Writing Signed Languages: What For? What Form? Donald A. Grushkin

American Annals of the Deaf, Volume 161, Number 5, Winter 2017, pp. 509-527 (Article)

Published by Gallaudet University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2017.0001

For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/648961

Access provided by University of Connecticut @ Storrs (9 Jun 2017 21:07 GMT) 18991-AAD161.5_Winter2017 2/9/17 2:54 PM Page 509

Grushkin, D. A. (2017). Writing signed languages: What for? What form? American Annals of the Deaf, 161 (5), 509–527.

WRITING SIGNED LANGUAGES : W HAT FOR ? WHAT FORM ?

IGNED LANGUAGES around the world have tended to maintain an “oral,” unwritten status. Despite the advantages of possessing a written form of their language, signed language communities typically resist and reject attempts to create such written forms. The present article ad - dresses many of the arguments against written forms of signed lan - guages, and presents the potential advantages of writing signed languages. Following a history of the development of writing in spoken as well as signed language populations, the effects of orthographic types upon literacy and biliteracy are explored. Attempts at writing signed lan - guages have followed two primary paths: “alphabetic” and “icono - graphic.” It is argued that for greatest congruency and ease in developing biliteracy strategies in societies where an alphabetic script is used for the spoken language, signed language communities within Sthese societies are best served by adoption of an alphabetic script for DONALD A. G RUSHKIN writing their signed language.

Keywords: writing, written signed the development of a conventionally GRUSHKIN IS A PROFESSOR , D EAF STUDIES languages, biliteracy, Deaf education, accepted written system for signed lan - PROGRAM , C ALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY , orthography guages has yet to take place. Modern SACRAMENTO . Deaf 1 audiences tend to point to the vi - After years and years of study, sign lan - sual-spatial-kinesthetic nature of signed guage has proven to be extremely languages as a rationale for why they valuable. . . . If we had used sign lan - believe it is not possible to encode guage, it would have been faster to de - signed utterances in a static format velop the written language . . . faster such as writing. What is often over - than the transfer of spoken language looked, however, is the fact that spoken to written language. languages, being transitory (speech sounds “disappear” almost in stantly —JEAN -M ARC -G ASPARD ITARD (1821, after being produced) and “invisible” quoted in Commerson, 2010) (one cannot see speech), are seemingly equally nonviable candidates for encap - Despite Dr. Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard’s sulation in the static, visible format of somewhat hypocritical private musings, written languages. Although speech is

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exceedingly ephemeral, numerous so - their potential benefits. Following this as classifiers and spatial morphol - cieties have nevertheless developed a discussion will come an examination of ogy, that cannot be adequately rep - variety of ways to encapsulate the spo - the history of writing and the various resented in a two- dimensional ken word. types of writing systems that have been format such as writing. What is the advantage to writing? developed (for both spoken and Carl Sagan (2011) put it grandly when signed languages) to date. Finally, Although, in real time, signs may ap - he said, “Writing is perhaps the greatest since the American Deaf community pear to be occurring in time and space, of human inventions, binding together (like many, if not most Deaf communi - with multiple syntactic and semantic people, citizens of distant epochs, who ties worldwide) exists as a bilingual elements embedded within the move - never knew one another” (p. 232). community, the role of orthographic ments and facial/body grammar, Lid - More prosaically, writing allows the (writing) styles in the acquisition of dell (1984) and Liddell and Johnson easy recording, storage, and retrieval of biliteracy in biliterate populations will (1989) observed that there is actually records, history, and literature. Writing be explored, especially in relation to an element of sequentiality within allows individuals to communicate the impact of the congruency of styles signs themselves. Just as consonants across distance and time (in the form on acquisition of biliteracy in popula - are often followed by vowels in many of postal mail or e -mail), to share tions that are bilingual in both Ameri - spoken languages, sign movements thoughts trivial and major—shopping can Sign Language (ASL) and English. can be seen to have discrete compo - lists or grand treatises, news and gos - nents. For example, in even a simple sip, mental notes and manuals, books Objections to and Potential sign like THANK YOU , the hand must first and folklore, and much more. As Benefits of Written Signed move away from the mouth before be - Hagege (1988) observes, Languages ginning its downward (and outward) Despite the advantages of writing, Deaf motion. Therefore, sequential compo - The intangibility of its contents and its communities worldwide have remained nents of signed languages can be iden - dissimilarity to oral language altered predominantly, if not staunchly, “oral,” tified and recorded in written form. many of the normal circumstances of resisting the notion of a written form discourse, creating long-distance dia - of their signed language as an impossi - 2. Signed languages are best re - logues where the usual proximity of bility. Over the years, I have seen vari - corded by video technology, since the communicators was lacking. Yet ous iterations of the same objections signed language is produced in precisely because of this, knowledge to the notion of writing signed lan - the visual modality; indeed, could become accessible to a far guages in various online forums such as video recording is sufficient for greater number of recipients—writ - the Sign Language Linguistics List instructional, linguistic, and so - ing possessed the advantages of both (SLLING-L, http://listserv.valenciacollege cial purposes. longevity and range. In spreading to .edu), Teachers of American Sign Lan - different areas and societies it allowed guage List (TEACHASL, http://listserv While it is true that video technology is for all the changes, input and varia - .valenciacollege.edu), “vlogs” such as probably the best medium for captur - tions that any culture would require, presentations on SI5s by Robert Arnold ing signed utterances exactly as they permitting the encoding of new (2013a, 2013b), and personal conversa - are produced, the same could also be words as well as of already existing tions with others in forums such as said for audio technology. Yet audio ones. (p. 72) Facebook and in person. These objec - technology is relatively little used in tions are encapsulated below, with each comparison to written language. For In the present article, I will not only followed by a rebuttal. example, there are audio-recorded advocate the development and dis - books. Even so, with the exception of semination of a written form of signed 1. Signed languages are not supposed blind people and drivers with long languages, but will also make a case for to be written; signed languages commutes, most people choose not the adoption of an alphabetically based are languages in a visual-spatial to listen to a book played on a CD or system over other potential ortho - modality in which elements are downloaded. This is primarily due to graphic formats. Before this can be presented simultaneously, or the fact that audio recordings are sim - accomplished, however, the typical ob - nearly so. Moreover, signed lan - ply not as convenient as their written jections to written forms of signed lan - guages have features that are not counterparts. One must listen to an au - guages must be addressed, along with present in spoken languages, such dio recording sequentially, investing a

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certain amount of time to hear the English. This premise has long been significant community of written message, at the pace the message has found to be false. Indeed, research has signed language users, there is no been recorded. With written works, consistently shown that, on the whole, need to learn and use a written however, one can skim or read faster Deaf children of Deaf adults (whose form of signed language. than one can listen to the recorded first language would presumably be a message. Moreover, audio recordings signed language) outperform their Deaf It is true that there is no conventionally are not easily searchable or scannable; peers in written-language skills (cf. Cor - accepted form of written sign language, it is difficult to fast-forward through a son, 1973; Geeslin, 2007; Humphries et and it is equally true that there is no sig - recording to find a certain word or to al., 2012; Meadow, 1968; Strong & Prinz, nificant community of written signed search a recording by using a search 1997; Stuckless & Birch, 1966). If know - language users. However, this argu - term to identify instances of a word or ing sign language were a deterrent to ment is somewhat circular: Effect im - phrase. With writing, however, one can learning the written form of a spoken plies cause implies effect. All writing easily skim and search through sec - language, then one would expect that had to be developed at some point, tions of a written work for those native signers would not be able to and had to find a community of desired words or phrases. (This is par - learn how to manipulate a written lan - adopters. Because of the utility of writ - ticularly true of works loaded onto guage. But Deaf people are a small lin - ing, it became conventionalized among electronic media such as word proces - guistic and ethnic minority (Higgins, early human communities. One can also sor or pdf files, or in e-readers such as 1980; Padden & Humphries, 1988) look to more recent innovations in writ - a Kindle or Nook.) The same issues are within the majority “Hearing” society; ing. In 1821, Sequoyah developed his present in video technology: It takes Deaf people recognize that it is a neces - syllabary for use with the Cherokee lan - more time to watch a video than it sity to be bilingual—to use their signed guage. Although his efforts to dissemi - would to read (or skim) a transcribed language for daily communication, yet nate this writing system among his tribe version of the same video (given the interact with and contribute to the were initially resisted, the value of writ - same degree of fluency in the written “Hearing World” through the written ing their language was realized in less signed language as the average per - form of the majority’s spoken language. than 10 years, and a community of writ - son has in written English), and The same goes for a written form of ers and readers of written Cherokee videos are also difficult to search and signed language. Although Deaf people quickly formed. Similarly, Louis Braille’s scan through. Although most Deaf might read Deaf newspapers, books, system for encoding written English into people presently would likely say they stories, and more in a written signed a form accessible by blind people had its would prefer to watch a video than to language, by necessity they would also early detractors, but today is a standard read a written version of it, it is proba - need to be literate in the written form for blind people nearly worldwide. bly true that were they to learn and be - of the majority spoken language, for come comfortable with a written form employment and informational pur - 5. It is hard enough to learn English of signed language, they would likely poses. Thus, just as certain linguistic mi - without having to learn and use prefer to read than watch the contents norities like Hispanics, Chinese, and some newfangled signed language for time-saving purposes. Jews can be seen reading materials writing system. printed in the written languages of their 3. Developing a written form of communities, one also sees these same It has been argued by advocates of signed language will promote the people speaking and writing in English ASL/English bilingual education that isolation of Deaf people from the or other languages spoken by the ma - English functions as a second lan - “Hearing World”; with a written jority around them. Indeed, in modern guage, rather than a first language, for form of their signed language, society, English has become a global most Deaf people (Grushkin, 1998; Is - Deaf people will not need or even lingua franca, and Deaf people will raelite, Ewoldt, & Hoffmeister, 1992; want to learn to read and write maintain a need to know how to read Johnson, Liddell, & Erting, 1989). Con - English. and write English in order to participate sequently, any difficulties with devel - in the global marketplace. oping fluency in written English can be This is a variation of the (monolingual) somewhat comparable to the dysfluen - oralist argument that exposing Deaf 4. There is no conventionally ac - cies of expressive English displayed people to signed language will hinder cepted form of written signed lan - by second-language learners (Berent, or even prevent them from learning guage; moreover, since there is no 2009; Berent & Kelly, 2008; Berent,

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Kelly, & Schueler-Choukairi, 2012; Char - across languages” (p. 55). He explains tone. A young girl might be depicted row & Fletcher, 1974; Strong, 1988). It this as a natural consequence of learn - as saying “OMIGODJOHHNYCALLED is well known that children learn to ing in a first language: “We learn to MEANDHEWANTSTOGOWITHMETO read and write in their first lan guage read by reading, by making sense of THEPROM!,” which conveys a sense of upon entering school (if not before), what we see on the page. . . . If we talking fast; the use of capitals also and with time, practice, and exposure, learn to read by reading, it will be gives clues to the loudness of the most become adept at manipulating much easier to learn to read in a lan - speaker’s voice, or the stress the the written form of their language. Al - guage we already understand” (p. 55, speaker may place on certain words. though Deaf people may experience emphasis added). The underlining of the word is at the difficulties manipulating written Eng - Although most efforts currently fo - beginning of this paragraph is another lish as a second language, these diffi - cus on pushing Deaf students to read device to convey stress. Accents are culties might not be evident with in English, these efforts are somewhat shown through nonstandard spellings written signed language, given familiar - counterproductive, since, as Krashen such as y’all , youse , or pahk your cah . ity and practice with this form of their (1996) indicates, Deaf students are be - A well-developed system of written native (or natural) language. ing taught to read in English, their sec - signed language would also develop ond language, without first developing ways that would be conventionally un - 6. Deaf students need to learn the literacy skills in their first, primary lan - derstood to convey elements of signed state-required curriculum; in - guage: ASL. If Krashen and his adher - utterances that would otherwise not struction in written ASL takes time ents are correct, then it makes sense appear in the static, two-dimensional away from learning English. that Deaf students should instead format of written language. learn to first read and write in ASL be - A primary argument of advocates of fore beginning instruction in written 8. Most, if not all, signed languages ASL/English bilingual/bicultural educa - English. It is entirely possible to de - utilize classifiers, which are often tion has been that as a first (and natu - velop a body of work in written ASL novel forms and might not be un - ral) language of Deaf people, ASL (literary and academic) that can be derstood in writing. should be used for “through the air” used to bolster Deaf people’s linguistic instruction. Krashen (1996) summa - and cognitive development in that lan - Written language can introduce novel rizes the rationale for this as follows: guage. Although their development in words and forms that are understood English would be deferred to a later through context (Cain, Oakhill, & When we give students quality educa - point in their education, this delay Elbro, 2003; Jenkins, Matlock, & tion in their primary language, we would likely be more than compen - Slocum, 1989; Nagy, Herman, & An - give them two things: sated for by increased competence in derson, 1985). One only needs to 1. Knowledge, both general knowl - written English deriving from their in - read Lewis Carroll’s poem “Jabber - edge of the world and subject creased competence in written and wocky” for an example of written lan - matter knowledge. The knowl - signed ASL. guage utilizing a large number of edge that children get through lexical inventions that nonetheless their first language helps makes 7. Written signs cannot adequately are understood by their syntactic and the English they hear and read record prosody (speed), stress, or se mantic roles, as well as through the more comprehensible . accents . use of metacognitive strategies such 2. Literacy, which transfers across as making use of context. Classifiers in languages. (p. 55, emphasis Writing is a limited medium. As many a signed language can be treated in added) have found, most writing cannot cap - the same way: Readers would use ture all the possibilities that one might their skills in decoding written signed A number of studies, such as that of see in a spoken text (Olson, 1993). De - language to grasp the new word be - Koda (1988), indicate that cognitive spite this, writers have often found ing presented and would likely use skills developed in reading a first lan - ways to convey at least some elements metacognitive skills to recognize that guage do transfer to reading in a sec - of spoken languages through nonstan - the writer/signer was likely making ond language. Or, as Krashen (1996) dard forms (Frishberg, 1983). The use reference to a description of the says, “Once you can read, you can of words like shouted , screamed , or item’s size, shape, actions, and other read. The ability to read transfers blurted gives clues to the speaker’s attributes.

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Benefits of Developing written form. That is, they argue that Language, as it was called then, might and Accepting Written while it is true that literacy skills in a be preserved. Yet, with this money, he Signed Language first language may transfer into a sec - was able to produce only seven sam - Now that it has been shown that the ond language, it then stands to reason ples of ASL as it existed at that time. If typical objections to written signed that when there are no literacy skills a written form of ASL had existed, one languages are mostly without merit, it to be developed in a first language can only dream of how many samples, is time to address the potential bene - due to its unwritten status, there are as well as the variety of samples, that fits of developing and accepting a writ - also no skills to be transferred to the we might have today through which ten form of signed language. second (written) language. Develop - we could better understand the origins ing a written form of signed language of ASL and the changes that have oc - 1. Elevation of the Status will go a long way toward eliminating curred in it over the past 200 years! of ASL this argument as well. Indeed, this With writing, ASL poetry, stories, ASL, like many signed languages, exists point will be addressed in more detail plays, and other forms of ASL literature within a diglossic-like situation (Fergu - later in the present article. can be created and preserved on paper son, 1959; Ramsey, 1989; Stokoe, 1969, or electronically, as well as on video- 1985; Woodward, 1980) in which the 2. Preservation of Deaf recorded media. It is even possible majority spoken language enjoys the History, Literature, and that new forms of signed language lit - status of “prestige language,” while Language erature might arise with the develop - ASL and other signed languages are Written language has provided histo - ment of a writing system, forms that disfavored, or even suppressed, largely ri ans, writers, and linguists with vast might not be entirely possible to create as a result of the efforts of oralists such amounts of data from which insights “through the air.” as Alexander Graham Bell (Baynton, can be gained into past lives, thoughts, 1996; Winefield, 1987) and his succes - and ways language was used. Yet, for 3. Enhancement of ASL sors. Adding to the denigration of ASL Deaf people, the lack of a convention - Instruction is its current status as an unwritten, ally accepted writing system has led to The benefits of a written signed lan - “oral” language. It is largely true that the loss of an incalculable quantity of guage system do not extend solely to Western society values literacy, and lan - similar data on Deaf lives. As Bauman Deaf people; nonsigners, both Deaf guages that do not possess a written (2002) states, and hearing, have the potential to gain tradition are often scorned as being from the introduction of written signed inferior to those with written tradi - Tracing early Deaf history is a bit like language into signed language instruc - tions (Graff, 1986). Developing a con - tracing the path of fireflies. The field tional curricula. There are two ways in ventionalized and accepted form of is mostly dark, except for scattered which this would happen. the language will place it in the ranks moments of illumination. The dark - First, many teachers, following the of written languages, and this will re - ness results in part because manual lead of several different sign language move a major argument for the rejec - languages have had no written sys - curricula, teach signs and sometimes tion of ASL as an academic as well as tem, no way of preserving thoughts signed language grammar through the social language (cf. Frishberg, 1983). beyond the moment of utterance. use of “glossing,” which is the repre - There are some who will point out One is always haunted by the sense of sentation of words in one language in that many, if not most, of the world’s how much may have occurred among another. Thus, the French sentence languages do not have a written form, Deaf individuals and communities Il fait chaud would be glossed as “It yet speakers of unwritten languages throughout history but was never makes hot,” since this is a direct, one- can become bilingual in two or more recorded. (p. 452) to-one correspondence between the languages. Though this is a commonly meaning of the lexical terms in French recognized fact, some people, such as Similarly, DeFrancis (1989) observes and that of the equivalent English Mayer and Wells (1996), have argued that writing allows people to “revisit” words. This French-English example il - that commonly accepted principles, the earlier forms of their own lan - lustrates a primary problem with such as the Linguistic Interdepend - guage. It is well known that in 1913 glosses: There is often not a true one- ence Theory (Cummins, 1979), can - George Veditz collected $5,000 from to-one correspondence in meaning not apply to ASL/English bilingual the Deaf community to produce a between languages; one must often education, since ASL does not have a series of films through which the Sign make certain adjustments (translation)

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if an utterance in one language is to than attempt to make the mental and reinforced through written expla - make full sense in another. For signed translation into the second language nations and exercises. languages, glosses are more problem - (Switzerlood, 2010). Most sign lan - atic due to the diglossic-like setting in guage dictionaries reinforce this Eng - 4. Communication in the which they are frequently situated (Co - lish-dominant pattern by establishing a Language of the Community lonomos, 2007; Frishberg, 1983; Hoit - spoken-language (gloss) meaning as As members of a linguistic minority ing & Slobin, 2002; Johnston, 2010; the primary means by which a sign can situated within a majority group that Pizzuto & Pietrandrea, 2001; Slobin, be identified. With a writing system, often does not speak or know our lan - 2008; T. Supalla & Clark, 2015). While signed vocabulary can be taught and guage, Deaf people are frequently most people understand that lan - learned through signs first, before stu - taught to read and write in the lan - guages such as French and English are dents are provided with a possible guage of the majority. While this is separate entities, people often take range of semantic equivalents in their worthwhile in its own right, it often rel - signed languages to be a form of the own language; this enables students egates signed languages to a lesser majority spoken language. The repre - and instructors alike to break free of place, even in the minds of those who sentation of signed language lexical what Slobin (2008) has termed the value and support the use of their items in the written system of the ma - “Tyranny of Glossing.” signed language. Most Deaf people jority language only compounds this One notable ASL curriculum, Sign - feel more comfortable communicating mistaken impression (Frishberg, 1983; ing Naturally (Lentz, Mikos, & Smith, in a signed language; indeed, due to in - Hoiting & Slobin, 2002; Slobin, 2008). 1988; Mikos, Smith, & Lentz, 2001; effective instructional practices em - Further, due to the grammatical differ - Rosen, 2010; Smith, Lentz, & Mikos, phasizing spoken-language dominance ences between spoken and signed lan - 1989), deliberately avoids the use of in almost all areas of a Deaf person’s guages, glosses of signed languages glosses as an instructional tool for educational experience, Deaf people make them appear to be ungrammat - much the same reasons outlined are commonly not comfortable with ical and incomplete, and therefore above. Teaching is instead conducted using the spoken language, in its spo - infe rior to the spoken language. To il - through a notional-functional approach, ken or written form (Berent & Kelly, lustrate, the signed sentence “I will go in which vocabulary and grammar are 2008; J. H. Bochner & A. M. Bochner, to the store, and afterwards, I will presented through illustrations and 2009). Even those who are comfort - come home and take a shower” might modeling by the teacher. While this ably bilingual in signed language and be glossed as ME GO STORE , FINISH , COME approach is effective in its own right, the written (majority) language often HOME SHOWER . Although the gloss cap - students often do not recognize or find themselves wishing at times to ex - tures the order of the signs, without fa - remember the grammatical elements press ideas or concepts that are pres - cial grammar (nonmanual signals) and being taught and instead maintain their ent in their signed language but directional information contained in spoken-language grammatical patterns lacking a sufficiently adequate English some verbs and other signs, under - (Rosen, 2010). Moreover, while stu - translation of the sign (Arnold, 2010). standing of the semantic intent of the dents may make the semantic connec - Further, Deaf people often report a signed utterance is frequently ren - tions between a sign as taught “through disconnect and struggle with express - dered incomplete. the air” and their own cogni tive under - ing and writing about themselves in For learners of signed languages, standings of a concept, they may have English, a language that many feel does glossing also tends to “lock” students a limited range of semantic equivalents not represent their identities and daily into a one-to-one correspondence be - to draw from, and therefore may at - lives, yet have no other way of accom - tween the gloss and the sign, whereas tach an incorrect semantic meaning to plishing a cognitively congruent means a sign can often have more than one the sign. With a written system for of doing so in writing (Harmon, 2007; synonymous meaning in English, espe - signed language, the signs could be Lindgren, 2012). As a result, one often cially when modified by nonmanual taught, with a resource list of the vo - has to resort to glossing (with all its at - signals and other information. In addi - cabulary provided from which stu - tendant problematicity, as discussed tion, the glosses are represented in dents could study to reinforce their earlier) or resort to a crude means of what is usually the students’ first lan - learning. Moreover, students could be conveying which sign was intended. guage. As a result, signed language stu - provided with work sheets or a text - For instance, there is a Facebook page dents are often led to maintain their book with which their learning of titled “ ORANGE -THROAT ,” a gloss that ref - thinking in their first language rather grammatical concepts could be taught erences an ASL sign whose meaning

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has nothing to do with oranges or 6. Standardized ing medium. Video and audio technol - throats in general. With a written sys - Understanding of What ogy requires the purchase of equip - tem of signed language, Deaf (and “ASL” Is ment to produce and play back hearing) signers could communicate Due to the colonization of signed lan - recorded information, which can cost with others in their preferred lan - guage, especially ASL by English hundreds to thousands of dollars. Writ - guage. Although other technology through the introduction of English- ing, on the other hand, requires only such as video does exist and can be based sign systems such as Signing Ex - pen and paper, at a cost of less than a used, writing offers a quick and easy act English (SEE2; Gustason, Pfetzing, & dollar per unit. means of communication that video Zawolkow, 1972) and the push for Eng - technology cannot always match, as lish monolingualism through oral in - Literacy and Biliteracy discussed earlier under Objection 2. struction, ASL, like many other signed Many researchers studying the issue of languages, has undergone significant reading skills development in Deaf 5. Discussion of Signed changes that some would not consider readers have stressed what they view Language in Signed Language to be a part of the “natural” evolution - as the need for phonological encoding Since Stokoe (1960/1993) identified ary process all languages undergo strategies for this population. They ar - ASL as a language with linguistic prin - (Kuntze, 1990; Lucas & Valli, 1992; Ram - gue that this is important because, like ciples equivalent to those found in sey, 1989; Reagan, 1995; T. Supalla & those of many other alphabetically spoken languages, Deaf signers have Clark, 2015). When this process is con - written languages, the letters of writ - developed a newfound pride in their sidered in conjunction with the fact that ten English represent the phonology language, and today there are fre - most Deaf people are not exposed to of spoken English. S. Supalla, Wix, and quent discussions in the community signed language at an early age, or, if ex - McKee (2001) note that for Deaf read - about signs and signing. Yet too often posed to sign language, are not using a ers, the focus on English phonology these discussions (when they occur “natural” sign language (such as ASL), (and therefore the sound base of the on the Internet, as in chatrooms and but, rather, a signed version of the ma - English language) is problematic, since social media) occur in English, with its jority spoken language, one quickly re - Deaf readers do not have full access to inherent limitations in representing alizes that most Deaf (and hearing) the sound system of English, yet “[Eng - signed language. In bringing up or signers are not native users of ASL or lish] is an alphabetic system, even the referencing a sign, people often re - other natural signed languages (Kuntze, visual form of English refers to sound; sort to a gloss of the sign or provide a 1990). As a result, the expressive flu - that is, English graphemes represent lengthy description of the sign such ency of signers often varies widely, from phonemes” (p. 178). In response, oth - as “hand in ‘claw’ handshape at native fluency to signing that is heavily ers have supported alternative strate - throat, palm inwards, hand closes into influenced by spoken language, with gies for use with Deaf readers, such a fist.” In these situations, an ex - most signers falling somewhere be - as whole language and visual and cog - tended discussion typically follows in tween the two extremes. Lucas and Valli ni tively based approaches to under - which people ask for clarification of (1992) argue that these varieties are ex - standing the written English word (cf. what is meant by the gloss or the lin - pressions of language contact between Grushkin, 1998; Hoffmeister, 1999; Liv - guistic parameters of the sign. With a English and ASL, and some have taken ingston, 1997; Padden & Ramsey, 1999; written system for signed language, this to mean that all ASL signing, Simms, Andrews, & Smith, 2005). the sign could be raised in written whether English-influenced or not, is If it is indeed true that the develop - signed language, and discussions “ASL.” While this may be true, the use of ment of phonological awareness is im - about the sign could start immedi - written ASL, like the use of other signed portant in reading, especially reading ately; furthermore, the discussions languages, could go a long way toward in alphabetic languages like English, could be entirely in the language under standardization and understanding of then it might make more sense for discussion. That is, instead of allowing what “grammatically correct” ASL is, es - Deaf readers to develop phonological English to maintain its colonization pecially among the non-native signing en/decoding skills in their first (or (Ladd, 2003) of signed languages, population. natural) language, ASL, which then Deaf audiences could decolonize (ac cording to Cummins’s Linguistic In - through their use of their own lan - 7. Reduced Expenses terdependence Theory) would likely guages in video and written media Writing, for all its drawbacks, is still far be more easily transferred toward the without using English. less expensive than any other record - en/decoding of written English. Thus,

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the development and use of written handshape as a primary organizing Within these systems, certain sounds ASL would afford opportunities to principle for the ordering of signs. such as /k/, /s/, and /i/ are typically rep - study how Deaf readers can learn to In any case, the development and resented by certain written symbols, read in their first, natural language. Al - use of a written system for signed which we refer to as letters. In con - ternatively, it might be that phonolog - languages would present a means trast, in other systems, such as Chinese ical encoding is not a requirement for toward a transformation of Deaf edu - and Egyptian hieroglyphics, a specific reading in signed languages, in which cational pedagogy allowing educators symbol will holistically represent a spe - case the emphasis on phonological to, as educator Cecilia Flood said in an cific word in its entirety. For example, en/decoding in English would need to interview, the Chinese character 大 can mean be de-emphasized in favor of lexical, “large,” “oldest,” or, depending on the syntactic, and metacognitive strategies capitalize on language abilities, not pronunciation, “doctor.” Such systems for learning to read and write English, language problems. To provide a are referred to as logographic systems. as many have advocated (e.g., Grushkin medium that potentially may enhance A third, less common approach is to 1998; Hoffmeister, 1999; Livingston, linguistic and cultural identity and represent words syllabically; that is, 1997; Padden & Ramsey, 1999; Simms self-empower Deaf and hard of hear - syllables such as ba, be, bo, and bu are et al., 2005). An example of such a ing students. To record the experien - each given a character, and written strategy is the sequential presentation tial stories of Deaf and hard of hearing words are formed through the com - of ASL and English in order to provide . . . learners that will significantly in - bination of syllables. Thus, a word comparisons and contrasts between form perspectives on the academic like family might be represented as the grammatical structures of the two literacy learning experiences of Deaf fa-mi- ly (Diamond, 1994); examples languages. While this strategy can be and hard of hearing students, in their are the Cherokee writing system devel - effective, it can be rendered even more own words . (Han, 1999, p. 2) oped by Sequoyah and the Japanese so by making the same contrasts using kana. It is important to note, as Dia - the two languages in a static format, Flood, a teacher of the Deaf who uses mond does, that although writing sys - such as writing. To date, most people a written signed language called Sign - tems typically utilize one of these three have attempted to write ASL in gloss Writing (discussed in the following sec - main strategies, no writing system uses format; however, as discussed earlier, tion), added that these strategies exclusively. Rather, el - this introduces confusions regarding ements of other strategies are often the relationship between ASL and Eng - using a yet-to-be tapped resource, seen in writing systems; for example, lish. The use of a written form of ASL SignWriting, deaf and hard of hearing English uses logograms such as letters would provide the benefit of the com - students will not only become better and arbitrary symbols ($, %, &, etc.) parison/contrast approach, while elim - signers, but also better readers and that do not represent phonemes, inating the potential for confusion as writers, plus they will attain member - while Japanese, which primarily uses to the nature of ASL. Written ASL can ship in the growing club of bilingual logograms (derived from Chinese writ - also be a useful tool for developing vo - readers and writers in the USA. (Han, ing) called kanji, also utilizes a syllabary cabulary in English as well as signed 1999, p. 2) called kana as an aid to comprehen - language, such as through bilingual sion of certain words in kanji that are dictionaries. Most current dictionaries History of Writing and harder to read, and Chinese ideograms only allow for a unidirectional ap - Writing Signed Languages often contain an element that provides proach to learning: from English to Diamond (1994) observes that there information about the phonology of ASL. The American Sign Language are three basic strategies used by the the word. Handshape Dictionary (Tennant & writing systems of the world that differ As stated earlier, to date there has Brown, 2010), although it does not uti - in the size of the speech unit signified been no conventionally accepted writ - lize written signed language, provides by a written symbol: a single basic ten system for signed languages. This an insight into how Deaf signers (or sound (phoneme), a whole syllable, does not mean there is no need for signed language students) can use a and a whole word. Phonemic systems one or that it cannot be done. Indeed, signed language dictionary in a bidirec - are typically conventionalized as alpha - Fok, Van Hoek, Klima, and Bellugi tional manner (from sign to spoken bets, such as found in Hebrew, Cyrillic, (1991) not only provide evidence that language or vice versa), using the and the English (Latinate) alphabet. Deaf people have an instinctive desire

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to represent their own language in Hold model (Liddell & Johnson, 1989). Although there is no conventionally writing, but also evidence of the means However, notation or transcription sys - accepted written system for signed lan - by which it might be done. In a study tems are different from writing in that guages, this is not to say that there of young Deaf Chinese and American they are designed to encapsulate fine have been no attempts to create writ - writers, Fok et al. found instances in phonemic differences within a lan - ten signed language. One of the earli est which these children attempted to cre - guage for the purpose of linguistic known attempts was by Roch- ate writing for words or concepts they study; as a whole, they tend to be too Ambroise Bebian, who, as godson to did not know in their respective lan - cumbersome, if not arcane, for the Roch-Ambroise Sicard (the second di - guages using principles from their average layperson to use on an every - rector of the Royal National Institute signed languages. For example, one day basis. Writing, on the other hand, for the Deaf, in Paris), grew up with Deaf child created a representation of tends not to attempt to encapsulate Deaf people and became an educator the handshape or movement found in every element of an utterance within a of the Deaf himself (Cuxac, 1990; Fis - the sign DUCK, and at another time at - language (such as intonation, prosody, cher, 1995; Lane, 1984a, 1984b; T. Su - tempted to illustrate the two-handed or variations in regional accents), but, palla & Clark, 2015). Several examples ASL sign PIE through two drawings, rather, to encode just enough ele - of Bebian’s writing system are pre - one representing the nondominant ments for comprehension within a sented in Figure 1. In the 1970s, Valerie base hand of the sign and the other static format through which languages Sutton modified the DanceWriting showing what appears to be the move - were not developed to be expressed system used to develop dance chore - ment path of the dominant hand. In (Graff, 1986). In this way, writing en - ogra phy for use with signed language another case, a Chinese child, given a codes sufficient information for the (Sutton, n.d.). The system that resulted, stimulus picture of a girl opening a transmission of ideas between mem - SignWriting, consists of drawn symbols door, wrote the Chinese root for per - bers of a linguistic community without representing handshapes, orientations, son next to the character for door ; becoming too overwhelming for users locations, and movements, and can be this was similar to how he might have to learn and manipulate. Or, as Tzeng modified to portray perspective and signed it, using classifiers and signs in and Hung (1988) state, other nonstandard changes in a sign as Chinese Sign Language. At another well. This writing system has been uti - time, this child, writing about a rocket As we look back at these historical lized in several different countries and launching, wrote the character for changes [in writing systems], we see in a few school programs in the United airplane , but added a couple of extra that the evolution of writing seems to States (Nover, 2000; Senghas, 2015). An upwards squiggles to the ideogram, have taken a single direction at every example of SignWriting is presented in likely to express the upward path and advance, the number of symbols in Figure 2. motion of a rocket as it launches, as the script decreases, and as a direct Since the development of SignWrit - he might have signed it. These ex - consequence the abstractness of the ing, a few others have made attempts to amples indicate that Deaf signers relation between script and mean ing design a written signed language sys - (those without any preconceptions increases and the link between graph - tem. In the 2000s, Robert Arnold cre - about the nature of writing) do under - emes and phonemes becomes clearer. ated Si5s (Arnold, 2010, 2013a, 2013b), stand the elements of their language, (p. 275) which has gained some traction due to and do have some desire to record their thoughts using their primary language. Figure 1 Examples of Bebian’s Mimographie With the onset of the linguistic study of modern signed language, sev - eral transcription systems have been developed for the purpose of record - ing and analyzing signed languages, such as Stokoe Notation (Stokoe, 1960/1993), the Hamburg Notation System (HamNoSys; Prillwitz, 1989), and the Liddell-Johnson Movement- Notes . Livre , “book.” Cligner , “to bat the eye” (transitive). Clignoter , “to wink” (intransitive).

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Figure 2 not all, of these do appear to include Examples of SignWriting some phonological information within their “iconograms.” However, it may be possible to en - code signed languages more tradition - ally (at least according to most Western educational mores), utilizing an alpha - betic approach. Samuel Supalla and his colleagues working with Deaf chil - dren at a Tucson charter school pro - gram developed an alphabetic-like system for writing ASL signs based on ASL “graphemes” representing hand - shapes, locations, and movements to be used as a bridge toward English lit - his strong promotional efforts. Be - styles identified by Diamond (1994): eracy (S. Supalla et al., 2001). Unlike cause of disagreements about how logographic, syllabic, or alphabetic. Stokoe’s earlier work, in which signs signs should be written, a member of Rather, due to the visual-kinesthetic were also represented through a set Arnold’s initial group, Adrean Clark, nature of signed languages, their cre - of symbols, some of which were based developed a variation on Si5s, which ators have chosen to represent signs in on English (Latinate) orthography, Su - she calls “ASLwrite.” Examples of Si5s a manner that might be best described palla’s symbols were based on the ap - and ASLwrite are provided in Figure 3. as “iconographic.” That is, these sys - pearance of the handshape itself, and What is interesting about all of these tems employ pictorial (iconic) ways of were unique to this system. Thus, in a systems is that they do not appear to expressing the elements of a sign, al - break with earlier (notation) systems, conform to the three basic writing though it should be noted that most, if Supalla and associates achieved a de - coupling of ASL from English orthog - Figure 3 ra phy, whether partial, as in Stokoe Examples of Si5s and ASLwrite Notation, or whole, as in glosses. However, Supalla did not appear to envision his system being used as a means of transmitting extended texts, but rather simply as something of a “starter” system toward acquiring Eng - lish. As a result, the signs are frozen at the lexical level, without much, if any, extension toward the syntactic and discourse levels. Drawing upon Supalla’s work, I have developed a sim - ilarly unique set of symbols represent - ing handshape, orientation, location, movement, and nonmanual mor - phemes to be arranged horizontally in Figure 4 a manner similar to those of English Examples of SignScript and other orthographies, which I have named SignScript (Grushkin 2010a, 2010b, 2010c, 2010d). Unlike Si5s, however, this system has not been widely disseminated at this time. Ex - amples of SignScript are provided in Figure 4.

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Orthography and Biliteracy working with more orthographically nection between the phonemes of a If the Deaf community were to de - complex scripts. However, Hung and language and the graphemes that rep - velop and accept a system of written Tzeng also found that these effects are resent these phonemes. This task can signed languages, what then, would somewhat limited: While human visual be complicated in languages such as be the best approach—iconographic information processing is affected by English, which has a “deep orthogra - or alphabetic? More important, what orthographic variation, this occurs phy.” That is, one phoneme in English would be the impacts on the learning only at lower levels, which are data- can often be represented in multiple of English if signed languages were driven (or “bottom-up”) processes. At ways. To illustrate, the sound /f/ can be written by means of a non-Roman writ - higher levels of reading (concept- represented as “f” ( fish ), “ff” ( quaff ), ing (or orthographic) system? Would driven, or “top-down,” processes), “ph” ( phony ) or “gh” ( cough ); like - any differences in orthographic struc - reading appears to be immune to or - wise, the sound /n/ can be represented ture negatively affect the acquisition of thographic variation. as “n” ( need ), “kn” ( know , knife ), “pn” English as a second (written) lan - Reading English involves using an (pneumonia ), and “gn” ( sign ). As a re - guage? Perhaps the best way to answer alphabetic orthographic system. An ad - sult, beginning readers can experience these questions is to examine what vantage of alphabetic orthographies is difficulty decoding English when happens when bilinguals learn to read that, as Tzeng and Hung (1988) ob - taught through an explicitly phonics- and write in two different languages, serve, these systems map onto the based approach, which is why Good - especially when the languages are writ - spoken (or signed) word at the level of man (1993, 1994) advocates the use of ten in dissimilar orthographic formats. the phoneme. Therefore, with alpha - whole language approaches instead. There are two main areas of concern betic writing systems, In comparison to alphabetic sys - and exploration: The first is whether tems, there are logographic systems, the writing provides readily accessible in the ideal case, someone can read such as Chinese ideograms or Japan - information to the phonology of the words he has never before seen. It is ese kanji (which were borrowed from language (“shallow orthography”) or obvious, however, that one can do the Chinese logographs). Whereas al - the relationship between the lan - this only insofar as he is able to map phabetic systems stress the phonemic guage’s phonology and the written the internal structure of the written level of language, reading in logo - word is more opaque (“deep orthogra - word onto the segmental structure of graphic systems is primarily estab - phy”). The second relates to the trans - the morphophonological representa - lished at the lexical (vocabulary) or fer of reading strategies learned in one tion of the spoken word he holds in semantic (meaning) level, since each language to reading in a second his personal lexicon. (I. Lieberman, A. logogram typically represents a single language, especially when divergent Lieberman, Mattingly, & Shankweiler, word or concept (Tzeng, 1983; orthographies may require the devel - 1980, p. 149) M. Wang, Perfetti, & Liu, 2003). Since opment of different reading strategies. logograms represent single words or Hung and Tzeng (1981) note that Although there are advantages to concepts, learning to read in Chinese every orthography transcribes sen - the alphabetic format of writing, not all involves making associations between tences at the level of words, and that alphabets are created equal. For ex - the vocabulary in one’s linguistic base this transcription is achieved in a mor - ample, Hebrew’s alphabet is more and the written characters represent - phemic way. While this is certainly “squarish” compared to the Latin al - ing the lexical item or semantic con - true, differences in the type of script phabet; that is, the letters are more cept. Ultimately, this necessitates the do affect the learning of the script, as blocklike, with more horizontal and memorization of thousands of sepa - well as how readers may process differ - vertical strokes and fewer curves and rate characters. Hung and Tzeng (1981) ent types of scripts, especially after diagonals than are present in the Latin observed that initially, readers learning having learned a differing script type. alphabet. As a result, it may take read - logographic systems may have initial For example, Geva and Siegel (2000) ers of Hebrew slightly longer to recog - success at this task as long as the char - found that when a script is less com - nize differences in letters compared acters to be learned are distinctly dif - plex (in that the relationship between to those reading in English (Share & ferent; however, with the introduction phonology and graphemes is more di - Levin, 1999). In addition, although al - of additional characters, similarities to rect, or “shallower”), children develop phabetic orthographies do map onto previously learned characters will begin word recognition skills with relative the phonemic level of language, read - to appear. At this point, purely visual ease in comparison to when they are ers have to be taught to make the con - strategies will become less effective,

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and the reader must develop other writing strategies may transfer be - nificant implications for the develop - memory strategies to maintain the tween languages, even in children who ment of a written signed language sys - reading process. Nevertheless, Tzeng are just beginning to learn to read and tem, and will be examined in greater and Hung (1988) hypothesized that write. However, they caution that bilin - detail later in the present article. since Chinese logographs contain gual literacy development is not a stan - Since English script is based on al - more symbols with similar sounds but dard one-way path: For each child or phabetic principles, and alphabetic different meaning, and since there are person, the process of literacy devel - writing is strongly associated with the often minor differences between lo - opment can take individual pathways phonemic structure of a language, it gographs, processing of a logographic while he or she is learning about script. comes as no surprise that educators in script would involve more visual/spa - In their experiment, Tzeng and English-speaking countries, among tial memory than is the case for pro - Hung (1988) found some evidence that others, typically stress the need to de - cessing alphabetic scripts. Indeed, reading strategy interference does exist velop phonemic awareness in readers Tzeng and M. Wang (1983) found this for Chinese-English bilingual readers. of English. Indeed, Holm and Dodd to be the case: Processing logographs They attribute this to a transfer of log - (1996) state that the development of does involve more visual memory than ographic reading processes that were phonemic awareness requires alpha - occurs in the reading of alphabetic sys - (ineffectively) applied to English (al - betic literacy, not just literacy in gen - tems. Although the sheer number of phabetic) reading. However, Lee, Wee, eral. This assertion is corroborated by logograms to be memorized appears Tzeng, and Hung (1992) conducted both Hanley, Tzeng, and Huang (1999) daunting and perhaps cumbersome, Stroop interference tests (in which sub - and Cheung, Chen, Lai, Wong, and Noda (1995) posits one advantage of jects are asked to name a color when Hills (2001), who indicate that the logographic scripts: the word for it is presented in a differ - phonological awareness of Chinese ent color) among bilingual subjects readers is bolstered by the learning of The phonetic representation systems whose languages were written in differ - an alphabetic system. These findings of Japanese call for a linear approach ent orthographic systems. Although are attributable to the fact that logo - that slows down the reading process they hypothesized that a greater differ - graphic systems, which map onto and correspondingly delays under - ence in orthographic structure would meaning rather than sound, do not standing of the content, whereas the lead to a reduction of interference ef - provide readers of these systems with globality of the logogram means that fects during language switching, they experience in consciously identifying it can be immediately recognized and found that orthographic structure by it - the phonological segments of a understood once it has been memo - self was unrelated to the degree of the word—a skill (among others) needed rized. (p. 25) interference effect. for fluent reading of alphabetic scripts Interestingly, Tzeng and Hung (Holm & Dodd, 1996). This means, ac - Advantages and drawbacks of indi - (1988) cite research from the Salk Insti - cording to Holm and Dodd, that those vidual orthographic strategies become tute in which Chinese and American from nonalphabetic written-language less clear when one discusses bilingual Deaf readers were compared in their backgrounds may have difficulties with learning and strategy transfer between use of reading strategies. According to new or unfamiliar words encountered languages and scripts. More specifi - the Salk investigators, Chinese Deaf in English. However, Holm and Dodd cally for our purposes here, what are readers tended to explore the spatial caution that this need for phonological the effects of nonalphabetic or non- layout of logographs, while American awareness is not absolute, since Eng - Latinate scripts on learning of an alpha - Deaf readers focused on the linear lish spelling can be acquired without betic, Latinate script such as that of arrangements of letter strings. When phonological awareness, by means of a English? Deaf readers were studied in the “global” strategy, as whole language Kenner, Kress, Al-Khatib, Kam, and course of research on acquisition of a advocates such as Goodman (1993, Tsai (2004) observed that young chil - signed language, Tzeng and Hung 1994) have insisted. Further, there are dren, even without prior instruction, noted that Deaf Chinese enjoyed an indications that even when children can develop understanding of how easier transition from their sign lan - learn to read highly contrasting writing writing systems operate and can differ - guage to the reading of logographs systems, there is still some phonolog - entiate among multiple orthographies. than the Deaf Americans did in tran- ical transfer between languages (M. Further, Kenner et al. found that ortho - sitioning from signing to reading an Wang, Perfetti & Liu, 2003). Interest - graphic knowledge and reading or alphabetic script. This finding has sig - ingly enough, potential conflicts be -

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tween reading strategy and learning of English in any form except through & T. Supalla, 1990). Yet even though a second written system does not ap - writing. What M. Wang et al. (2006) exposure to ASL is a necessity, simple pear to be bidirectional: M. Wang et al. found was that orthographic skills in exposure is not sufficient for mastery. (2003) found that readers of alpha - English and Korean were not signifi - As Singleton, S. Supalla, Litchfield, and betic writing systems were able to cantly correlated; that is, orthographic Schley (1998) caution, informal expo - grasp the orthographic structure of a skills in Korean did not predict English sure to ASL outside the classroom logographic system such as Chinese word reading more than possession of does not guarantee that a Deaf child fairly quickly, applying their percep - English phonological and orthographic will attain a high level of ASL fluency. As tual skills and the mediation of their skills. The authors suggested that this is the case with English, Deaf children first language toward the acquisition of was potentially due to the difference in must be formally taught the structure Chinese writing. visual form and orthographic trans - and rules of the language they use. In a study with implications for writ - parency of the two languages. In other Some teachers of the Deaf have ex - ten signed language and English bilit - words, since English utilizes a linear perimented with a variety of ways to eracy, M. Wang, Park, and Lee (2006) layout and has a “deep” orthography, provide this formal exposure to ASL. investigated the development of bilit - whereas Korean has a nonlinear layout Some, like Snoddon (2010), have eracy in children whose first language and a “shallow” orthography, skills de - turned to video technology in conjunc - was written in a non-Roman alphabetic veloped in Korean did not transfer well tion with a storytelling/writing ap - system (Korean) who were learning to to reading in English. In another inter - proach in which student narratives are read English as a second language. The esting note, the authors cited recent signed in ASL and then transcribed into study presents an interesting case be - neuroimaging work on Chinese-Eng - English texts which are then revised ac - cause written Korean (“Hangul”) has lish bilingual adults that indicated that cording to feedback from the teacher. an alphabetic component in which the these adults experience more activa - While effective in promoting English lit - graphemes correspond to phonemes, tion in the brain areas responsible for eracy, this approach maintains an Eng - as in English; however, Hangul is laid coordinating and integrating visual- lish-centrism in that not only is English out in a nonlinear format, like Chi - spatial analyses of logographic Chinese the primary focus for improvement, but nese. This nonlinear aspect is some - characters in comparison to what was ASL is not accorded an equal status be - what comparable to the nonlinear seen when they were reading English. cause it is unwritten. In a similar ap - aspects of some written signed lan - Similar results for visual-spatial brain proach, Mozzer-Mather (1990) used guages, such as Si5s and SignWriting. It activation have been found in Deaf glosses to improve and expand written has been established that phonological subjects during signed language dis - English narratives. In addition to the skills in one language tend to be highly course (Emmorey et al., 2005; Mac - problems with glosses discussed ear - correlated with phonological skills in a Sweeney et al., 2002). lier, the use of glosses, as in Snod - second language, and these skills typ - don’s work, also maintains English ically contribute to word-reading skills Conclusion primacy by representing ASL words in in a second language (Cummins, 2006; In conclusion, the questions must be English-seeming format. While the ba - Mayer & Trezek, 2014). Additionally, it asked: Does the development of writ - sic tech nique does foster cognitive is known that weak expressive lan - ing for signed languages hold any true comparisons of the structural similari - guage proficiency in the second lan - benefits for Deaf people, as individuals ties and differences between the two guage tends to limit the ability to rely and as a community? If so, what type of languages, it is almost certainly the case on phonological processing for some orthographic format should written that written ASL would be more effec - learners of second languages (Allen, signed language take, especially when tive at capturing elements that are not Letteri, Choi, & Dang, 2014; Grushkin, ASL-English biliteracy is a goal? easily represented through glosses, and 1998; McQuarrie & Parrila, 2014). For It is a long-standing truism that age would achieve a true separation be - many Deaf people, English functions of acquisition is one of the best predic - tween the two languages in the minds as a second, rather than first, language tors of ASL fluency among the adult of students. Moreover, this would go a (Grushkin, 1998; Wilbur, 2000), and, in Deaf population: The earlier one is ex - long way toward removing the cogni - addition, is less accessible for Deaf posed to ASL, the greater one’s ex - tive disconnect Deaf writers feel in try - people in comparison to signed lan - pressive command of the language ing to put their lives and thoughts in guages, since Deaf people do not typ - (Boudreault & Mayberry, 2006; May - writing in English, as Harmon (2007) ically have complete exposure to berry, 1993; Newport, 1991; Newport and Lindgren (2012) have observed.

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S. Supalla et al. (2001) offer the in - their visual orientation to the world. dicate that writing horizontally, which teresting observation that movement Noda (1995) notes one advantage of allows for horizontal scanning, results in ASL is comparable to the role of the logographic strategy: in faster processing than vertical vowels in spoken languages. While it is layouts and scanning. Iconographic possible that this statement may prove The phonetic representation systems scripts, like logographs, may also cre - true, it does seem clear that the ability of Japanese call for a linear approach ate problems when readers of these to truly write a signed language offers that slows down the reading process systems attempt to make the transfer multiple potentials for developing and correspondingly delays under - toward reading the alphabetic system other insights into the nature of signed standing of the content, whereas the of English. As Tzeng and Hung (1988) languages that might otherwise remain globality of the logogram means that state, “invisible” to the casual observer. De - it can be immediately recognized and velopment of a written system for understood once it has been memo - Because logographs represent units of signed languages also offers alternative rized. (p. 25) meaning rather than units of sound, it ways in which speakers of these lan - has been suggested that logographic guages can examine and stretch the Evaluation of the several icono - orthographies allow more rapid access boundaries of their languages. For ex - graphic scripts currently in existence of meaning than phonetic orthogra - ample, spoken languages have visual reveals that these systems also present phies . . . although phonetic orthogra - poems and forms of linguistic play information in a global manner, and phies may allow more rapid access of such as acrostics and rebuses that are therefore hold the potential for more names. Thus, reading Chinese may in - only made possible by being written rapid decoding of the sign compared volve different cognitive processes down. It is reasonable to speculate that to other possible approaches, such as than reading English. (pp. 277–278) the development of written signed lan - alphabetic ones. Tzeng and Hung guage would enable new avenues for (1988) and Tzeng and M. Wang (1983) Indeed, Hanley et al. (1999) found that exploring the potentialities of signed found the processing of logographic students from Hong Kong were less languages. scripts to require more visual memory likely to utilize the alphabetic informa - The development of written signed than the processing of alphabetic tion provided in English, preferring to language also allows Deaf speakers of scripts. If iconographic scripts func - engage the visual strategies learned signed languages to communicate with tioned similarly, they would be well from reading Chinese logographs. It one another in their native/natural lan - suited to Deaf individuals, for whom vi - follows, then, that like Chinese read - guage. As one example, social media sual memory tends to be a strength. In - ers, Deaf readers of iconographic writ - such as Facebook allow users to switch deed, the Salk Institute research cited ing systems might develop visual fonts so that they can express them - by Tzeng and Hung in which Deaf Chi - strategies for reading these systems selves in their preferred language. The nese evidenced an easier transition that would not be readily transferable development of a written signed lan - from signed language to reading lo - to reading English. guage font, especially if the font were gographs than Deaf Americans making Since English is an alphabetic sys - alphabetic, would allow Deaf interac - the same transition to alphabetic script tem that naturally stresses a phonemic tants to converse with one another, suggests that Deaf signers might expe - relationship between language and and more important, allow discussions rience an easier transition from sign to writing, it might make more sense, about ASL to be made in ASL without iconograph. then, to employ an alphabetic ap - confusions about the sign referents or The visual nature of iconographic proach to writing signed languages in the signer’s intent. scripts does allow for some variation in order to facilitate greater transfer of The most “popular” strategy for layout, however. While Si5s is arranged reading skills in the first language writing signed languages is the “icono - in a more familiar (for readers of Eng - (signed) toward the second language graphic” approach, which utilizes a set lish) left-to-right pattern, its characters (English). Educators of the Deaf have of icons representing the parameters are not placed linearly, as is done in long emphasized what they view as a of any given sign such as location, English. Another system, SignWriting, necessity for Deaf readers to develop movement, and handshape. Like the appears to be written in a vertical lay - awareness of the phonological under - logographic strategy, iconographic ap - out. This is slightly problematic, since pinnings of the majority written lan - proaches are highly visual in nature, Hung and Tzeng (1981) point out that guage; indeed, almost every issue of which appeals to Deaf people due to studies in perceptual development in - the American Annals of the Deaf and

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other Deaf education journals contains language writing were based on signed sion, their own systems of exchange at least one article addressing this con - language phonological principles, and balance. To avoid the risks of a cern and its pedagogically associated there would be positive transfer ef - dangerous intervention of writing strategies such as Cued Speech and Vi - fects toward reading skills in both lan - into an oral milieu, these societies sual Phonics (e.g., Allen et al., 2009; guages, although, of course, due to must design for themselves the paths Mayer & Trezek, 2014; Paul, Y. Wang, the different orthographies and through which they hope eventually Trezek, & Luckner, 2009; Syverud, phonologies, such transfer would not to accede to the rewards of literacy. Guardino, & Selznick, 2009; Y. Wang, be entirely direct. This notion is cor - (p. 81) Trezek, Luckner, & Paul, 2008), despite roborated by a finding by Akamatsu the counterintuitive nature of promot - (1999) that the written-language cod - The Deaf cultural community has ing sound-based phonology in the ing mechanisms of bilinguals for read - long functioned as an “oral” culture, reading process for Deaf readers ing in a second language are positively even as English is used in the commu - (Grushkin, 1998; McQuarrie & Parrila, influenced by the orthographic charac - nity for interaction among its mem - 2014). As Schwarzer (2001) notes, stu - teristics of their first language. Another bers and with others outside the dents can read and write in a second point of consideration in favor of em - community. In order to gain accept - language, even at the beginning of ploying the alphabetic principle for ance, a writing system must be seen to their oral development in that lan - signed language writing is the claim by meet the needs of the community in a guage; speaking is not necessarily a Goswami (1999) that code acquisition variety of ways. Selection of the wrong prerequisite for literacy development, occurs more rapidly in highly transpar - format would be detrimental to this especially in a second language. Wilbur ent orthographies (where phoneme/ goal. As Diamond (1994) asks, “Do (2000), like Holm and Dodd (1996), grapheme correspondences are con - sub-ideal writing systems really make corroborates Schwarzer’s observation, sistent) than in less transparent or - it harder for adults to read, or for chil - asserting that “the absence of an alpha - thographies. When one considers that dren to learn to read? Many observa - betic writing system, and hence the ab - iconographic writing systems do not tions make clear that the answer is sence of awareness of individual make the phoneme/grapheme rela - yes” (p. 113). It has been demon - phonemes, is no detriment to literacy tionship as explicit as an alphabetic strated that reading skills developed in (for Deaf readers), as reflected by the system, it seems that the development one orthography may not be needed Chinese situation” (p. 88). and use of an alphabetic system would in a different orthography, especially if Yet if phonological awareness is im - be of more utility for Deaf readers the two orthographies have different portant in reading English, might it (with English and other alphabetic or - script-utterance mapping rules. Thus, not make more sense for Deaf readers thographies), especially when one as Tzeng (1983) asserts, “instructional to develop phonological awareness of takes into account the need for devel - programs for bilingual children whose their first language (ASL), so that what - opment of signed language/spoken first language has a nonalphabetic or - ever skills were developed from read - language bilingual abilities. thography should be carefully de - ing in this language would be more Diamond (1994) observes that writ - signed to facilitate positive transfer easily transferred toward the reading ing systems, consciously designed by and minimize negative interference of English? Although iconographic sys - trained linguists, are continually com - due to the orthographic factor” (p. tems do contain some elements of ing into existence. While this can be a 92). If an iconographic system be - signed language phonology, just as good thing, Hagege (1988) warns that comes the standard, Tzeng’s warning Chinese logographs do, it stands to will need to be attended to. Of course, reason that an alphabetic system the introduction of writing into the this issue would be drastically miti - would make these phonological ele - heart of an oral society does require gated if an alphabetic strategy for writ - ments more explicit. Indeed, Hanley certain precautions. Writing has been ten signed languages were chosen by et al. (1999) suggest that phonological a progressive rather than a sponta - the community. awareness in Chinese readers is bol - neous development, and important In sum, a written signed language stered by learning an alphabetic sys - cultural differences separate societies system should (ideally) meet the fol - tem such as the Chinese pinyin that are literate from those that are lowing conditions: system. Thus, since English is alpha - not. The latter have over many years betic and based on phonological prin - developed on the basis of oral lan - 1. The written script should be ciples, it appears logical that if signed guage their own modes of expres - arranged horizontally.

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2. The script should be alphabetic, signed language could be restated in https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wH3jZv for maximal congruence with this way: tOrkQ Arnold, R. (2013a). Introduction to Si5s [Video]. English-learning strategies. Retrieved from YouTube website: https:// 3. The script should not attempt to With this accomplishment (writing www.youtube.com/watch?v=vxrNAIdCr3s contain every possible variation signed languages), the Deaf commu - Arnold, R. (2013b). Robert Arnold Augustus at TEDxIslay [Video]. Retrieved from YouTube in handshape, movement, and nity could embark just as rapidly on website: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v location. the vast career that this discovery =SYHs3D6jJ_o 4. The script should have a (sign language) opened to its mem - Bauman, H.-D. (2002). [Review of the book A mighty change: An anthology of Deaf Amer - phoneme/grapheme relation - bers’ intelligence. ican writing 1816–1864 , by C. Krentz]. Sign ship that is as clear as possible. Language Studies, 2(4), 452–459. 5. Bilingual instructional strategies Baynton, D. (1996). Forbidden signs: American should be developed to maximize Note on Terminology culture and the campaign against sign lan - guage . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago the ability of a written signed sys - 1. It has become a matter of conven - Press. tem to induce linguistic transfer tion in the fields of Deaf cultural stud - Berent, G. P. (2009). The interlanguage develop - toward English literacy. ies and Deaf education to use a d/Deaf ment of deaf and hearing learners of L2 Eng - lish: Parallelism via minimalism. In W. C. designation to delineate culturally Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), The new hand - Because of my arguments for an al - Deaf from medically deaf. However, book of second language acquisition (pp. phabetic approach to writing signed this designation is increasingly coming 523–543). Bingley, England: Emerald Group. languages, the reader may at this point to be considered divisive and impre - Berent, G. P., & Kelly, R. R. (2008). The efficacy of visual input enhancement in teaching have obtained an impression that cise, and to be based on a citation deaf learners of L2 English. In Z.-H. Han iconographic approaches are ineffec - (Woodward, 1975/1982) that does not (Ed.), Understanding second language tive in comparison to alphabetic ap - in fact use such a distinction. In sup - process (pp. 80–105). Bristol, England: Multi - lingual Matters. proaches. This is far from the case. port of asserting an ethnicity perspec - Berent, G. P., Kelly, R. R., & Schueler-Choukairi, Although I have some additional “quib - tive of Deaf people (see also Canadian T. (2012). L2 and deaf learners’ knowledge of bles” (which are beyond the scope of Cultural Society of the Deaf, n.d.; Lane, numerically quantified English sentences. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34 , the present article) about elements of 2005), an uppercase D is stylistically 35–66. the iconographic approaches created applied throughout the present article Bochner, J. H., & Bochner, A. M. (2009). A limi - to date, there is no doubt that as writ - to refer to all persons with hearing tation on reading as a source of linguistic in - ing systems, these approaches do ability below “normal” hearing levels, put: Evidence from deaf learners. Reading in a Foreign Language, 21 , 143–158. work. It is in the area of biliteracy and regardless of cultural affiliation or cho - Boudreault, P., & Mayberry, R. (2006). Grammat - skills transfer toward alphabetic lan - sen mode of communication. The only ical processing in American Sign Language: guages such as English that the icono - times “deaf” and “hard of hearing” will Age of first-language acquisition effects in re - lation to syntactic structure. Language and graphic approach is being questioned. be used will be in direct quotations of Cognitive Processes, 21 (5), 608–635. While the present article does advo - authors who have chosen to employ Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Elbro, C. (2003). The abil - cate an alphabetic approach, it may these terms.— The Author ity to learn new word meanings from context by school-age children with and without lan - be the case that the community will guage comprehension difficulties. Journal of prefer to adopt an iconographic ap - References Child Language, 30 (3), 681–694. proach such as Si5s or ASLwrite. If Akamatsu, N. (1999). The effects of first lan - Canadian Cultural Society of the Deaf. (n.d.). guage orthographic features on word recog - this does come to pass, Deaf readers Fact sheet: The lower case “d” or upper nition processing in English as a second case “D .” Retrieved from www.ccsdeaf.com/ can still acquire the biliteracy skills language. 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