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Loss of Natural Coastline in Okinawa Island, Japan

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Loss of Natural Coastline in Okinawa Island, Japan A peer-reviewed version of this preprint was published in PeerJ on 6 September 2019. View the peer-reviewed version (peerj.com/articles/7520), which is the preferred citable publication unless you specifically need to cite this preprint. Masucci GD, Reimer JD. 2019. Expanding walls and shrinking beaches: loss of natural coastline in Okinawa Island, Japan. PeerJ 7:e7520 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.7520 The expanding wall and the shrinking beach: Loss of natural coastline in Okinawa Island, Japan Giovanni D Masucci Corresp., 1 , James D Reimer 1, 2 1 Molecular Invertebrate Systematics and Ecology Laboratory, Graduate School of Engineering and Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan 2 Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan Corresponding Author: Giovanni D Masucci Email address: [email protected] Okinawa is the largest and most populated island of the Ryukyu Archipelago in southern Japan and is renowned for its natural resources and beauty. Similar as to what has been happening in the rest of the country, Okinawa Island has been affected by an increasing amount of development and construction work. The trend has been particularly acute after reversion to Japanese sovereignty in 1972, following 27 years of post-war American administration. A coastline once characterized by extended sandy beaches surrounded by coral reefs now includes vast portions delimited by seawalls, revetments, and other human-made hardening structures. Additionally, a significant part of coastal Okinawa Island is now constituted by artificially reclaimed land. Nevertheless, the degree of severity of the current situation is unclear, due to the lack of both published studies and easily accessible and updated datasets. The aims of this study were to quantify the extension of coastline alterations in Okinawa Island, including the amount of land-filling performed over the last 51 years, and to describe the coastlines that have been altered the most as well as those that are still relatively pristine. Our analyses were performed using a reference map of Okinawa Island based on GIS vector data extracted from the OpenStreetMap (OSM) coastline dataset, in addition to satellite and aerial photography from multiple providers. We measured 431.8 km of altered coastline, equal to about 63% of the total length of coastline in Okinawa Island. Habitat fragmentation is also an issue as the remaining natural coastline was broken into 239 distinct tracts (mean length = 1.05 km). Finally, 21.03 km2of the island’s surface were of land reclaimed over the last 51 years. The west coast has been altered the most, while the east coast is in relatively more natural condition, particularly the northern part, which has the largest amount of uninterrupted natural coastline. Given the importance of ecosystem services that coastal and marine ecosystems provide to local populations of subtropical islands, including significant economic income from tourism, conservation of remaining natural coastlines should be PeerJ Preprints | https://doi.org/10.7287/peerj.preprints.27779v1 | CC BY 4.0 Open Access | rec: 3 Jun 2019, publ: 3 Jun 2019 given high priority. 1 The expanding wall and the shrinking beach: Loss of 2 natural coastline in Okinawa Island, Japan 3 Authors: Giovanni D. Masucci1*, James D. Reimer1,2 4 1 Molecular Invertebrate Systematics and Ecology Laboratory, Graduate School of Engineering 5 and Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan. 6 2 Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan 7 8 Corresponding Author: 9 Giovanni Masucci 10 E-mail address: [email protected] 11 1 Senbaru, Nishihara, Okinawa, 903 0213, Japan. 12 Phone number: +815058098703 ‐ 13 Abstract 14 Okinawa is the largest and most populated island of the Ryukyu Archipelago in southern Japan 15 and is renowned for its natural resources and beauty. Similar as to what has been happening in 16 the rest of the country, Okinawa Island has been affected by an increasing amount of 17 development and construction work. The trend has been particularly acute after reversion to 18 Japanese sovereignty in 1972, following 27 years of post-war American administration. A 19 coastline once characterized by extended sandy beaches surrounded by coral reefs now includes 20 vast portions delimited by seawalls, revetments, and other human-made hardening structures. 21 Additionally, a significant part of coastal Okinawa Island is now constituted by artificially 22 reclaimed land. Nevertheless, the degree of severity of the current situation is unclear, due to the 23 lack of both published studies and easily accessible and updated datasets. The aims of this study 24 were to quantify the extension of coastline alterations in Okinawa Island, including the amount 25 of land-filling performed over the last 51 years, and to describe the coastlines that have been 26 altered the most as well as those that are still relatively pristine. Our analyses were performed 27 using a reference map of Okinawa Island based on GIS vector data extracted from the 28 OpenStreetMap (OSM) coastline dataset, in addition to satellite and aerial photography from 29 multiple providers. We measured 431.8 km of altered coastline, equal to about 63% of the total 30 length of coastline in Okinawa Island. Habitat fragmentation is also an issue as the remaining 31 natural coastline was broken into 239 distinct tracts (mean length = 1.05 km). Finally, 21.03 km2 32 of the island’s surface were of land reclaimed over the last 51 years. The west coast has been 33 altered the most, while the east coast is in relatively more natural condition, particularly the 34 northern part, which has the largest amount of uninterrupted natural coastline. Given the 35 importance of ecosystem services that coastal and marine ecosystems provide to local 36 populations of subtropical islands, including significant economic income from tourism, 37 conservation of remaining natural coastlines should be given high priority. 38 Introduction 39 Japan is renowned worldwide both for its economic, industrial, and technological 40 achievements, and for its cultural and natural heritage. Unfortunately, a consequence of the 41 Japanese development model has been the destruction of vast portions of the country’s natural 42 environments, both terrestrial and marine (McCormak 1999, Kerr 2001). After World War II, 43 Japan has increasingly invested public money in projects related to modification of the natural 44 landscape (Walker and Mossa 1986). This included the alteration of 110 out of its 113 major 45 rivers with numerous dams and concrete enclosures, in addition to a vast number of minor 46 streams across the country, and the creation of numerous mountain roads for the forestry 47 industry, which has contributed to the eradication of around 40% of Japan’s native forest (Kerr 48 2001). During the 1990s, the production of concrete in Japan rose dramatically, reaching the 49 highest cement consumption per capita in the world and the highest per capita construction- 50 related debt (¥8 million; Kingston 2005). This increase was seemingly unaffected by the 51 recession that the country was facing, which, instead, accelerated the production: between 1992 52 and 1999, the country invested ¥120 trillion to boost the economy, of which ~60% was spent on 53 construction projects (Kingston 2005), producing as much concrete per year as the entire United 54 States (Kerr 2001; Kingston 2005). During this time, local and international commenters began 55 describing Japan as the ‘doken kokka’, the construction state (McCormack 1999; Kerr 2001; 56 Kingston 2005; Nam 2019). 57 Perhaps the most well-known and evident impact of construction can be seen on the 58 coastline, where numerous civil engineering projects have been performed, either by the 59 placement of bulkheads, seawalls, breakwaters, revetments, and groins, with the purpose of 60 protecting human-made buildings and coastal roads from erosion and wave action (shoreline 61 hardening, or armoring), or by extending the coastline seaward by filling the ocean with soil and 62 concrete in a process known as “land reclamation” or, more accurately, “land-filling”. When a 63 coastline is eroding, coastal armoring can interfere with natural beach upslope migration, 64 triggering a passive erosion of the shoreline that can lead to beach narrowing or loss (Griggs, 65 Tait and Corona 1994; Dugan et al. 2008), a phenomenon which has been defined as "coastal 66 squeeze” (Doody 2004). In terms of impacts on the marine ecosystems, shoreline hardening 67 reduces habitat complexity and uniqueness, affecting species composition, and decreasing 68 abundance and diversity (Seitz et al. 2006; Dugan et al. 2008; Gittman et al. 2016; Aguilera 69 2017). The effects of land-filling on the marine environment include habitat loss (Lai et al. 2015; 70 Heery et al. 2018) and a degradation of environmental parameters, particularly nutrients, 71 sedimentation rates, and turbidity, which are critical for the survival of coral reefs (Chou, Yu and 72 Loh 2004; Dikou and van Woesik 2006). 73 Japan’s “Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Law” was enacted in 1997 and 74 implemented in 1999, providing legal power to deny authorization to construction projects 75 exerting excessive impacts on the environment (Ministry of the Environment of Japan 2019). 76 Although an important achievement, the law has some limitations that need to be considered. 77 The most important is that only large-scale construction projects are regulated. For medium-scale 78 works, the necessity of an EIA is judged by the national government for each individual project, 79 while smaller-scale projects do not require any assessment by national law (see Ministry of the 80 Environment of Japan (2019) for a detailed list of categories and sizes subject to the EIA Law). 81 In the case of land-filling, an EIA is only required for projects involving over 50 ha (0.5 km2) of 82 reclamation.
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