2CABI, Rue des Grillons 1, 2800 Delemont, Switzerland, 3Watershed Task Group, Douala, Littoral, Cameroon

Water hyacinth was first recorded in Cameroon in 1990 and has invaded almost all the waterways of the Wouri Basin. A socio-economic survey of the infested areas through questionnaires was undertaken to assess the impact of water hyacinth on the life of riparian communities. From the 100 questionnaires recorded, the results showed that water hyacinth has an impact on the fishing, transportation and to a lesser extent sand extraction activities, which have reduced by 60%, 70 % and 20%, respectively. There was a significant decline in the income of fishermen (p=0.007), transport (0.01) since the beginning of the infestation, while no significant difference was found in the income from sand extraction (p=0.8). According to the respondents, some plants (Ageratum conyzoides, Cassia alata), crustaceans (prawn, crayfish) and fishes (Tilapia, Malay) decreased due to a reduction in light and oxygen in the river. The main diseases regularly encountered in infested areas were malaria (98%), typhoid (68%), and filariasis (27%), with the highest number of patients represented by children (52%), women (28%), and men (20%). Although manual removal remains the only effective means riparian communities, with the help of NGOs, have to manage the weed; the presence of the biological control agents Neochetina eichhorniae and Neochetina bruchi may contribute to the management of water hyacinth in the Wouri Basin.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 293 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0061 - Novel natural enemy encounters of an invasive forest insect pest

M. Wondafrash Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

In 1942, a weevil likely of North American origin was detected in South Africa and has since spread throughout the country. Previously misidentified as Pissodes nemorensis, this species causes feeding damage on Pinus trees and may play a role in disease transmission. The native South African pteromalid wasp, Pycnetron pix, was recently described from South Africa as a parasitoid of this weevil. Here we report on a study of the prevalence of this novel association between P. pix and Pissodes sp. and the identities and prevalence of other natural enemies. Parasitoids reared from logs collected across three major Pinus growing provinces were identified using morphological and molecular tools. Consumption of Pissodes tissue was confirmed by analysing COI sequences from the gut content of parasitoids. Pycnetron pix was found in all the three provinces. Another native parasitoid, Cratocnema sp., was detected for the first time parasitizing Pissodes sp. In addition, we identified Rhopalicus tutela, a known parasitoid of Pissodes spp. from the Holarctic region. Interestingly, the R. tutela in South Africa is confirmed to be of European origin. This system thus represents a case of three novel associations between an introduced insect, an introduced natural enemy and an introduced host from three different continents, with no prior history of co-evolution. The prevalence of all these parasitoids was very low despite the widespread abundance of Pissodes larvae in the plantation environment, possibly indicating unfavorable environmental conditions for these parasitoids, or that Pissodes is a sub- optimal host.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 294 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0100 - The spatial genetic structure in the eastern rock elephant shrew, inferred from mitochondrial and nuclear data

Heather Webster1, Sasha Hoffmann2, Peter Teske1, Heike Lutermann2, Bettine van Vuuren1 1Centre for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Various biotic and abiotic factors shape spatial genetic patterns. Specifically, habitat requirement, the patchiness of the habitat matrix, and dispersal ability will work in concert to create the spatial patterns that we see today. Here we use the eastern rock elephant shrew, Elephantulus myurus, as a model species. This is a rocky outcrop specialist with limited dispersal, further restricted by a fragmented landscape. We used mitochondrial DNA sequences and 14 microsatellite markers to document genetic diversity across the South African range. Our results clearly detect signatures of ancestral colonization along the Great Escarpment, with a shared mitochondrial haplotype detected in geographically distant localities that were subsequently colonized. There is evidence for limited contemporary connectivity, with many localities having unique haplotypes and alleles. We conclude that eastern rock elephant shrews colonized their current range using the Great Escarpment as a corridor; however, the populations, particularly in the newly colonized areas, then became largely isolated.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 295 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0328 - Evaluation of four Brassicaceae crops in terms of insect attraction and nematode bio-fumigant potential in the North-West province

William Weeks1, Hendriena Fourie1,2 1Agricultural Support Services, Research & Technology Development; Department of Rural, Environment and Agricultural Development, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North- West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

The presence of plant-parasitic nematode infestations on agricultural land in the North-West province is an officially recognised threat to crop production. Bio-fumigation through incorporation of Raphanus sativus (Brassicaceae) is actively promoted within commercial agricultural systems. Dual purpose trials to evaluate bio-fumigation potential, host preference by oligophagous insect pests and associated parasitoids were established in the Dr Ruth Segomotsi Mompati District of the province, at Dithakwaneng (plant-parasitic nematode infestation present) and Taung (healthy nematode population). Four crops, viz. R. sativus, Brassica oleracea var. capitata, B. oleracea var. acephala and B. juncea were established as bio-fumigation treatments, along with the unrelated Beta vulgaris (Chenopodiaceae) as control treatment, for nematode sampling within a 5 x 5 Latin square trial layout. Above-ground sampling for insect herbivores and related parasitoids was omitted from the B. vulgaris treatment, and data analysis was done for a 4 x 5 randomised complete block design. Repeated sampling was done for summer and winter cycles at both localities. Additional B. vulgaris trap-crop establishment on all plots (all sub-plots included), for a 3-week period only, followed incorporation of bio-fumigation crops on fumigation sub-plots and removal of all crops from sampling sub-plots at the end of each planting cycle. This was done to determine plant-parasitic nematode activity following each planting/ bio- fumigation cycle. Preliminary temporal and geographically comparative data on Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) and undalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) infestations, where a shift in infestation dominance was observed, were determined for four planting cycles that were completed during 2015 and 2016. Observations on the impact of repeated bio-fumigation treatments on plant-parasitic and free-living nematode populations will also be presented.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 296 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0201 - Thermal preference of male Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae) reflects higher sexual performance at warmer temperatures

Christopher Weldon1, John Terblanche2, Steven Chown3 1University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa, 2Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 3Monash University, Victoria, Australia

Females and males have divergent strategies of energy investment that correspond with different life strategies. In consequence, differing modes of reproductive investment between the sexes in insects may be reflected by the thermal preference of each sex because metabolic energy production is dependent on temperature. The critical role of energy in male reproductive success is evident in male Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), where securing mates depends on stored lipid and sugar reserves. Using thermal gradient assays, we found that male C. capitata preferred a temperature of 23.8±0.3˚C but females preferred 22.1±0.3˚C, and these preferences were significantly different. To explain this result, we tested a range of non- mutually exclusive potential explanations related to the energetic demands of sexual activity and reproductive output over the temperature range of 18-28˚C. The frequency, total duration and mean length of calling bouts by male C. capitata were optimal at 26˚C. Mating propensity, mating latency and mean copula duration were optimised over the range of 22-28˚C, but when mating occurred, temperature had no effect on the incidence of sperm storage or the number of sperm stored by females. Female longevity and reproductive effort showed a temperature-dependent trade-off: longevity was highest at 18˚C but lifetime egg production was optimal at 26˚C, and vice versa. These results illustrate that there are differences in the reproductive fitness of the sexes in C. capitata at different temperatures, although the optima of measured traits do not align well with the thermal preference of each sex.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 297 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0073 - Kalahari aardvarks on the edge: drought-induced resource deficiency may compromise aardvark survival under climate change

Nora M. Weyer1, Robyn S. Hetem1, Mike D. Picker2, Andrea Fuller1 1Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Aardvarks (Orycteropus afer Pallas, 1766) are keystone African mammals, with multiple species dependent on their burrows as shelter, including from temperature extremes. Thermal refuges may buffer impacts of climate change for these commensal species, yet the aardvark itself may be compromised: a recent summer drought in the Kalahari resulted in high aardvark mortality. For two years we studied vegetation productivity, prey availability, diet, body condition, body temperature (Tb ­) , and activity patterns of free-living aardvarks in the Kalahari. Termites were the principal prey item, comprising ~75 % of the diet and providing ~90 % of dietary energy and water. Termite abundance was linked directly to grass availability, which was dictated by rainfall. Under non-drought conditions, aardvarks met their energetic needs, tightly controlled their 24-h

Tb ­ rhythm (36-37 °C) and were active nocturnally. A drought-induced vegetation decline likely caused local termite population crashes. Concomitantly we recorded a marked deterioration of aardvark body condition and a shift to diurnal activity, including midday foraging and basking.

Nutritionally-stressed aardvarks exhibited high 24-h Tb­ variability around a mean of ~35 °C, with

24-h minimum Tb­ as low as 26 °C. Drought-induced vegetation decline as previously associated with termite population crashes likely will occur more frequently under climate change in Africa, and threaten the survival of aardvarks and the many species dependent on aardvark burrows for refuge. Measurements of Tb­, body condition and activity patterns provided direct indicators of physiological well-being of aardvarks and, combined with vegetation indices reflecting resource availability, could predict future aardvark survival.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 298 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0025 - The temporal occurrence of flesh flies (Diptera, Sarcophagidae) at carrion-baited traps in Grahamstown, South Africa

Martin Villet2, Crystal Clitheroe2, Kirstin Williams1,2 1Durban Natural Science Museum, Durban, South Africa, 2Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Insects attending a corpse are reputed to assist forensic entomologists in estimating the time of year when the person died. Some flesh flies are used to estimate time since death but not much research has been done on them in South Africa. Eleven species of flesh fly were identified in a sample of 737 specimens captured during fortnightly trapping at three sites in Grahamstown, South Africa, over a year. Sarcophaga africa Wiedemann, 1824, S.inaequalis Austen, 1909, S. exuberans Pandellé, 1896 and S. tibialis Macquart, 1851 showed well-defined peaks between early October 2001 and late April 2002, and only S. africa was trapped at other times of year. These peaks occurred when average minimum and maximum ambient air temperatures were above 12°C and 22°C, respectively, and showed no obvious relationship to rainfall. There were indications of population cycles in all of these species. Sarcophaga hera Zumpt, 1972, S. arno Curran, 1934, S. inzi Curran, 1934, S. langi Curran, 1934, S. freyi Zumpt, 1953, S. nodosa Engel, 1925 and S. samia Curran, 1934 were too scarce to assess their patterns of occurrence rigorously. Insect activity at a corpse depends on the weather, so that presence of a species indicates particular environmental conditions and not simply calendar dates (particularly if climate changes). Absence of a species is not necessarily evidence of specific conditions because species may not be present at all sites simultaneously, populations cycle even when their members are active, and low population densities may hamper detection of a species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 299 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0388 - Conservation genetics: vultures in crisis

Sandi Willows-Munro University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Six of Africa’s eleven vulture species are facing extinction. Vulture declines are the result of anthropogenic factors such as poisonings, poaching and electrocutions on power lines. Dwindling vulture populations are of conservation concern. One of the main challenges facing vulture conservation is effectively managing species that are sparsely distributed over large geographic regions. Most vulture species range over extensive areas and across multiple political boundaries. Genetic diversity generally underpins population resilience and persistence. Reductions in population size and the absence of gene flow can lead to a drop in genetic diversity, reproductive fitness, and ability to adapt to climate change, increasing the risk of extinction. In this talk I will review available tools for analyzing genetic diversity in African vultures. In particular, a suite of 16 microsatellite markers previously designed for European populations of Gyps fulvus and Gypaetus barbatus are screened for cross-amplification in South African vulture species. These loci were also tested for forensic application, with amplification success tested across a range of tissue types, including archival tissue, feathers, blood, and muscle.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 300 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0059 - Invasion in Mpumalanga’s grassland corridors

Georgina Wilson, Mark Robertson Centre for Invasion Biology, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Corridors created by remnants of natural vegetation have the potential to form vital ecological connections in fragmented landscapes. It is widely agreed that fragments connected by corridors of suitable habitat have much greater value than isolated fragments, as they allow for important processes, such as dispersal, to take place. Invasive alien plants have the potential to invade these corridors and reduce their effectiveness at maintaining connectivity in the landscape; this would decrease their conservation value. This study aimed to: 1) investigate potential threats to corridors in the Mpumalanga grassland, and 2) assess corridor condition. The Mpumalanga Parks and Tourism Agency has mapped the corridors in the province. We used digital aerial photography to investigate the potential threat that invasive alien trees pose to these corridors. Vegetation surveys within selected grassland corridors were used to assess their condition. Preliminary results show that although the corridors are not highly invaded, they are often threatened by invasive tree species that occur in the surrounding landscape. Observations also showed that roadsides often contained many invasive species and, when adjacent to corridors, could be a source of propagules. The knowledge gained on corridor quality and potential threats to corridors in the landscape will inform invasive species management actions and provide information on the value of corridors for conservation plans.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 301 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0234 - The determination of nutrient requirements and development of artificial diets for the mass rearing of insects of economic importance

Michael Woods, Elsje Pieterse University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

The mass production of various insect species for biocontrol methods and as feed and food is becoming common practice, and several different rearing facilities have been established across the world. The success of these systems, as well as the costs involved, can largely be contributed to the nutrition of the insects. Thaumatotibia leucotreta (false codling moth) (FCM) and Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly) (BSF) are species currently being mass-reared and are of economic importance. Different techniques were used to establish the nutrient composition of novel diets for the mass rearing of these species. These techniques included the comparative slaughter technique based on the body composition of the larvae, nutrient composition of the natural feed of the insects and using the minimum value for each nutrient from published diets to serve as experimental nutrient specifications. For FCM it was concluded that the minimum nutrient specifications of published diets resembled its nutrient needs. Diets (D1 and D2) formulated according to the minimum specifications using novel raw materials produced more larvae (D1 = 911 ± 40 and D2 = 830 ± 40) than the current industry diet (428 ± 40). A BSF nursery diet was formulated based on the amino acid composition of the larvae using the comparative slaughter technique. The diet increased survivability by 25% compared to current industry procedures. Positive results were obtained for both species, and, when meeting certain nutrient requirements, led to an increase in productivity.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 302 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0451 - Knockout: the exceptional success achieved with the biological control of boxing glove cactus (Cylindropuntia fulgida var. mamillata) using a new cochineal biotype of Dactylopius tomentosus

Travor Xivuri, Helmuth Zimmermann SANBI, Invasive Species Programme, Cape Town, South Africa

Cylindropuntia fulgida var. mamillata, also known as the boxing glove cactus, is a garden escape which invaded large areas in the Northern Cape, Western Cape and Limpopo provinces. It is native to the south-western USA and north-western Mexico. A new biotype of the cochineal, Dactylopius tomentosus, which is associated with chollas (Cylindropuntia spp.) in the Americas, was collected from a closely related cactus, Cylindropuntia cholla, in Baja California, Mexico which was then introduced into quarantine in South Africa for host-specificity studies. This cochineal is highly host-specific and was subsequently released on both varieties of C. fulgida. The results are spectacular and invasions are usually brought under biological control within three years. This success could be the result of a new association effect which is based on the avoidance of evolved interspecific homeostasis typical of old associations. The project is illustrated in the short film titled Knockout.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 303 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

Poster abstracts

2017

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 304 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0282 - Description of eleven new species and redescription of a single species in the genus Macroderes Westwood, 1842 (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae, Scarabaeinae) from South Africa

Ishtiag Abdalla, Christian Deschodt, Clarke Scholtz, Catherine Sole University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The genus Macroderes is a flightless genus belonging to the tribe Ateuchini. The genus comprises 15 species characterised by a convex black body and ranging from small to medium-sized (8- 15mm). Its distribution is confined to the south-western part of South Africa, particularly between the Richtersveld in the north and Cape Agulhas in the south. Most Macroderes species occur in the winter-rainfall regions with the exception of M. bias, which occurs further to the east up to Uniondale. The species are associated with dense vegetation and shrub-lands, tunnelling into different soil types that vary from loamy to soft sand. In the most recent revision six new species were described and the neotype of Macroderes bias was assigned. Furthermore, two new synonyms were established: Macroderes pilula as a junior synonym of Macroderes bias and Macroderes westwoodi as a junior synonym of Macroderes undulatus. In this study we describe eleven new species, representing more than one third of the currently known taxa. The new species are: Macroderes cavatus sp. n., Macroderes cederbergensis sp. n., Macroderes tortuosus sp. n., Macroderes gifboomi sp. n., Macroderes leipoldti sp. n., Macroderes monsus sp. n., Macroderes oreatus sp. n., Macroderes ovatus sp. n., Macroderes porselinus sp. n., Macroderes roetsi sp. n. and Macroderes soleiana sp. n. In addition to this, Macroderes nitidus is re-described and the type series of Macroderes minutus comprising two species, Macroderes minutus sensu lato and Macroderes cederbergensis sp. n. are described.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 305 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0006 - Circadian variation in metabolites and enzyme activity in the femoral and thoracic muscles of adult variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus (L.) (Orthoptera:Pyrgomorphidae)

Kehinde Ademolu1, Abiodun Joda2, Samuel Agbeje1, Adebola Osipitan1, Adewunmi Idowu1 1Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun, Nigeria, 2Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun, Nigeria

Variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus variegatus, exhibit daily variations in its feeding and destructive activities. A study to investigate circadian variation in the metabolites (lipids, protein, glucose, K+, Ca2+,Mg2+, Cl-) concentrations and enzymes (lipase, amylase, proteinase,α-glucosidase) activities in the femoral and thoracic muscles of adult Z. variegatus was carried out by collecting samples at 06:00, 12:00, 18:00 and 24:00 GMT. Fourty insect individuals were used at each of the four sampling times and the muscles from them were pooled together for the analysis The four enzymes were present throughout the day in both thoracic and femoral muscles but at varying levels. Significantly (p<0.05) higher enzyme activities were observed during the day (between 06:00 and 18:00 GMT) (except proteinase) than during the night (24:00). Organic substances in the two tissues recorded a significantly higher concentration during the day than at night. Similarly, significantly more inorganic substances were recorded in the afternoon (12:00 - 18:00) than in the night in both femoral and thoracic muscles. These results suggest that Z.variegatus displays the highest dispersion activities during the day.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 306 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0369 - The distribution and abundance of the chromolaena stem- galling fly, Cecidochares connexa (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Ghana

Pascal Aigbedion-Atalor1,2, David Wilson1, Vincent Eziah1, Iain Paterson2, Michael Day3 1African Regional Post Graduate Programme In Insect Science (ARPPIS), University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana, 2Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 3Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Biosecurity Queensland Ecosciences Precinct, Queensland, Australia

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King and H. Robinson (Asteraceae: Eupatorieae) is one of the worst invasive weeds in Ghana. The chromolaena stem-galling fly, Cecidochares connexa (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae) was released in 2003 in Cote d’Ivoire and first detected in Ghana in 2014. The distribution and abundance of C. connexa in Ghana were determined through country-wide surveys in April 2014 and then from June 2015 to March 2016. Cecidochares connexa was present in the southern part of Ghana in varying densities. It was present in low abundance in the extreme east (Volta region), which is important for the further spread of C. connexa across West Africa because it connects Ghana and Togo. A significant relationship exists between the distance from the Ghana-Cote d’Ivoire border and C. connexa gall densities in Ghana. In July 2016, C. connexa galls were found in Togo for the first time. This was a new record and it indicated the likelihood of further spread of C. connexa in West Africa. This suggests the possibility of C. connexa spreading into climatically suitable areas in both Ghana and Togo.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 307 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0233 - False codling moth population ecology in citrus orchards: the influence of orchard age

Sonnica Albertyn1, Martin Hill1, Sean Moore1,2 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Citrus Research International, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

This study was conducted to gauge anecdotal reports of higher populations of false codling moth, (FCM), Thaumatotibia leucotreta, during the first three to five harvesting years of citrus planted in virgin soil, after which FCM numbers seem to decrease. The FCM population ecology of newly planted, juvenile (2 – 4 years) and established (9 years and older) orchards was monitored to determine if and why juvenile orchards facilitate higher FCM infestation than established orchards. Orchards were monitored weekly to determine FCM egg counts and parasitism of eggs, FCM trap catches, fruit infestation and ant presence. Egg parasitism was consistently higher in established orchards than in juvenile orchards. Newly planted orchards had the highest occurrence (38%) of entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) in soil samples, followed by established orchards (34%). EPF occurrence was significantly lower in juvenile orchards (31%) than newly planted orchards. Fruit from a juvenile Washington Navel orchard were found to be significantly more susceptible to FCM than the same variety of fruit from an established orchard on the same farm. Nutritional analyses showed fruit from the juvenile orchards to possess a substantially higher ash content (3.32%) than fruit from established orchards, with 0.26% ash content. The influence of these nutritional differences on the susceptibility of FCM to microbial control agents will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 308 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0260 - The effect of eco-estates on animal biodiversity along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Jarryd Alexander, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Generally land transformation results in species and diversity decline. In particular increased urbanisation with continued human population growth generally negatively impacts biodiversity. Land transformation which may benefit species positively is where prior transformed landscapes such as agricultural monocultures are further transformed to urban housing, particularly eco- estates. The latter form of property development has increased in popularity in recent years as it is viewed as “sustainable” and “green”. Furthermore it has also been suggested that with suitable development and management eco-estates can act as semi-natural pockets of refuge between heavily urbanised or agricultural environments. These may also assist with species persistence with ongoing climate change. There is a scarcity of scientific research on the extent and the impacts of eco-estates developed in former areas of agriculture on biodiversity in South Africa. Consequently we investigated vertebrate biodiversity on various eco-estates along the coast of KwaZulu-Natal differing in age of development, housing density and available green areas compared with an associated monoculture land use. In particular we determined the presence and abundance of mammalian, avian, reptilian, and amphibian species within these eco-estates to assess whether they are benefiting the biodiversity of the region which is under great anthropogenic land use change and associated pressures. Preliminary results show that eco-estates have increased vertebrate biodiversity compared with sugarcane. Also eco-estates located further from the city centre have reduced numbers of alien invasive species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 309 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0176 - Baseline pathogen prevalence and diversity estimates for free-ranging aardvark Orycteropus afer (Pallas, 1766)

Chane’ R. Alfaiate, Darren W. Pietersen, Armanda D.S. Bastos Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The aardvark (Orycteropus afer) is the only extant species in the order Tubulidentata. It is distributed throughout sub-Saharan Africa, occurring in a range of different habitats including open woodlands, grasslands and forests. They are myrmecophagous, semi-fossorial, nocturnal mammals whose shy and elusive behaviour has resulted in minimal information being available for this species. Aardvark burrows are very beneficial to many different species, providing them with protection from extreme temperatures and predators and may even act as foraging sites, although also potentially facilitating the transmission of diseases through ectoparasite intermediaries. The occurrence of diseases may in turn impact the survival, reproductive output or movement capabilities of individuals. However, diseases can also provide a powerful tool for assigning individuals to geographic localities based on the mutation rates of these disease agents. This study aims to obtain baseline estimates of microbial diversity and prevalence in free-ranging aardvark in three different locations, namely the Waterberg, Kalahari and Kimberley regions of South Africa. These data will allow for a comparison of disease agent prevalence and diversity in aardvark and Temminck’s ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) occurring sympatrically in these locations, and will also facilitate investigations into potential disease transmission pathways between these two species. Due to the ecological similarities between these two species it may be possible to use each species as a proxy for the other species. If shared locality-specific microbial signatures are found then this can be used to determine the source population of animals that are illegally traded, thus assisting law enforcement personnel.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 310 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0263 - The ethics of non-medical animal research

Ebrahim Ally University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

The use of animals in research dates back to ancient Greece (Aristotle, 384 BC) and gained significant momentum after Darwin’s works highlighted the importance of similarities between humans and non-human animals. Animal research has traditionally been associated with the medical field in the form of drug testing, toxicity studies, vaccine development and cancer research, with these fields accounting for around two-thirds of total use. The surprisingly new idea that animals can suffer and the importance of conducting ethical animal research took off after Russell and Burch proposed the three guiding principles of animal research in 1959 (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement). These principles were, however, designed with medical research in mind which leaves gaps in non-medical applications. Environmental and ecological research and project designs that make use of live animals require ethical approval. It is useful for applicants to know when it is necessary to apply for such approval and how animal research ethics committees review ethics applications to facilitate this process.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 311 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0003 - Novel non-estrogenic endpoints of phenolic metabolites toxicity in fish: using zebrafish as a model for study

Nessrin Kheirallah, Tamer Aly Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Evidence of the severe effects of phenolic metabolites on different fish species exists in a number of axes including endocrine and non-endocrine as well. Regardless of the classical issues of such metabolites as endocrine disrupting chemicals, novel non-estrogenic points are poorly studied. This article demonstrates the non-estrogenic attribution of certain phenolic metabolites in fish species. Confirming this non-estrogenic action of such compounds, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos were subjected to different doses of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (BDEs) to study the effect of this class of chemicals on the fish embryogenesis during the first 120 hours of fertilization.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 312 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0444 - Lamarck & Darwin got it wrong regarding giraffes: what were the causes?

Ramin Amirmardfar SabzAndishan, Tabriz, Iran

Lamarck asked himself: why do giraffes have been getting taller over time? And he arrived at a wrong answer. A poor question directed him to the wrong answer. Darwin asked himself: why do giraffes have become taller over time? And he also reached a wrong answer. The poor question directed him to the wrong answer. I asked myself: why do all mammals have been larger within a period of their life? Why do all classes of land vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, crocodiles, birds, mammals) have been larger within a period of their life? Why do all classes of vertebrate, invertebrate, arthropods and plants have been larger within a period of their life? And I found a correct answer. The right and proper question directed me to the correct answer.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 313 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0009 - Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum - Standing on the Shoulders of Giants

Deon Bakkes Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum; Parasites, Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases; Agricultural Research Council – Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum was started with specimens collected by Gerald Bedford in 1912. Since that time, several prominent scientists have made contributions to the collection in both specimen depositions and scientific study. This has elevated the collection to stand as the largest to house African globally, containing 55 type specimens and 375 identified species amongst more than 2 500 specimens. The collection moved to its current holdings at the ARC-OVI in 2005. The value of museums in 21st century biology is a topic of important discussion in light of the biodiversity crisis and impending climate change. Moreover, museums may come of age once they acquire an adequate number of specimens and species that capture a considerable degree of natural variation. Study of this variation may be used to answer important questions regarding public health, agriculture, biodiversity and evolutionary processes. Of course, these are all underpinned by the relentless pursuit of the main function of museum collections - systematics. The Gertrud Theiler Tick Museum is poised to realise this vision, having come of age to represent the most complete collection of hard-earned African ticks. The raw data preserved in each specimen, comprising its species designation, morphology and collection data, in combination with modern methods of data capturing, analysis and dissemination will serve to elevate the Tick Museum further, toward a crucial position in a developing continent.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 314 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0170 - Testing the SANSA rapid sampling protocol in Western KwaZulu-Natal to determine seasonal diversity of non- acarine arachnids

Ruan Booysen, Charles Haddad University of the Free State, Free State, South Africa

The South African National Survey of Arachnida (SANSA) aims to survey the arachnids of South Africa to identify, record, conserve and educate parts of the community on these arthropods. The grassland biome covers various parts of South Africa such as Mpumalanga, Gauteng, Free State, North West, Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal. During SANSA Phase II, 35 degree-square grids across South Africa were sampled, but the degree-square that Newcastle, KwaZulu-Natal is situated in has not yet been surveyed before. This study aimed to survey and compare the seasonal biodiversity of non-acarine arachnids in the Newcastle area during winter and summer. The SANSA rapid sampling protocol was used to collect specimens from the riparian bush, montane grassland, lowland grassland and Eucalyptus plantation habitats using beating, sweeping, pitfall traps, litter sifting, Berlese-Tullgren funnels and day and night hand collecting, covering most vertical strata in each habitat. In total, 4050 arachnids (excluding Acari) representing 272 morphospecies were collected, of which 3122 and 1383 individuals, and 190 and 171 morphospecies (including juveniles), were collected during winter and summer, respectively. Beating yielded the highest abundance and species richness during both seasons. Abundance and species richness were highest in lowland grassland for pitfalls in both seasons, but patterns varied between seasons for all the other methods. Further surveys in poorly sampled areas of South Africa are needed to improve distribution data for spider species in the country.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 315 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0427 - The role of termites in African savanna soil ecology

Katherine Bunney1, Mark Robertson2,1, Catherine Parr3,1, Paul Eggleton4,1, Yadvinder Mahli4,1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 3University of Liverpool, Liverpool, Merseyside, UK, 4Natural History Museum, London, Greater London, UK, 5University of Oxford, Oxford, Oxfordshire, UK

The termite standing biomass in African savannas is comparable to that of megaherbivores. While it is widely recognised that termites perform an important role in soil ecology, few studies have established what happens in their absence. In this study, we will attempt to suppress termites in a novel large-scale manipulative field experiment to quantify the contribution of termites to key ecological processes such as decomposition, bioturbation, nutrient transfer and net primary productivity (NPP). The suppression experiment will be carried out at both a dry (350 mm p.a.; Ha-makuya) and a wet site (700 mm p.a.; Wits Rural Facility) in South Africa. Decomposition experiments will be performed on wood blocks (Pinus radiata), grass (Themeda triandra) and elephant dung and are to be complemented by descriptive sampling of the termite community. Bioturbation experiments will quantify both the amount of soil that termites are moving and their impact on soil heterogeneity. To explore the indirect effects of termites on NPP this study will measure grass NPP, the duration of leaf flushing and soil respiration rates. We expect that in the absence of termites there will be a significant decrease in decomposition rates, soil heterogeneity, grass NPP, the length of leaf flushing and soil respiration rates. In addition, we anticipate that the relative contribution of termites will be greater at the dry site than at the wet site. This study will likely be the first to measure the direct and indirect effects of termites on key ecological processes in an African savanna system.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 316 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0363 - Too much love can kill you: a case study on Damaraland mole-rats

Lanha Burger, Nigel Bennett, Fanus Venter, Heike Lutermann University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Life history theory states that trade-offs will occur when organisms must allocate resources between various costly processes such as immune responses against those of reproduction. Investment in reproduction will consequently lead to decreased efficacy of immune responses. Based on studies mainly from birds and, to a lesser extent, mammals (mostly laboratory rodents) it is thought that males tend to be more susceptible to infection than females. We investigated the possible trade-off between reproduction and immunity in Damaraland mole-rats (Fukomys damarensis) using microbial killing assays (MKA’s). They are eusocial and reproduction is limited to one female and one or two males per colony. We tested the microbicidal activity, part of the innate immune response, and identified the active constituent of 40 Damaraland mole-rats by mixing blood/plasma samples with four microbes (two strains of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans) and measuring the light absorbance of the mixture after incubation. We found no effect of sex, or microbe identity on the microbicidal activity. However, it was significantly lower in breeders than non-breeders. In addition, plasma performed better against all the microbes than whole blood. Our results provide support for the theory that investment in reproduction and its associated activities will result in decreased immune responses. This could also account for the lack of sex effects as non-breeding males are saving energy through not reproducing. We discovered that the whole blood already contained microbes, which would account for its reduced efficacy in the assay.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 317 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0252 - Microsatellite variation in a population-level study of the endangered bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus

Melanie Burke, Sonja Kruger, Sandi Willows-Munro University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Vultures provide an array of ecological, economic, and cultural services. Despite this, six of Africa’s 11 vulture species are now on the edge of extinction. The bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) occurs at very low frequencies across mountainous regions of Africa, Europe and Asia. This study will focus on the isolated population found in the Drakensberg. Previous work based on mitochondrial DNA found little differentiation between populations in Ethiopia and Southern Africa and recovered reduced haplotype diversity in Southern Africa as compared to northern populations. In this study a suite of 12 microsatellite markers is used to confirm the lack of genetic diversity in the South African population. The genetic diversity seen will also be compared to that of other African vulture species such as Cape vulture Gyps coprotheres and hooded vultures Necrosyrtes monachus. Lack of genetic structure could be the result of high gene flow among fragmented populations. To test this hypothesis, the direction and magnitude of gene flow among the African and European populations was also estimated using the microsatellite data.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 318 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0378 - The traditional medicine trade: the diversity, viability and escape potential of alien plant species introduced into South Africa by the largest immigrant groups in Johannesburg

Marcus Byrne, Vivienne Williams, Amy Burness University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

The medicinal plant trade is not a well-studied introduction pathway for alien species. Currently many international immigrants are arriving in South Africa. This studies aims to identify the diversity, viability and escape potential of alien plant species brought into Johannesburg, South Africa as traditional medicine by the major modern immigrant groups. This is being done by: 1) Identifying the most prominent immigrant groups in Johannesburg; 2) Establishing the relationship between immigrant groups and movement of plant material; 3) Discovering where immigrants trade traditional medicine and what alien plant species are traded; 4) Creating an inventory of alien species being brought into South Africa; 5) Establishing the viability of selected alien plant species and which species grow under escape conditions. Initial findings show that approximately 2,200,000 international immigrants live in South Africa, 52% of which live in Gauteng. The majority (75%) come from the SADC region with Zimbabweans making up 46% of that total. The top five immigrant source countries Zimbabwe, India, the DRC, China, and Nigeria. Thirteen of the top 20 countries of origin are African and include Somalia and Ethiopia, where the largest number of refugees and asylum seekers come from. Immigration has a positive relationship with the influx of alien plant material. Immigrant labourers and trader family members are the groups most responsible for alien medicinal plant importation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 319 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0096 - The Baboon Spider Atlas - utilising citizen science and the ‘fear factor’ to map baboon spider (Araneae: Theraphosidae) distributions and diversity in Southern Africa

Heather Campbell, Ian Engelbrecht University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Citizen science is an essential tool for collecting large ecological datasets, as demonstrated by projects that focus on charismatic animals in North America and Europe. The use of new technologies and social media empowers citizen scientists outside these regions to participate in biodiversity data collection. Invertebrates such as butterflies and ladybirds are popular subjects for citizen science due to their conspicuous and attractive appearance, but for taxa that are perceived as dangerous, the reverse effect can be leveraged to engage the public in scientific research. Here we describe the Baboon Spider Atlas, a project combining traditional research methods with data collection through citizen science to map the distributions and diversity of baboon spiders (Araneae: Theraphosidae) in Southern Africa. Baboon spiders are African representatives of the tarantula family, with the largest spiders in the subregion. In addition to academic research, our project embraces the ‘fear factor’ associated with spiders to collect photographic records for mapping species distributions. An important outreach component of the project is the opportunity to dispel fears and educate the public. The Baboon Spider Atlas has assembled the largest database of occurrence records for baboon spiders in Southern Africa. Distribution ranges have been extended for many species and several new species have been discovered, highlighting the limitations of current taxonomy. Ultimately the project will generate the data needed effectively to identify species of conservation concern, and to mitigate the threats of habitat loss and harvesting for the pet trade.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 320 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0374 - Biochemical analysis in Anopheles gambiae and An. funestus

Riann Christian1,2, Luisa Nardini1,2, Basil D Brooke1,2, Lizette L Koekemoer1,2 1Vector Control Reference Unit, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, National Health Laboratory Service, Sandringham, Johannesburg, , Gauteng, South Africa, 2Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Anopheles funestus and An. gambiae are major malaria vectors in Africa. Development of resistance to different classes of insecticides is a potential threat to malaria control. Usually experimental studies are done to characterise resistance mechanisms. It is advisable to carry out these analyses using resistant and susceptible mosquitoes from the same geographical area; however, this is not always feasible. This study therefore aimed to evaluate the influence that geographically distinct populations have on the interpretation of biochemical assays. Resistant and susceptible strains were included and a total of eight strains of An. arabiensis, An. gambiae, An. quadriannulatus and An. funestus were used in the analysis. Homogenates from these mosquitoes were used to determine monooxygenase P450, general esterase, altered acetylcholinesterase and glutathione S-transferase (GSTs) activity. Statistix 8 software was used for one-way Anova and pairwise calculations (P < 0.05). The acetylcholine esterase, GST and esterase enzyme levels were significantly different between females and between males from all the susceptible strains. There was no significant difference (P >0.05) in the monooxygenases activity levels between the susceptible females, although there were significant differences between the males. However, monoxygenase activity levels were much higher in females than males. This study showed that there are significant differences in the biochemical activity levels between susceptible malaria vectors from different areas. Therefore it is not advisable to use susceptible and resistant strains from different geographical areas as this may lead to bias in analyses.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 321 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0086 - The facilitation of nutrient transfer across the aquatic- terrestrial interface by semi-aquatic predators

Shannon Conradie1, Trevor McIntyre1, Grant Hall1, Michael J. Somers1,2 1University of Pretoria, Mammal Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of Pretoria, Centre for Wildlife Management, Pretoria, South Africa

Animal-mediated nutrient transfer facilitates nutrient cycling in marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems via the deposition of aquatically-derived nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and carbon (C). We investigated nutrient deposition associated with the latrines of semi-aquatic predators (African clawless otters, spotted-necked otters and water mongoose) across seasons in the riverine habitat of a mesic grassland. We provide a comparison of stable nitrogen and carbon isotopes (δ15N, δ13C) measured in soil, vegetation and faecal material between latrine and paired control sites in winter and summer. Latrine sites displayed higher δ15N values than the paired non-latrine sites at the area of direct deposition (soil surfaces). This effect dissipated as the distance from direct contact increased, while no significant difference in δ15N values was detected for sub-surface soil samples. Plants displayed varying trends of enriched δ15N or δ13C values between the latrine and paired control sites. No significant differences were detected between the two sampling seasons for soil or plant δ15N and δ13C values. These results suggest that several factors and processes, such as mineralization, ammonia volatilization, and N-acquisition, are at play within this latrine-soil-vegetation system.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 322 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0143 - Entomopathogenic fungi as biological control agents of false codling moth

Candice Coombes1, David Taylor1, Samantha Prinsloo1, Martin Hill1, Sean Moore1,2 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Citrus Research International, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), commonly referred to as false codling moth, is a key economic pest of citrus in South Africa. Since 2010, research focussing on the use of entomopathogenic fungi as biological control agents against the soil-dwelling life stages of this pest (fifth instars, pre-pupae and pupae) has been ongoing. Field trials conducted using two promising isolates: Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) isolate G Ar 17 B3 and Metarhizium anisopliae (Metchnikoff) Sorokin (Hypocreales: Clavicipitaceae) isolate FCM Ar 23 B3, have shown encouraging results, with a 34% – 82% and 28% – 63% reduction in T. leucotreta infestation, respectively, after fungi were applied to the soil surface at acceptable rates. As not all T. leucotreta exposed to the fungi succumb to infection, bioassays were designed to assess any sub-lethal effects. In addition, to improve our knowledge of the use of these fungi in citrus orchards, the compatibility of these isolates with commonly applied agrichemicals and their potential to control other targetable life stages of T. leucotreta (eggs and neonates) is under investigation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 323 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0375 - Bugweed biocontrol: new insights and future prospects

Blair Cowie1,2, Ed Witkowski1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Nic Venter1 1University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Johannesburg, South Africa

Solanum mauritianum Scop. (bugweed) is one of the world’s worst ecological weeds, being targeted for biological control in South Africa since 1984. Despite constraints, two promising biocontrol agents have been released against S. mauritianum, the first being a sap-sucking lace- bug, Gargaphia decoris Drake (Hemiptera: Tingidae) and the second a flowerbud-feeding weevil, Anthonomus santacruzi Hustache (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). This study presents a post-release assessment of the biocontrol agents, G. decoris and A. santacruzi, particularly their impacts and potential constraints. Sap-feeding by G. decoris metabolically impaired the leaves, resulting in a reduction to S. mauritianum photosynthesis, with a greater effect on plants growing in full sun compared to plants growing in the shade. Flower-feeding by A. santacruzi reduced flowering and fruiting of S. mauritianum by 25% and 66%, respectively. Furthermore, fruits produced from inflorescences exposed to A. santacruzi were found to be smaller in size, with fewer, less viable seeds. Climatic modelling and thermal assessments on A. santacruzi suggest that both low temperature (<4.1 °C) and low humidity (<47%) are likely to constrain the establishment and spread of the weevil in South Africa. Although both agents suffer respective constraints in the field, they offer a great deal toward the biocontrol of S. mauritianum in South Africa, suggesting that they may be deserving of renewed attention and investment.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 324 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0217 - Will our taxa of conservation concern survive the rapid change in climatic conditions in South Africa?

Sarisha Daya1, Theresa Sethusa2, Engela De Crom1 1Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

South African biodiversity is threatened by different pressures, ranging from habitat loss and degradation to harvesting and intrinsic factors. There currently are protection measures to conserve our species ranging from formally protected areas to stewardship programmes with land owners. Although taking into account a wide variety of threats, species risk of extinction assessments as well as protection initiatives do not cater for the effect of climate change to species distribution and persistence at a national scale in South Africa. Using distribution data for bats, birds, butterflies, reptiles and spiders; areas of high animal diversity and endemism (AHDE) were identified. The current and future geographic patterns were projected usinga species distribution model in MaxEnt. A total of 19 bioclimatic variables including altitude, geology and soils were used in predicting geographic distribution models. The computed suitable current climatic conditions are similar to the species occurrence records, suggesting that the tested variables are appropriate to predict biogeographic range. Climate change modelling projections for 2080 indicate a decline in the bat, bird, butterfly and spider distributions, and an increase in the reptile distributions across the country. These shifts culminated to the shift in our AHDE, moving them out of the boundaries of the current protection initiatives/ measures. Our results suggest that future expansion strategies should take into account the effect of climate change on species range, and cater for the potential shifts.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 325 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0250 - Microsatellite isolation in a pollinating fig wasp using a small scale genomic approach

Junyin Deng, Pamela J. de Waal, Jaco M. Greeff Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Reports of cryptic speciation and host shift of pollinating fig wasps disproved the strict one-to- one rule for fig tree-fig wasp associations. Phylogenetic trees constructed using 28S, COI and ITS2 DNA sequence data suggested that Ficus stuhlmannii (Warburg, 1894) and Ficus peterstii (Warburg, 1894) are pollinated by the same pollinator, Alfonsiella binghami (Wiebes, 1988). However, these two Ficus species host different nematode fauna. This suggests that A. binghami either speciated recently or that two different populations pollinate the two trees. In order to answer this question, we enriched for microsatellite repeats using the FIASCO protocol and sequenced with 454 technology. We obtained 24508 sequences, 12844 of which contained repeats. In all, we found more of the shorter repeats (dinucleotide = 6258; trinucleotide = 5849; tetranucleotide = 737), and also many we did not enrich for (dinucleotide = 21; trinucleotide = 923; tetranucleotide = 697). However, we did enrich for a larger fraction of shorter repeats. Within a repeat number there were huge differences in the number of each type of repeat motive. For instance, in dinucleotides: AG (or CT) was found in 4481 (=72%) sequences whereas AT occurred in only 20 (=0.03%) sequences. These sequences give us a measure of the kinds of repeats that are more common in fig wasps and will be sufficient for designing specific microsatellite primers forA. binghami and study the divergence of the species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 326 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0045 - Ecosystem health of the Eerste River and opportunities for improvement

Francois du Preez, James Pryke Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

In South Africa, more than 55% of river ecosystems are considered endangered or vulnerable but only 21% are moderately or well protected. Lower foothills and streams are usually the least protected and the most vulnerable to disturbance.

In this study we examined the aquatic ecosystem health of the Eerste River (approx. 40 km in length). It originates in the Jonkershoek Valley, flows through Stellenbosch and exits into the False Bay estuary. Various tributaries join along the way, including the Plankenburg-, Krom-, Blouklip-, and Kuils River.

Ecosystem health was determined using the South African Scoring System (SASS) and its derived Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT), one of six indices used by the River Health Programme (RHP). The SASS score is based on aquatic invertebrate diversity and the relative sensitivity of each taxon to disturbance. Measurements were taken from August to September 2014.

The pristine area within Jonkershoek scored the highest (SASS=126; ASPT=9.6) and the lower post-Stellenbosch stream the least (SASS=26; ASPT=3.7). The abrupt decrease in scores once the river is joined by the Plankenburg tributary (SASS=44; ASPT=4.4) was striking, signifying a major source of pollution. SASS and ASPT scores across sites suggest no significant change for the last decade.

A study in 2013 revealed severe faecal contamination and microbial pathogen presence after the Plankenburg- and Eerste River junction, suggesting that informal settlements located upstream could be a significant source of contamination.

Management opportunities include better waste- and stormwater management, the removal of alien species and perhaps most importantly, inclusive social approaches.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 327 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0272 - Mechanosensory structures in the beaks of waders (Threskiornithidae) in relation to their foraging ecology

Carla du Toit1,3, Susan Cunningham1,2, Anusuya Chinsamy-Turan1 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 3NRF-DST Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences, Johannesburg, South Africa

Many probe-foraging bird species, such as ibises, possess a unique sensory system known as remote-touch. This refers to their ability to sense and locate submerged prey objects by detecting vibrations in the substrate without contacting them directly. This is facilitated by the bill-tip organ, which is made up of mechanosensory receptors embedded in densely clustered pits in the bone at the tip of the bill. Though the general structure of the bill-tip organ is conserved across all probe-foraging species that possess it, there is a lot of interspecific variation in the structure and orientation of the pits and the receptors within them. We hypothesize that there is a relationship between the morphology and histology of the bill-tip organ and the foraging ecology of ibises. To test the hypothesis, three ibis species are being studied: hadeda (Bostrychia hagedash), sacred (Threskiornis aethiopicus), and glossy (Plegadis falcinellus). These each have distinctive feeding habits in different substrate environments ranging from terrestrial (hadeda) to semi-saturated (sacred ibis) to aquatic (glossy ibis). We use standard methods of thin section preparation to describe the soft tissue histology, and utilize µ-CT scans to reconstruct the 3D structure of the bill-tip organ. We expect to find differences between the three species, in accordance with the preliminary work suggesting an increase in the extent of pitting over the length of the beak with increased aquatic habitat use. If a pattern is found, the results could potentially be used to make inferences about the feeding ecology of extinct bird species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 328 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0137 - Sirex noctilio host susceptibility and utilisation patterns

Ludwig Eksteen1, Jeff Garnas1,2, Brett P. Hurley1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Natural Resources and the Environment, University of New Hampshire, New Hampshire, USA

Sirex noctilio F. (Hymenoptera: Siricidae) is a wood-boring wasp invasive in Australia, South Africa, New Zealand, and North and South America, which infests stressed trees within Pinaceae (principally pine). The influence of host species and size, and other biotic stressors onhost utilisation by S. noctilio is not well studied. The aim of this study was to determine S. noctilio host susceptibility and utilisation patterns among commercially planted pine in South Africa. Pine species considered were Pinus patula, P. radiata, P. taeda, P. elliotii, P. greggii and one hybrid P. elliottii x P. caribaea. Two plantations, one in the summer rainfall and one in the winter rainfall region were used. Compartments matched by approximate location were assessed. We performed three transects of 100 trees each per site, recording tree diameter, wasp infestation and damage to trees. There was no significant effect of tree size onS. noctilio infestation when baboon-damaged trees were excluded. Baboon damage occurred principally in P. taeda, resulting in an upward shift in the mean size of trees attacked by S. noctilio in this species, as wasps preferentially utilized baboon-damaged trees, which tended to be larger. Across all other tree species, S. noctilio was found primarily in trees that were more than one standard deviation smaller than average. These results suggest that previously observed patterns showing higher preference for P. patula are likely environmentally driven and show that under non-outbreak conditions, S. noctilio prefers suppressed trees, but only in the absence of prior damage.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 329 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0430 - Habitat use, ecology and behaviour of hippos in an important waterbody of Zululand

Camille Fritsch, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Hippos (Hippopotamus amphibius) play an important yet understudied role in African wetlands, water bodies, and riverine systems. Throughout Africa hippo numbers are decreasing. Currently hippos are listed on CITES as a Schedule II species and have a Red Data classification of Vulnerable. However, a vulnerable status may not represent the impending need for additional research on the species. Climate change-induced droughts and ever-expanding human populations threaten hippo viability in sensitive aquatic ecosystems. Consequently the goals of our study are to investigate elements of hippo ecology and behaviour that impact their viability at Ndumo Game Reserve (NGR). Using camera traps and a drone, we are investigating hippo activity and how activity differs between individuals through different times of the year, and through different levels of resource availability. In addition, we are investigating fission-fusion between hippo groups, and how this behaviour affects the hippo population at NGR. Finally, the drone and camera traps are also being used to determine monthly hippo population numbers and dynamics at NGR during 2016 and 2017. The collected data, in addition to historical data, are being used to investigate hippo population trends in NGR to assist with the management plan for hippos in NGR and provide management strategies to underpin sound conservation of hippo in and around NGR.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 330 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0352 - First record of Tthe Marine Turtle Leech Ozobranchus Margoi Oon Hawksbill Turtles in the Inner Granitic Seychelles

Byron Göpper, Nina Voogt Private, Johannesburg, South Africa

Ozobranchus spp. are leeches that feed solely on turtle blood. They are common ectoparasites found on a range of marine turtle species, with some species of the leech being implicated as vectors of Fibropapilloma-associated turtle herpesvirus (FPTHV). Green (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) turtles are the two commonly occurring species in the inner granitic islands of the Seychelles. Routine monitoring of nesting turtles on Cousine Island, Seychelles, allowed for opportunistic sightings of leeches on two hawksbill females. No obvious signs of papillomas were seen and in both cases infestation was low, with three leeches collected off one female and five off the other. All of the turtle leeches collected had five lateral digiform branchiae and were determined to be Ozobranchus margoi (Hirudinoidea). The specimens were deposited in the Seychelles Natural History Museum on Mahe. To the best of our knowledge this is the first record of O. margoi recorded in the inner granitic Seychelles on hawksbill turtles.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 331 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0185 - Intraspecific variation in ants: testing a central paradigm of functional trait ecology

Clara Gaudard, Mark Robertson, Tom Bishop University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

One of the most important questions in biology is discovering why biodiversity is distributed across the planet in the way that it is, and the role that it has in ecosystem functioning. Previously, biodiversity was measured as species richness utilising taxonomic approaches. But what does a species name alone actually tell us? In reality a species is made up of morphological, physiological and behavioural traits that affect where they live and how they interact. As a consequence, a trait- based approach to ecology can improve our understanding of species’ distributions and functions in an ecosystem.

However, this trait-based approach may not be flawless. Trait ecology relies on the assumption that the variation within a species (intraspecific) is negligible compared to the variability between species (interspecific), and that trait means are accurate representations of a given species across its range. Several studies on plants have found intraspecific trait variation ranging from between 10% to more than 40%, which would certainly not be considered negligible.

This study is one of the first to investigate the extent of intraspecific variation in invertebrates. Specifically, it examines intraspecific variation across a large elevational gradient in a functionally important and abundant taxon: the ants.

Three main questions are addressed. First, is most trait variation held intraspecifically or interspecifically? Second, is intraspecific variation linked to the environment? Third, is intraspecific variation phylogenetically conserved?

The results of this study will have important implications for the future use of traits as an analytical tool in invertebrate ecology.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 332 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0296 - Mating disruption as a method to enhance control of false codling moth in the Western Cape

Martin Gilbert1,2, Claire Love1,2 1Citrus Research International, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Dept. of Conservation Ecology & Entomology, Stellenbosch University, South Africa

False codling moth, Thaumatotibia leucotreta Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is an important phytosanitary pest of citrus and other crops in southern Africa. Citrus, as the final fruit crop harvested in any particular growing season, is of major significance as a host and may experience losses to this pest if not properly controlled. The Sterile Insect Technique is a valuable tool in the control of T. leucotreta in the Citrusdal area of the Western Cape. However, hot-spots of increased T. leucotreta pest activity do exist, sometimes due to mountainous terrain which makes aerial releases of sterile moths difficult, or due to the presence of abandoned citrus trees which act as an unregulated refuge of T. leucotreta from where they can then invade neighbouring commercial orchards. The use of commercial female pheromone mimics applied in commercial citrus orchards was investigated in order to enhance T. leucotreta control in such challenging localities. Yellow delta traps were used to monitor sterile and wild T. leucotreta numbers in these orchards. Fruit infestation was monitored weekly under data trees until harvest. Application of mating disruption (MD) chemicals was generally found to enhance T. leucotreta control in these difficult locations by significantly reducing fruit infestation. However, increasing the dosages of MD products beyond commercial rates did not bring consistent additional benefits. The implications of these results will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 333 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0226 - The role of fig (Moraceae) volatiles in the dispersal of fig seeds by frugivorous bats in southern Africa

Keeveshnee Govender, Adam Shuttleworth, Colleen T. Downs, Steven D. Johnson University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Olfaction is a key sense for mammals, and it has been shown that fruit-eating bats use olfactory cues during foraging. However, little has been documented about the volatiles used by bats to locate fruits and determine their palatability. Ripe figs (Ficus spp., Moraceae) are an essential source of food for frugivorous bats and they, in turn, disperse the fig seeds. This study aimed to determine the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted by fig syconia as they develop from unripe to ripe figs and to determine the responses of fruit bats to these compounds. We found significant changes in VOCs in the scent of unripe and ripe fig fruits across day and night using dynamic headspace sampling and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Field-based choice experiments confirmed that Wahlberg’s epauletted fruit bat(Epomophorus wahlbergi) prefer ripe fruits over unripe ones. These fruit bats also responded to synthetic compounds matching those identified from headspace samples of different fig developmental stages. Determining the responses of fruit-eating bats to the volatiles and colour of fig fruits is important for understanding the evolution of fruit characteristics in Ficus and also for understanding the foraging behaviour and seed dispersal role of bats.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 334 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0336 - Mozambique - The Dark Hole

Carly Gregorich, Bettine van Vuuren University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

The effect civil unrest has had on biodiversity and wildlife has been widely published. Mines, bombs and chemicals, as well as hunting for high-value items and food constitute the major negative drivers. As a result, local extinctions and diminishing wildlife populations are normally evident in areas with civil unrest. Mozambique is a country riddled with unrest since the 1960s, which has led to the overexploitation of wildlife populations. Consequently, many large mammals have experienced severe population bottlenecks and only persist in isolated pockets of protected natural areas. This will, in turn, have negative impacts on diversity including loss of genetic variation and adaptability. In addition, understanding the spatial placement of selected species in a pan-African phylogeographic network may inform conservation efforts and possible re- stocking of wildlife areas. The focus of this study will be to understand genetic variability in four large mammal species in Mozambique, namely the eland (Taurotragus oryx), impala (Aepyceros melampus), zebra (Equus sp.) and bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus). Our approach will be to compare diversity in populations with those seen in other areas. Furthermore, novel sequences generated from species will allow us to carry out a comparative phylogeographic analysis to reveal how wildlife populations in Mozambique relate to other populations in sub-Saharan Africa. This information will allow us to complete phylogeographic assessments for African species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 335 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0156 - Distribution of Mantodea in South Africa and biological studies of selected species

Bianca Greyvenstein1, Johnnie van den Berg1, Hannalene du Plessis1 1North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa, 3North- West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Predatory arthropods are an integral part of ecosystem functioning as they increase biodiversity that is required to sustain ecosystem services. Some predacious arthropods have an ecological “status” i.e. spiders are good bio-indicators of ecological disturbances while lacewings are indicators of ecosystem health. The “status” of praying mantids is however unknown, as basic biology and behaviour of praying mantids in especially the grasslands of South Africa remains poorly understood. Approximately 250 different Mantodea species are reported to occur in South Africa. The last taxonomic survey was done in 1998, and due to the lack of knowledge there could be significantly more. The study will firstly aim to compile distribution maps for all Mantodea species in South Africa based on sample collections and museum specimens at the Ditsong National Museum of Natural History (Pretoria) (formerly the Transvaal Museum), National Museum Bloemfontein, The Albany Museum (Grahamstown), Durban Natural Science Museum, Iziko South African Museum (Cape Town) and the Kwa-Zulu Natal Museum (Pietermaritzburg). Selected grassland species will be reared and basic biological and behavioural observations such as longevity, mating behaviour, gestation period, fecundity and fertility, and number of instars recorded. The following grassland mantid species will be included in this study: Galepsus transvaalensis (Beier, 1954), Pyrgomantis rhodesica (Giglio-Tos,1917), Mantis religiosa (Linnaeus, 1758), Miomantis coxalis (Saussure, 1898) and Harpagomantis tricolor (Beier, 1954).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 336 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0269 - Thermal physiology of two Eccritotarsus (Heteroptera: Miridae) species from different climates: phenotypic plasticity or adaptation in field populations?

Tamzin Griffith, Iain Paterson, Julie Coetzee Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Two species of Eccritotarsus (Heteroptera; Miridae) are used as biological control agents for water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Pontederiaceae). These species have failed to establish in some parts of South Africa due to climatic incompatibility. Some insects have the ability to change their thermal tolerance according to their environmental temperatures, without a change in their genotype, known as phenotypic plasticity. The thermal tolerances of the two Eccritotarsus species were reflective of their particular climates when they were first imported into quarantine in South Africa. However, after years of being reared under the same conditions in quarantine, experiments showed that their thermal physiologies converged. Previous studies suggested that a population of Eccritotarsus that had established in an area which experiences winter frost, have become cold adapted. To further support the previous study, samples of the agents were collected from the hottest and coldest establishment sites in South Africa and their thermal plasticity was investigated. This was done by measuring the critical and lethal thermal limits for both populations during summer and winter. Results showed that winter populations had lower CTmins and CTmaxs compared to the summer populations and that insects collected from the warmer site, regardless of season, had higher CTmins and CTmaxs compared to the colder site. Further research aims to test the thermal limits of the insects before and after cold hardening. If the thermal physiology of these species is plastic, it would be beneficial to exploit this characteristic to increase their establishment success in colder regions.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 337 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0277 - Identification and evolutionary relationships of genes linked to colour vision in Sirex noctilio

Quentin Guignard1,3, Bernard Slippers1, Allison Jeremy2 1FABI, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 3Department of Zoology and Entomology, Pretoria, South Africa

The woodwasp Sirex noctilio (Siricidae; Hymenoptera) is an introduced pest responsible for large economic losses to the forestry industry in the Southern Hemisphere. As a consequence, much effort is put into strategies to regulate invasive populations of S. noctilio. These strategies include monitoring through trapping, but the efficiency of trapping is low. One way to contribute to trapping improvement is to identify wavelengths that are attractive to S. noctilio. As part of this process, we investigated in this study the genomic bases of colour vision in S. noctilio. A major group of proteins involved in vision are the opsins that can absorb a specific range of wavelengths (colour) depending on their geometry and chemistry. Opsin genes are well conserved, allowing comparisons between S. noctilio and other Hymenoptera, and the identification of the clades relating to the wavelength these proteins can absorb. Preliminary analysis showed that S. noctilio has genes corresponding to opsins able to absorb long and UV wavelengths. Apart from providing a foundation to study the evolution of vision in S. noctilio at the molecular level, these results will also help understand its evolution in the Hymenoptera through comparisons with a rapidly rising number of hymenopteran genomes.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 338 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0166 - Dietary preference of the common myna, an invasive alien bird in South Africa

Silindile Thobeka Gumede, Colleen Downs School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag X 01, Scottsville, 3209, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Alien species invasion is one of the major causes of biodiversity loss worldwide. Various factors influence the success of alien species in new environments. Urbanization is one of the aspects of land use change that creates favorable environments for alien species invasion. Here they thrive because of their ability to adapt to these environments. Common mynas (Acridotheres tristis) are amongst the 100 worst invaders worldwide. Common mynas are successful in urban environments once they have learnt to scavenge on novel foods such as discarded food refuse. Although they have been observed feeding on wide range of foods including human refuse in urban areas, their diet preferences have not been studied in South Africa. Consequently we investigated the macronutrient preference of common mynas (n = 7) in captivity. Common mynas were given a pairwise choice of three different diets (high in lipids (HL), high in proteins (HP) and high in carbohydrates (HC)) in the laboratory. Common mynas showed a significant preference for the high lipid diet, followed by the high protein one, with the high carbohydrate diet least preferred. Consequently common mynas prefer food high in lipids compared with proteins and carbohydrates. Potentially common mynas might not be a problem for South African agricultural farms since these generally provide few dietary items high in fat so we expect they will continue to be distributed mostly in urban areas of South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 339 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0203 - Seasonal variation and habitat characteristics of rock pool species composition on the south coast of South Africa

Natanah Molline C Gusha, Christopher McQuaid, Tatenda Dalu Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Rock pools are a common habitat in the intertidal environment. These pools offer easy access for in situ studies of habitat characteristics and possible ecological limitations on intertidal species. In this study, twelve pools from the shore near the Great Fish River were sampled to determine how physico-chemical (depth, surface area, substratum, temperature) and biological (habitat preference, predation) parameters influence species composition. From visual and photographic observations, pool substratum significantly changed from bare rock in winter to dense macro- algal beds in summer. Pelagic phytoplankton biomass (estimated as chl-a) was significantly higher in summer (0.69 mg m-3) than winter (0.10 mg m-3). Seasonal variation also influenced species richness especially of macro-algal communities. Simple linear regression analysis indicated that pool surface area was significantly correlated with species richness of macro-algae, with relatively higher species composition in bigger pools as predicted by island biogeography theory. Some invertebrates, such as the gastropods Oxystele tigrina and Burnupena lagenaria and echinoderms, for example the dwarf cushion star, were ubiquitous. However, hermit crabs, fishes and chitons exhibited habitat specificity, with strong preferences for deeper poolswith high availability of cryptic habitats as compared to bare sandy substrata. Species composition in pools without fish was different from those with fish, thus we postulate that clinids promote a trait- mediated top-down cascading effect on lower level species such as sand shrimps because the crustaceans exhibited an affinity to smaller pools with potentially fewer predators.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 340 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0111 - The impact of selection and limited geneflow on genetic diversity: the impala (Aepyceros melampus) as a model

Chantel Henning1, Paul Grobler2, Malan Davey3, Bettine van Vuuren4 1Centre for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park 2000, South Africa, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Department of Genetics, Free State University PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, South Africa, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa, 3Centre for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park 2000, South Africa, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 4Centre for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, PO Box 524, Auckland Park 2000, South Africa, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Genetic diversity can be equated to evolutionary potential/ability of organisms to adapt to change. Sufficient levels of genetic diversity are crucial in ensuring long-term survival. General population theory assumes that there is a correlation between effective population size and genetic diversity. Using common impala (Aepyceros melampus) as a model, we will be investigating the impact of (a) limited migration and (b) selection on genetic diversity. First, E. Oppenheimer & Son has several populations of impala on their reserves, which were founded more than two decades ago from a small number of founding individuals, with no additional individuals added to these populations. Secondly, there is a strong selection in the game industry for colour variants. Specifically, the black impala phenotype is the expression of recessive genes, and is achieved through a degree of inbreeding and strong directional selection. A population of black impala will be included in the study. As a baseline, diversity from several wild/natural populations will be added. Summary statistics will be calculated for each population using a suite of published microsatellite markers including observed and expected heterozygosity, inbreeding statistics, number of alleles in each population (per locus) and the frequency of these alleles (the theory is that rare alleles will be lost at a faster rate than heterozygosity, and allelic diversity is a better estimate of diversity loss over short time spans). The project will provide important insights into the genetic diversity of closed populations of wildlife in South Africa. Most wild animals in South Africa are in enclosed protected areas.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 341 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0266 - Forensic entomology at the University of Cape Town: teaching, research, and practice

Marise Heyns University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

The teaching of forensic entomology was introduced in the master’s programme in Biomedical Forensic Science, launched in 2012. No forensic entomological research was conducted at UCT or in the Western Cape prior to 2012. Forensic entomological research on the local blow fly populations of the Western Cape is now in its infancy.

Research has now identified the blow fly species that are active in land-based environments in the Western Cape, including Chrysomya spp. and Lucilia spp. and has determined some baseline development rates for these species, which will aid in more accurate PMI (Post Mortem Interval) determinations. Current research focus is on establishing the effect of climatic conditions, particularly temperature and humidity, maggot masses and xenobiotics on their development and thus the ability to estimate the PMI.

Entomotoxicological studies investigated the influence of Ritalin (methylphenidate hydrochloride / MPH) on the development of C. chloropyga and the effect of amitriptyline on the development of C. chloropyga and L. sericata. Flyspecks or artefacts caused by fly activity on a crime scene have also been investigated.

CapeFORTE, the newly established Cape Forensic Taphonomy & Entomology Laboratory, offers specialised forensic entomological and taphonomic analysis services to the Western Cape Forensic Pathology Services, providing valuable information on PMI and the circumstances surrounding death in cases where individuals are in a state of decomposition or the remains skeletonised.

Further research should be conducted into areas such as standardised methodology for entomological investigations, bioaccumulation, insect metabolism of drugs, and quantitative analyses of insect evidence.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 342 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0443 - Response of ground dwelling arthropods in different habitats in the Sandstone Sourveld in KwaZulu-Natal

Zabentungwa Hlongwane1, Zivanai Tsvuura1, Tarombera Mwabvu2, Caswell Munyai1 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 2University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela, South Africa

Ground dwelling arthropods are the most diverse and abundant group of animals and they play an important role in ecosystems. Some arthropods are ecosystem engineers and play a major role in the functioning of ecosystems. Ground dwelling arthropod assemblages are affected by different factors which include vegetation structure, fire, alien plant invasion, and grazing. The aim of this study is to determine the response of ground dwelling arthropods in different habitat types in the KwaZulu-Natal Sandstone Sourveld (KZNSS). KZNSS is one of the most threatened habitats in KwaZulu-Natal (KZN). The sandstone sourveld is endemic to KZN and contains a number of endemic species of flora and fauna. The threats to this habitat stem from alien plant invasion, cultivation of sugar cane and plantations, urbanization and road development. Only 2.3% of this habitat is adequately protected in the eThekwini municipal area. Grassland, forest and disturbed habitats were sampled for ground dwelling arthropods in the dry and wet season using pitfall traps in two sites located in the Durban Municipal Area. Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, Amphipoda, Araneae, Hemiptera, Isoptera and Isopoda were the arthropods orders that were targeted in this study. We expect to find greater species abundance, richness and composition of ground dwelling arthropods in forest habitat as compared to grassland and disturbed sites. Preliminary results of ground dwelling arthropods and vegetation dynamics will be discussed in terms of abundance, diversity, composition and vegetation cover in the forest, grassland, and disturbed habitat.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 343 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0067 - Mortality of the leaf-mining moth, Aristaea thalassias (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), a biological control agent of Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) F. Muell. (Myrtaceae)

Thembelihle Mlokoti1,2, Fiona Impson1,2, John Hoffmann1, Candice Lyons1,2 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council- Plant Protection Research Institute, Stellenbosch, South Africa

A leaf-mining moth, Aristaea (Parectopa) thalassias, is a biological control agent of invasive Leptospermum laevigatum, commonly known as Australian myrtle, in South Africa. The impact of A. thalasisas on L. laevigatum is currently categorised as negligible. Much of the biology of this species is still unknown and very little has been published about it to date. However, it is commonly assumed that the moth experiences high levels of mortality in the field, contributing to its low efficacy as a biocontrol agent. The aim of this study was to quantify the level of mortality of this species, determine which life stage is most prone to mortality and any seasonality patterns in mortality levels. A study was conducted between July 2015 and May 2017 at Stanford. Leaves with larvae and pupae were collected from randomly selected trees in the field and dissected in the laboratory. The numbers of dead and live larvae and pupae were recorded, together with the presence of parasitoids. Percentage mortality was high in all of the life stages, but highest in the rolled-leaf prepupal and pupal phase. Mortality attributed to parasitism was high in February 2017 (30%), and as low as 0% in July 2015, suggesting low overall mortality attributed to parasitism. Causes of mortality were not readily determinable but predation and desiccation might be contributing factors.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 344 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0395 - Are mass-releases of mealybug biocontrol agents on citrus effective?

Stephan Honiball, Marike Ferreira Vital Bugs CC, Tzaneen, Limpopo, South Africa

One of the major pests on citrus in Limpopo is mealybug, especially on star ruby and lemon cultivars. In some instances, up to 90% of the fruit on a tree can be infested with mealybug, which results in a decline in quality and pack-out for the farmer. Secondary pests such as carob moth then often increase as a result of honeydew secretions and sooty mould formation. While citrus mealybug (Planococcus citri) used to be the most dominant mealybug species encountered, the past few years saw a marked increase in delotto mealybug, Delottococcus aberiae, a previously unknown mealybug species. Very little is known of this mealybug, and it is not clear whether it is attacked by current mass-reared biocontrol agents viz. Coccidoxenoides perminutus and Anagyrus pseudococci. Cryptolaemus montrouzieri ‘Mealybug destroyer’ predatory beetles have proved to be very effective biocontrol agents, but can only be used correctively, when high mealybug numbers are already present. By the time these destroyer beetles are released, sufficient numbers of naturally occurring parasitic wasps have also built up, thus it is difficult to judge how effective the released beetles were. This study aims to determine if mass-releases of biocontrol agents on different citrus cultivars had any effect and, to a lesser degree, how mass- releases compared to conventional pesticides.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 345 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0319 - Distribution and thermal thresholds of Gonipterus species (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Australia

Michelle Schroder1, Helen Nahrung2, Simon Lawson2, Bernard Slippers1, Michael Wingfield1, Brett Hurley1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of the Sunshine Coast, Queensland, Australia

Species, climatic and phenological mismatches between insect hosts and parasitoids are amongst the most frequently cited reasons for failures in classical biological control. The egg parasitoid, Anaphes nitens Girault, was released in South Africa as well as other parts of the world to control insects in the species complex. Once treated as a single species, G. scutellatus Gyll. is now recognised as a complex of cryptic species, three of which are invasive in various parts of the world. Limited information is available regarding the native distribution of the different cryptic species in the G. scutellatus complex, their associated natural enemies and the temperature thresholds that influence their life cycles. This study aimed to determine the distribution and lethal temperature thresholds of Gonipterus species in Australia, and their respective parasitoid species. Four of the eight cryptic species were collected. The invasive G. sp. n. 2 was the most widely distributed. G. sp. n. 1 was collected from New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, G. sp. n. 3 from Victoria and South Australia, and G. sp. n. 4 from Queensland. Limited parasitoid material was collected for these species. Preliminary data do not indicate a difference in lethal temperature thresholds between Gonipterus species. However, the upper lethal threshold is significantly higher for Gonipterus species than A. nitens. These results suggest that in the case of G. sp. n. 2, which is invasive in Africa and Europe, population outbreaks are more likely due to climatic factors than species mismatches.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 346 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0335 - Comparing genetic patterns in Tullbergia bisetosa (indigenous) and Isotomurus maculatus (invasive) (Collembola) on sub-Antarctic Marion Island

Harini Jagatap1, Rosemary Dorrington2, Bettine Van Vuuren1 1Center for Ecological Agenomics and Wildlife Conservation, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Understanding DNA patterns in space and time informs aspects of species biology, demographic history, and also conservation. Phylogeography is the study of the phylogeny of intra-specific lineages in relation to their geographic ranges. It promotes valuable ideas about how species interact within their habitat matrix. Here, we focus on determining and comparing spatial and temporal DNA patterns of two Collembola species, Tullbergia bisetosa and Isotomurus maculatus. These species occur on sub-Antarctic Marion Island; Tullbergia being endemic and Isotomurus being alien invasive. Understanding how spatial patterns vary between species, and how they respond to a changing environment, is the main aim of the study. Specifically, the Southern Ocean plays an important role in global climate change where studies have shown that there has been a definite warming of the surface of the Southern Oceans during the last 50 years. Climate sets range limits in many taxa, and as climate changes, the ranges that species occupy are altered. The aim here is to determine the spatial genetic patterns in these two Collembola species, and how these patterns may differ because of life history. It has been widely suggested that warming climates would favour invasive species, with endemic species moving to higher latitudes/altitudes. Soil samples were collected from several localities across the island, and in combination with a Collembola-Collembola comparison, we will analyse soil microfauna to determine whether congruent patterns exist. These comparisons will inform the presence of microrefugia for conservation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 347 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0057 - Factors affecting the decline of Russian wheat aphid (Diuraphis noxia) in wheat production areas in South Africa

Astrid Jankielsohn ARC-Small Grains Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa

Climatic changes have a significant impact on agricultural production as well as the suitability of an area for the production of a specific crop. Change in the climatic environment impacts crop yield indirectly by affecting the prevalence and distribution of insects. Other factors such as increasing production costs and decreasing prices for crops influence the type of crop and the area planted with a specific crop. Not only are there constant changes in the natural environment, but the agricultural landscape is also changing all the time. The area utilized for wheat production in South Africa decreased by almost 43% from the 2004/2005 season and by 6% compared to the 2013/2014 season. The decrease in wheat plantings is mainly a result of dry land wheat producers in the summer rainfall area (Free State province), shifting from wheat to summer crops like maize and soybeans. This has resulted in the fragmentation of wheat ecosystems. Russian wheat aphid (RWA) is a global wheat pest which utilizes wheat as its main host, with a limited number of alternative hosts. The decrease in wheat plantings will likely influence the population structure of RWA and the structure of the RWA biotype complex. RWA biotypes were monitored in the wheat production areas in South Africa from 2010 to 2015. There has been a steady decline in RWA infestation of wheat from 2010 to 2015. These observations are significant and can serve as a management model in areas where wheat is still the predominant crop.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 348 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0382 - A comprehensive analysis of the Gruiformes to identify their key conservation risks and relate these to their conservation and captive breeding activities

Lara Jordan1, Kevin Kirkman1, Tracy Rehse2, Colleen Downs1 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 2National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

Determining extinction risk of a species enables conservationists and wildlife professionals to prioritise conservation goals for in situ as well as ex situ populations. We focussed our analysis on the order Gruiformes, specifically Gruidae and Rallidae, to identify trends in extrinsic and intrinsic factors affecting their extinction risk. Global databases were used to collate information on perceived and current threats, risks, stressors, biological factors, world economic incomes, habitats utilised, region of range and endemism, all of with have been identified as contributing to extinction risk to in situ populations of the various threatened Gruidae and Rallidae. We then used multivariate analysis to identify the key factors affecting extinction risk for the respective species. In addition we made a comparison of the 52 species of Gruidae and Rallidae kept in captivity using the same technique and assessed the sustainability of the captive populations with emphasis on the species classed as Vulnerable, Endangered and Critically Endangered.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 349 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0350 - Asphodelus fistulosus L., a new plant invader in South Africa: assessment of risk and potential for eradication

Nolwethu Jubase1, Jorge Renteria1,2, David Maphisa3, Ernita van Wyk1 1Invasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Western Cape, South Africa, 2School of Agriculture, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private, KZN, South Africa, 3Statistics in Ecology, Environment and Conservation, Department of Statistical Sciences, Western Cape, South Africa

Naturalising populations of Asphodelus fistulosus (onion weed), native to Europe, were recorded in South Africa for the first time during the early 1990s. This represents the first record of an invasive member of the Asphodelaceae family in South Africa. Initial records lodged in 2012 indicated the presence of two populations. Further surveys and public awareness-raising initiatives led to the discovery of five more populations between 2012 and 2016. All known populations occur along roadsides but in other parts of the world the species has demonstrated the ability to spread into adjacent native vegetation and crop fields. Population sizes vary from 4m2 to 486m2 and plant density varies from13 plants/m2 to 4310 plants/m2. Randomised fixed plots were used to monitor the response of A. fistulosus populations to mechanical and chemical control and to track spread over time. Results over a four-year period suggest that suppression of reproduction is possible (age at reproduction is six months) and both mechanical and chemical control were effective. As the plant is highly detectable, and control methods are effective, we believe existing naturalised populations can be extirpated with persistent effort. There is substantial uncertainty in terms of knowing that all naturalised or cultivated individuals have been found. This limits the suitability of the species as a national eradication target. However, based on the invasive risk it poses and given encouraging results from extirpation effort as shown in this study, we conclude that site- specific extirpation is a feasible management goal for this species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 350 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0160 - Dragonflies as umbrella species in Western Cape rivers

Gabriella Kietzka1,2, James Pryke1,2, Michael Samways1,2, René Gaigher1,2 1Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, 2Mondi, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Bioindicators are increasingly being utilised to aid in effective biodiversity conservation. Successful bioindicators readily reflect the physical or biotic state of an ecosystem or are suggestive of the diversity of other taxa. Odonata are highly sensitive to environmental change and are renowned for their use as bioindicators (i.e. use of the Dragonfly Biotic Index (DBI)) and possibly as an umbrella taxon. The umbrella concept aims to design conservation measures that benefit one or more species and in the process provides conditions required by populations of co-occurring species. Although a strong correlation has been found between DBI scores and macroinvertebrate scores, their use as an umbrella taxon has only been conducted for wetland plant species in the USA. Therefore, this study investigates the use of dragonflies as an umbrella taxon for species from three orders commonly used in other indices (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera). Ninety sites, with 45 in natural and 45 in agricultural areas were selected along four Western Cape province rivers, and equally divided between three river habitat types according to flow turbulence, namely riffle, glide, and pool. At each site adult, male dragonfly species were recorded and macroinvertebrates were sampled according to miniSASS guidelines. Environmental variables related to vegetation, substrate and water characteristics were also recorded. Preliminary results indicate that adult dragonfly species richness correlates to those of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera. This suggests that dragonflies can be used as an umbrella taxon for these other important freshwater taxa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 351 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0412 - Bartonella in the Mahali mole-rat (Cryptomys hottentotus mohali) from South Africa

Dewald Kleynhans, Luiza Hatyoka, Daniel Hart, Nigel Bennett, Armanda Bastos Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The Mahali mole-rat (Cryptomys hottentotus mahali) occurs in the northern parts of Gauteng, South Africa, and has a proposed range that stretches northward into the Limpopo province. The Mahali mole-rat is often found in association with agriculture, livestock and human settlements, and is considered a pest in many parts. For the purposes of screening for Bartonella genome presence, whole colonies were collected from a smallholdings district on the northern outskirts of Gauteng. DNA was extracted from the spleen of 84 individuals and molecularly screened using Bartonella genus-specific primers. These results were validated by sequencing amplified fragments and this also provided insights regarding the diversity present. The prevalence of Bartonella in Mahali mole- rats is higher than previously been reported for related species. Variation in prevalence between colonies and reproductive status within these colonies were evaluated. Whereas the molecular prevalence is the highest yet recorded for any mole-rat species, the diversity of Bartonella was low. The identification of strains closely related toBartonella elizabethae, are of zoonotic relevance and suggests transmission pathways facilitating spill-over from terrestrial small mammals.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 352 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0407 - Insect monitoring: the South African suction trap network

Kerstin Krüger1, Goddy Prinsloo2, Kobus Laubscher3, Janine Snyman1, Ian Millar4 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council - Small Grains Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa, 3Western Cape Department of Agriculture, Elsenburg, South Africa, 4Agricultural Research Council - Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa

Monitoring of insect disease vectors is a key element of effective management of plant and animal diseases. A national aphid-monitoring suction trap network has been established in South Africa to monitor the flight of aphids transmitting plant viruses to potato and wheat. The network currently consists of 13 Rothamsted-type suction traps situated in strategic regions in South Africa, representing different provinces and habitat types. The 12.2 metre high traps are of international standard and continuously collect airborne insects at a standardized volume in a radius ranging from 30 to 80 km2 or more depending on the topography of the region. The traps are being operated throughout the year. Samples are collected at daily or weekly intervals. Through constant monitoring of aphids with these traps, any variation in species composition and numbers can be determined. This information, together with data on virus transmission efficiency, is used regularly to alert growers and other stakeholders to the risk of plant disease spread. Suction traps have a number of advantages. Unlike other traps that actively attract insects, suction traps do not only collect insects over a wide area but measure absolute abundance per unit volume of air, providing an unbiased sample allowing for comparisons across species within a group and regions. Apart from Hemiptera, insects from other orders collected in suction traps include mainly Diptera and Coleoptera. The existing national suction trap network has the potential to form the basis for a surveillance network for invasive insects and other insects of interest.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 353 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0042 - Weeds as alternate hosts for Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Westwoood) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in greenhouses in the OR Tambo Municipal District, South Africa

Simon Kuria, Zimbini Scott Walter Sisulu University, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Trialeurodes vaporariorum is a serious pest of horticultural crops. The pest causes damage by feeding on the phloem sap and excreting honeydew which encourages growth of sooty mould. It is also a major vector of virus diseases. A survey was carried out inside and outside the greenhouses at Mthatha Airport Agricultural Services, OR Tambo Municipal District to determine whether weed species would act as alternate hosts for this pest. Several weed species were found to harbour adult whiteflies. However, only the three most common were monitored for T. vaporariorum development. During each sampling session, ten plants from each species were randomly sampled. From each plant, three leaves were plucked off and placed in plastic bags for laboratory analysis where the number of eggs and the presence or absence of pupal exuviae on the leaves were observed using a stereo microscope. Pupal exuviae were found on the leaves of Oxalis corniculata L., Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist and Sonchus oleraceus L., implying they are potential host plants. Results also indicated that the number of eggs laid per leaf was significantly different on the three weed species. The mean egg counts forO . corniculata (10.42 ± 0.82) were significantly lower than for C. bonariensis (243.86 ± 15.25) and S. oleraceus (221.01 ± 16.64).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 354 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0178 - Phylogeography of codistributed anuran species in the Eastern Cape forests, South Africa

Judith Natsai Theodora Kushata1, Michael Cherry1, Werner Conradie2,3, Savel Daniels1 1Department of Botany and Zoology, University of Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, 2Port Elizabeth Museum, P.O. Box 13147, Humewood 6013, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 3Research Associate, Department of Zoology, P.O. Box 77000, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

The phylogeography of three anuran species in the forested regions of the Eastern Cape province, South Africa was investigated. Two terrestrial leaf litter species, Anhydrophryne rattrayi and Arthroleptis wahlbergi, which are confined to the Amathole Mistbelt and the Coastal Scarp forests, respectively, were compared to a widespread generalist species, Cacosternum nanum, which inhabits forests as well as adjacent grasslands. We hypothesised that A. rattrayi and A. wahlbergi would exhibit marked strong genetic structure based on reproductive traits, range restriction and the highly fragmented nature of their habitats, while C. nanum would exhibit limited genetic differentiation. A total of 95 tissue samples collected in 11 localities were amplified and sequenced for the mitochondrial cytochrome b (Cyt-b) locus. Preliminary analyses from haplotype networks indicate three genetically isolated clades in A. rattrayi, two isolated clades in A. wahlbergi and limited genetic variation in C. nanum. Larger sample sizes for each species and the use of a nuclear DNA locus are required further to explore the phylogeographic patterning in the three species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 355 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0010 - Geometric morphometrics on the group in South Africa

Karien Labuschagne Agricultural Research Council – Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Gauteng, South Africa

Culicoides imicola and Culicoides bolitinos are important vector species of several viruses that include African horse sickness, bluetongue and equine encephalosis virus in South Africa. Both these species belong to the imicola group of the subgenus Avaritia. In South Africa, the following six species are part of this group: C. imicola, C. bolitinos, C. kwagga, C. loxodontis, C. miombo, and C. tuttifrutti. These species are morphologically very similar and, before 1989, were identified as C. imicola. From 1989 to 2003, Meiswinkel described C. bolitinos, C. sp. # 107 (C. kwagga), C. loxodontis, C. miombo and C. tuttifrutti. Sebastiani et al. (2001) validated the descriptions of Meiswinkel through molecular sequencing. Recent molecular studies have suggested that there may be more species in this group, with variable haplotypes in the same area. The study aimed to investigate this in a geometric morphometric context. Digital photographs taken of the wings of all six species, available in the Culicoides slide collection at ARC-OVI. Twelve landmarks on each wing photograph were digitised using the CLIC program. The resulting procrustes co-ordinates were then analysed with MorphoJ.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 356 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0198 - Bartonella prevalence and diversity in commensal and wild populations of Mastomys coucha (Rodentia: Muridae) from South Africa

Anja le Grange1, Helene Brettschneider1, Christian T. Chimimba1,2, Armanda D.S. Bastos1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology (CIB), Department of Zoology & Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Bartonellae are intracellular bacteria that infect a wide variety of vertebrate hosts. Rodent species worldwide harbour a wide diversity of bartonellae, often at very high prevalence rates. The aim of the present study was to compare the Bartonella prevalence and diversity between wild and commensal populations of the southern multimammate mouse, Mastomys coucha (Rodentia: Muridae) from South Africa. Heart samples from 58 wild and 89 commensal animals were screened for Bartonella genome presence using primer sets targeting the citrate synthase (gltA) and NADH dehydrogenase gamma subunit (nuoG) genes. A prevalence of 56% and 92% was obtained for wild and commensal animals, respectively, representing a significant difference between the two populations. Phylogenetic analyses revealed the presence of novel genotypes as well as lineages that correspond with Bartonella elizabethae and B. coopersplainsensis, which have both been reported from invasive Rattus species in South Africa. The identification of B. elizabethae, a species with known zoonotic potential implicated in causing endocarditis and neuroretinitis in humans and dogs, together with the high infection prevalence in the commensal population highlights the importance of commensal rodents in the spread of zoonotic diseases.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 357 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0214 - Human-mediated impacts in indigenous forests of the Eastern Cape, South Africa: implications for forest- dependent bird habitat quality

Jessica Leaver1, Nokwanda Makunga1, Michelle Cocks2, Michael Cherry1 1Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

Half of South Africa’s forest-dependent birds, including a number of endemic species, have experienced range declines since 1992, with declines most evident in the Eastern Cape. Regional increases in forest cover over this period indicate that habitat degradation may be a stronger driver of forest bird declines than habitat loss. Indigenous forests in the Eastern Cape occur in regions largely characterised by severe rural poverty, resulting in the interaction of ecological and social factors underpinned by the fact that forests provide valuable natural resources to people. Similarly, forest-dependent birds rely on forest resources to survive and reproduce. This study aimed to investigate whether overlap in the resource needs of people and forest-dependent birds results in a decline in bird habitat quality. Specifically, this study assessed the extent and pattern of the collection of dead wood for fuelwood, harvesting of medicinal bark and pole-sized trees, and livestock browsing, across various forest ecotypes in the Eastern Cape, and ensuing impacts on bird habitat quality. The response of forest birds to these varying human-mediated disturbances was assessed using point count data collected across ‘utilised’ and ‘unutilised’ sites within each sample forest, and interpreted based on life-history traits and ecological attributes of recorded forest bird species. Preliminary results suggest that forest resource use is highly site- specific, with subsistence-based use higher in coastal than mistbelt forests. Commercial-scale harvesting of medicinal bark is excessive in many coastal and mistbelt forests, often resulting in tree death, thereby increasing the availability of dead wood in these forests.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 358 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0115 - Mapping invasive smelter’s bush (Flaveria bidentis) using a simple unmanned aerial vehicle and open source software packages

Rion Lerm, Anthony Swemmer SAEON, Ndlovu Node, South Africa

Invasive plant species are a world-wide problem, and it can be costly and sometimes ineffective to determine even the extent of such invasions. However, with the development of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) technology and lightweight multispectral sensors, mapping vegetation is becoming a simpler task. Smelter’s bush (Flaveria bidentis) is one such example of a South African invader that spreads rapidly. Invasions of species like this that out-compete local indigenous plants are especially of concern near or inside protected areas. We used a lightweight UAV to map relatively small areas of Smelter’s bush invasion adjacent to the Kruger National Park (KNP) boundary. This baseline survey together with open source software packages showed extensive monocultures growing in drainage lines leading into KNP. Computed indices such as Excessive Greenness and to a lesser extent a Digital Surface Model only partially distinguished this bright green forb from surrounding vegetation without the use of a hyperspectral onboard sensor (with near-infrared capability). Die-off from drought conditions and mechanical removal, however, were clearly evident on the RGB UAV imagery. This “trail-run” is proof that high quality imagery and other results can still be obtained when using a relatively cheap UAV and open source software.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 359 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0264 - Culicoides species composition along an African horse sickness gradient in Namibia

Danica Liebenberg1, Stuart Piketh1, Karien Labuschagne2, Gert Venter2, Telane Greyling1, Charlotte Mienie1, Tania de Waal1, Huib van Hamburg1 1Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North-West University (Potchefstroom campus), Potchefstroom, South Africa, 2Parasites, Vectors and Vector Borne Diseases, Agricultural Research Council- Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort, Pretoria, South Africa

African horse sickness (AHS) is one of the most lethal infectious, non-contagious, vector-borne disease of equids and has been declared notifiable by the World Organisation for Animal Health. The causative virus, African horse sickness virus (AHSV) is transmitted by Culicoides midges (Diptera: ). AHS is endemic to Namibia but detailed studies of Culicoides communities are limited. This study aims to determine the Culicoides species composition at three sites along an AHS prevalence gradient in Namibia. Weekly collections of Culicoides were made during the AHS peak season from January to May for 2013 and 2014 using the Onderstepoort UV- light trap. Of 397 collections made, 124 were analysed for AHSV presence with RT-qPCR and 295 for total Culicoides (all collected Culicoides individuals). Of these Culicoides collections 75% were identified to species level. Identification revealed the presence of 48Culicoides species with only 17 species collected at all three sites. C. imicola was the dominant species with C. subschultzei, C. exspectator and C. ravus each contributing more than 10% to the species composition. The lowest number of Culicoides was collected at Aus (low AHS incidence) and the highest number at Okahandja (high AHS incidence). AHSV was present at all three sites during 2013 but only in Windhoek and Okahandja during 2014. A positive relationship was found between the number of Culicoides collected and the prevalence of AHS. The high number of species collected of which little is known regarding their vector competence and biology, add to the complexity of AHS prevalence in Namibia.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 360 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0182 - Optimisation and evaluation of novel adult trapping methods to be used in surveillance of the malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis

Leanne Lobb1,2, Lizette Koekemoer1,2, Givemore Munhenga2,1 1Wits Research Institute for Malaria, School of Pathology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Centre for Emerging, Zoonotic & Parasitic Diseases, National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Johannesburg, South Africa

Anopheles arabiensis, a malaria vector mosquito present in South Africa, is not being sufficiently controlled by the current indoor insecticide spraying programme as it frequently feeds and rests outdoors. The need to find complementary vector control measures that target outdoor biting populations resulted in feasibility studies on the use of the Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) to target An. arabiensis. One of the critical aspects of an SIT programme is having a surveillance system to gather baseline information on population dynamics of the targeted species both prior to releases and post releases. Currently a surveillance system has been set up in Mamfene, northern KwaZulu- Natal, a site targeted for SIT pilot releases. The surveillance consists of mosquito sampling using two passive trapping techniques: traditional ceramic pots and modified plastic buckets. These novel collection methods are proving to be very effective in collecting both outdoors and indoors as well as male and female mosquitoes which is ideal for SIT. Despite their effectiveness these tools are not fully addressing the surveillance requirements for an SIT programme and need to be modified. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of these traps as well as two others and investigate modifications that may improve their collection efficiency. Results of these comparisons will be presented and discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 361 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0361 - Whiskers of southern elephant seals as a matrix for obtaining fine-scale dietary data

Nico Lubcker, Ryan Reisinger, Chris Oosthuizen, Nico de Bruyn, Marthan Bester 1Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Balboa, Panama City, Panama, 3Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alaska, Anchorage, USA, 4Marine Apex Predator Research Unit, Institute for Coastal and Marine Research, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, 5Department of Nature Conservation, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa, 6Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Insight into the trophic ecology of marine predators is vital to ascertain their role in the marine ecosystem, a pre-requisite for linking observed changes in population demographics and distribution patterns to large-scale environmental fluctuations. We utilized stable isotope (SI) analysis to quantify the contribution of crustaceans to the diet of juvenile southern elephant seals (SES) Mirounga leonina, sampled at Marion Island in consecutive years (2011 - 2013). Whisker regrowths of juvenile SES (n = 14) with a known growth rate were sequentially sampled along the length of each whisker, and produced fine-scale intra- and inter-individual dietary information during their first year at sea. The depleted δ15N (8.5 ± 0.6‰, mean ± SD) measured during the post-weaning foraging confirmed that juvenile SES of both sexes consumed lower trophic level prey within the Antarctic Polar Front and Polar Frontal Zone, corresponding to a δ13C of -20.3 ± 0.1‰. A mixing model predicted that 76% of their diets comprised of crustaceans, presumably subantarctic krill species. This first utilization of whisker regrowths to increase the resolution of dietary information obtainable through SI analysis confirms and quantifies the contribution of krill to the diet of juvenile SES. Dietary information for juvenile SES aids our understanding of their role in the marine ecosystem and is pivotal to their future utility as sentinels to gauge ocean health.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 362 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0404 - Karoo BioGap Project - spiders contribute to filling biodiversity information gaps in the Karoo

Robin Lyle, Ansie Dippenaar-Schoeman, Petro Marais Agricultural Research Council, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) has secured funding from the National Research Foundation (NRF) Foundation Biodiversity Information Programme (FBIP) to sample biodiversity in the proposed Karoo Shale Fracking Area. The funding is used to help provide the National Department of Environmental Affairs (DEA) with foundational biodiversity data that will contribute to the Shale Gas Exploration Strategic Environmental Assessment (SGE SEA). Currently, the Karoo is poorly surveyed and existing biodiversity data have major gaps, especially in the area targeted for shale gas exploration. Spiders are one of the eleven different taxa to be studied as part of this project. The project contributes to the South African National Survey of Arachnida (SANSA) as sampling will be done at sites in the Karoo where little or no sampling has been done before. All specimens sampled will be accessioned into the National Collection of Arachnida and all databased records will be shared with SANBI. Some initial findings to date are discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 363 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0348 - Biodiversity of mites on tea plant (Camellia sinensis) in South Africa: a complete study

Pholoshi Maake1, Eddie Ueckermann2 1Biosystematics Division, ARC - Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa, 2School of Biological Sciences/Zoology, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa

Mites are the most serious pests of tea in almost all tea-producing countries. The vast expanse of tea ecosystem provides a stable, favorable microclimate, uninterrupted food supply and suitable sites for the reproduction and survival of pests. Annual surveys of mites in South Africa were carried out between1959 and 1990 for the National Collection of Arachnida (NCA), but much focus was placed on natural ecosystems. Mites on tea plantations were neglected, and the diversity on the functional estates is unknown. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the diversity, taxonomy, and study the biology and ecology, symptoms and impacts of economically important mite groups. Five estates were surveyed between 2015 and 2017, Tshivhase and Makumbane estates in Limpopo, Ntingwe estate in Kwa-Zulu-Natal, as well as Magwa and Majola estates in the Eastern Cape. Over 400 slide- mounted specimens have been deposited in NCA, the taxa represented belonging to 10 families, 16 genera and at least 20 species. The ongoing morphological study indicates that at least six new species belonging to three families and five genera, Tetranychidae (Schizotetranychus and Myxonichus), Tenuipalpidae (Brevipalpus and Tenuipalpus) and Tuckerellidae (Tuckerella) have been discovered. Where phytophagous mites were found, the leaves looked red at the sites of attack. As the population increased, the infested leaves become darker and took on a scorched appearance, and a general reduction in size of the new fresh leaves was common. Eventually these resulted in low tea production, fruit drop and even death of the plant.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 364 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0123 - Patterns of land use influence ant diversity in the savanna lowveld of Swaziland

S.M. Lukhele1, C. Reynolds2,3, R.A. McCleery2, C.N. Magagula1 1Department of Biological Sciences, University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland, 2Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA, 3Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology (PFIAO), DST/NRF Centre of Excellence, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa

The habitat heterogeneity hypothesis states that increasing heterogeneity leads to an increase in species diversity, thereby benefiting biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. This study aimed to ascertain how variation in land-use patterns and subsequent heterogeneity (compositional and configurational) affect the biodiversity in a lowveld savanna mosaic. Ants are increasingly used as environmental indicators and were thus selected as the focal taxon. The study area consisted of six sites that comprised a combination of high, low and medium land-use compositional and configurational heterogeneity. It was also stratified longitudinally into three regions (north, middle and south) to account for variability along a rainfall gradient, resulting in 75 plots. Pitfall traps were used over a period of six weeks and a total of 3818 individuals, comprising 25 species of ants, were trapped. Generalized linear mixed models were run to ascertain the response of ant species diversity as a function of land composition, landscape configuration, amount of each land- use type and structural heterogeneity. Using the Akaike information criterion (AIC), land diversity (Shannon diversity) came out as the best covariant in explaining the species diversity of ants, suggesting that an increase in the amount of land cover types (different land uses) increased ant diversity. Appropriate conservation and management applications should be applied to maximise maintenance of ant species diversity as landscapes are transformed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 365 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0167 - Distribution of banded fruit weevil (Phlyctinus callosus) (Schönherr) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in apple orchards in Elgin

Meshack Magagula Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Banded fruit weevil, Phlyctinus callosus (Schönherr), is a major pest of deciduous fruits and grapevines in the Western Cape. The factors affecting the distribution of banded fruit weevil (BFW) in apple orchards are poorly known. The data for the study were obtained from apple orchards near Elgin, Western Cape, for a period of three consecutive seasons (2013/14, 2014/15 and 2015/16). The aim of the study was to improve management strategies for the BFW and the objective of the study was to determine the distribution of BFW damage in orchards across a large (farm) spatial scale by assessing various factors. Fruit damage was assessed before harvest. Data were collected for the 2013/14, 2014/15 and 2015/16 seasons by well-trained orchard monitors. A total of 480 fruit per cultivar in a given orchard were picked and inspected for BFW damage. For the analysis, data were entered in Excel and exported to ArcGIS 10.3.1. Damage percentage was integrated with orchard maps in ArcGIS 10.3.1. A correlation analysis and regression were done in Excel. Correlating both the mean orchard slope and weevil damage showed that the correlation was weak and the regression insignificant. There was no correlation between orchard slope and BFW damage. It is suggested that the distribution of weevil damage could be associated to other abiotic factors such as soil texture and cover crop.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 366 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0326 - Australian Acacia species in South Africa: an assessment of introduction status.

Nkoliso Magona1,2, David M Richardson1, Johannes J Le Roux1, John R Wilson1,2 1aCentre for Invasion Biology, Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa, 2bInvasive Species Programme, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Kirstenbosch Research Centre, Claremont 7735, South Africa

Australian Acacia species (wattles) are widespread and abundant invaders in many parts of the world, and have caused substantial impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services. South Africa is a hotspot for wattle invasions, but the last detailed inventory of the group in South Africa was based on data collated forty years ago. In this project we aimed to determine:1) how many Australian Acacia species have been introduced to South Africa; 2) which species are still present; and 3) the introduction status of species that are present. All herbaria in South Africa with specimens of introduced Australian Acacia species were visited and locality records were compared with records from the literature, databases, and expert knowledge. Field surveys were conducted to confirm the presence at previously known localities and they were categorized according to the Blackburn Scheme. We found evidence that 114 Australian Acacia species had been introduced to South Africa, of which 50 are still present. Seventeen of these species are invasive (16 are category (E), one is (D2) in the Blackburn Scheme); 8 have naturalised (C); and 25 are (C1). It is clear that systematic re-evaluations of historical records, as conducted here, is crucial if the status of even well studied groups of alien taxa are to be accurately determined.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 367 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0321 - A description of a newly discovered skeleton of Endothiodon (Therapsida, Anomodontia), from the Late Permian of the Karoo Basin of South Africa

Iyra Maharaj University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

The dicynodonts are an extinct group of herbivorous non-mammalian synapsids that were fairly abundant in Gondwanan deposits of the Middle Permian to the Early periods. The extinct genus Endothiodon was first described by Sir Richard Owen in 1876, and is well known from the Late Permian deposits of the Karoo Basin of South Africa. It is characterised by rows of internal teeth on the premaxilla and a dentary arranged in replacement waves called Zahnreihen; longitudinal ridges running from the premaxilla to the pineal crest; and a prominent pineal boss and pineal foramen. Endothiodon is well represented by cranial and postcranial material in the Karoo vertebrate collections at various museums in South Africa. The repeated revision of this genus over the years has led to taxonomical confusion about what constitutes the type species, E. bathystoma. Recently, a complete skeleton of Endothiodon was recovered from the uppermost Pristerognathus Assemblage Zone of the Karoo Supergroup. The fossil comprises of the skull and almost all postcranial elements preserved in articulation.

The current study fully describes the anatomy of this specimen, and by studying its morphology and size, its ontogenetic position relative to all other South African Endothiodon specimens was determined. The results of the study show that this is the largest Endothiodon specimen found to date and it has been identified as E. bathystoma. The well-preserved postcranial skeleton presents an opportunity for future studies to answer many questions regarding the posture and biomechanics, as well as other aspects of the palaeobiology of this animal.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 368 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0393 - Environmental drivers of foraging migration strategies in southern elephant seals

Tshepiso Majelantle, Trevor McIntyre, P.J. Nico de Bruyn University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Understanding the foraging ecology of predators within an ecosystem is an important step towards modelling energy flow and predator-prey interactions. In a heterogeneous and patchy environment like the ocean, foraging predators adjust their behaviour in relation to the environmental structure to exploit patchily distributed resources. Southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina (Linnaeus, 1758) are important predators in Southern Ocean food webs. They exhibit foraging site fidelity, with occasional deviations. The relationship between environmental variables and the at-sea behaviour of southern elephant seals (SES) remains poorly understood. Similarly, the possible correlates of environmental cues with SES foraging fidelity is unknown. This study aims to analyse the relationship between a series of environmental variables and SES at-sea behaviour and to assess the environmental drivers of changes in behaviour for individuals tracked over multiple foraging migrations. We report on behavioural data from 95 satellite relay data loggers (SRDLs) deployed on SES at Marion Island between April 2004 and September 2013. The relationships between remotely-sensed environmental variables (sea surface temperature and chlorophyll-a) and in situ temperature at depth with a series of behavioural metrics are explored using linear mixed effects models. The outcomes of this study will provide a better understanding of environmental influences on SES at-sea behaviour, in particular the levels of foraging fidelity. This may provide additional insights into how SES are likely to respond behaviourally to ongoing climate change in the Southern Ocean.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 369 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0315 - Promoting conservation biological control in agroecosystems by using ecological functions provided by insect predators: a review

Maria Makwela1, Astrid Jankielsohn1,2, Caswell Munyai1,2 1Agricultural Research Council-Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa, 2University of KwaZulu Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Conservation biological control aims to improve habitat management that protects and enhances natural enemies which reduce the damaging effect of insect pests and the need for pesticide application. Arthropod predators play an important role as natural control agents of many agricultural pests. Although predatory species are known for their ability to successfully suppress phytophagous pest populations in agroecosystems, their ability to provide these ecosystem functions in agricultural systems is limited by the scarcity of essential resources and pesticide applications. Many additional factors may influence the population diversity of predatory insects within agroecosystems, including conventional farming practices resulting in decreased ability to suppress pest insects. According to the natural enemy hypothesis, natural enemies will be more abundant and diverse in a diversified ecosystem than in monocultures. Diversified agroecosystems would result in diverse predator guilds, increasing the role of biological control in agricultural systems. To improve and conserve biological control it is important to understand the relationship between agricultural intensification, biodiversity and pest suppression.This review examines how diversified agricultural practices contribute to conservation biological control through diversifying predatory natural enemies.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 370 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0317 - Conservation of soil biodiversity to enhance agricultural productivity and sustainability: A review

Emogine Mamabolo1,2, Astrid Jankielsohn1, Caswell Munyai2 1Agricultural Research Council-Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa, 2University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

The agricultural sector is currently under a significant pressure to produce sufficient food to meet the demands of a growing population and this must be done without sacrificing the environment, while preserving farmland diversity and ecosystem services provided by this diversity. The stability of the soil ecosystem and its ability to perform ecosystem functions is closely linked to the relative abundance of diverse functional assemblages of organisms. Soil biodiversity is a fundamental component for agricultural productivity and food security and a valued element of environmental conservation. Among the organisms that make up the soil fauna, the macrofauna comprises the largest fauna dwelling in the soil. The soil macrofauna communities, with particular reference to the taxa of earthworms, ants, termites, millipedes and beetles are important components of the soil biodiversity largely governing ecosystem functioning. Modern agricultural systems are unsustainable due to the heavy reliance on chemical fertilisation, chemical pest control and mechanization. These practices are major contributors to the loss of biological diversity and environmental degradation. In a search for sustainable agricultural systems, practices that sustainably conserve and enhance biodiversity are necessary at all levels in agroecosystems. Solutions for sustainable agriculture and food security can be feasible through the improved management and conservation of the soil biodiversity in agro-ecosystems. This review highlights how the conservation of soil biological resources can be the most effective route to agricultural sustainability and stability.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 371 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0011 - Effects of land-use changes on aspects of the ecology of long-crested eagles, including habitat use particularly when breeding

Machawe Maphalala1, Colleen Downs1, Ara Monadjem2, Keith Bildstein3 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 2University of Swaziland, Kwaluseni, Swaziland, 3Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, Orwigsburg, USA

Long-crested eagles (Lophaetus occipitalis Daudin, 1800) are considered as common raptors in parts of KwaZulu-Natal as they are frequently spotted in open habitats such as roadsides, marshes, farmlands and edges of forests, yet their use of these habitats has been little studied. It has been suggested that their apparent expansion in range may be linked to their ability to adapt to human modified habitats which provide proper nesting sites and suitable hunting habitats. This study therefore aims to quantify their use of these various habitats. We are using GPS-UHF transmitters to track the movement of adult birds during breeding and non-breeding seasons. Data obtained will be used to estimate breeding and non-breeding season home ranges in both rural and urban habitats (urban; n=2, rural; n=6). Results of the study will contribute to conservation and management of raptors that breed outside protected areas.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 372 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0055 - Insect health for weed biological control

Tamryn Marsberg, Martin Hill 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, Rhodes University, P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown, 6140, South Africa.

Increased global trade has led to the world-wide introduction of non-indigenous, invasive weeds. Invasive weeds have favourable characteristics that help them invade and outcompete the natural biodiversity of the area. For example, aquatic invasive weeds have the ability to cause major changes in water bodies (e.g. rivers, open water and wetlands), having an impact on aquaculture, commercial and subsistence farming, hydropower, irrigation, transport, and recreation. Some of the major invaders in South Africa are aquatic weeds and those in the Cactaceae family. South Africa is known to have five of the most problematic invasive aquatic weeds: Eichhornia crassipes (Martius, Solms-Laubach) (water hyacinth), Azolla filiculoides (Lamarck) (red water fern), Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vellozo, Verdcourt) (parrot’s feather), Pistia stratiotes (Linnaeus) (water lettuce) and Salvinia molesta (Mitch) (salvinia). An important Cactaceae invasive weed is Pereskia aculeata. However, the above weeds are under adequate control by various biological control agents. A mass-rearing facility of these biological control agents has been set up at Waainek Research Station, Rhodes University, Grahamstown. Currently, the health of the released insect at the target site is unknown. Thus, the efficacy of control may be less then what is actually possible to achieve. The aim of this study is to identify a suitable diagnostic method to measure the health of the biological control agents post-release.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 373 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0124 - The distribution and impact of two species of Eccritotarsus on Eichhornia crassipes in South Africa

Zolile Maseko, Julie Coetzee, Martin Hill, Iain Paterson Rhodes University, Grahamstown, Eastern Cape, South Africa

Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms (Pontederiaceae), is the most problematic aquatic weed in South Africa, where it has been targeted for biological control since the 1970s, with eight species of natural enemies released against it, more than anywhere else in the world. Amongst these are two morphologically similar species of mirid from the genus Eccritotarsus, which were collected in geographically separate loci in South America, one from Brazil (Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) and the other from Peru (E. eichhornia) (both Heteroptera: Miridae). The latter was imported into South Africa to increase the genetic diversity of E. catarinensis as it was assumed to be the same species, until recently. The aim of this study is to investigate the distribution of these two species in South Africa and whether they have different impacts on water hyacinth in the field. Nationwide field surveys will be conducted to ascertain the distribution and impact of the two species of mirid on E. crassipes. Because the species are cryptic, molecular analyses will identify each species in order to map their distribution across South Africa. Furthermore, controlled studies in the laboratory will investigate how the two species affect E. crassipes, both singly and in combination, in order to predict their impact in the field. This study will therefore help make informed decisions on future releases of the two species in South Africa in order to achieve the desired level of control of E. crassipes.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 374 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0408 - Assessing threats to African vultures and the effectiveness of conservation efforts in the Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, Mpumalanga, South Africa

Nhlamazi Mbali Mashele, Lindy Thompson, Colleen Downs University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, Scottsville, South Africa

A range of anthropogenic factors have played a role in the drastic decline in numbers of African vulture species. The drivers of these declines include traditional medicine use, habitat loss, poisoning, electrocutions and collisions with power lines and wind turbines. As vultures provide several ecosystem services, their loss has several knock-on effects. We are assessing various anthropogenic-related threats to vulture species in the areas within Kruger to Canyons Biosphere Region, Mpumalanga, South Africa. Consequently, we are collating all information on vulture deaths including electrocutions and poisoning incidents. We are also assessing vulture traditional healing practices in the region, including where vulture parts used are sourced from, what the demand is, and which body parts are used for what purposes. Lastly, we are assessing current and planned conservation initiatives. We are using qualitative and quantitative methods. The scientific and grey literature is being reviewed, and questionnaires (100 community members and 50 traditional healers from eight villages that border protected areas) are being conducted. It is hoped the data will guide conservation management and education for the persistence of vultures in the region.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 375 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0305 - Variation in Russian wheat aphid Diuraphis noxia resistance between South African wheat Triticum aestivum cultivars and cultivars grown in the mountains of Lesotho

Pitso Masupha1, Astrid Jankielsohn2, Lintle Mohase1 1Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa, 2ARC-Small Grains Institute, Bethlehem, South Africa

Russian wheat aphid, Diuraphis noxia (Kurdjumov) (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is one of the most important global wheat pests. This aphid also affects wheat production in Lesotho, which borders on the major wheat producing areas of South Africa. Greenhouse and field studies were conducted to determine the biotypes present and Russian wheat aphid resistance of traditionally grown cultivars in Lesotho and South African cultivars recommended for Lesotho. RWASA 2, RWASA 3 and RWASA 4 were identified from the samples collected in Leribe while Maseru only had RWASA 1. South African cultivars PAN 3379, PAN 3118, SST 387, Matlabas, Senqu, Elands and Lesotho cultivars Makalaote and Bolane were planted in a randomized complete block design in the Leribe and Maseru districts. The results from both sites were evaluated against a Russian wheat aphid damage scale developed by the ARC - Small Grains Institute. There were significant differences (P< 0.005) in the mean Russian wheat aphid damage. Differences in yield between cultivars was, however, not significant. Socio-economic studies should be conducted to establish the reasons for farmers, especially those in the mountains, to continue to plant Bolane and Makalaote that have a lower yield than South African cultivars and are susceptible to D. noxia.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 376 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0148 - Using captive birds to assess assumptions of a diet analysis technique: stable isotope analysis

Isabel Micklem1, Maёlle Connan2, Christopher McQuaid1 1Rhodes University, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Department of Zoology, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Seabirds are marine top predators used as indicator species for determining the status of marine ecosystems and prioritizing conservation hotspots. In the past, destructive or lethal methods were used to collect dietary data but less intrusive methods have been developed to reduce the negative effects on birds. These include stomach content flushing, the fatty acid signature and stable isotope analyses (SIA) of various tissues, and more recently DNA analysis of guano, with each method having different benefits and limitations. To use SIA to infer diet, the way the bird assimilates nutrients from its prey to the study tissue needs to be known, as does the influence of its physiological state. We will determine how seabird physiology affects the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope ratios of blood components - plasma, red blood cells and whole blood - using captive African penguins (Spheniscus demersus Linnaeus) by comparing birds of different ages and at different breeding stages. Diet-blood discrimination factors for African penguins will be determined and compared to published values as well as values calculated concurrently in other seabird species: Hartlaub’s gulls (Chroicocephalus hartlaubii Bruch), kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus Bruch), Cape cormorants (Phalacrocorax capensis Sparrman) and swift terns (Thalasseus bergii Lichtenstein). The results will be presented in the context of the assumptions underpinning the use of stable isotopes and the effects of physiological state on the isotopic values. A comprehensive understanding of diet-tissue discrimination factors and the impact of physiology on SI ratios are essential for accurate studies conducted in the wild.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 377 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0103 - The effect of bush encroachment on ant communities at Hluhluwe-iMfolozi Park, KwaZulu-Natal

Nomathamsanqa Mkhize1, Caswell Munyai1, Rob Slotow1, Stefan Foord2 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2University of Venda, Limpopo, South Africa

The term bush encroachment refers to the changes in vegetation structure of both grassland and savanna ecosystems. These changes are believed to be caused by fertilization of carbon dioxide, hence leading to an increase in tree cover throughout savanna ecosystems in the world. Major parts of African savannas have been predicted that they would have switched from a savanna to a forest ecosystem by 2100. Changes in vegetation structure not only have a negative impact on plant diversity but also jeopardize the entire ecosystem by affecting animals which are responsible for the functioning of the ecosystem. Invertebrates are found in all ecosystems and they dominate in terms of richness, abundance and often biomass. Not only do they play a crucial role in the ecosystem services; they have also been documented in many studies as organisms that met required criteria to be included in biodiversity studies. This study aims at evaluating how ant species composition differs between the existing savanna and the encroached system; determining which environmental variables underlie the differences between ant assemblages and specificity of species in existing systems and also identifying the indicator ant species associated with existing savanna and encroached systems. A total of six paired sites were chosen for sampling representing open and closed habitat. Sampling was conducted in January 2017 (wet season) and will be repeated in September 2017 (dry season). Each site was replicated four times and there are ten traps per sampling grid.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 378 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0221 - Quantifying roadkills in different roads of Hluhluwe- Imfolozi Park: what are the contributing factors?

Muzi Nicholas Mkhohlwa, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, School of Life Sciences, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Road ecology describes the effects caused by roads in the interaction between organisms and their environment. With increased human population growth there has been general increased road development. Consequently road ecology has become a focus because of its effect on population dynamics, ecosystems and biological processes. Despite a few positive effects (roads used for thermoregulation, breeding sites, etc.), generally roads negatively impact wildlife. The latter includes increased roadkills, barriers to movement of wildlife, modification of wildlife behaviour, loss of habitats, pollution causing deaths and disease to wildlife, and noise camouflaging courtship in some animals, especially some bird species. Of concern are the negative impacts of roads in protected areas. Consequently we determined roadkill rates within Hluhluwe-Imfolozi Park (HIP), KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. We collected monthly data for a year in HIP to determine monthly roadkill rates, hotspots for roadkills, potential factors contributing to roadkills, and which wildlife (mammal, birds and reptiles) were more prone to become roadkills. Three different road transects (paved corridor passing in between HIP, paved and gravel road) were monitored during this period, with each transect driven back and forth by vehicle. More roadkills were found on paved roads, particularly the corridor road. More amphibians and reptiles were killed on roads compared with birds and mammals, with the latter being the lowest. The dry season had a lower number of roadkills compared with the wet season. It is hoped that our study has raised public awareness in HIP and other protected areas about the negative impact of roadkills.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 379 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0158 - Spatio-temporal variation of invertebrate communities in temporary vs semi-permanent wetlands

Musa Mlambo1,2 1Albany Museum, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

In semi-arid places, wetland systems are dominated by temporary pans that dry up regularly after the rainy season. Given their visual disappearance during the periodic dry phase temporal pans face steeper conservation challenges; as such they are over-represented when it comes to habitats of threatened species. This is unfortunate, given that temporary pans contain unique, well-adapted biota usually found nowhere else. Semi-permanent pans, on the other hand, can hold water for more than a year without drying out, thus providing a longer hydroperiod. They can act as refugia for organisms that do not have desiccation resistance (e.g. eggs, cysts) or dormant propagules to colonise temporary pans during the wet seasons. Organisms in temporary pans undergo rapid succession and replacements within days of inundation by having rapid hatching, fast development, high fecundity, and a short life span. Comparative assessment of community composition and seasonal turnover (succession and phenology) of temporary and semi-permanent wetlands is lacking, and in this presentation an attempt will be made to close this gap. Using ten pans in and around Grahamstown, South Africa, proportionally representing temporary and semi-permanent systems, invertebrates and physico-chemicals were collected during six different hydro-periods. The relationship between biotic communities of semi-permanent and temporary wetlands will be discussed and explored.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 380 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0091 - DNA barcoding of collembolan species found on Marion Island

Nkitseng Modise, Bettine van Vuuren Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Information pertaining to species diversity and abundance is crucial in understanding biodiversity patterns and possible threats to the continued existence of species. Natural pressure, climate change, invasive species and anthropogenic activities threaten an increasing number of species. Although many taxonomic groups are well known (for example mammals and birds), very little information exists for the vast majority of taxonomic groups (typically groups that are relatively small such as arthropods, and lower taxonomic groups). In addition, taxonomic expertise is declining, and in extreme cases completely lacking for some groups. Collembola are no exception to the above points. With taxonomic expertise declining in South Africa, barcoding provides a valuable tool to address the shortcomings in Collembola taxonomy. A barcoding library for the Collembola taxa on Marion Island is being developed. At least 20 specimens from 15 species from different localities are being sequenced following the universal barcoding guidelines. A total of 300 CO1 gene sequences, along with photographs of the specimens, will be added to the BOLD database to aid future species identification.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 381 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0028 - Species diversity of lepidopteran stem borers in Botswana

Eva Moeng1, Reyard Mutamiswa1, Des Conlong2,3, Yoseph Assefa4, Casper Nyamukondiwa1, Bruno Le Ru5,6 1Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana, 2South African Sugarcane Research Institute, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa, 3Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa, 4University of Swaziland, Luyengo, Swaziland, 5Université Paris-Sud, Orsay Cedex, France, 6International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya

Botswana is a country which depends mainly on cereal agriculture-arable farming as its main source of sustenance. However, lepidopteran stem borers hinder transformation of this, mainly rural livelihoods through cereal cultivation. Species diversity and distribution of these economic insects is currently unknown. Through a survey, we catalogued the diversity of stem borer and host plants interaction across Botswana. A total of 533 stem borer larvae comprising 63.1% and 36.9% from cultivated vs wild hosts, respectively, and 86 pupae comprising 84.8% and 15.2% from cultivated vs wild host plants were recorded. In addition to Chilo partellus Swinhoe, Sesamia calamistis Hampson and Eldana saccharina Walker, which were previously reported in Botswana, four new stem borer species were recorded, including three undescribed species. We report, for the first time in Botswana; Sesamia jansei Tams & Bowden, and new Conicofrontia nov. sp. 1 nr sesamoides, Sesamia perplexa nov. sp. 4,and Tortricidae sp. 1. These were collected from a host of plants ranging from cultivated Zea mays L., grain sorghum, sweet sorghum and wild Schoenoplectus corymbosus Roth ex Roem. & Schult, Sorghum bicolor ssp. arundinacearum, Chrysopogon nigritanus (Vetiver), Echnochloa pyramidalis (Lam.) Hitchc. & Chase, Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P. Beauv., Cyperus digitatus ssp. auricomus (Sieber ex Spreng.) Kük. and Oryza longistaminata A. Chev. & Roehr. Current results highlight the significance of wild, especially wetland habitats for their ecological functions, and especially conservation of lepidopteran stem borer biodiversity.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 382 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0295 - Are there structural differences in the flight feathers of Procellariiformes related to their use for underwater ‘flight’?

Ditiro Moloto, Peter Ryan University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Bird feathers are designed for various functions including protection and thermoregulation as well as flight. Some seabirds (e.g. auks, diving-petrels) have evolved an ability to ‘fly’ underwater to pursue their prey. The aim of the project was to establish whether there are structural differences between species that use their feathers for underwater flight and those that do not. The study was restricted to the order Procellariiformes, which includes a wide diversity of species, including a continuum from specialist underwater pursuit divers to species that seldom if ever dive. Flight feathers from different species of petrels were compared in terms of feather length and mass, barb length and density, barbule density, rachis width, calamus width, vane width and feather stiffness. Least squares regressions were used to test whether diving species deviated from the norm within the order. Significant differences (p < 0.001) were found in primaries and secondaries between the divers and the non-divers. The divers had longer and heavier feathers relative to their body sizes compared to the non-diving species. The gradient for the length of primaries and secondaries was 0.264 and 0.23, respectively. Furthermore, diving species had stiffer feathers compared to non-diving species. Divers require more strongly built feathers to ‘fly’ effectively in water, which is 800 times denser than air. Their feathers were designed to battle the buoyancy and drag underwater, and wind and gravity in air. Stiffer feathers reduce chances of breakage underwater. The divers have to manage two aerodynamic roles, hence, unique feathers to the standard procellariform.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 383 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0402 - Trimen’s false tiger moth: biology and potential control options

Courtney Morris1, Jeanne De Waal2, Antoinette Malan1, Shelley Johnson1 1Department of Conservation Ecology and Entomology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Philagro, Somerset West, South Africa

Trimen’s false tiger moth, Agoma trimenii (Felder) (Lepidoptera: Agaristidae), is a pest affecting vineyards (table grapes, wine grapes and raisin grapes) in the Northern Cape and Groblersdal areas of South Africa. Larvae feed on new growth (shoots and leaves), and, if not detected early, subsequent defoliation of vineyards can be severe, resulting in crop losses. Outbreaks are sporadic, and infestation levels vary. Very little is known about the biology and behaviour of Trimen’s false tiger moth, and no official monitoring methods or economic thresholds exist. Consequently, management and control options are lacking. Field observations undertaken during the 2016/17 season to improve the understanding of the seasonal and life cycle of the pest are reported on here. Biological control options in the form of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) and entomopathogenic fungi (EPFs) were evaluated for their efficacy against larval and pupal life stages. Excellent control for all larval stages of the moth using Steinernema yirgalemense and Heterorhabditis indica was obtained, while commercial formulations of EPF showed some promise. However, none of the biocontrol agents tested was effective against the pupal stage of the moth. The future use of different biocontrol agents in an integrated pest management system will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 384 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0304 - Virulence of Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales: Cordycipitaceae) to the Russian wheat aphid and potential use thereof as an endophytic biocontrol agent in wheat, Triticum aestivum

Lisemelo Motholo1,2, Justin Hatting2, Toi Tsilo2, Oriel Thekisoe1 1Unit for Environmental Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom, North West, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council - Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, Free State, South Africa

The entomopathogenic fungus (EPF), Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin (Cordycipitaceae), is known to be endophytic in various host plants, including bread wheat, Triticum aestivum L. (Poaceae). An investigation is currently underway to artificially establish and measure the impact of this fungus as an endophyte suppressing cereal aphids. A pest species of special interest is the notorious Russian wheat aphid (RWA), Diuraphis noxia Kurdjumov (Hemiptera: Aphididae), of which at least four biotypes are present in South Africa. Biotype development poses a threat to existing resistance genes deployed in SA cultivars, and for this reason endophytic EPFs are being considered as part of a sustainable IPM strategy. Twelve isolates of B. bassiana, maintained in the ARC-Small Grain Institute’s EPF culture collection, were pre-screened for pathogenicity against wax moth, Galleria mellonella (Pyralidae), larvae. The three most virulent strains were then compared against adult D. noxia. The best-performing strain (R495) was used to inoculate seeds of T. aestivum, cultivar ‘Tugela’, from which the fungus was re-isolated (designated R495PL; i.e., plant background). Likewise, conidia harvested from the RWA cadavers were designated R495IN; i.e., insect background). The two conidial types (backgrounds) were subsequently used to perform 8 (1) bioassays against RWA, at 1 x 10 conidia/ml for LT50 comparisons and (2) inoculation of five wheat cultivars to compare endophytic colonisation rates. Controls (aphids/seeds) were treated with sterile water amended with 0.01% Break-Thru® surfactant. Investigative questions: (1) does the insect versus plant background impact fungal virulence? and (2) will passage of the fungus through a host plant enhance endophytic ability?

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 385 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0394 - The cascading trophic accumulation of aldicarb in a carrion ecosystem: the forensic implications

Tshepiso Motolo, Sonja Brink, Ellie van Dalen University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Toxicology is relevant in two areas of entomology. In entomotoxicology, insect evidence is utilised when traditional toxicology screening cannot be performed due to the extent of decomposition. Toxins are any harmful substances including illegal drugs, poisons, and medication. Entomotoxicological studies focused on prescription medicines; however, this study focused on a poison. Aldicarb is an active ingredient found in a rodenticide that has been reported in accidental as well as suicidal deaths. In a pilot study, blowfly larvae of the genusLucilia Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830 were exposed to aldicarb and fed to histerid beetles. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to detect the poison in these insects. The larvae that ingested aldicarb developed at a significantly accelerated rate even though the accumulated level of the toxin in the larvae did not correlate to the ingested dose. This underpins the notion that understanding the effects of toxins on the development of larvae is essential and that not taking it into consideration can lead to errors in determining a PMI. Furthermore it was shown that the toxins bio-accumulated in the beetles and that they can also be utilised as a toxicological indicator where traditional methods fail. The study will be expanded to include: a secondary fly, Chrysomya albiceps (Wiedemann, 1819), a tertiary fly Sarcophaga cruentata Meigen, 1826 and a necrophagous beetle from the family Silphidae.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 386 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0120 - The progressive establishment of the Asian fruit fly Bactocera dorsalis (Diptera: Tephritidae) in Botswana

Rebaone Motswagole, Casper Nyamukondiwa Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Palapye, Botswana

Fruit production is one of the fastest growing agricultural sectors in Botswana, providing both household incomes and employment. Although fruit production is increasing, farmers face insect pest challenges, chief amongst them being the Asian fruit fly, Bactrocera dorsalis (Hendel). This invasive quarantine pest species was first reported in northern Botswana (Chobe District) in 2010. Since then, the rate and extent of its spread southwards had not been established. We used methyl eugenol lures in yellow bucket traps and dichlorvos (DDVP) for trapping. Our study investigated seasonal abundance of B. dorsalis from Chobe (the core detection area) and trekked it southwards, (other districts) of the country to determine (1) presence and (2) seasonal population dynamics. Traps were monitored fortnightly and trapped flies were morphologically examined for confirmation. Preliminary results showed that although B. dorsalis was active all year round in Chobe (core detection site), it was also detected in all other districts. This indicated that from 2010, the pest has spread further into the southern districts of Botswana. Nevertheless, records of the species in some of the areas were erratic, suggesting that the areas were not ‘resident breeding sites’ for B. dorsalis populations but rather repeated introductions from infested areas. Our results have major implications on B. dorsalis’ invasion biology, its population dynamics, pest management and enforcement of quarantine regulations.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 387 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0442 - Integrated management of Solanum mauritianum (bugweed) in the Highveld region of South Africa

Sanele Mtetwa1, Marcus Byrne1,2, Ed Witkowski1 1DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology, Johannesburg, South Africa

Solanum mauritianum Scop. (Solanaceae), bugweed, is a NEMBA category 1b invader species, requiring mandatory control. Two biocontrol agents, Gargaphia decoris (a bug) and Anthonomous santacruzi (a weevil) have been released against the weed in South Africa. Conventional methods of slashing and treating trees with herbicides are expensive and unsustainable, allowing re- sprouting if not properly implemented. This research will investigate the feasibility of biocontrol and integrated weed management in Gauteng. The plants were exposed to either G. decoris only, A. santacruzi only and both G. decoris and A. santacruzi together. To test the efficacy of integrated management the plants will be either cut and/or cut and treated with the herbicide Imazapyr. Plant survival in the nursery experiments showed a general decrease in the average stem diameter, average plant height, and leaf and fruit growth in all control and treatment plants. There was no statistical difference in these parameters between the control and treatment plants. Therefore these results suggest that the nursery conditions did not adequately mimic field conditions to draw conclusions about the efficacy of the biocontrol. All treatment plants had a general decrease in the numbers of A. santacruzi and G. decoris over time, and no statistical difference was found between the treatments. Again the nursery conditions were not a good test for predicting field establishment. At this point stem diameter and herbicide treatment do not appear to have influenced plant mortality in the field.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 388 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0316 - Does biological control of Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) promote arthropod diversity?

Ludzula Mukwevho1 1Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research Institute, Private Bag X6006, Hilton, KwaZulu-Natal, 3245, South Africa, 2Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research Institute, Private Bag X134, Queenswood, 0121, South Africa

Despite being the first invasive alien weed targeted for a classical biological control programme more than a century ago, Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) remains a major weed of ecological importance in South Africa. Lantana camara threatens native biodiversity and interrupts ecosystems functioning. This study was conducted over a 4-year period to assess the effect of a biological control programme on native biodiversity recovery. Five pitfall traps were engrained per site with four at each corner and the fifth at a centre of a 25 2m quadrat at eleven study sites located on the coastal and inland areas of Limpopo, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces of South Africa. Of the 11 study sites, eight were severely invaded with L. camara, while the other three were Lantana-free sites. Considerable arthropod recovery occurred throughout L. camara invaded study sites, with more species recovered from Longitarsus bethae Savini & Escalona (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Alticinae) release sites on the coastal and lowveld areas of Bizana and Nelspruit, respectively. Although species richness and abundance on the Nelspruit and Bizana study sites were significantly higher compared to otherLantana -invaded sites, but the differences were insignificant compared to the Lantana-free sites at the fourth year of arthropod monitoring in South Africa. Despite its moderate effect on L. camara control, biological control contributes significantly towards invertebrate assemblages and ecological conservation in SouthAfrica.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 389 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0130 - Post-release evaluation of the biological control programme against jointed cactus (Opuntia aurantiaca Lindley (Cactaceae))

Thifhelimbilu Mulateli, Iain Paterson, Martin Hill Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa

The cochineal insect, Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto (Dactylopiidae), is a very successful biological control agent that has been used against the alien invasive cactus, Opuntia aurantiaca Lindley. The impact of the biological control agent has resulted in a dramatic reduction in the amount of jointed cactus. Nonetheless, there are still many parts of South Africa where densities of the weed are high enough to impact farming and indigenous biodiversity. Greater release efforts, brought about through mass-rearing, could increase the impact of the agent, resulting in a further reduction of populations of jointed cactus. In this study D. austrinus will be mass-reared and released at a number of sites in the Eastern Cape province. Each site will have five permanent transects marked out through areas infested with the weed. Low, medium, and high numbers of the agent will be released on three of these transects. One transect will be left as a control with the current densities of the agent and the final transect will be sprayed with insecticide to exclude the agent. The number of plants, number of cladodes and number of infected cladodes will be recorded over time. This study will quantify the impact of D. austrinus on jointed cactus and will determine whether an augmentative release strategy could further reduce the densities of the weed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 390 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0224 - A trait-based approach in understanding ant community assemblies in the Soutpansberg Mountains, South Africa

Mulalo Muluvhahothe1, Caswell Munyai2, Stefan Foord3 1University of Venda, Polokwane, South Africa, 2University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 3University of Venda, Polokwane, South Africa

Understanding how communities are assembled and structured is central to ecology and conservation science. Trait-based approaches have become important tools for understanding species assemblages and their responses to climate change. Ants are an ideal study system because they are geographically widespread and their change in abundance will have consequences for ecosystem processes. Here, we aim to quantify thermal tolerance and water loss for dominant ant species along an elevational gradient in the Soutpansberg Mountains in South Africa. We use this to predict responses to climate change and quantify functional diversity of all species previously collected across this gradient. Ant species will be collected using bait for thermal tolerance assays while their behavioural niches will be determined from previous studies. Morphological traits will be measured for all species previously collected while other behavioural and life history traits will be derived from the literature. Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMMs) will be used to analyse the response of functional diversity to habitat type, elevation and aspect. Multiple linear regression models will be used to analyse the relationship between thermal tolerance, thermal niche and timing of activity. We predict that functional diversity will decrease with elevation but will also be significantly affected by habitat. Thermal tolerance ranges of dominant ant species will relate to their timing of activity as well as distribution across the mountain. An increased range of thermal tolerance will result in larger distribution ranges and thermal range will increase with elevation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 391 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0349 - Changes in bat activity over an altitudinal gradient in the Kunene region, Namibia

Lina Mushabati1, Seth Eiseb1, Petr Benda2, Theresa Laverty3 1University of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia, 2National Museum (Natural History), Prague, Czech Republic, 3Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA

Bat activity is an important factor that can help to identify where bat conservation efforts should be concentrated. We examined bat activity at different altitudes in the semi-desert, Kunene region, Namibia. Data were collected at three sites: Etendeka, Kuidas, and Hoanib using a combination of mist nets and Wildlife acoustic SM2 and SM4 bat detectors for acoustic monitoring over an altitudinal gradient from 238 – 970 m. Bat activity was greater at all sites just after sunset (19h00) indicating that foraging just after sunset is adaptive. Preliminary results of bat activity recorded in the months of June, December 2016 and January 2017 significantly decreased with increasing altitude. The month of December had the highest bat activity across all sites. Hoanib (238 m) had the highest bat activity during the sampling period. Different levels of activity between elevations could be the result of differences in insect availability, weather conditions and water availability. Such information may be useful in recognising conservation priorities of bats in the Kunene region. Lower altitude areas are more susceptible to human impacts, leading to habitat degradation due to over-grazing and denudation of large trees for firewood. Further monitoring of bat activity in the Kunene region is important to understand the impact of environmental conditions, which are often extreme and variable.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 392 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0351 - Brown locust outbreaks in the Karoo: historic records and a plan to understand the origins of outbreaks

Zwivhuya Leonard Ndou1,2, Vaughn Richmond Swart2, Johannes Robert Henschel1,2, Schalk vdM Louw2

1South African Environmental Observation Network (SAEON), Arid Lands Node, Kimberley, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa

Brown locusts (Locustana pardalina Walker, 1870) are an important agricultural pest in southern Africa and pose a threat to food security. Insufficient early warning predictions limit operational campaigns of controlling locust outbreaks. Outbreaks are devastating to crop farming and are directly influenced by livestock grazing practices and scattered rainfall within the Karoo. Past records of population irruptions and crashes in the Karoo extend to over 200 years and have been linked to climatic factors, fluctuations in primary productivity and reduction of availability of food. Northern Cape regions of the Karoo will be used as study sites to compare vegetation cover and plant species community composition as well as a range of biodiversity and ecosystem characteristics in the highest outbreak areas near Kenhardt and Pofadder (the areas where the earliest irruptions of each outbreak initiated). The aim of this research is to assess the conditions favoured by solitary brown locusts to become gregarious, the first impacts of these gregarious locusts on vegetation biodiversity, and to evaluate ecosystem integrity at outbreak sites. This study will evaluate how rangeland management practices relate to locust population irruptions. Initial results indicate that the abundance of solitary locusts was highest in heavily livestock-grazed fields with patchy vegetation and lowest in non-grazing fields. Initial findings encourage more detailed study to determine whether quiet periods of locust outbreaks followed by the change in climatic trends, with scattered rainfall, causes the ups and downs in locust abundance. This highlights that locusts could serve as indicators of climate change.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 393 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0155 - Food relocation and burial behaviour in the dung beetle Pachylomera femoralis Kirby (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae)

Alex Nepomuceno, Catherine Sole, Werner Strümpher, Christian Pirk, Clarke Scholtz University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Pachylomera femoralis is a dung beetle species that can alternate between food relocation and burial behaviours; namely rolling and tunnelling. Rollers form the dung into a ball at the dung source and roll the ball some distance away and bury it while tunnellers tunnel beneath or next to the dung and then repeatedly retrieve fragments of dung to take back to their premade tunnels. Factors driving the alternation between these behaviours are unknown. Dung is a patchy and ephemeral resource so competition between beetles can be intense. This study aimed to determine whether competition plays a role in P. femoralis alternating between the two behaviours, the time spent at the dung pad and the levels of aggression displayed. Field and laboratory observations indicate that at higher levels of competition P. femoralis exhibits less rolling behaviour while tunnelling behaviour is exhibited more often at low levels of competition. Field observations also indicate that at higher levels of competition P. femoralis displayed more aggressive behaviour compared to at low levels of competition. Furthermore, it was observed that P. femoralis would spend less time at the dung pad as the levels of competition increased.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 394 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0365 - Development of minimum intervention techniques to reduce variability in mopane worm supply for harvesting

Zwannda Nethavhani1, Ruan Veldtman2, Stefan Foord1 1University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa, 2SANBI, Cape Town, South Africa

Mini-livestock emits less greenhouse gases and is cheaper than conventional livestock. Entomophagy could improve human livelihoods and food security worldwide, and mopane worms, Gonimbrasia belina (Westwood), are a perfect model system to test these assertions. Considerable attention has been paid to the nutritional and social dimensions of mopane worm consumption. This utilisation of mopane worms as a primary resource poses a considerable challenge to their conservation because their ecology has been relatively neglected. This study aims to contribute to the development of low intensity mopane worm practices that will maximise long-term ecological and economic sustainability of mopane worm harvesting by quantifying mopane worm metapopulation structure and evaluating field-based interventions that may reduce mortality and facilitate colonisation.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 395 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0161 - Explaining ant species richness patterns across an elevation gradient

Sarah Newman, Tom Bishop, Mark Robertson University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

Biodiversity is a commonly accepted measure of ecosystem function, providing valuable insights into conservation management. Environmental gradients are useful for investigating the factors that influence and maintain species diversity and richness. Many studies have investigated species richness patterns across elevation gradients and the relationship is well documented, bringing to light two predictions. The first, Rapoport’s rule, states that richness will experience a monotonic decrease with increasing elevation. The second is that of geometric constraints, which bring about mid-elevational peaks, explained by the mid-domain effect. The latter falls under the geometric constraints hypothesis, and there is reason to believe that it may be more common than previously thought. The Maloti-Drakensberg transect is an elevational gradient that has been extensively studied for many years. The investigation into the biodiversity patterns of the area, through sampling epigaeic ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which act as a biodiversity indicator, has resulted in a substantial body of work pertaining to this gradient. With the addition of sites to the existing transect, we created an entire gradient from sea level to 3200 m above sea level. Along this gradient we were able to test the aforementioned predictions on species richness patterns. We discuss the evidence with regard to these predictions.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 396 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0287 - Home range size and movement patterns of Cape porcupines in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Samukelisiwe Ngcobo, Tharmalingam Ramesh, Amy-Lee Wilson, Colleen Downs University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Cape porcupines, Hystrix africaeaustralis (Peters, 1852), are one of the South African mammalian species that are increasing their range and abundance with changing land use and climate change. We investigated the home ranges and movement patterns of 15 radio tagged Cape porcupines along a land-use gradient in KwaZulu-Natal for 12 months. We selected three study areas representing differing land use types, namely a natural protected area, farmlands, and an urban area. Land use type significantly affected the spatial ranging patterns of Cape porcupines. We found that Cape porcupines in farmlands had smaller home range sizes (16.9 ha) relative to those in the urban (120 ha) and natural protected area (238 ha). This appears to be a consequence of food resource distribution and availability for Cape porcupines, with suitable agricultural crops generally available all year round in the farmlands. However, as a consequence there is likely more potential for human wildlife conflict.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 397 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0097 - The phylogeography of ectoparasites with respect to their hosts

Nkosinathi Ntuli, Bettine van Vuuren, Jacobus Visser Center for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Parasite species can be used as proxies to study spatial genetic patterns in their hosts; they often provide more resolution because of a faster generation time. However, the parasite species composition on a large number of hosts are unknown, and the identification of ectoparasites is further limited by the lack of taxonomic expertise. Barcoding provides a valuable tool to identify ecto-parasites. Here, we use three mole-rat species (Bathyergus suillus; Georychus capensis and Cryptomys hottentotus) as host models and document their ectoparasites following the Barcoding of Life protocols (e.g., COI sequence, preservation of exoskeleton, detailed photographs). We sequence the COI barcoding gene for several individuals from localities across their range. In addition to identification of ectoparasite species, we conduct basic phylogeographic analyses and overlay host and parasite genetic patterns. Our results show a limited number of parasite species per host, but significant spatial structure, which largely accentuate patterns of host species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 398 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0099 - Sexual selection and speciation in Malawian cichlid fishes

Nonhlanhla Nyalungu, Vanessa Couldridge

University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South Africa

In Lake Malawi, there are as many as 1000 endemic cichlid species arising from a single common ancestor. These fishes are thought to have evolved ~ 700 000 years ago. Previously, it was thought that sexual selection by female choice acting on male colour was the main factor contributing to the diversity of African cichlids. Male coloration differs strikingly among closely related species while female colour is often phenotypically similar. However, cues such as visual, acoustic and chemical are also thought to be important in mate recognition. In this study, mate recognition was tested between two closely related species, Metriaclima callainos and M. estherae. A tank divided into three compartments was used to test for female preferences. Female preference was measured by giving females a choice between males of different species and recording the amount of time they spent with each male.

The trials were recorded for 20 minutes with a digital camcorder. Results show that female M. callainos spent a significant amount of time with their conspecific males in the presence or absence of chemical and visual cues (p<0.05). There was no significant difference in the amount of time M. estherae spent between the different males in the presence or absence of chemical and visual cues (p>0.05).

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 399 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0346 - Parasitic and free-living interactions between the indigenous tick Rhipicephalus decoloratus and the invasive tick Rhipicephalus microplus on and off bovine hosts in the Eastern Cape province

Nkululeko Nyangiwe1, Josephus J. Fourie2, Julian E. Liebenberg2, Clinton Austin4, Chandra Bushan5

1Döhne Agricultural Development Institute, Stutterheim, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2ClinVet International, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa, 3Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Onderstepoort, Gauteng, South Africa, 4Bayer (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 5Bayer Animal Health GmbH, Leverkusen, South Africa

The objectives of the study were to determine the efficacy of the fluazuron 2.5% and flumethrin 1% pour-on formulation (Drastic Deadline eXtreme®) against Rhipicephalus decoloratus and Rhipicephalus microplus and to determine whether there was displacement of R. decoloratus by R. microplus on cattle exposed to infestation. During November 2010, six Bonsmara calves were placed in the experimental camp and on three occasions, one week apart, were each infested with 10, 000 larvae of R. decoloratus and 10, 000 larvae of R. microplus. Prior to introduction into the camp, the animals were de-wormed and vaccinated with frozen African redwater and anaplasmosis vaccine. Free-living ticks were collected from the vegetation each month by drag- sampling. The animals were treated with the fluazuron 2.5 % and flumethrin 1 % combination in a pour-on formulation on Day 0. Whole body in situ tick counts were conducted on the six treated animals on Day 28 and at approximately 28-day intervals. Tracer calves were introduced into the experimental camp at 28-day intervals from March 2011 until October 2012. Ticks belonging to eight species were counted on the six treated cattle. The mean numbers of engorged female R. decoloratus and R. microplus detaching from the tracer animals were 282 and 3,293 respectively. Treatment with the pour-on formulation of fluazuron and flumethrin resulted in a marked decrease in the numbers of R. decoloratus and/or R. microplus on treated cattle, followed by a reduction in the numbers of larvae questing on the vegetation and ticks picked up by tracer calves.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 400 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0172 - The characterisation of the role of commensal gut bacteria on the life history of the major malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae)

Kirsten Barnard2, Alexander Jeanrenaud2, Basil Brooke1,2, Shüné Oliver1,2 1National Institute for Communicable Diseases, Sandringham, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa 2University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

The commensal gut flora of an organism plays a crucial role in numerous biological processes. Recent studies have demonstrated the role of bacterial microflora in larval development and evidence is gathering for a role of bacteria in insecticide resistance. This study therefore aimed to examine and characterise the relative contribution of adult gut microflora to the life history of the major malaria vector Anopheles arabiensis Patton. Two laboratory-reared strains were used in this study, an insecticide-susceptible strain SENN and an insecticide-resistant strain SENN DDT. These strains were fed the broad-spectrum bactericidal antibiotic gentamicin, or a preferentially gram positive vancomycin, gram negative bactericidal streptomycin or broad spectrum bacteriostatic erythromycin. Their effects on longevity and insecticide resistance phenotype were assessed in each strain. Deltamethrin-induced mortality increased following treatment with all antibiotics in males and females. Malathion-induced mortality was only significantly affected by vancomycin treatment. Conversely, when fed sugar water supplemented with Streptococcus pyrogenes (ATCC: 19615) (gram positive bacteria) or Escherichia coli (ATCC: 25922) (gram negative bacteria), malathion and deltamethrin resistance was significantly increased. Erythromycin significantly reduced longevity in SENN. Where antibiotics affected SENN DDT longevity, it typically resulted in increased lifespan. SENN DDT females were the most strongly affected by the antibiotics, with gentamicin and vancomycin increasing longevity in SENN DDT females, but only gentamicin increasing longevity in SENN DDT males. These data suggest a role for gut bacteria in insecticide resistance and longevity, suggesting interplay between stimulation of the immune system and the expression of insecticide resistance.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 401 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0241 - A sweeter taste than blood? Attraction of Aedes and Culex mosquitoes to fruits and flowers

Priyanka Pachuwah1, Andreas Jürgens1,2, Steven D. Johnson1 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstrasse 10, D-64287, Darmstadt, Germany

Mosquitoes are important disease vectors and transmit these when taking up a blood meal. Prior to the blood-sucking infectious phase, most mosquitoes go in search of carbohydrate sources such as nectar and are able to locate these resources by means of olfactory cues. By manipulating the feeding ecology and sensory cues, one could lure and possibly control mosquitoes before they go in search of a blood meal. Therefore, the aim of the study was to identify local fruits and flowers mosquitoes use as carbohydrate sources and to determine the attraction of Aedes and Culex mosquitoes to these, respectively. Choice tests were conducted to determine mosquito attraction. Musa acuminata and Ficus sur were among the most attractive fruits to Aedes and Culex mosquitoes. Of the flowers tested, Gymnosporia buxifolia and Acacia nilotica were the most attractive to both Aedes and Culex mosquitoes. In addition, no preference was observed between fruit or flowers by the different genera or sex of mosquitoes. Future work will involve the analysis of scent profiles to determine specific compounds responsible for mosquito attraction, thus allowing for the development of optimal scent blends which could be used to lure mosquitoes prior to their infectious phase.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 402 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0223 - Longevity, fertility and fecundity of adult blowflies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) held at varying densities: implications for use in bioconversion of waste

Nina Parry1, Elsje Pieterse2, Chris Weldon1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Large numbers of flies are needed to produce the quantity of larvae required for insect bioconversion of waste. However, “mass-rearing” may negatively affect adult survival and reproductive output. This study assessed the suitability for mass-rearing of four blowfly species,Chrysomya chloropyga, C. megacephala, C. putoria and Lucilia sericata. Flies were kept at densities of 20, 50, 100, 250, 500 and 1000 inndividuals per 0.027m3 cage with an even sex ratio. Time to 50% mortality (LT50) was recorded, and the effects of density, species, and sex on LT50, fecundity and fertility were determined. Females survived longer than males across all species. There was evidence for a trade-off between survival and high fecundity in L. sericata and C. chloropyga at density 250. Chrysomya megacephala had low fecundity across all densities. At high densities, C. putoria had the lowest mortality and highest fecundity, making it the most suitable for mass-rearing.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 403 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0220 - Post cold treatment effects on false codling moth

Mellissa Peyper1, Sean Moore1,2, Wayne Kirkman1,2 1Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa, 2Citrus Research International, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Approximately 70% of South Africa’s citrus is exported; therefore it is important to control any phytosanitary pests. False codling moth (FCM), Thaumatotibia leucotreta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is an endemic, important phytosanitary pest in the citrus industry. As an alternative to a stand-alone disinfestation treatment, such as cold sterilisation, a systems approach, which includes a range of management steps from orchard to post-packhouse, is being proposed, with partial cold treatment as a final step. Depending on the specific partial cold treatment applied (temperature and duration), mortality may vary, e.g. 95.8% from 4°C for 16 days to 99.6% from 2°C for 18 days. However, subsequent to termination of the cold treatment, additional effects like failure of live larvae to pupate and eclosed adults producing fertile eggs, have been recorded that further mitigate phytosanitary risk. The aim of this study was to investigate these additional effects that cold treatment have on surviving larvae. In two trials, an average of 69% of surviving larvae failed to pupate. Of the eclosing moths that were forcibly paired, 87% oviposited. However, only 12.5% of the pairings produced fertile eggs. Further trials are being conducted with survivors after exposure to 4°C for 16 days. Results will be discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 404 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0165 - Prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of sheep in three agro-ecological zones of the Maseru District

Moeketsi Phalatsi1, Mpho Phoofolo1, Matsolo Seloanyane1, Mamasupha Sole1, Mokete Motente1 1National University of Lesotho, Roma, Maseru, Lesotho, 2RUFORUM, Kampala, Uganda

Gastrointestinal parasites are some of the major limiting factors for a successful and productive sheep industry all over the world. The study of the prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites of sheep in the three ecological zones in the Maseru district in Lesotho was carried out from December 2014 and November 2015. The McMaster method of faecal egg count was used to determine the burdens in adult and lambs. The three regions sampled were the lowland Korokoro/Mokema area (25 km from Maseru city), the foothills Setebing and Likhahlaneng areas (40 km from Maseru) and the highlands in Likalaneng area in the Thaba Putsoa Mountains, 75 km from Maseru. Variables that were investigated were the difference of gastrointestinal parasites between regions, age, sex and monthly prevalence. There were basically three groups of parasites which were found in the study, mainly nematodes, coccidian and tapeworms. Nematode burdens did not differ significantly between regions and the sexes (p>0.05). Monthly burdens were found to be statistically significant (P<0.05) with higher burdens in the summer months with a peak in January (3250±SD per gram of faeces) and lower in winter months reaching the lowest figures in August (333.7±SD counts per gram of faeces). Age showed slight significant difference (p=0.046) with adults having relatively higher burdens than the lambs. Coccidia burdens were also significantly affected by month and age. The highest burdens were registered in January (=3980 ±SD) and the lowest in August (=733±SD). Tapeworms were the least abundant parasites and burdens were significantly greater in lambs than in adults.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 405 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0049 - Mass reared insects as animal feed and implications for table egg production

Elsje Pieterse1, Davina Hopley1 1Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa, 2Agriprotein, Phillippi, Western Cape, South Africa

Insects have been proven to be an excellent animal feed source. It is high in protein and energy, contains a well-balanced amino acid profile and is highly palatable and digestible. A number of trials were conducted where various types of insects and processing methods were tested in various domesticated animals feeds. For table egg production studies, two insects, i.e. Tenebrio molitor (meal worm) (MW) raised on by-products from the milling industry and Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly) (BSF) raised on kitchen waste were used. Larvae were killed, dried and chemically analysed. These data were used to formulate insect meals into iso-nitrogenous and iso-energetic diets for egg laying chickens. Data on live weight changes of hens, feed conversion ratio, egg weight, shell weight, yolk weight, yolk colour and albumen height were collected. Efficiency of feed utilisation was better for hens fed BSF meal, while egg weight and yolk weight was higher for both the BSF and MW fed hens. All other parameters were statistically similar. From this study it is concluded that insect meals used in egg production will either have a positive effect or no effect. It is thus concluded that insects reared on waste from food manufacturing can be used for feeding table egg producing hens without any negative, and often positive, effects.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 406 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0050 - Mass-reared insect meal as animal feed and its implications for meat production

Elsje Pieterse1, L.C. Hoffman1, K. Salie1, C.W. Cruywagen1, G. Esposito1, P. Haabroek1, T. Uushona1, H. Driemeyer1, A.W.H. Van der Merwe1, F.J.H. Albertyn1 1Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Agriprotein, Phillippi, South Africa

Insects can be mass-reared on various types of waste that is unsuitable as animal feed. The insects are then harvested, processed and formulated into animal feeds and compared to soya based (industry standard) or fish meal based diets. The value of these protein sources for animal production has been shown in many studies. For the purpose of this study, three species of fly larvae, i.e. Hermetia illucens (black soldier fly / BSF), Musca domestica (housefly / HF) and Chrysomya chloropyga (copper bottom blowfly / CC) were tested in broiler, pig, Nile tilapia, Mozambican tilapia, catfish, and ruminant diets. BSF larvae were grown on kitchen waste, HF larvae were grown on feed mill waste mixed with liquid blood while CC were grown on abattoir waste. BSF were harvested as pre-pupae or larvae, HF as larvae or pupae, and CC as larvae. Harvested insects were killed through freezing and subjected to different processing methods to yield insect meals. Broiler studies showed HF to yield heavier carcasses with higher breast muscle yield, better sensory scores and higher meat water binder capacity than that of soya based diets. BSF fed broilers had a higher dressing percentage than the soya based diet, while CC fed broilers resulted in meat with a redder colour. No negative effects were observed on fish fed larvae meal but the high fat content resulted in feed processing challenges. Further work is needed on ruminant and pig feed but studies to date showed no negative effect.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 407 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0051 - Use of Hermetia illucens for the conversion of faecal matter to animal feed

Elsje Pieterse1, L.C. Hoffman1, A. Van Schoor1 1Stellenbosch Univesity, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2Biocycle, Klipheuwel, South Africa

People in many areas in South Africa, especially those living in informal settlements, do not have flush toilets. Bucket and bag systems or compositing toilets are used in many of these areas. The process entails placing a bucket lined with a bag under a toilet seat. When full, the bag is removed, tied and placed for collection. Composting toilets work on a process where faecal matter is collected and then a normal composting process reduces the material to compost. This process is highly dependant on the balance of input vs time, but input usually exceeds what the composting process can accommodate. A process was thus developed where faecal matter, as well as any other organic waste, was collected from an informal settlement in the Western Cape, mixed, and fed to black soldier fly (BSF) larvae. Larvae were grown for 19 days and harvested and processed in various ways to establish the most suitable process for reducing feed safety issues. These processes can be divided into heat and chemical processes. Processed larvae were subsequently fed to chickens (both broilers and egg producers). Production parameters and product quality as well as food safety were assessed. All heat-treated larvae resulted in the absence of feed safety risks, while chemical treatment and lack of treatment resulted in some feed safety risk. None of the treatments or lack of treatment resulted in food safety risks. Larvae- fed eggs were heavier and had heavier yolks while larvae-fed broilers had redder meat and a higher dressing percentage.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 408 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0300 - Does variation in trophic niche use influence mass gain of underyearling southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina?

Nicolas Prinsloo1,2, Nico de Bruyn1,2, Martin Postma1,2, Nico Lübcker1,2 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa, 2Marion Island Marine Mammal Programme, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

An enhanced understanding of the effect of environmental variation on southern elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) improves their use as early warning systems. I determined the effect of weaning mass, and dietary niche of underyearlings - through stable isotope analysis (δ13C, δ15N) of whisker regrowths - on their rate of mass gain; a proxy of foraging success. Alone, weaning mass was a marginally significant predictor (F1,17 = 3.813, p = 0.06) of the rate of mass gain. Heavy weaners gained more mass over time than light weaners at the Polar Frontal Zone (F6,12 = 2.886, p = 0.05) while there were no differences in rates of mass gain with Antarctic (p = 0.15) and sub-Antarctic Zones included. Improved diving abilities allow heavy weaners to succeed more consistently over a variety of dietary niches while light weaners may compensate for reduced diving abilities at Antarctic and sub-Antarctic foraging zones suggesting the possible extension of the Prince Edward Island Marine Protected Area.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 409 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0190 - The effects and management of the invasive species Chromolaena odorata in Buffelsdraai Landfill Site.

Rerani Ramaano, Zivanai Tsvuura, Hloniphani Mthunzi University Of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Invasive alien plants are known to pose threats to biodiversity conservation and provision of ecosystem services, invading both human and non-human modified landscapes. The invasion of alien plants at Buffelsdraai’s Community Reforestation Programme is a major threat to reforestation success. This study seeks to determine the influence that the woody shrubChromolaena odorata has on the tree growth dynamics of replanted indigenous trees at the Buffelsdraai Landfill Site, and to assess the efficacy of cutting height and frequency in mechanical control of C. odorata. We investigated the competitive responses of three tree species: Acacia nilotica, Brachylaena discolor and Erythrina lysistemon, by measuring branch length and diameter growth when grown in areas where C. odorata was present or removed. We expect greater growth of the trees in neighborhoods where C. odorata was removed, compared to C. odorata-intact areas. For management of C. odorata, we will assess the effect of three cutting frequencies, on three heights of cutting, on the species’ ability to resprout and persist after mechanical clearing.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 410 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0436 - Interception of invasive Lepidoptera in South Africa

Humbulani Ramukhesa, Saadiek Rosenberg Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Interception of invasive Lepidoptera in South Africa

Tuta absoluta (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), the tomato leaf miner, was detected in South Africa during August and October 2016 for the first time. It is a destructive pest of solanaceous crops and of great importance to small-scale farmers not following a chemical control programme. The pest was identified using the characteristics of the genitalia of the adult male moth and the wing patterns of the adult moths of both sexes. Identification was confirmed using barcoding of the CO1 region of the mitochondrial DNA.

Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), the fall armyworm, was first detected in South Africa in December 2016. It is a destructive pest of corn and sweet corn, sorghum, Bermuda grass, and grass weeds. The pest was identified using the characteristics of the setal map of the larvae. Identification was confirmed using bar-coding of the CO1 region of the mitochondrial DNA.

Here we present a summary of the morphological characteristics used to identify these pests in the laboratory.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 411 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0069 - Environmental flow requirements and response of macro- invertebrate populations in the Luvuvhu River catchment

Pfananani Ramulifho, Stefan Foord University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa

Stream flow alteration and rising water temperatures shape fundamental ecological behaviours of aquatic organisms in riverine ecosystems. An understanding of an organism’s hydrological and thermal sensitivity or tolerance is therefore of importance in determining the likely effects of changes in flow and water temperature regimes on aquatic ecosystems, and also inthe development conservation tools for aquatic ecosystems. Extreme events such as high and low flows exert pressure on aquatic organisms and dictate the success or failure of different species and their variation in distribution patterns. The long-term biomonitoring assessment of an assemblage response survey over time in the Luvuvhu River Catchment provides insights into trajectories of ecosystem change in this strategic water resource area. The responses of two aquatic organisms to two contrasting disturbance events (a major flood event and the long-term cumulative effects of land-use changes) were assessed for the period between 1999 and 2012 by quantifying variation and change in abundance of functional groups based on flow rate sensitivity, water quality and metrics of ecological condition. Results indicated that all metrics recovered to pre-flood conditions within seven months after the flood event. Similarly, cumulative impacts of land use effected significant decreases in some but not all metrics. Indices that did not change, including SASS total score and ASPT, were the result of insufficient consideration of the decrease in the abundance of sensitive taxa specifically, and the abundance of all taxa in general.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 412 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0381 - Detection of Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) in the aphid vector Pentalonia nigronervosa Coquerel (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Nicola Robbertse1,3, Kerstin Krüger1, Elize Jooste2,3 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 23 Agricultural Research Council-Tropical and Subtropical Crops (ARC-TSC), Nelspruit, South Africa, 3Agricultural Research Council-Plant Protection Research Institute (ARC- PPRI), Pretoria, South Africa

Banana bunchy top virus (BBTV) is a devastating virus of banana. An outbreak of the disease in South Africa currently causes major concern as yield losses of up to 100% can be experienced. BBTV is transmitted by the banana aphid, Pentalonia nigronervosa, in a persistent circulative manner, but has not yet been reported to be transmitted in the field by Pentalonia caladii, a closely related species. These two species are difficult to differentiate without morphological measurements. DNA barcoding can be used as an alternative but might damage specimens, preventing their use in subsequent morphological work. The aim of this study was to develop a non-destructive method to extract DNA from aphids collected from banana plantations, keeping them intact to be used as voucher specimens. Using this method, the spread of BBTV along the coast of KZN, where it was initially detected, was determined and the presence of BBTV in aphid populations was studied. DNA was successfully extracted from samples containing a single aphid but concentrations obtained were higher in samples containing 5 to 10 specimens. Slides made from aphids after DNA extraction confirmed their suitability for further morphological studies. Extracted DNA was used to detect BBTV in the insect vector and the presence of BBTV in South African banana plantations was confirmed. This technique can be applied in an early monitoring system for BBTV, and aphid populations in and around plantations can be monitored for the presence of BBTV before aphids spread the disease to other plantations.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 413 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0311 - Life history traits of the marula fruit fly, Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae): potential consequences of host specialisation

Petrus Roets1, Henrika Bosua1, Ruth Archer2, Christopher Weldon1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2University of Exeter, Cornwall, UK

Understanding life-history patterns and trade-offs gives insight into the evolution of a species and how selection has shaped its phenotypic traits. We studied life-history traits in the marula fruit fly Ceratitis cosyra (Walker) (Diptera: Tephritidae) and compared them with those of other tephritid species. After crossing wild and laboratory-bred flies, we established longevity and reproductive effort experiments for both sexes. Individually caged virgin flies were used to determine longevity by recording daily mortality and female fecundity every five days. For male reproductive effort, courtship, mating propensity and sperm transfer by virgin males at ages 5, 15 and 25 days was noted. We found that the average lifespan for females (109 ± 3.5 days) was longer than for males (100 ± 4.4 days), but the last flies to die were all males (maximum lifespan = 269 days). Longevity positively affected total egg production and time until peak egg production. The proportion of males courting and mating was similar at ages 5 and 15 days, but was significantly lower at 25 days. The number of sperm transferred by males was highest at 15 days (12 173 ± 826 sperm). Asymmetry of sperm storage was also highest at 15 days. Ceratitis cosyra has a long lifespan and low lifetime fecundity compared with most tephritids, but males transfer many more sperm during copulation. These traits may be associated with the seasonal availability of marulas, which are its preferred native host.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 414 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0344 - For and against: towards the use of endophytes for the control of the stalk borer Eldana saccharina (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in sugarcane

Nongcebo Memela1,2, Sharon McFarlane1, Des Conlong1,2, R. Stuart Rutherford1,2, Stefan Schmidt2 1South African Sugarcane Research Institute, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2University of KwaZulu-Natal, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Beneficial relationships between Fusarium endophytes in sugarcane and the borer, Eldana saccharina, have been demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. These isolates are attractive to moths and larvae in olfactory/contact bioassays. They also increase larval survival and growth rates when attenuated and incorporated into artificial diet, and when inoculated into sugarcane stalks. A survey of commercial sugarcane genotypes has revealed diversity in fungal endophytic ‘load’ within the stalk. In addition to Fusarium, the entomopathogen Beauveria bassiana is frequently found. In those sugarcane genotypes that appear most permissive of endophytic colonisation, an inverse relationship between numbers of Fusarium and Beauveria isolates is apparent, suggesting competition between these fungi. Beauveria isolates were shown to be repellent to moths and larvae in olfactory/contact bioassays, and to reduce larval survival and growth rates when attenuated and incorporated into artificial diet. Isolates were also characterised in terms of pathogenicity towards E. saccharina larvae by topical application of spores. Selected Beauveria isolates are being tested for their ability to compete with Fusarium by means of in vitro and in planta bioassays. Preliminary results suggest that some Beauveria strains are better competitors than others, but ultimately Fusarium may dominate. The removal of Fusarium from clonal seedcane using hot water treatment (HWT) and exclusion using fungicides can reduce E. saccharina damage in the subsequent crop by up to 50%. We are exploring inoculation methodology for establishing Beauveria, as well as the use of Bacillus endophytes antagonistic towards Fusarium. The latter are compatible with HWT, as well as fungicides.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 415 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0027 - Morphological, acoustic and genetic divergence in the bladder grasshopper

Rekha Sathyan, Adriaan Engelbrecht, Vanessa Couldridge University of the Western Cape, Western Cape, South Africa

Although the processes that promote biodiversity remain poorly understood, geographic variation resulting from selection and/or neutral processes is thought to be a precursor to allopatric speciation. An examination of intraspecific divergence in multiple traits and their co-variation is an essential part of understanding the origin of new species. Here we investigate patterns of geographic variation in acoustic, morphological, and genetic characters of allopatric populations of the bladder grasshopper Bullacris unicolor. We found significant geographic variation in both temporal and frequency components of male advertisement calls, as well as in morphological variables of males and females. However, acoustic characters were much more strongly differentiated between populations than were morphological characters, with no correlation between acoustic and morphological traits. Furthermore, analysis of the mitochondrial DNA marker cytochrome c oxidase I indicated strong genetic structuring, pointing towards genetic isolation among populations in the absence of isolation by distance. Furthermore, we found genetic distance was significantly correlated with morphological differentiation, but not with acoustic differentiation. The high levels of variation in male advertisement calls between populations, as well as the lack of association between acoustic and genetic distance, suggests that divergence in acoustic traits cannot be attributed to genetic features, and is more likely due to alternative selective pressures, such as mate choice or the ecological environment. Our results further suggest that morphological and acoustic features are uncorrelated at the intraspecific level and appear to be evolving under separate selective pressures.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 416 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0004 - How conservation endocrinology can be a potent tool for species conservation practices in South Africa

Juan Scheun National Zoological Gardens of South Africa, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa

The first hint of a global decline in amphibian population size and species diversity came at the First World Congress of Herpetology in 1989. Despite the rather recent realisation thereof, studies now show that the declines have been ongoing since the 1960’s, increasing in severity at the turn of each decade. Despite various plans by the Convention of Biological Diversity to reduce habitat and species loss, amphibian declines have continued unabated. Non-invasive hormone monitoring offers a unique opportunity to determine population health and viability in terms of reproductive ability and survival likelihood. Recent research in this regard has opted for the use of urine and faeces as the samples of choice. However, as the majority of frog species are small, giving insufficient sample quantities, a new method and sample matrix is required. As such we aim to validate mucus as a robust sample matrix to monitor reproductive and stress hormones in frogs. This technique would allow researchers to collect samples in captive and free-ranging environments without the need for excessive handling and capture bouts. During the proposed research we will: (1) validate the use of mucus as a robust matrix to monitor hormones in frogs, (2) validate the most appropriate enzyme immunoassay to use for monitoring stress and reproductive hormone, and finally (3) collect important data on our pilot species, the edible bullfrog.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 417 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0034 - The population structure and regenerating patterns of Salix babylonica (weeping willow) in South Africa

Serole Sehona1, Thierry Hoareau2, Peter le Roux1, Michelle Greve1 1Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Department of Genetics, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Salix babylonica is a well-established alien species in riverine areas; but little is known about the species’ population structure and spread. We aim to determine the extent to which S. babylonica is regenerating and whether there are spatial patterns in the regenerating trends along river courses. This study was conducted on three river systems, Meul and Wilge River, Phongolo River, Bloubankspruit and Crocodile River. Plots were laid along river banks at a minimum distance of 1km apart. Within each plot, height and circumference of each tree were measured as age proxies. Histograms of tree height and circumference were constructed to assess the size distribution of S. babylonica for each river. General linear models were used to analyse whether the minimum, maximum, median, mean and range of tree size changed in a linear manner along the rivers. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to compare size distributions between trees occurring upstream, midstream and downstream. Histograms of tree height and circumference indicated a high proportion of large trees, indicating little regeneration along the rivers. No linear trends in tree height or circumference measures along the rivers were found. The size distributions of tree height differed significantly between upstream, midstream, and downstream areas of the rivers; however all sites had high proportion of large trees. There was no difference in tree circumference between different sections of the river. In summary, we found little evidence of regeneration of S. babylonica along the rivers; thus these results suggest that it may not be a fast-spreading invader.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 418 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0035 - The population structure and regenerating patterns of Salix babylonica (weeping willow) in South Africa

Serole Sehona, Thierry Hoareau, Peter le Roux, Michelle Greve University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Salix babylonica is a well-established alien species in riverine areas; but little is known about the species’ population structure and spread. We aim to determine the extent to which S. babylonica is regenerating and whether there are spatial patterns in the regenerating trends along river courses. This study was conducted on three river systems, Meul and Wilge River, Phongolo River, Bloubankspruit and Crocodile River. Plots were laid along river banks at a minimum distance of 1km apart. Within each plot, height and circumference of each tree was measured as proxies of age. Histograms of tree height and circumference were constructed to assess the size distribution of S. babylonica for each river. General linear models were used to analyse whether the minimum, maximum, median, mean and range of tree size changed in a linear manner along the rivers. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to compare size distribution between trees occurring upstream, midstream, and downstream. Histograms of tree height and circumference indicated a high proportion of large trees, indicating little regeneration along the rivers. No linear trend in tree height or circumference measures along the rivers was found. The size distribution of tree height differed significantly between upstream, mid-section, and downstream areas of the rivers; however all sites had a high proportion of large trees. There was no difference in tree circumference between different sections of the river. In summary, we found little evidence of regeneration of S. babylonica along the rivers, thus these results suggest that it may not be a fast-spreading invader.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 419 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0031 - The inclusion of basic research plans in government funded youth programmes as a means to promote research and encourage critical thinking in South Africa’s youth

Vincent Shacks, Mandy Noffke, Lizeka Gqumani, Lance Anders, Sakhile Sithole, Robert Slater Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA), Cape Town, South Africa

The Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP) implemented by the South African Government achieved over 5 million temporary work opportunities in the past 10 years (2004-2014). As much as 50% of those participants were members of the youth between the ages of 18 - 35. Phase 3 of this programme aims to create a set target of 6 million work opportunities over the five-year period from 2014/15 - 2018/19. The Wildlife and Environment Society of South Africa (WESSA), as the implementer of the EPWP-funded Tourism Blue Flag (TBF) project, have implemented a research element to the project to expose the youth participants to the principles and value of research. In the first Blue Flag beach season, the TBF participants carried out basic training in data collection methodology and successfully completed 5317 tourism questionnaires, 1138 environmental management audits and 8169 observations. These surveys allowed for regional assessments of beach visitor profiles, beach visitor expectation and current standards of environmental management at 50 beaches over the 2016/17 summer holiday period. This case study shows that the inclusion of a structured research plan not only provides valuable baseline data for the sector, but also allows learners to become exposed to the principles of basic research. WESSA recommend that in order to stimulate critical thinking in our youth and further promote the advancement of science in the country, Government-funded projects such as the EPWP youth programmes, should include research deliverables.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 420 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0215 - Hadeda ibis (Bostrychia hagedash) urban nesting, roosting and activity in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Preshnee Singh, Colleen Downs UKZN, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa

Hadeda ibis (Bostrychia hagedash (Latham, 1790)) have increased in population size and expanded their range in South Africa. We investigated the urban ecology of hadeda ibis in Pietermaritzburg, determining the factors which have aided their success. We examined their nesting and roosting habits as well as their morning behaviour. We expected nests and roosts to be within 10 km of favourable habitats, like wetlands. Nest and roost locations were mapped and suitable habitats 10 km around each tree were determined. Suburbs in Pietermaritzburg were surveyed for hadeda ibis engaged in flying, foraging, perching and calling behaviours. Each suburb differed in the degree of urbanisation and we expected that hadeda ibis activity would differ accordingly. Seasonal differences in activity were also expected because of rainfall patterns. Hadeda ibis did not nest or roost closer to expected resources and there was no significant difference in foraging during summer with winter despite greater summer rainfall. Also, there was no significant difference in flying activity for either seasons although it was expected that they would travel further during winter to access ideal foraging areas. Hadeda ibis need moist soil to forage effectively and in an urban environment short-grassed, well-watered lawns provided an ideal foraging habitat regardless of season. Hadeda ibis used swimming pools for drinking water and urban structures for perching although they continued to roost in trees. Consequently their persistence and success in urban areas are affected by various anthropogenic factors that positively affect their food, water and roost site availability.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 421 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0253 - A survey of entomopathogenic Beauveria spp. in South African plantantions

Z. Wilhelm de Beer1, Herman de Bruin2, Wilma J. Nel1, Bernard Slippers2 1Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa 2Department of Genetics, FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Species of the fungal genus Beauveria are generally considered as entomopathogens. Two species, B. bassiana and B. brongniartii, are widely used as biocontrol agents against insects. Biocontrol products containing these fungi are commercially available in South Africa, even though little is known about the natural occurrence of these fungi in this country. In this study we conducted a preliminary survey to investigate the occurrence of these fungi on insects in commercial forests in Mpumalanga, Gauteng and the Western Cape. A total of 93 isolates were obtained from a variety of insect cadavers and were identified based on DNA sequences of the ribosomal ITS and Bloc intergenic regions. In addition, the mating types of all isolates were determined using a MAT1 specific PCR assay. Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the South African isolates all belonged to either B. bassiana or B. pseudobassiana. Beauveria bassiana was present in all three provinces, while B. pseudobassiana was found only in Mpumalanga and the Western Cape. The mating type assay revealed that both mating types of B. bassiana were present, but the skew ratio of 43:3 for MAT1-1 to MAT1-2 suggests that sexual reproduction does not occur frequently. All the B. pseudobassiana isolates were of the MAT1-2 mating type, suggesting that this species only reproduces asexually in this country. This study represents the first report of B. pseudobassiana from South Africa. Pathogenicity trials are needed to evaluate the virulence of the South African isolates and thus their potential for use as biocontrol agents.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 422 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0341 - A pilot study of the colour vision model of Diptera on South African fly species

Carryn Smith, Steven Johnson, Adam Shuttleworth University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Flower colour is an important visual signal that is used to advertise rewards to potential pollinators. Understanding how insect pollinators perceive these visual signals is of interest in understanding the evolution of interactions between flowers and their pollinators. Flies from various families are known to pollinate a variety of plants in southern Africa, yet colour vision in Diptera remains poorly explored compared to that of Hymenoptera. A colour vision model for flies was developed by Troje (1993), based on spectral sensitivity curves of houseflies (Musca domestica) and behavioural experiments with Lucilia blowflies, and this model has gained favour amongst biologists. Despite several studies using this model, its applicability to flies other than Calliphoridae has not been tested. The model predicts that flies perceive colours categorically rather than on a continuum, meaning flies can distinguish between colours that fall into different categories on the model, but colours falling within the same category will be indistinguishable. Our aim is to test whether this model accurately describes colour vision in South African fly species, particularly flies from the family Nemestrinidae, which represent specialist long-tongued pollinators of several South African flowers. Experiments will be designed to test how well the model can predict the discriminability of colours by nemestrinid flies. To do this, flies will be trained to a specific colour through food rewards, and then offered a choice between two artificial flowers, one of which is the trained colour and the other a colour in either a different category or the same category.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 423 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0383 - Identification of molecular diversification between South African RWA Diuraphis noxia biotypes

Scott Sydenham, Vicki Tolmay, Bongiwe Nhlapho Agricultural Research Council-Small Grain Institute, Bethlehem, Free State, South Africa

In South Africa, the Russian wheat aphid (RWA, Diuraphis noxia) has been a significant insect pest of wheat for decades. In recent years, with the drop in winter wheat production in particular, damagingly high population levels of RWA in farmers’ fields have become less common. In South Africa there is no evidence of male D. noxia, which eliminates the chance of sexual recombination. This insect species is clonal, and all female offspring are identical to the mother aphid. Currently, there are four known biotypes of RWA in South Africa, RWASA1, RWASA2, RWASA3 and RWASA4. The identification and differentiation between these biotypes is especially difficult. The biotypes are classified according to a virulence spectrum reaction to different Dn host plant resistance genes present in wheat. This process is time consuming and labour intensive. The recent sequencing of the D. noxia genome revealed very limited, if any, variation at DNA sequence level between different biotypes around the world. However, lately a number of published studies have been successful in using and exploiting methylation sensitive molecular techniques to identify differences at DNA sequence level between different insect species, specialisation and virulence. In this study, we used a methylation sensitive AFLP (MS-AFLP) technique to exploit possible differences in DNA methylation between the four different biotypes. In total 512 different MS-AFLP primer combinations were tested across the four biotypes. Several potential biomarkers between the different RWASA biotypes were identified. These biomarkers should help with fast and accurate biotype identification of field samples in future.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 424 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0384 - Description of the life stages of beetles in the carrion ecosystem of the central Free State

Moeti, Abel Thabo1, Brink, Sonja L 1 & Louw, Schalk1 1Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, 9301 *[email protected]

The foundational knowledge required to determine post mortem interval (PMI) estimates based on the developmental data of flies is better established than that of beetles. Gaining knowledge about immatures stages of beetles is incipient in other parts of the world. Currently we do not have adequate information to identify the eggs, larval instars and pupae of beetles recovered from a crime scene in central South Africa. In this project, the immature stages of beetles of forensic importance will be described by means of scanning electron microscopy. The immature stages of beetles were described in terms of the following characteristics: arrangement of spinulate setae, presence of the urogomphi and presence of retrorse tubercles. Early Dermestes maculatus DeGeer, 1774 instars do not have well-developed urogomphi and retrorse tubercles are absent whereas these structures are well developed in the later instars. We are in the process of describing other beetle species in the specified carrion ecosystem. Furthermore, we will determine the pre- appearance interval (PAI) of a selection of beetles in this carrion ecosystem. The information gathered as part of this study will enable forensic entomologists in the region to use beetles in carrion ecosystem more extensively.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 425 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0414 - Mapping and monitoring of alien invasive plants in Kruger National Park

Thembeka Thwala1, Llewellyn Foxcroft2 1Scientific Services, Kruger National Park, Nelspruit, South Africa, 2Centre for Invasion Biology (C•I•B), Department of Botany and Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Matieland, South Africa

Once introduced, invasive alien plants can spread rapidly in an area and, when not monitored, control measures are frequently not implemented early enough to contain or eradicate new populations. Parthenium hysterophorus, a widely known, highly invasive species was first recorded in the south-eastern region of Kruger National Park (KNP) in 1991 along the Sand River. With the rapid spread of P. hysterophorus, collecting accurate information on the current distribution is important to develop more effective management strategies and prevent it from spreading into areas where it has not been previously recorded to occur. Using a Cyber-Tracker database, a large scale programme was launched to record the abundance and area of occurrence across the southern region of the KNP and in areas surrounding the park. These monitoring surveys are being expanded throughout the KNP to ensure that new populations are detected early and controlled before the current population expands into the northern sections of the KNP from the currently invaded areas which are only known to occur south of the Sabie and Crocodile Rivers. Monitoring the change in distribution and abundance is an essential tool for efficient management, planning future control operations, as well as providing the information needed to report changes and trends over a period of time.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 426 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0036 - Evidence of multiple divergent mitochondrial lineages within the Southern African diplopod genus Bicoxidens Attems, 1928 (Spirostreptida)

Tawanda Tinago1, Tarombera Mwabvu2, Angus H. H. Macdonald3 1Chinhoyi University of Technology, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe, 2University of Mpumalanga, Mbombela, Mpumalanga, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa

Two recent studies have suggested that divergent mitochondrial lineages may be present within spirostreptid genera such as Bicoxidens Attems, 1928. Bicoxidens, like many other endemic soil invertebrates, exhibits low dispersal capabilities and strict microclimate habitat preference attributes which often lead to geographic isolation. Given that prolonged geographic isolation often lays the foundation for genetic divergence and possibly speciation, there was good reason to suspect that Bicoxidens may consist of several distinct lineages. On this basis the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (COI) was used to test the monophyly of Bicoxidens and reveal divergent lineages within the genus. Maximum likelihood and Bayesian inference analyses recovered a paraphyletic Bicoxidens phylogram with divergent lineages present in three species, B. friendi Mwabvu, 2000, B. flavicollis Attems, 1928 and B. brincki Schubart, 1966, suggesting high genetic diversity within the genus. Bayesian genetic cluster analyses results suggested the presence of multiple distinct mitochondrial lineages within the genus, with four identified in B. flavicollis alone. As such, the divergent lineages observed among Bicoxidens populations may suggest the presence of hidden species.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 427 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0242 - Water and nitrogen additions in a Kruger savanna result in cascading effects on biodiversity

Matthew Trisos1, Catherine Parr2, Mike Picker1, Lars Hedin3, Edmund February1 1University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa, 2University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK, 3Princeton University, Princeton, USA

Nutrient deposition, mainly in the form of nitrogen, and climate change are two major current and future anthropogenically mediated influences on biodiversity at both local and global scales. However, the impact on African ecosystems is poorly known. By manipulating both nitrogen and water availability, we ask which of these anthropogenically mediated drivers (nitrogen or water) has a greater impact on biodiversity in the semi-arid Kruger National Park. We sampled the primary producer, primary consumer and secondary consumer trophic levels, and determined that water is the biggest driver of changes in biodiversity; and that its effect is increased by nitrogen additions. Water and nutrient additions significantly increased grass biomass, which then caused substantial alterations to the community composition and species richness of grasses, forbs, grasshoppers and ants. Furthermore, these changes were not mitigated by a natural disturbance event (fire) nor regulated by large mammal herbivory. By investigating the impact of these drivers on grass, forb, grasshopper and ant diversity, we highlight the importance of conservation efforts focused on biodiversity preservation compared to single species conservation efforts.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 428 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0236 - Comparing genetic patterns in native and introduced species

Mark Turnbull1, Chris Chimimba2, Bettine Jansen van Vuuren1 1The Centre for Ecological Genomics and Wildlife Conservation, Department of Zoology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Phylogeography is the study of genetic lineages distributed across a species’ geographical range. Phylogeographic studies have observed partitioning of genetic variation across the ranges of numerous species. Genetic breaks often coincide in species with similar life histories and biology (e.g. the Knersvlakte act as a barrier to multiple saxicolous species). This does not seem to be the case in invasive species as their genetic patterns rarely reflect a natural barrier that would restrict gene flow in native species. To further examine these differences, sequence data were generated for two native small mammal species, Saccostomus campestris (a generalist species) and Elephantulus myurus (a specialist species). The two genetic patterns within the native species were then compared with published data for the invasive species Rattus rattus from both South Africa and the Democratic Republic of Congo. A mitochondrial DNA fragment, the control region, was used in this study for both native species. Bayesian trees and haplotype networks were drawn to display results visually for both the native and invasive species. An ANOVA analysis was executed which was used to determine if genetic variation was geographically structured within the species. We did observe great differences in genetic structuring between the invasive and native species. We suspect that mutational rate within a particular species could play an important role in the formation of the genetic structures. The data on the invasive species suggest that anthropogenic activities are the most influential factors in the development of the genetic structure.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 429 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0026 - Beta diversity of arthropods across the complementary zones of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve

Julia van Schalkwyk, James Pryke, Michael Samways, René Gaigher Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa

Biosphere reserves aim to bridge the gap between human development and biodiversity conservation. This is done through the designation of zones with specific functions (core zones: biodiversity conservation, transition zones: sustainable human development, buffer zones: integrating biodiversity and development). This work assesses the effectiveness of these different zones for biodiversity conservation. The study area is the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve (KBR) that is a floral hotspot within a hotspot (the Cape Floristic Region), yet falls within one of South Africa’s major pome fruit producing regions. For biodiversity conservation to be effective, areas under conservation management need to represent the known diversity of an area, and this needs to be sustained in the long run. We here determine whether KBR arthropod beta-diversity tracks floral diversity and what role topographic factors relating to microclimate can play in mitigating the adverse effects of climate change. Understanding the impact of pome fruit farming on diversity in adjacent natural vegetation will guide future land planning within the buffer and transition zones. Knowledge of the impact of management practices within commercial orchards (related to vegetation between tree lines) can guide future management aimed at promoting local diversity (and in particular beneficial arthropods (predators of pests)).The buffer and transition zones may also further add to conservation by conserving suites of complementary species not present within the core zone. Biosphere reserves are novel systems shaped by the interaction between man and the environment. This work will help us understand how human activities affect diversity within a biosphere reserve.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 430 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0153 - Hypopharyngeal gland development of South African honey bee subspecies

Zoe van Vuuren, Christian Pirk University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

Nurse bees tend to the brood inside the hive and are therefore required to develop their hypopharyngeal glands. The paired hypopharyngeal glands are located in the frontal area of the worker bee head, between the compound eyes, and are made up of many small oval structures called acini. These structures produce a protein-rich jelly which is fed to the larvae and the queen. A field based colony level study was carried out in South Africa to determine developmental differences of the hypopharyngeal glands of two honey bee subspecies, Apis mellifera scutellata Lepeletier (Hymenoptera: Apidae) and A. m. capensis Escholtz, as well as between A. m. scutellata hives infested with the infamous capensis clone. Field based colony level trials are important since many honey bee experiments are carried out in the laboratory and only evaluate single variables. The development was studied by measuring the size of the acini each day for a period of two weeks. It is suggested that the brood of the parasitic capensis clone lineage receives more food and food of a higher quality inside infested hives. If that is the case it should be reflected in the gland development of the nurse bees. The preliminary results suggest that there is little variation between the development of hypopharyngeal glands of South African honey bee subspecies. These data for hypopharyngeal gland development provide an essential foundation to understand the development and associated division of labour in South African honey bees.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 431 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0012 - Taxonomic review of the genus Marginella (Gastropoda: Marginellidae)

Stephan Veldsman1 1University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa, 2Institute for Marine and Environmental Science, Pretoria, South Africa

The genus Marginella of the family Marginellidae is a diverse group of shelled Gastropoda occurring only around the African coast. Each of the species occurs in a limited range within specific ecological environments and localised in coastal provinces along the African coast. With the increase in identified Marginella species, especially along the South African coast, it became necessary to group the species within the genus. The phylogenetic relationships of the Marginella species were studied according to morphological characteristics and grouped into new subgenera. Nine shell characteristics were used for the study. A combined alignment of the parsimony values presented on nodes and refinement by using the general shell shape and occurrence (coastal province and bub-provinces) led to the grouping of the species. The parsimony phylogenetic tree consists of 190 species, divided into four genera groups. The Marginella genus group is further divided into 27 subgenera, with 26 of these described as new subgenera.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 432 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0118 - Mite diversity survey focussing on grapevine motherblocks and nurseries in the Wellington (Western Cape) region

Mia Vermaak, Pia Addison, Ruan Veldtman Stellenbosch University, Western Cape, South Africa

The greatest threat to grapevine plants are diseases, insects, and mites. Amongst phytophagous mites, the most important are those belonging to the families Eriophyidae, Tarsonemidae, Tenuipalpidae and Tetranychidae. These mite families frequently reach damaging levels in vineyards. Early detection of specialist and generalist mites is crucial to developing efficient mite management strategies in vineyards. A survey was done on farms in the Wellington region, with the target being the motherblocks and nurseries. The survey was conducted due to a lack in knowledge of the mite composition in local vineyards. The aim of this survey was to obtain an impression of the mite diversity in the nurseries and motherblocks in the Wellington region. Phytophagous mites were abundant in all the vineyards, with predators being scarcer. Brevipalpus lewisi (Tenuipalpidae) was the only phytophagous mite present and was found at all the sites. The predators were more diverse; nine species in total were found. The predators included members from the superfamilies Raphignathoidea and Tydeoidea and thefamily Phytoceiidae. All the mites found are considered generalist species. Further research is being done to determine mite diversity relative to seasonality as well as measuring mite abundance. This will convey a clear perspective on the ecology of mites on vineyards, their interaction with each other and the change in seasons as well as how their behaviour affects the vineyards.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 433 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0437 - Invasions in the Vhembe Biosphere Reserve: What’s the IAP Problem?

Cath Vise

The Vhembe Biosphere Reserve is located in the Northern Limpopo. To date, no collation of invasive alien plant (IAPs) species for the Reserve has been done. The aim of this project is to assess the presence, distribution and estimate abundance of dominant IAPs across the Reserve with a focus on core areas, including northern Kruger and Mapungubwe National Parks. Drive surveys were conducted between February and April 2017 with walking surveys taking part in more remote areas. Provisional results of the surveys in the Kruger National Park and Limpopo Valley show that IAPs species occur predominantly in the riverine vegetation and on the river banks of the major rivers in the area, including Levhuvhu, Shingwedzi and Limpopo. The NEM:BA listed alien plants observed in these systems are predominantly annual herbaceous species, including Xanthium stromarium L., three Datura species as well as three species of Senna. Ricinus communis L. and Lantana camara L. are also present, however not in the same abundance. Vines include Solanum seaforthianum Andrews and Aristolochia elegans Mast. Emerging species of concern in the two core areas are Calotropus procera W. T. Aiton, Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br. and species of Cylindropuntia. While these species are still in low densities, they have been observed creating dense stands of invasion in transition zones of the Biosphere Reserve. Core areas would benefit from immediate action and early removal before establishment occurs. Research is ongoing, with a more detailed assessment of impacts of these species required.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 434 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0102 - Shivaphis celti (Hemiptera: Aphididae), a newly introduced woolly aphid infesting white stinkwood trees in South Africa

Diedrich Visser1, Ian Millar2 1Agricultural Research Council-Vegetable and Ornamental Plants, Roodeplaat, Pretoria, South Africa, 2ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Biosystematics Division, Pretoria, South Africa

An aphid covered in fluffy white wax was detected for the first time in South Africa on volunteer white stinkwood trees, Celtis africana, in Pretoria, Gauteng Province, in May 2016. The aphid was identified asShivaphis celti Das, one of the Asian woolly hackberry aphids. These aphids, as their name indicates, occur naturally in Asia and are primarily found on Celtis species. Shivaphis celti was found to occur in the U.S.A. in 1997 and in Australia in 2013. In South Africa, this aphid has been observed only on white stinkwood trees so far, and is now commonly found on landscape ornamental trees, as well as on trees in natural landscapes. This aphid is conspicuous and easy to recognize by the copious amounts of white wax that it secretes, as well as the tendency for individuals to fly up in swarms when disturbed, much like whiteflies. The adult aphids may be winged or wingless, measuring 2 to 3 mm in length. No long-term damage to trees has been reported abroad or observed locally, but the copious amounts of honeydew that coat the leaves attract ants and provide a substrate for the growth of an unsightly sooty mould on affected leaves. Several species of ladybird beetles have been observed feeding on the nymphs and adults. The occurrence of the “white stinkwood woolly aphid” in South Africa will be monitored to determine the extent of its distribution, as well as to quantify its potential as a pest of ornamental white stinkwood trees.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 435 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0106 - Observations on the biology of the trumpet bagworm, Trachypteryx rhodoxantha Hampson (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae, Phycitinae)

Diedrich Visser1, Vivienne Uys2 1Agricultural Research Council-Vegetable and Ornamental Plants, Roodeplaat, Pretoria, South Africa, 2ARC-Plant Protection Research Institute, Biosystematics Division, Pretoria, South Africa

The trumpet bagworm, Trachypteryx rhodoxantha Hampson, is one of nine species in this African genus; T. rhodoxantha appears to be confined to southern Africa, having only been recorded from Zimbabwe and South Africa. Thirty-two weeping wattle trees, Peltophorum africanum, growing in a group at the ARC-VOP, Roodeplaat, Gauteng, were inspected for trumpet bagworm. Two hundred and fifty bags were found on a single tree; no bags were present on the other 31 trees. A combination of mature bags and bags containing feeding larvae were found. Observations revealed that early instar larvae take refuge in shelters constructed by folding pairs of pinnules together. A bag, at first hidden within the fold, and later expanded to accommodate the growing larva, is constructed. The entire bag is made from larval frass spun together in layers. Initially, young larvae feed on the upper leaf surface within the fold, but later venture out to feed. Bags containing feeding larvae are found on the outer canopy. Two to four bags are usually grouped together; adjacent bags are sometimes folded together and secured with silk webbing to form strong, concealed refuges. Larval frass incorporated into the webbing obscures the bags and openings. Pupation takes place within the bag, which is securely fastened to the thicker, inner branches of the tree. Adults were reared from these bags. Despite the large number of bags, no significant damage to the tree was evident. Further observations may reveal why only one tree appears to have been favoured over the 31 others.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 436 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0367 - The interaction of lepidopteran pests with Bt crops: evaluating the assumptions central to the high-dose/refuge IRM strategy

Andri Visser1, Johnnie Van den Berg1, Hannalene Du Plessis1, Annemie Erasmus2 1North-West University, Potchefstroom, North West Province, South Africa, 2ARC-Grain Crops Institute, Potchefstroom, North West Province, South Africa

The use of genetically modified (GM) Bt-crops has increased exponentially over the last four decades. These crops contain genes from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that allow the expression of Cry (crystal) proteins, which are toxic to specific target insect pests. Because of the effectiveness of the toxins, the selection pressure for evolution of resistance is high. Various insect resistance management (IRM) strategies have been considered to delay the evolution of resistance, of which the high-dose/refuge strategy is favoured. This strategy accepts that Bt-plants produce toxin levels high enough to kill heterozygous (RS) resistant individuals. It also accepts that a susceptible (SS) population persists in non-Bt refuges to mate with the rare homozygous (RR) resistant individuals that survive the high doses of Bt-toxin. Although this IRM strategy has contributed to preventing the evolution of Bt-resistance, it is based on several assumptions that are not consistently met for different target species. These include assumptions about the interactions between insect pests and Bt-crops, as well as between resistant and susceptible individuals of the pest population. For example, it is assumed that the pest shows no ovipositional or feeding preference for either Bt- or non-Bt plants; that larvae do not migrate extensively; and that factors such as plant density, plant age, and the presence of wild hosts do not hamper the efficacy of the IRM strategy. This poster reviews knowledge regarding larval migration of stem borers, their host plants and Cry protein expression levels and relates this to IRM in an African context.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 437 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0116 - New record of a cerambycid in the South African sugarcane industry

Mike Way1, Desmond Conlong1,2, Stuart Rutherford1, Deborah Sweby1, Denise Gillespie1, Rowan Stranack1, Beth Grobbelaar3 1South African Sugarcane Research Institute, P/Bag X02, Mount Edgecombe, 4300, South Africa, Mount Edgecombe, South Africa, 2School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P/Bag X01, Scottsville, 3209, South Africa, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, 3Agricultural Research Council - Plant Protection Research Institute, Biosystematics Programme, Private Bag X134, Queensland, Pretoria, 0121 South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa

In October 2015, unknown longhorn beetle (cerambycid) larvae were found for the first time feeding in sugarcane stools in the Entumeni District of Zululand, KwaZulu-Natal. Symptoms were observed in patches of drought-stressed and stunted sugarcane. Tunnelling was visible in stubble of recently harvested fields and the lower end of harvested stalks. Larvae enter from underground and bore upwards into the stool leaving frass-filled feeding tunnels, with associated red coloration; likely a Fusarium species infection. Larvae occur singly in stalks. Stalks lodge as a result of the infestation. The pest was recorded in a number of sugarcane varieties, and in plants up to sixth ratoon crops, ranging in age from one to 15 months old. The currently available control recommendation consists of the ploughing out the stools, to expose the grubs which die due to desiccation and predation, and leaving the field fallow for an extended period. Insecticides and pathogens are being investigated as complementary control measures. This short communication provides knowledge gleaned from literature and the field experience obtained thus far in South Africa. The nature of research required to enable effective management of the pest is also discussed.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 438 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0390 - The effects of season and breeding on metabolism in three species from the genus Euplectes (Aves)

Stacey L. Webb2,1, Nomakwezi Mzilikazi2, Graham I.H. Kerley2,1, Mark Brown3 1Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Eastern Cape, South Africa, 2Centre for African Conservation Ecology (ACE), Eastern Cape, South Africa, 3University of KwaZulu Natal, KwaZulu Natal, South Africa

Seasonal flexibility in metabolic rate (MR) has been well documented in multiple avian species. For many species, seasonal environmental changes bring about breeding activity. Birds that exhibit extravagant breeding plumage may possibly have more pronounced changes in metabolic rates owing to changes in colour and design of plumages. For example, in males, the change in colour and design of plumages during breeding could affect the metabolic costs of individuals, by increased resistance to movement (in the case of elongated breeding tail feathers) whereas in females, changes in metabolic rates may be associated with raising chicks.

Members of the genus Euplectes display a wide variety of colour and degrees of plumage elaboration. In this study the seasonal variation of metabolic rates was investigated in three co-existing Euplectes species. There were significant differences in body mass between sexes across all three species. The most significant determinant of differences in resting metabolic rate (RMR) was body mass. Once body mass effects were removed, there were no significant effects observed between seasons or between sexes. This suggests that the metabolic costs of breeding were similar for both sexes. However, in E. orix, breeding females had a significantly lower RMR than both non-breeding females in summer (F1,14= 8.27, P=0.01) and winter (F1,14= 13.86, P=0.00), suggesting a trade-off between energy investments into maintenance vs breeding.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 439 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0200 - Geographic variation and plasticity in climate stress resistance of Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae)

Christopher Weldon1, Casper Nyamukondiwa2, Minette Karsten3, Katherine Mitchell3, Steven Chown4, John Terblanche3 1University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Africa, 2Botswana International University of Science and Technology, Gaborone, Botswana, 3Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa, 4Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

Predictive forecasting for climate change frequently considers one or a few traits as defining a species’ geographic distribution and abundance, but these traits are usually derived from experiments on laboratory-reared populations or correlations with climate variables across broad geographic scales. However, the distribution, persistence or abundance of a species may also be affected by adaptation to local environmental conditions. We examined simultaneously multiple climate stress resistance traits and their plasticity for a globally invasive pest insect, the Mediterranean fruit fly,Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann) (Diptera: Tephritidae), among eight distinct populations from different bioclimatic regions across sub-Saharan Africa. Accounting for life- history variation (body mass) and genetic relatedness, variation in the mean and thermal plasticity of traits between sites was explored for potential associations with key climate variables to test whether environmental variability drives the evolution of basal and/or plastic stress resistance.

Thermal tolerance [measured as the critical thermal minimum (CTmin) and maximum (CTmax)], desiccation resistance (DR) and starvation resistance (SR) of C. capitata, and the flexibility thereof with thermal acclimation, varied geographically among populations within sub-Saharan Africa, but this variation was independent of population genetic relatedness. As temperature seasonality increased, mean CTmin and CTmax also increased; but DR and SR decreased with an increase in growing degree-days of source geographic locations. Plasticity of all measured traits was not associated with any of the tested climate variables. Our results show that C. capitata can adapt to local environmental conditions, and that trait associations with climate depend on the trait in question.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 440 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0398 - DNA Barcoding of Aedes (Diptera: Culicidae) in the Free State province, South Africa

Liezl Whitehead, Vaughn Swart, Marieka Gryzenhout University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Free State, South Africa

Mosquitoes are notorious vectors of disease, costing the lives of hundreds of thousands of people annually while simultaneously threatening their livelihood by transmitting diseases to livestock. One of the most medically significant genera of mosquito vectors is Aedes, which transmits diseases such as chikungunya, dengue fever, yellow fever and Zika fever. Accurate species identification of mosquitoes such as Aedes is critical when dealing with vector incrimination and when determining their distribution. Mosquito identification is a labour intensive process and may be complicated by polymorphisms and the existence of species complexes. To overcome these challenges, species identification can be assisted by molecular identification (DNA barcoding). One of the most commonly used regions for DNA barcoding is the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I region (COI) of mitochondrial DNA. In the current study, partial sequencing of the COI gene of morphologically identified Aedes mosquitoes will be performed. The data will be used to analyse interspecific variation and to possibly aid in the assignment of species names. It will also assist in deducing phylogenetic relationships between species, hopefully illuminating the relationships within species complexes. This would allow other researchers to utilise this information for accurate species identifications and taxonomic purposes and will facilitate future surveys and studies on Aedes in South Africa.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 441 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0256 - Evidence for convergent evolution of ambrosia fungi in the Ophiostomatales (Ascomycota)

Miranda Erasmus, Tuan A. Duong, Michael J. Wingfield, Z. Wilhelm de Beer FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The Ophiostomatales are an order of ascomycete fungi including more than 300 species, most of which are symbionts of bark and ambrosia beetles (Curculionidae: Scolytinae). Some occur with mites or in soil, and five are human pathogens. The bark beetle associates from genera such as Ophiostoma and Leptographium are adapted for insect dispersal, forming spores on elongated structures in sticky droplets that attach to the bodies of beetles. In contrast, ambrosia beetle symbionts from the genus Raffaelea sensu lato have a reduced morphology, producing enlarged, nutrient-rich asexual spores on short structures lining the walls of galleries and on which ambrosia beetles feed. Preliminary phylogenetic studies based on rDNA sequences suggested the ambrosial fungi might have evolved more than once in the Ophiostomatales. Our study aimed to reconsider the generic boundaries in the Ophiostomatales and the placement of the ambrosial lineages based on sequences of five gene regions (ribosomal LSU and ITS, TEF 1-α, MCM7, and RPBII). The resulting phylogeny included more than 200 species, and 18 genera were defined, including twelve known and six new genera. The ambrosial fungi separated into five of these genera, most species belonging to Raffaelea sensu stricto, and one species to Afroraffaelea. The name Dryadomyces will be re-instated for a third lineage containing five species, and the remaining two lineages will be described as new genera. In the most comprehensive phylogeny produced for the order to date we showed that obligate symbionts of ambrosia beetles evolved at least five times in the Ophiostomatales.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 442 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0258 - Novel fungal symbionts of Dendroctonus valens (Curculionidae, Scolytinae)

Seonju Marincowtiz, Stephen J. Taerum, Tuan A. Duong, Michael J. Wingfield, Z. Wilhelm de Beer FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The red turpentine beetle (Dendroctonus valens) is native to the continental USA, Canada, Mexico and Honduras. In these areas it is regarded as a minor pest which often infests pine species, but seldom other conifers, in association with more aggressive beetles. Outbreaks of D. valens that cause tree mortality were rare until 1999 when the first outbreak from outside the insect’s native range was reported from China. Since then D. valens has spread rapidly over half a million hectares of pine stands killing millions of indigenous pine trees across China, especially Pinus tabuliformis. Like many conifer-infesting bark beetles (Curculionidae, Scolytinae), D. valens is known to vector fungi residing in the Ophiostomatales (Ascomycota, Sordariomycetidae), which produce slimy spore droplets evolved for easy insect dispersal. In a previous study, the fungal symbionts of D. valens were surveyed in its native range in the USA and Mexico, and several unknown species were discovered. The present study was initiated to determine the identities and phylogenetic relationships of these fungi using morphological features and multi-gene phylogenetic analyses. A total of 13 novel species of Grosmannia, Leptographium and Ophiostoma were identified and are in the process of being described. As fungal associates of D. valens have previously been studied in North America, the diversity of novel taxa was surprising. Our results will facilitate more accurate comparisons between the fungal symbionts of D. valens in its native and introduced ranges, and thus a better understanding of its invasion biology.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 443 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0259 - Fungal associates of conifer-infesting bark beetles and their phoretic mites from Yunnan province, China

Runlei Chang, Tuan A. Duong, Stephen A. Taerum, Michael J. Wingfield, Z. Wilhelm de Beer FABI, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa

The Ophiostomatales are an ascomycete order of fungi containing several tree pathogens and many species that degrade wood. These fungi are commonly vectored by scolytine bark and ambrosia beetles. In recent years it has also been shown that hyperphoretic mites on these beetles can vector some of these fungi. Since not much is known about the Ophiostomatales in China, we explored the diversity of these fungi associated with conifer-infesting bark beetles and mites in Yunnan province, China. Ten beetle species, their galleries and 13 associated mite species were collected during a preliminary survey in 2010. Altogether 284 fungal isolates were obtained, 45 from beetles, 183 from mites, and 56 from galleries. DNA sequences of four gene regions (ITS, LSU, β-tubulin, TEF1-α) were determined for fungal isolates representing different morphogroups. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed the presence of 12 fungal species. Six of these were present on mites, beetles and galleries, while three species were found on mites and galleries. Two species were found only on mites and one species only on a beetle. Although the numbers of beetles and mites were not enough to make statistical inferences, this study confirmed that mites are important vectors of these fungi, and are most likely responsible for horizontal transfer of fungal species between galleries of different beetle species. In addition, the fact that half of the fungal species found were new to science, suggests that the forests of east Asia contain many undescribed fungi yet to be discovered.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 444 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0098 - Ant diversity and composition in the reforested landscape of Buffelsdraai landfill, KwaZulu-Natal

Sbongiseni Xolo1, Stefan Foord2, Rob Slotow1, Caswell Munyai1 1University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, 2University of Venda, South Africa, Thohoyandou, Limpopo, South Africa

Deforestation of natural forests is considered a global threat to biodiversity. Management of protected ecosytems and the restoration of degraded ecosystems are essential for protection of both biodiversity and ecosystem services. Although invertebrates, and ants in particular, have been used as indicators of forest recovery and restoration, most studies focus on vegetation dynamics, neglecting dominant components of any ecosystem.

The current study will assess the success of restoration practices to coastal forest at the Buffelsdraai landfill site at eThekwini Municipality, KwaZulu-Natal Province. The study will focus on ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) as they comprise a significant component of invertebrate diversity, serve as keystone species in terrestrial ecosystems and can be used as bioindicator species. The study describes ant diversity, composition and fundamental environmental variables along a reforestation gradient. Ants will be sampled at five sites which include sugarcane, newly and long-term restored sites, grassland sites and Afromontane forest sites. The study predicted to find peaks of ant diversity in more open habitats comprised of generalist ants and less ant diversity in forested sites with some specialist ants. Results from this work should enhance understanding of reforestation processess for better implementation and assessment of reforestation practices.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 445 2017 Combined Congress of the Entomological and Zoological Societies of Southern Africa

0016 - Epigaeic arthropod response to fynbos fires in the Cape Winelands Biosphere Reserve and Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, Western Cape

Inam Yekwayo1, James Pryke2, Rene Gaigher2, Michael Samways1 1University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa, 2University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch, South Africa

The Fynbos biome is characterized by great plant species composition and richness. Fynbos is a fire driven ecosystem, but knowledge on the effects of fire on epigaeic arthropods is poor. We determine the response of epigaeic arthropods to fynbos fire and to different terrains (rocky and non-rocky). Arthropods were sampled using pitfall traps, active searching and suction sampling (D-vac). Sites were divided into three categories based on the time of the last fire event: recently burned areas (<3 months), burned areas (1–2 years) and mature vegetation areas (not burnt for > 7 years). Each fire categories had 30 sites, 15 rocky and 15 non-rocky. Our results showed that different arthropod groups respond differently to fire. Burned sites supported significantly greater ant species richness than mature sites. Beetle species richness was higher in mature sites than in recently burned sites. Although terrain did not influence species richness of either arthropod group, interaction between terrain and time of the fire was important for beetles, with greater richness in mature non-rocky sites than in recently burned sites (rocky and non-rocky). Arthropod assemblages did not differ between rocky and non-rocky sites. The three fire categories supported different assemblages, indicating that fire caused direct mortality in arthropods. However, there was also overlap of assemblages between categories, and this shows that some species are fire- tolerant. Overall, this study highlighted that arthropod communities in fynbos are impacted by fire and the effects of fire on arthropods differ between groups.

The Entomological Society of Southern Africa and the Zoological Society of Southern Africa 446