Gender, Migration and Rural Livelihoods in Ghana
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GENDER, MIGRATION AND RURAL LIVELIHOODS IN GHANA: A CASE OF THE HO DISTRICT By JUSTINA EYRAM DUGBAZAH A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Centre of West African Studies School of Historical Studies Faculty of Arts The University of Birmingham August 2007 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. 2 ABSTRACT This thesis seeks to examine the interrelationships between gender, migration and rural livelihoods in Ghana. The central argument of the study is that policy making on migration and livelihood, tends to ignore gender as a critical issue in development planning. The study suggests that effective development policy interventions should take into consideration the dynamics of gender relations because men and women experience migration differently. Employing primary and secondary data, the study demonstrates that when men and/or women migrate, there are consequences for households. For those migrating, this can result in either empowerment or increased vulnerability. And for the agricultural households in the sending areas, the departure of men and/or women affects their livelihood and division of labour. Our investigation shows that migrants are predominantly males, with a relatively smaller but increasing number of women. Drawing on earlier studies, the thesis argues for a more systematic examination of the consequences of migration on rural households, particularly on the economic livelihood and household responsibilities of women. By understanding the conditions of rural households, development practitioners are in a better position to design gender appropriate policies and projects. This approach will significantly improve the economic situation of rural communities and maximize their development dividends. The study has practical significance as it sheds light on the options faced by rural women, and the adjustments they make, when confronted with male out-migration. 3 DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my children Lydia-Elim and Lynden Edem. Thank you for all your sacrifice and support. 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The product of a graduate degree is never the result of one person’s labor, but rather the culmination of the goodwill, sacrifice and support of a select few. I do owe a debt of gratitude to a few individuals for their various contributions to the success of my studies, and also to this thesis. In recognition of this fact, there are a few people I would like to acknowledge and thank for their tireless inspiration and unselfish support. My appreciation and thanks go to my two supervisors, Dr. Lynne Brydon and Dr. Insa Nolte, whose scholarly insights and academic rigor helped me to develop a better understanding of the issues involved in this thesis. I am particularly grateful for their wonderful support, patience and kindness over the past years, which have been important to my studies. My gratitude also goes to those associated with the International Development Department and the Centre of West African Studies (CWAS). I am grateful to the professors from the two departments who have inspired and supported me in various ways. I also wish to thank the Administrator of CWAS, Maggie Eggington, who assisted me on numerous occasions. I am deeply grateful to the School of Historical Studies for awarding me the School academic scholarship for 2005/2006, the Overseas Research Scholarship for 2006/2007, as well as a studentship for 2005/2006 and 2006/2007 academic year. I thank my professors at CWAS for recommending me for these awards. The data for this study was collected in 2005-2006 in the villages of Abutia Teti, Agorve and Kloe in the Volta region of Ghana, and also in Accra, where some Abutia migrants reside. I am very grateful to all the women and men (both non-migrants and migrants) of the three Abutia villages, for their tolerance and generosity, and wish to thank them for the willingness with which they answered my questions and commented on my results. I say “akpe na mi loo!!” Your strength and courage are virtues that will stay with me beyond this study. I am equally thankful to the paramount chief, Togbe Abutia Kordzo XIV of the Abutia traditional area, Togbe Ayikpe IV of Abutia Kloe, the regent of Abutia Agorve, and the queen mothers and elders of the three villages for their support. My 5 special thanks to Mr. Charles Dake, Mr. Ernest Nyagbe and Mr. Jonas Ohene for introducing me into the Abutia communities. I am also grateful to Mr. Worlanyo Amoah and Mr. Michael Gold for providing accommodation for the research team in Abutia Kloe and Ho respectively. My fieldwork and the multi-disciplinary focus of this work were greatly enhanced and enriched by the research support provided by Dr. Dan-Bright Dzorbo of the University of Ghana, Legon, and my research assistants, Rosemond Hiadzi and Richard Senna. I also wish to express my gratitude to the duo for their interest and invaluable support during the data collection. Without them the study would not have succeeded so well. I also wish to thank Mr. Edem Senaya who served as our community guide during the field work. Unfortunately, he passed away before this work could be completed. Wish you had been here to see the final product. May your soul rest in peace. I acknowledge with deep appreciation the support of the World Health Organization (WHO) country office in Accra, Ghana, for providing me with office space, computer and internet access, and other logistical support during the six months of my research. I owe much to Mr. Selassi D’Almeida, who was my field supervisor and adviser during my internship with the organization in 2004, and also Mr. Samuel Hagan, both of whom have remained friends. The fellowship of a few other friends has carried me through the programme and the writing of this thesis. The inspiration of my mentor, Dr. Bernice Moreau is something that I continue to treasure. She has always provided the much-needed spiritual, moral and intellectual guidance for my life. I am, indeed appreciative of her unflinching love. I am grateful to Constance and Seth Twumasi for their generosity and support, particularly during a challenging phase of writing this thesis. My special thanks go to Dr. Dzodzi Tsikata whose insightful comments and encouragement have spurred me on. The wonderful moral support of Rev. and Mrs. Jacob Afolabi, Ngozi Ilukhor, Peter Lawrence, Jacob Bessa Togo, Adolphine Aggor, Gemma Saldanha, Elizabeth Esabu, Dr. Daniel Osabu-Kle and Dr. Setorme Tsikata, and my colleagues, Juliana Mafwil, Kwame Osei Kwarteng, Hajia Katumi Mahama, Sika Ahadzie and Beatrice Duncan whose constant 6 encouragement has assisted me to complete this thesis, I say thank you for your friendship. I extend my heartfelt appreciation to members of my family: my mother Lovelace Dugbazah, from whom I acquired the virtues of diligence and patience; my uncle Dr. Tetteh Dugbaza and my cousin Susie Dzakpasu for their confidence in my ability to succeed; my cousin Capt. (Rev) John Konu and his wife Bernice, for their unwavering love and encouragement during the most difficult period of my life; and my siblings Cephas, Philip, Victor, Charity and Doreen for their support. My greatest inspiration for academic pursuit comes from my late father, Victor Kwasi Dugbazah, from whom I learned the importance of education, and also the tenacity to follow my academic dream. My most important debt is owed to my children Lydia-Elim and Lynden Edem (Eazy). My heartfelt love and appreciation go to you for your depth of understanding, for making the ultimate sacrifice and tolerating the disruption in your lives that enabled me to undertake and complete this programme. Thank you very much. Finally, I give the ultimate acknowledgement and thanks to my heavenly Father for having sustained me through life. He deemed it appropriate to instill in me the energy and intellect without which I would not have been able to carry out this research successfully. May I never lose sight of the fact that it is His grace that has brought me this far in my professional and academic attainment. 7 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION: EXAMINING THE GENDER, MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOODS LINKAGE 1.1 Introduction 2 1.2 Background Information 4 1.3 Introducing the Migration-Development Relationship 6 1.4 The Gender and Migration Linkage 12 1.5 Migration within the Ghanaian Context 18 1.6 The Study 20 1.7 The Goal and Objectives of the Study 24 1.8 The Research Methodology 26 1.9 Data Collection and Analysis 28 1.10 Identifying the Research Community 31 1.11 Conclusion 32 1.12 Organization of Chapters 33 CHAPTER 2: THE MIGRATION AND LIVELIHOODS DISCOURSE: IS THERE A GENDER ELEMENT? 2.1 Introduction 43 2.2 An Introduction to the Migration Literature 46 2.3 Historical Perspectives of Migration in SSA 47 2.4 Migration in the West African Region 50 2.4.1 Colonial Interferences in West Africa 53 2.5 The Historical Trend of Migration in Ghana 53 2.5.1 Migration during the Pre-colonial Era 53 2.5.2 Migration during the