DOCSLIB.ORG

A Brief History of Measurement

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A Brief History of Measurement Eur. Phys. J. Special Topics 172, 25–35 (2009) c EDP Sciences, Springer-Verlag 2009 THE EUROPEAN DOI: 10.1140/epjst/e2009-01039-1 PHYSICAL JOURNAL SPECIAL TOPICS Regular Article A brief history of measurement M.E. Himbert LNE-LCM, Cnam-Metrology, Case I 361, 61 rue du Landy, 93210 La Plaine-Saint-Denis, France Abstract. The aim of this paper is to situate the subject of measurement and metrology in its historical and philosophical context. Everyone agrees that the numeration of objects and the quantification of the characteristics of some simple systems are very ancient practices encountered in any specific civilisation. Indeed the link between measurement and numeration comes from the beginnings. This is recalled here, as are the links between units and money, between references and authority. Then, the paper identifies and exhibits the different epistemological gaps occurred – or occurring – in the history of measurement in the western countries: • geometry versus arithmetics, • model versus experiment, • prediction versus uncertainty, • determinism versus quantum physics. Those gaps are described in relationship to the evolution of the internationally agreed system of units. 1 Measurement: Technology or philosophy 1.1 Measurement, experiment and knowledge Measurement leads to the expression of characteristics of systems in terms of numbers. As explained Lord Kelvin: “When you can measure what you are speaking about, and express it in numbers, you know something about it; but when you cannot measure it in numbers, your knowledge is of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind ...”. Indeed the aim of measurement is to give reliable knowledge on objects or concepts. Despite the fact that, in the present paper, the regular historical approach will be considered, one has first to address several transverse questions about experience, numerical value, and knowledge, which will be implicitly referred to hereafter. What kind of things can be measured? The meaning of experimental measurement is definitely not the same in the different fields, and the frontier of the “measurable” has evolved along time, based on a philosophical background. How is a numerical value obtained? In practice, such a question is linked to the set up of methodologies, instruments and also reference standards, in order to achieve reliable compar- isons and to express results in terms of identified units. It is also linked to the development of the symbolic tools in mathematics and control and computer science; how do those tools apply to experiments? Why are scientists, and other people, interested in measurement? For the first ones as a tool to increase knowledge, to set up and to test laws and theories in a scientific approach; for the other ones as a part of information, needed for trade and for development, technologies, predic- tion, control, in order to take a decision without risk or, as emerged slowly in the philosophical approach of measurement, with a stated uncertainty. 26 The European Physical Journal Special Topics 1.2 Measurement, scaling and testing In everyone’s life, some measurements and measurement results are received and treated, every time, everywhere ...toquantifythecharacteristics(mass,volume...) usedtoassessthetrade cost of objects; to control the behaviour of owners of technological systems (car speed, air composition above a factory ...)whichshouldfitofficialregulations; to understand and predict natural phenomena (astronomy, weather forecast ...);togiveconfidence in sport performances (race records...); to state as unambiguously as possible medical diagnosis (imaging ...), to make and deliver controlled and appropriate medicines; to put objective scales on human senses (hearing, seeing...); to improve the efficiency of technological tools; to characterise aspects of objects (glowness, ...) and aesthetics, to strengthen trade; to set up values at the stock exchange; to gather relevant social data of many kinds (age or social income distribution, ...); to build indicators in a quality management system and to hear the “voice of customers”; to set up intellectual capacities or to scale emotions (individual scale of pain developed in many hospitals ...);etc. In most cases, to get confidence in measurement data, one has to rely on reference standards, considered as units. According to J.C. Maxwell: “Every expression of a quantity consists of two factors: [. ] the numerical value and the unit”. Most of what is developed hereafter is related to this ideal case of measurement, dealing with quantities for which, from a mathematical point of view, either the sum or the ratio can be easily defined. In other cases, one has to speak from “scaling”, and in most cases when the detailed procedure has to be described and followed to give sense to the result, one has to use the word “testing”. However most of the considerations could be applied to domains where the existence of unambiguously defined quantities and appropriate references are not (yet?) well established. 2 Numeration, mathematics and measurement 2.1 Counting units Among the oldest testimonies of measurement processes in the mid-eastern civilisations, one has to mention the clay balls (6000b,c) found in Mesopotamia: to assess for instance the size of a flock of sheep, the owner was sealing into a large clay sphere as many small balls as there where individuals in the flock, e.g. lambs. The seal was broken, if necessary, to give reliable evidence of the earlier characteristics of the flock. Measurement totally relied on counting. The name of the counting quantum, the “unit” 1, became and stayed the same as the generic name of the reference standards chosen for a given quantity. Progressively, people were using different shapes for the balls in the same sealed sphere, to include various descriptors of the individuals. They moved then to signs engraved on stones, and later written on RW clay tables. The signs became either pictograms (which appeared also in the far-eastern civilisations) or just lines and symbols. The art of counting, the art of writing seem to be issued from measurement necessities. 2.2 Earliest references The establishment of reliable references has been made in the early stage, together with the development of a common numeration system for multiples and sub-multiples. Indeed it was linked to political power, as were science and trade, and numerous different systems were estab- lished in numerous countries. Museums over the world gather rich collections of old references, and a considerable literature can be found on that subject. One of the most famous ones is the “Gudea yardstick” for length, established on marble in Lagash at the Sumerian time (2120 bc). The multiples and sub-multiples were taken as simple products by integer factors 2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 60 ...Egyptian parchments of the Middle-age Empire testify that measurement operations were largely developed in fields as various as land surveying or soul weighing! Quantum Metrology and Fundamental Constants 27 2.3 Metrology for exchanges παντων χρηµαων µετρoν ανθρωπoζ Man is the measure of everything...Of course this statement from the Greek philosopher Protagoras (420 bc) was mainly relying on the philosophical problem of reality and non-reality. However it emphasizes the fact that most practical units became anthropomorphic units. Indeed most needs were also related to anthropomorphic quantities. Furthermore, quantities [and units] were defined in terms of usefulness, whatever the scien- tific coherence: different units were used for length (length of objects) and for distance (itinerary measurements). As most coins were relied on noble metals (gold and silver), money was incor- porated into the metrological system and mass units and money units usually coincided. 2.4 Geometry overcomes a first scientific epistemological gap Among the scientific and technical developments of the Greek civilisation were astronomy – the main developed experimental science – and cartography – the main useful tool for navigation, trade and conquests. Arithmetics and geometry became identified fields. At the time of Euclid, a major difficulty occuring in the previous measurement approach was solved. Let’s consider the ratio of two quantities A and B of the same kind. If A and B are commensurable (i.e. the ratio is a fraction of defined integers), counting can be used for measurement of A in terms of unit B. But if not, the ratio is properly “immeasurable”. Geometry handles with immeasurable ratios, for instance between the diagonal and the side of a plane square. So geometry has been able to fix the difficulty. However, looking for instance to a length and an area, the units have to be different, and homogeneity should be carefully preserved. This gave rise to one of the famous measurements of that time: the measurement of the Earth radius, and of the Earth meridian, by Eratosthenes of Kyrene. Using the comparison of the geometric shadow induced by the sun in zenith on a vertical bar translated in differ- ent places (Alexandria: 7, 5 ◦;Syena:0◦ ...andMeroemoresouth),situatedroughly along the same meridian, he deduced from the distance between the cities (800 km, measured by walk- ing) an estimate of the Earth meridian as 25’2000 stadions. Despite more than four different stadions were used at that age in different places, it appears that the stadion used was equal to 300 Aegypt roy cubits, or 600 Gudea untis, i.e. 158,7 m...ThisscalesEratosthenes’ meridian to 40 000 km. Not bad! He then has been able to calibrate distances on Earth from the angular measurement of star positions,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Discovering the History of Measurement Through Words
    CONTENT BASED TEACHING + PLURILINGUAL/CULTURAL AWARENESS CONBAT UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Gayane Hovhannisyan and Áine Furlong DISCOVERING THE HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT THROUGH WORDS WORKSHEET 4 Timing: 2 hours Material required: worksheet 3 Grouping: History of measurement From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 1.a. Find synonyms (similar words) or explanations for each word in bold print: Units of measurement were among the earliest tools invented by humans. Primitive societies needed measures for constructing dwellings of an appropriate size and shape, fashioning clothing, or exchanging food or raw materials. Earliest: Dwellings: Appropriate: Fashioning: Raw materials: 1.b. Something’s wrong! The spaces between the words have disappeared! Can you put a line between each word and re-write the sentences correctly? Theearliestsystemsofweightsandmeasuresseemtohavebeencreatedsometime betweenthe4thand3rdmillenniaBCbytheancientpeopleslivingbetweenEgyptand theIndusValley.Theeasternpeoplesachievedgreataccuracyinmeasuringlength,mass,andti me. 1.c. The weight units have been mixed up. Can you put them in the correct order? Check http://www.etymonline.com to discover the origin of the word ounce and why it is abbreviated as oz. The smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age was approximately 1.704mm. Weights were based on units of 100, 0.2, 500 , 20 , 2, 5, 10, 50 , 0.5 , 0.05, CONTENT BASED TEACHING + PLURILINGUAL/CULTURAL AWARENESS CONBAT UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Gayane Hovhannisyan and Áine Furlong 200, 1 and 0.1, with each unit weighing
    [Show full text]
  • Table of Contents
    Division of Measurement Standards Department of Food and Agriculture FIELD REFERENCE MANUAL 2014 California Code of Regulation Title 4, Division 9 Chapter 1 National Uniformity, Exceptions and Additions Part 7: NIST Handbook 44 Appendices A through D CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF MEASUREMENT STANDARDS DISCLAIMER DISCLAIMER This document represents the Division of Measurement Standards’ field manual for enforcing regulations pertaining to weights and measures in California. This field manual is not to be considered as the official Code of Regulations, as published by Barclays Law Publishers. NOTE: Language in Handbook 44 that is not adopted is annotated “[NOT ADOPTED]” in this document. NOTE: Requirements are different than, or in addition to, the requirements of Handbook 44 are included in the appropriate section this document. They are shaded, bordered, and numbered in the 4002 series to differentiate them from the Handbook 44 requirements. To find the latest online version of the California Code of Regulations (CCR) Title 4, Division 9, visit the California Office of Administration Law at: http://ccr.oal.ca.gov/linkedslice/default.asp?SP=CCR-1000&Action=Welcome The CCR may also be accessed at http://oal.ca.gov/ by selecting the link Titled “California Code of Regulations” under the list of “Sponsored Links” in the left column on the OAL Home page. For information concerning the contents of this document, please contact the Division of Measurement Standards by e-mail at [email protected]. Links to NIST Handbook 44 (2014 Edition) - Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices as adopted by the 98th National Conference on Weights and Measures 2013 are available for viewing and downloading by simultaneously holding the “Ctrl” key and clicking the mouse on the desired format.
    [Show full text]
  • The History of Measurements
    Helicobacter pylori Some Historical Units of Measurement History of Measurement • Objects were initially measured for convenience, to aid commerce and prevent fraud. • The Egyptians among other civilizations were the first to begin recording measurements around 3200 BC. • Early measurement units were based on body parts or common objects. Historical Units of Length and their equivalence chart ➢ Digit: the breadth of a finger (Egyptian) ➢ Barleycorn: the length of a barleycorn seed ➢ Inch: the width of a man’s thumb or 3 barleycorns ➢ Foot: the length of a man’s foot ➢ Cubit: elbow to fingertip length (Egyptian) ➢ Yard: nose to fingertip length ➢ Mile: 5000 pedes (feet, Roman) ➢ League: 7500 pedes Historical Units of Mass/Volume and their equivalence chart ➢ Grain: the weight of a grain of wheat or barleycorn ➢ Pound (libra): ~5000 grains (Roman) or ~7000 grains (English) ➢ Talent: 100 libra ➢ Stone: 14 pounds (English/British) ➢ Troy Ounce: 1/12 of a pound ➢ Carat: weight of a carob seed The Cubit The cubit is the measure from your elbow to the tip of your middle finger when your arm is extended. The cubit was the measurement used by the Egyptians to build the pyramids. The Palm The palm is the width of your four fingers when they are placed together. The Fathom The fathom is the measure from fingertip to fingertip when your arms are stretched sideways as far as they will go. The fathom was used by sailors to measure the depth of water so that boats would not run aground. The Hand-span The hand-span is the measure from the tip of your pinky to the tip of your thumb when your hand is stretched out.
    [Show full text]
  • SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS © 2019, 2004, 1990 by David A
    SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS © 2019, 2004, 1990 by David A. Katz. All rights reserved. A BRIEF HISTORY OF MEASUREMENT Measurement was among one of the first intellectual achievements of early humans. People learned to measure centuries before they learned how to write and it was through measurement that people learned to count. People of the Peking and Neanderthal periods had implements constructed from materials individually determined to be the right length or weight for a particular purpose. A tool that worked well became the model and standard for another. (See Figure 1) To measure distance, they used their fingers, hands, arms, legs, etc... Measurement of weights were based on use of certain containers or what a person or beast could haul. Each unit was separate and unrelated since their ability to count was not developed. Figure 1. A stone ax and stones cut to the same size by comparison Since humans have ten fingers, we learned to count measurements from the Hittite by tens, and ways were soon found to relate units to Museum in Cappadocia, Turkey. each other. Some of the most well known of the early units of measurement were: inch - the width of the thumb. digit - the width of the middle finger (about 3/4 inch) palm - the width of four fingers (about 3 inches) span - the distance covered by the spread hand (about 9 inches) foot - the length of the foot. Later expressed as the length of 36 -barleycorns taken from the middle of the ear (about 12 inches). cubit - distance from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger (about 18 inches).
    [Show full text]
  • Nbs Metric Publications
    ] 10 11 12 13 14 15 National Bureau of Standards from the *Joz (jood WleaAure Washington, D. C. 20234 2 3 5 inches I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f I I I I I I I I I ihhlilililili I I I I I 6. 10 11 12 13 14 15 7oz $ood VHeatuze from the National Bureau of Standa rds Washington, D. C. inches 4 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I lllllhlllllll 'lllllllll JiIiIUjI, llllh Lt-I 1 I I 1 1 1 UjJUJUJLlIj . S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE ational Bureau of Standards NBS Special Publication 365 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE National Bureau of Standards NBS Special Publication 365 ashington. D. C. 20234 Revised May 1976 CO: METRIC CONVERSION CARD Washington, D. C. 20234 Revised May 1976 CO: METRIC CONVERSION CARD Approximate Conversions to Metric Measures Metric Measures ymbol When Yuu Know Multiply by To Find Symbo Approximate Conversions to LENGTH When You Kn To Find Symbol 1 1 \t.i;i inn inches 2.5 centimeters cm in inches 2.5 centimeters cm lit feet 30 centimeters cm ft feet 30 centimeters cm idrd yards 0.9 meters m yd yards 0.9 meters m ' ni miles 1.6 kilometers km AREA mi miles 1.6 kilometers km AREA .<n' square inches 6.5 2 CD: square centimeters cm 2 CO in square inches 6.5 square centimeters cm" k¥ square feet 0.09 square meters m" 2 J 2 ft square feet 0.09 square meters m ,d square yards 0.8 square meters m* 2 2 1' yd square yards 0.8 square meters m «ini" square miles 2.6 square kilometers km 2 mi2 square miles 2.6 square kilometers km acres 0.4 hectares ha in: acres 0.4 hectares ha lO: MASS (we Rht) MASS (weight) miz ounces 28 grams g oz ounces 28 grams lib pounds 0.45 kilograms kg lb pounds 0.45 kilograms kg short tons 0.9 metric ton t short tons 0.9 metric ton t (2000 lb) VOLUME (20001b) VOLUME ;P teaspoons 5 milliliters ml.
    [Show full text]
  • Senior Thesis Writers in History
    A HANDBOOK FOR Senior Thesis Writers in History 2015–2016 I n t r o d u c t i o n | T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s 2 | A Handbook for Senior Thesis Writers in History Table of Contents I Overview of the Thesis Process n t r o d u Timetable for Thesis Writers ................................ 7 c t i o n Syllabus for the Senior Thesis Seminar ........................ 9 | T Monitoring Thesis Progress ................................ 11 a b l e o Resources for Thesis Writers f C o n t Launching the Thesis Project .............................. 29 e n t Refining the Thesis Topic ................................. 33 s Maintaining Momentum while Researching .................. 37 Presenting Your Work to an Audience ....................... 39 Getting Ready to Write ................................... 43 Maintaining Momentum while Writing ...................... 47 Learning from Sample Theses .............................. 49 Exercises for Thesis Writers Writing a Prospectus ..................................... 57 Critiquing a Sample Thesis ................................ 59 Preparing an Annotated Bibliography ........................ 61 Conducting Peer Reviews ................................. 67 Introducing Your Thesis .................................. 73 Appendices Appendix A: Instructions Regarding Theses .............................. 77 Appendix B: Sample Title Page, Table of Contents, and Body Text ............ 79 Appendix C: List of Recent Theses ..................................... 89 A Handbook for Senior Thesis Writers in History | 3 I n t r o d u c t i o n | 4 | A Handbook for Senior Thesis Writers in History O v e r our senior thesis will hopefully become the most memorable experience v Y of your academic career at Harvard. Over the course of several months, i you will work in a one-on-one relationship with an adviser and par- e w ticipate in an ongoing seminar with other thesis writers.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Measurement
    BUILDING INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY ACADEMY: YEAR ONE CURRICULUM Short History of Measurement Directions: Working with a partner read the following statements concerning the history of our modern measurement terms. Clues to solving each statement are contained within each statement and the measurement vocabulary can be found in the Word Bank below. yard inch cubit kerosene acre hand foot metric system tobacco 1. This measurement of approximately 4 inches is still used to calculate how tall a horse is. It is the ______________________________. 2. Tired of relying on the length of the previous king’s girdles in determining the length of this unit of measurement, Henry the First decreed: “Henceforth, the shall be the distance from the tip of my nose to the tip of my thumb.” 3. The most common unit of measurement in the United States, the Romans referred to it as “one- twelfth of a foot.” It roughly equals the width of a person’s thumb, but since 1959, the has officially equaled 2.54 Dcentimeters. 4. In 1812, Napoleon noted that the French people were still clinging to traditional units of measurement; even though the was officially adopted by the French government in 1795. This system of Dmeasurement originally derived its name from the Greek word “metron”, meaning “measure”. Today it is also known by the initials SI, or System International, and was legalized in the United States in 1866. 5. The is one of the earliest known units of measurement. It was the standard unit of measurement for thousands of years in many civilizations, though it has widely gone out of popular use today.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 1, Part 7, Appendices
    CCR Title 4, Div. 9, CCR §§ 4000 2020 Edition of NIST HB 44 Appendix A – Fundamental Considerations Extracts from the CALIFORNIA CODE OF REGULATIONS TITLE 4, DIVISION 9 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES FIELD REFERENCE MANUAL (2020) Chapter 1 Tolerances and Specifications for Commercial Weighing and Measuring Devices Part 7: NIST Handbook 44 Appendices Appendix A: Fundamental Considerations Appendix B: Units of Systems of Measurement Appendix C: General Tables of Units of Measurements Appendix D: Definitions CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE DIVISION OF MEASUREMENT STANDARDS A-i CCR Title 4, Div. 9, CCR §§ 4000 2020 Edition of NIST HB 44 Appendix A – Fundamental Considerations DISCLAIMER This document represents the Division of Measurement Standards’ field manual for enforcing regulations pertaining to weights and measures in California. This field manual is not to be considered as the official Code of Regulations, as published by Barclays Law Publishers. To find the latest online version of the California Code of Regulations (CCR) Title 4, Division 9, visit the California Office of Administration Law (OAL) at: http://ccr.oal.ca.gov/linkedslice/default.asp?SP=CCR-1000&Action=Welcome The CCR may also be accessed at http://oal.ca.gov/ by selecting the link Titled “California Code of Regulations” under the list of “Sponsored Links” in the left column on the OAL Home page. For information concerning the contents of this document, please contact the Division of Measurement Standards by e-mail at [email protected]. A-ii CCR Title 4, Div. 9, CCR §§ 4000 2020 Edition of NIST HB 44 Appendix A – Fundamental Considerations Table of Contents Page Appendix A.
    [Show full text]
  • Adoption of the Metric System by Consumers: a Program for New York State Cooperative Extension
    AumliclimmilmE17 DOCUMENT RESUME ED 107 533 SE 019 341 AUTHOR Adams, Constance Coburn TITLE Adoption of the Metric System byConsumers: A Program for New York State Cooperative Extension. PUB DATE Jun 75 . NOTE 108p.; Master's Thesis, Cornell University i TORS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$5.70 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS Comparative Education; *Consumer Education; Educational Planning; Home Economics Education; Inservice Education; *Instruction; MastersTheses; 1 *Mathematics Education; Measurement; *MetricSystem; *Post Secondary Education; Research; Surveys IDENTIFIERS Pesearch Reports ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was the identificationof effective means of educating the generalpublic to think in terms of the metric system. Toward this end, extensionhome eoncomists in New York State were surveyed concerning theirplans to implement teaching of the metric system. A literature reviewwas conducted over four basic topics:(1) experiences of other nations adoptingthe metric system, (2) recent changes ofa similar nature (e.g., Britain's adoption of decimal currency) , (3) the role of change agents, and ;41 characteristics of adult learners-. The majorfindings involved the importance of using mass media in educatingthe public. Several suggestions to Cooperative Extension Servicesare provided. (SD) U S OEPARTMENTOF HEALTH, EDUCATION t WELFARE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT Has BEEN REPRO OUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN ATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE SENT OTFICIAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION POSITIGN OR POLICY ADOPTION OF THE METRIC SYSTE!! BY CO? SUNTRS: A HUIRAM FOR NEW YORK STATE COOPERATIVE EXTENSION A Thozis Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University for the Degree of Master of Professional Studies (Communication Arts) by Constance Coburn Adams June 1975 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Constance Coburn Adams was born in Rutland, Vermont on January 2, 1934.
    [Show full text]
  • ELASTIC DESIGN Tools for Alternative Understandings Bettina
    ELASTIC DESIGN Tools for Alternative Understandings Bettina Marianne Bruder Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Art & Design, The University of New South Wales April 2017 DECLARATIONS Originality Statement ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’ Signed: Date: 24.04.2017 Authenticity Statement ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ Signed: Date: 24.04.2017 ii Copyright Statement ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.
    [Show full text]
  • Metric System
    QC 97 .W53 1974 The Metric System I ow a IT etwork r or 0 btainlng B esource ..--~....... aterials for chools State of Iowa DEPARTMI:NT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 1-.ducational Media Section Grimes State Office Building Des Moines, Iowa 50319 Commentary and Review of Selected Abstracts on THE METRIC SYSTEM Prepared by Barbara Wickless, Consultant, Mathematics Education Curriculum Division With assistance of Noman Blake Research Intern Project INFORMS 4200-B57269-9/74 State of Iowa DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION Educational Media Section Grimes State Office Building Des Moines, Iowa 50319 STATE BOARD OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION Muriel I. Shepard, President, Allison T. J. Heronimus, Vice-President, Grundy Center Robert J, Beecher, Creston Jolly Ann Davidson, Clarinda Ronald P, Hallock, West Des Moines Virginia Harper, Fort Madison Robert G. Koons, Clinton Georgia A. Sievers, Avoca John E, van der Linden, Sibley ADMINISTRATION Robert D, Benton, State Superintendent, and Executive Officer of the State Board of Public Instruction David H. Bechtel, Administrative Assistant Richard N. Smith, Deputy State Superintendent Instruction and Professional Education Branch Donald V, Cox, Associate Superintendent Paul L, Spurlock, Chief A, John Martin, Director Educational Media Section Curriculum Division Mary Jo Bruett, Director Barbara Wickless, Consultant, Project INFORMS Mathematics Education Gwendolyn N, Nagel, Research Associate Gary Downs, Consultant, Connie J, Borlin, Research Associate Science Education INTRODUCTION A METRIC AMERICA Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts sponsor of the Metric Bill of 1866 stated that, "they who have already passed a certain period of life may not adopt it, but the rising generation will embrace it and ever afterward number it among the choicest possessions of an advanced civilization." 1 Unfortunately, over 100 years after adoption of this bill the United States is the only large country in the world not using the metric system in all areas of measurement.
    [Show full text]
  • 1. a Brief History of Measurement As Cultures Developed the Need For
    1. A brief history of measurement As cultures developed the need for building homes, boats, tools, etc., they needed effective terms that could describe a notion of length. Measurement of length is an ancient tool; just open a copy of the Bible and find hundreds of references to measurments. The words that these societies came up with are units of measure- ment or units of length. We are familiar with modern units of measurement : inch, foot, meter, mile, fathom, centimenter, etc. Of course, modern units of measurement are, well, modern. These ancient cul- tures had their own units. Unfortunately, being relatively tribal in nature and lacking advanced technology or communication, these societies had no “official” units of measurement. Instead, they just used what almost everybody had : body parts. They worked under the not-so-rigorous assumption that every man's body parts were roughly the same length. Of course, this assumption is not the case, but it generally did not matter as long as the same \standard" was used for the whole project. (You don't want to end up with a boat with one side longer than the other!) The Greeks, as well as many other cultures, used the length of the finger as a base measurment. The δακτυλoς´ (finger or toe) was the width of the second knuckle on a man's index finger. Based, on the δακτυλoς´ , the Greeks could then describe other units of length. A παλαιστη´ (palm) was the width of a man's palm, but was generally considered δακτυλoι´ . The πoυ&~ (foot) was the length of a man's foot, but was generally considered 16 δακτυλoι´ .
    [Show full text]