Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products

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Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield NC-IUCN / GSI Series 2 NC-IUCN/GSISeries theGuiana Shield Commercial Non-Timber Forest of Products Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield An inventory of commercial NTFP extraction and possibilities for sustainable harvesting

By Tinde van Andel Amy MacKinven and Olaf Bánki

Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield is the second in a series of documents to be published by the Guiana Shield Initiative (GSI) of the Netherlands Committee for IUCN. The GSI received funding from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Dutch Government to lay the foundations for a longterm eco-regional project to finance sustainable development and conservation of the unique ecosystems of the Guiana Shield. This eco-region encompasses parts of Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil and the whole of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 1

Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 2

Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield

An inventory of commercial NTFP extraction and possibilities for sustainable harvesting

By Tinde van Andel, Amy MacKinven and Olaf Bánki

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements 

Preface 

Introduction  1.1 The Guiana Shield Eco-Region 1.2 The Guiana Shield Initiative 1.3 The Guayana Shield Conservation Priority Setting Workshop  1.4 Non-Timber Forest Products  1.5 Commercial NTFP extraction and biodiversity conservation  1.6 Aim of this report  1.7 Why include wildlife in a NTFP study?  1.8 Baseline biological research in the Guiana Shield  Andel, van T.R., MacKinven, A.V. and Bánki, O.S. (2003). Commercial Non-Timber Forest Products of the Guiana Shield. An inventory of commercial NTFP extraction and Brazil  possibilities for sustainable harvesting 1. Commercial NTFP extraction  2.2 Wildlife  Compilation of plant data by Tinde van Andel ([email protected]) and Olaf Bánki 2.3 Plant Products  ([email protected] / [email protected]). Compilation of animal data by Amy 2.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Brazil  MacKinven ([email protected]) Colombia  This report is an inventory of the trade in non-timber forest products, including 3.1 Commercial NTFP extraction  animals, in the Guiana Shield region. The recommendations comply with the IUCN 3.2 Wildlife  principles on the sustainability of the use of species and ecosystems. Inclusion of a 3.3 Plant Products  trade in this report does not automatically imply approval of the specific trade. 3.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Colombia 

© Netherlands Committee for IUCN  copyright of photographs and maps as indicated in captions French Guiana 4.1 Commercial NTFP extraction  4.2 Wildlife  Produced by Amy MacKinven, Cas Besselink, and Dave Zwaan, NC-IUCN 4.3 Plant Products  Layout and cover by Edith Cremers 4.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in French Guiana  Cover photograph by Tinde van Andel: Non-Timber Forest Products for sale in Georgetown, Guyana Guyana   ISBN 90-75909-11-X 5.1 Commercial NTFP extraction 5.2 Wildlife   Published December 2003 5.3 Plant Products  by the Netherlands Committee for IUCN 5.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Guyana Plantage Middenlaan 2K Amsterdam, The Netherlands Suriname  Websites: www.nciucn.nl; www.guianashield.org 6.1. Commercial NTFP extraction  6.2 Wildlife  Printed in The Netherlands by Leeuwenberg 6.3 Plant Products 

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NC-IUCN/GSI SERIES • COMMERCIAL NTFPS OF THE GUIANA SHIELD ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

6.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Suriname  ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Venezuela  7.1 Commercial NTFP extraction  7.2 Wildlife  The authors are most grateful to all persons that gave their comments on the  7.3 Plant Products report or helped in another way to achieve the goal of this study. We would like  7.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Venezuela to thank all participants of the Guayana Shield Conservation Priority Setting Discussion  Workshop in April 2002, Paramaribo, Suriname. We would like to especially 8.1 Lack of quantitative data on NTFPs  thank the following experts: 8.2 Patterns in NTFP commercialisation throughout the Guiana Shield  8.3 Sustainable extraction of NTFPs  Sydney Allicock, Frank Alphonso, Deokie Arjoon, Gerardo Aymard, Maria-Paula 8.4 Extractive Reserves  Balcázar, Paul Berry, Karen Boven, Ricardo Branchs, David Cassels, Americo 8.5 Subsidising NTFP extraction  Catalán, François Catzeflis, André Chanderballi, Mario Cohn-Haft, Barry 8.6 Domestication of NTFPs  Chernoff, Bart de Dijn, Jocelyn Dow, Alvaro Ducke, Joost Duivenvoorden, Nicole 8.7 Promising products for sustainable harvesting  Duplaix, Julian Evans, Marie-Louise Felix, Soraya Fleischer, Marie Fleury, Romain 8.8. Certification of sustainably harvested NTFPs  Garrouste, Jean-Jacques de Granville, Amir Grosman, Lorna Hall, Lionel Hernández, Martin von Hildebrand, Patricio von Hildebrand, Marinus Conclusions  Hoogmoed, Otto Huber, Isaäc Isbrücker, Marion Jansen-Jacobs, Charlotte van ’t Klooster, Raymond Landveld, Carlos Lasso Alcalá, Harry van der Linden, Recommendations  Marchal Lingaard, Paul Maas, José Iván Mojica, Bryce Noonan, José Ochoa, Silvio Olivieri, Jean-François Orru, Christian Ostrosky, Otte Ottema, Bert Jan Ottens, Reference List  Paul Ouboter, Maureen Playfair, Usha Raghoenandan, Carolyne Rahan-Singh, Aurelio Ramos, Cecile Richard-Hansen, Carlos Rodriguez, Franklin Rojas, Marc Appendix 1 Animal Species  van Roosmalen, Judith Rosales, Daniel Sabatier, Arie Spaans, Hans ter Steege, Luis Takiyama, Pieter Teunissen, Alberto Vicentini, Graham Watkins, Ian Watson, Appendix 2 Plant Species  Marga Werkhoven and Roderick Zagt.

Appendix 3 Threat Categories and Regulations 

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NC-IUCN/GSI SERIES • COMMERCIAL NTFPS OF THE GUIANA SHIELD PREFACE

and to support the sustainable use of NTFPs by e.g. certification. PREFACE The data, conclusions and recommendations of this report on monitoring the chains of NTFPs from harvest to consumer, on certification and on integrating NTFPs in forest management should assist both public policy and the private With 2.5 million square kilometers of largely intact tropical rainforest and savan- sector to operate more responsibly and sustainable. nas, 10-15% of the world’s fresh water reserves and an extremely rich and highly endemic biodiversity, the Guiana Shield ranks among the most important The global community deserves the goods and services of an intact Guiana Shield ecological regions in the world. ecoregion, the Guiana Shield deserves a decent income. The so-called ecosystem services of the region in the areas of climate stabilisation, watershed protection and the hydrological cycle, and the maintenance of a unique Mary Allegretti stock of biological and genetic diversity are a great asset to the global community, Secretary for the Amazon for present and future generations. Ministry for the Environment of Brazil It is the aim of the Guiana Shield Initiative (GSI), a partnership of many interna- Member Steering Committee of the Guiana Shield Initiative tional organisations with its secretariat at the Netherlands Committee for IUCN, to set up a system to adequately compensate the local communities and the relevant authorities for their continued delivery of these ecosystem services. These compensations could take the form of financial payments or of other types of remuneration (technical, medical or legal services), depending on the needs of the ‘producers’ of the services. Directly associated with this long-term objective the GSI aims to secure the direct use of the biodiversity of the Guiana Shield by the local communities, also for commercial purposes. It is the latter which is the subject of this report. We are talking about all wild plant and animal products that can be harvested from forests or other types of natural ecosystems, which may appear on local, national and even international markets. Although often not statistically recorded, they are of great relevance for local incomes and a key to truly sustainable use of the forest. For the forest-dwelling communities they are an essential source of food, shelter, household equipment, forage and medicine. For instance 65-90% of all plant species in the Guiana Shield are considered useful by the local indigenous people. This report aims to highlight the Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) of the Guiana Shield: which are they, what is their economic value, where are (potential) markets, and, last but not least, how can they be sustainably harvested? The danger of a successful NTFP is of course overharvesting, which in the end could lead to slaughtering the goose with the golden eggs. As Secretary for the Brazilian Amazon and with my background in supporting the ‘extractivist reserves’ which now occupy such a prominent place in the Pilot Program for the Brazilian Rainforests, it gives me great pleasure to present this report to the reader. Especially I hope this ‘hidden economy’ will draw the attention of policy makers, both at the national and international level, who still too often see the value of forests only in terms of the timber on top of the soil, min- erals in the subsoil or as a space to be converted into large scale plantations or agricultural production units. More sophisticated policy instruments are needed to create sustainable income out of capturing the value of the ecosystem services

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NC-IUCN/GSI SERIES • COMMERCIAL NTFPS OF THE GUIANA SHIELD INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION

1.1 The Guiana Shield Eco-region

The Guiana Shield eco-region is a two billion-year-old Precambrian crystalline rock formation that extends from western Colombia to north-eastern Brazil. This eco-region includes parts of Colombia and Venezuela, the whole of Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana, the states of Roraima, Amapá, and the northern parts of Amazonas and Pará in Brazil (see Map opposite page). The Guiana Shield constitutes of one of the largest tracts of undisturbed tropical rainforest in the world (Bryant et al., 1997). Due to a low population pressure, forest cover in the Guiana Shield is still high. The diversity of pristine rain forests, fresh and saltwa- ter swamps, grassy savannas and coastal mangroves supports an abundance of wildlife, including numerous species unique to the region. The Guiana Shield shares irreplaceable biological richness, but also faces shared threats to conservation. Economic problems have created pressure on governments to increase logging and mining activities (Sizer, 1996). Poorly managed, these activities are environmental, social and health hazards. Although conservation initiatives have started in each individual country, there is no overall regional strategy to tackle trans-boundary problems shared in the Guiana Shield. Tackling such trans- boundary problems was an impetus to the development of the Guiana Shield Map of the Guiana Shield based on a political map by RV Verlag, Ostfildern adapted by NC-IUCN Initiative.

1.2 The Guiana Shield Initiative

The ecosystems of the Guiana Shield perform vital ecological services for the global community. Carbon sequestration, the regulation of hydrological cycles, and the preservation of biodiversity are essential, now and in the future, to maintain regional and global climatic stability. Moreover, they are vital to balance rain- fall and river flows in time and space and ensure the health of ecosystems. Biodiversity conservation is also important to keep a stock of genetic material available for present traditional and non-traditional uses and for so far unknown future applications.

These ecological services, however, are in the public domain. They are, in the language of political economy, public goods – and are starting to be recognised as such by the relevant public authorities and private actors (Pagiola et al., 2002). The value of these services is not adequately accounted for by the global public finance sector or the market system. The air we breathe, a stable climate, and the

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biodiversity contained in rainforests are all services provided at no apparent eco- Committee for IUCN and the UNDP Regional Offices of Guyana and Suriname nomic cost to us. This means that those who traditionally manage these ecosys- (www.guayanashield.org). The workshop took place on the 5th-9th April 2002 in tems, for example indigenous peoples or government agencies, do not receive any Paramaribo, Suriname. It brought together a multi-disciplinary group of experts direct economic benefit for keeping them intact, thus often forcing them to look in biological and socio-economic themes from the academic, governmental, pri- for other, more profitable uses of these ecosystems to gain revenue. This, in com- vate and civil sectors, to generate consensus on priority areas for conservation. bination with an economic need to make use of their ecosystems in order to gain The PSW made an attempt to document the existing knowledge on forest and revenue, means that very often ecosystems are not sustainably exploited. aquatic ecosystems, provide maps and tools to enhance conservation planning and awareness, provide baseline data for regional conservation efforts, and form The Guiana Shield Initiative (GSI) of the Netherlands Committee for IUCN (NC- strategic alliances to advance the recommendations of the workshop. IUCN) has the objective to promote ecologically, socially and economically sustainable management in the region. Since this has to be done by motivated peo- Background papers were prepared on the topics of physical geography, plant ple in the long term, a necessary condition is that the management is also finan- ecology, floristics, and the current status of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, cially sustainable. This implies that the relevant actors are assured over time of a freshwater fish and insects. The socio-economic experts discussed forestry, car- decent income and are not forced or tempted into irreversible and destructive bon sequestration, mining, infrastructure, protected areas, tourism and non-tim- activities. In addition, reliable political arrangements are required for long-term ber forest products (NTFPs). The international experts that attended the PSW carbon sequestration contracts, cooperation within watersheds, international gave a valuable insight into the uses and benefits that could be drawn from the payments for the preservation of biodiversity and the development of markets for biodiversity in the Guiana Shield. The results of the PSW can provide one of the sustainably produced commercial goods and services. grounds for the identification of prime areas for conservation and sustainable management in the Guiana Shield. The main input of the GSI into this workshop The general approach of the GSI follows a “bottom-up” arrangement, in which was the integration of ‘economic alternatives’ into the process, by examining the local ecosystem managers will be supported for maintaining their forests intact. potential of generating income through carbon credit schemes, ecotourism and Development of management and business plans will be stimulated, in order to the commercialisation of non-timber forest products. ensure sustainability at the enterprise and trade levels. An important mechanism envisioned is a payment system for ecological services. Such a system would include the payment for hydrological services by communities dependent on 1.4 Non-Timber Forest Products ecosystems to provide their fresh water supply, as well as biodiversity option payments for the preservation of diversity in forest ecosystems for future use. Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) are defined in this report as all wild plant and animal products that can be harvested from forests or other types of natural For thousands of years, local people have used the biodiversity of the Guiana ecosystems (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995; de Beer and McDermott, 1996; van Andel, Shield. Many indigenous groups in this region are almost totally dependent on 2000). This definition excludes the use of industrial timber, but includes the natural resources for their survival (Prance et al., 1987; Grenand, 1992; Milliken small-scale use of wood for canoes, crafts, house construction and fuel. et al., 1992; van Andel, 2000). One of the underpinning aims of the GSI is the gen- Plantations and cultivated gardens do not provide NTFPs, although wildlife may eration of sustainable livelihoods for local inhabitants of the Guiana Shield, based be harvested from these areas. Some definitions of NTFPs include ecotourism and on sustainable ecosystem management. The GSI strives to work with existing ini- other public goods and services, but these items are dealt with in separate work- tiatives, relevant actors like governments, NGOs, universities, local communities ing documents for the GSI. and international donors. At this moment, GSI is partnering with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) to prepare a proposal to the Global The importance of NTFPs tends to be underestimated, because often they are not Environment Facility (GEF) to continue its programme. traded through established market channels and do not appear in national economic statistics (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). For the subsistence economy of forest-dwelling people, however, NTFPs offer a great source of food, shelter, 1.3 The Guayana Shield Conservation Priority Setting Workshop household equipment, forage, and medicine. Ethnobotanical surveys in the Guiana Shield show that 65 to 90% of all plant species found in one hectare of A Guayana Shield Conservation Priority Setting Workshop (PSW) was organised forest are considered useful by local indigenous people (Prance et al., 1987; by Conservation International, in collaboration with the GSI of the Netherlands Grenand, 1992; Milliken et al., 1992; van Andel, 2000; Duivenvoorden et al.,

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2001). If firewood and game animal food are included, use percentages of even 2001). As a result, extractors may shift again to less sustainable land uses like log- 100% are recorded (Balée, 1986, 1987). Most of these NTFPs, however, never ging or cattle ranging. Conservation and long-term utilisation of forest products reach a market place. As a result, NTFPs often remain beyond the vision of poli- require that they be harvested on an ecologically sustainable basis. The extraction cy makers and development planners. On the other hand, the usefulness of of NTFPs is considered sustainable if it has no long-term deleterious effect on the forests, as confirmed by indigenous people who rely on them, is often cited as a regeneration of the harvested population, and when the yield remains more or reason for rain forest conservation (Myers, 1998; Prance et al., 1987; Phillips, less constant throughout the years (Strudwick, 1990; Hall and Bawa, 1993; Pollak 1996). The commercialisation of NTFPs is often one of the few ways by which et al., 1995). local communities generate income from their surrounding biodiversity.

Due to the continuing destruction of tropical forests and the erosion of indige- 1.6 Aim of this report nous cultures, much of the traditional knowledge about the use of NTFPs is being lost (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992; Bennett and Robinson, 2001). If no efforts are The central question in this study is: which NTFPs are commercially extracted in made to conserve this biological and cultural diversity, a potential source of new the Guiana Shield? Additional questions are: Do these products have a significant medicines for human diseases, food crops and indigenous management systems economic value? Are these NTFPs being harvested in a sustainable way? What are will disappear. A thorough knowledge of the economic potential of the diverse the main areas for extraction and marketing of NTFPs? Is this extraction legal or forest products and a better understanding of how mankind can profit from their illegal? Does the harvesting of these NTFPs contribute to the conservation of bio- existence is a prerequisite for forest conservation (Posey, 1983; Milliken et al., diversity in the area? In other words: can the commercialisation of NTFPs prevent 1992). further deforestation or environmental degradation?

This report provides an inventory of the main NTFPs of plant and animal origin 1.5 Commercial NTFP extraction and biodiversity conservation that are commercially traded in the Guiana Shield. It discusses whether the commercial trade in NTFPs can increase sustainable livelihoods of local communities The annual world market of vegetal NTFPs is estimated at US$ 60 billion. In 1997, and provide an incentive to protect biodiversity. The information given is based the market for medicinal plant extracts was calculated at US$ 16.5 billion and the on literature, the Internet, fieldwork in the region by the first author (van Andel, trade in plant-derived drugs at US$ 30 million (www.biotrade.org). The global 2000), and discussions with experts during the Priority Setting Workshop (PSW) wildlife trade is estimated at US$ 10 to 20 billion per year. However, since illegal in Paramaribo. Interviews with specialists were held throughout the five days of trade in animals is thought to be the world’s third largest cross-border criminal the workshop. Information gathered on NTFP collection and market areas was activity after arms and drug smuggling (RENCTAS, 2001), it is virtually impossi- included in regional NTFP maps and entered into a database, which will both be ble to get reliable economic figures (Cook et al., 2002). made available with the outputs of the workshop. A draft version of this paper was used during the workshop as the working document on NTFPs. Personal Commercial NTFP extraction has been mentioned as a viable alternative to log- comments of the experts have been integrated in the final version of this report. ging and slash-and-burn agriculture (Peters et al., 1989a; LaFrankie, 1994). Scien- tists and policy makers have stressed that NTFPs can be harvested without much The long-term aim of the NTFP component of the GSI is to provide adequate destruction of the forest, while maintaining essential environmental functions information and technical advice for ecosystem managers setting up forest-based and preserving biological diversity (Anderson, 1990; Plotkin and Famolare, 1992; business and management plans. There is a great demand for baseline informa- Richards, 1993). The sustainable expansion of commercial NTFP extraction is tion on NTFPs for the Guiana Shield. To enhance the sustainable extraction of generally viewed as a promising conservation strategy (Duke, 1992; Richards, NTFPs, it is important to focus on those products that have already been proven 1993; Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). The labour-intensive, capital-extensive aspect of to be successful. On the other hand, it is necessary to maintain and develop a NTFP harvesting is often well suited to local conditions in many tropical coun- diverse range of NTFPs across the region, so as not to flood existing local and tries (Plotkin and Famolare, 1992). regional markets. The pitfalls associated with developing NTFPs should also be identified. Quantifying the total economic value of commercial NTFPs for the Uncontrolled extraction, too low or exceptionally high prices, however, may cause Guiana Shield is not attempted in this report, due to the fact that different over-harvesting, forest degradation, and even local depletion of species (Nepstad methodologies result in varying estimates of economic value, not to mention the and Schwartzman, 1992; Richards, 1993; Boot, 1997; Bennett and Robinson, difficulty of finding comprehensive data on this subject for the Guiana Shield. All

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commercially harvested vegetal NTFPs mentioned in this report are listed with tic market for wildlife hardly exist, although these are often substantial. In Brazil, their scientific and common names in Appendix 2. for example, it was estimated that 70% of wild animals were sold within the country (The Economist, 2001). There is evidence of illegal trade in live animals The present study is in essence a working document to help guide the future of throughout the region. International trade in live animals as pets is without doubt the NTFP component of the GSI. By taking a regional viewpoint, a comparison more economically valuable than the bush meat trade. can be made of the various approaches taken by the six countries of the Guiana Shield, with regard to sustainable utilisation of their plant and animal resources. Bush meat is any edible product from wild animals: meat, eggs, honey, freshwater Examining both plant and animal commercialisation across an eco-region has fish and aquatic invertebrates. Commercial bush meat is included in this report, turned up some interesting patterns and will hopefully lead to the exchange of due to its importance in the local and regional markets across the Guiana Shield. ideas and expertise across the region. This study offers a comprehensive coverage Species hunted for the commercial wild meat market also often have higher of the commercial NTFPs in the Guiana Shield, but it is certainly not exhaustive. exploitation rates than those hunted only for subsistence use (Bennett and It should be seen as a starting point for discussion and represents a current snap- Robinson, 2001). Despite the availability of cattle and poultry, more than 85% of shot of what will be an active field for the years to come. the meat consumed in the Amazon is provided by hunting and fishing (Dourojeanni, 1985), with the majority of the Amazonian Indians relying on fish rather than game for their principal source of animal protein (Dufour, 1990). The 1.7 Why include wildlife in a NTFP study? annual trade in bush meat in the Amazon region was estimated at US$ 175 million (TCA, 1995). There also exists a lively market for secondary wildlife products In most studies on NTFPs, there is a tendency to examine flora or fauna, but sel- such as skins, feathers, teeth, and shells. These are made into tourist crafts or dom both; products of animal origin form, however, an important proportion of utilised by indigenous people for decoration, medicine and magic rituals the NTFPs harvested in many tropical countries (Godoy and Lubowski, 1992). (Broekhoven, 1996; Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Previous research in the Guiana Shield pointed out that wildlife is a major commercial product in the region (Redford and Robinson, 1991; Robinson and Redford, 1991a; Broekhoven, 1996; van Andel, 1998; Duivenvoorden et al., 2001). Wildlife is generally more lucrative per unit than any other NTFP. Animals and freshwater fish are sold or bartered in the smallest Amerindian village and are often the only NTFPs worthwhile to bring from remote areas. Revenues from wildlife often cover the high transport costs as these species have often become rare in the more populated areas (van Andel, 2000). Nevertheless, wildlife is often excluded from NTFP inventories, since research is mostly carried out by (ethno-) botanists focusing on useful plant species. For instance, in the study of Duiven- voorden et al. (2001), the trade in NTFPs in the Colombian Amazon was considered marginal, despite more than 8000 tonnes of freshwater fish per year being marketed in Leticia. If the authors had also included live animals, skins and bush meat in their market surveys, the trade in NTFPs would be even more significant.

NTFPs of animal origin fall into several categories: bush meat, medicinal products (edible and non-edible) and live animals or animal products for international trade (de Beer and McDermott, 1996). International demand for live animals (and for other animal products) represents an external pressure on the biodiversity of an eco-region rather than an internal pressure. International demand is often the real driving force to trade in live animals (www.traffic.org). Some countries of the Guiana Shield are major exporters of live animals (e.g., Guyana, Suriname), while others have totally prohibited international wildlife trade Fish harvested from the Rupununi River, Guyana. Photo: Guiana Shield Media Project (Brazil). Whereas legal export is generally well monitored, figures for the domes-

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This report focuses on those animals that have a high commercial value and are eral plant families or floristic communities have been treated in detail for the traded on local, regional and (inter-)national markets. Special attention is paid to Middle Caquetá region (Galeano, 1991; Martinez and Galeano, 1994; Aldana and species threatened by over-exploitation due to trade, like those listed on the IUCN Rosselli, 1995; Arbeláez and Callejas, 1999; Murillo and Restrepo, 1999). Sánchez Red List of Threatened Species, the Convention on International Trade in (1996) compiled a preliminary checklist of all plants collected in the Middle Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) Appendices and the European Caquetá region. More publications on the Colombian Amazon can be found on Commission Regulations (see Appendix 3). Since we recognise the economic ben- the Tropenbos website (www.tropenbos.nl). An illustrated field guide of the for- efits of trade in wildlife for forest-dwelling people, we try to identify those species est fruits of the Duda River (Serranía de la Macarena) was published by Stevenson that might have a potential for sustainable harvesting. We also examine the results et al. (2000). Scientific research in Colombia is carried out by various govern- of several community-based wildlife harvesting projects in the Guiana Shield. All mental and private universities and the von Humboldt Institute in Bogotá. commercially harvested animals mentioned in this report are listed with their scientific and common names in Appendix 1. The flora of the entire Guiana Shield region of Venezuela is excellently described in the Flora of the Venezuelan Guayana, edited by the Missouri Botanical Garden (US). The Flora of Venezuela is also useful. Scientific research on plants and ani- 1.8 Baseline biological research in the Guiana Shield mals in Venezuela is carried out by the Universidad de los Andes (CVULA), Universidad Central de Venezuela (MBUCV), the Universidad Simón Bolívar 1.8.1 Plants (CVUSB), and the Museo de Historia Natural La Salle (MHNLS). An informative Regional flora and floristic inventories offer the basis for the research on vegetal review of NTFPs was prepared for Global Forest Watch by Bevilacqua et al. NTFPs. They provide information about botanical diversity, forest composition (2002). and species distribution and are often compiled by European or North American universities, in cooperation with research institutes in the Guiana Shield coun- The three Guianas are covered quite well by the many volumes of the Flora of the tries themselves. In the following section, the major floristic literature is men- Guianas, edited by the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the tioned for each country in the Guiana Shield, as well as the local research insti- Netherlands (NHN-U). Also edited by the NHN-U are the Fruits of the Guianan tutes. Relevant ethnobotanical work is mentioned in the particular country sec- Flora (van Roosmalen, 1985), the Flora of Suriname, the Check-list of woody plants tions. of Guyana (Mennega et al., 1988), and the Bomenboek voor Suriname (Lindeman and Mennega, 1963). Other useful publications are the Checklist of the plants of the In the Brazilian Guiana Shield, scientific research on plants and animals is carried Guianas (Boggan et al., 1997) and the Guide to the vascular plants of Central out by the Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia (INPA) in Manaus and French Guiana (Mori et al., 1997, 2002). The floristic and ecological aspects of the by the Emilio Goeldi Museum in Pará (MPEG). There are no recent floras cover- different forest types in Suriname are treated in Lindeman and Molenaar (1959) ing this region; the Flora Brasiliensis needs updating (Maas, pers. comm.). Useful and Ouboter (1993). floras for Amapá are the Flora of the Guianas (edited by the Utrecht branch of the National Herbarium of the Netherlands (NHN-U), from 1984 onwards) and the Guide to the vascular plants of Central French Guiana (Mori et al., 1997, 2002). The Biological research in Suriname is carried out by the National Herbarium of area around Manaus is covered by the excellent Flora of the Ducke Reserve (Ribeiro Suriname and the National Zoological Collection; both are departments of the et al., 1999). Hemming and Ratter (1993) published an illustrated book on the Anton de Kom University in Paramaribo. Scientific research in Guyana is carried Flora and Fauna of the Maracá ‘island’ in Roraima. A field guide to the flowering out by the University of Guyana, with an Amerindian Research Unit involved in lianas of Trombetas was made by Knowles (1988). studies of indigenous peoples, the Guyana Forestry Commission and the Iwokrama International Centre for Rainforest Conservation and Development. The multi-disciplinary Tropenbos-International Programme contributes to the The Tropenbos-Guyana programme has carried out forestry research in central conservation and wise utilisation of forest resources in several tropical countries, Guyana for more than ten years, resulting in many publications (www.tropen by conducting strategic and applied research and upgrading local capabilities in bos.nl). ORSTOM started botanical inventories in French Guiana in the 1960s the field of forest-related sciences. Tropenbos aims to develop management plans and a regional Herbarium (CAY) was set up. Scientific research is further carried for NTFPs that are economically viable, ecologically sustainable and socially and out by CNRS (biological and anthropological research), Silvolab, the Smithsonian politically acceptable. Several Dutch universities and foreign research institutes Institute (Biological Diversity of the Guianas program), the NHN-U (Flora of the cooperate in the Tropenbos programme. In the Tropenbos-Colombia series, sev- Guianas), the New York Botanical Garden (documenting plant diversity in

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NC-IUCN/GSI SERIES • COMMERCIAL NTFPS OF THE GUIANA SHIELD INTRODUCTION

Central French Guiana) and Wageningen University, which runs a field station in the World Wildlife Fund (WWF–Guianas) cover the wildlife trade in Suriname, the remote forest of Nourages. Guyana and French Guiana and provide useful anecdotal evidence of the illegal trade. A third report, Hoefnagel (2001), takes the wildlife trade management leg- 1.8.2 Animals islation and policies of the three Guianas and provides suggestions for harmo- Baseline research on the taxonomy and distribution of animals in the Guiana nization, development and improvement of the various frameworks. Shield varies from being fairly complete (birds) to very limited (amphibians, reptiles and insects). More details on the status of scientific knowledge on Guiana Shield animals can be found in the Conservation Priorities for the Guayana Shield, 2002 consensus – the report containing the results of the Priority Setting Workshop. A surprisingly large body of work addresses the subject of wildlife management and trade in the Guiana Shield, but many of these documents remain unpublished or difficult to obtain.

Several researchers have tackled the question of sustainable hunting levels for South American animals (e.g., Bodmer, 1995; Bodmer et al., 1997; Redford, 1993; Robinson, 2000; Robinson and Bennett, 2000; Robinson and Redford, 1991b, 1994). However, research that measures the effects of harvesting on animal populations remains limited. A comprehensive synthesis report covering the present international knowledge about wildlife management in Amazonia was carried out by Richard-Hansen (1998), as a basis to initiate new studies and action in French Guiana. This study deals with the issues of indigenous hunting in the past and present, the biology and ecology of the main game species, and sustainable hunting and game legislation in the various countries. It contains species accounts for all hunted species, including a compilation of data on species distribution, abundance, densities and reproductive capacity. Specific research on hunting in French Guiana has been carried out and a new research programme has recently been launched (Ouhoud-Renoux, 1995; Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 1998; Richard- Hansen and Hansen, in press).

In 2000, the Iwokrama International Centre hosted a regional wildlife management workshop that covered applied research, community participation, education and training. All stakeholders relating to wildlife management in the Guiana Shield were invited (Iwokrama, 2000). Several documents were prepared for this workshop relating to the status of wildlife use and management in various countries of the Guiana Shield. Craig-Clark et al. (2000) review current wildlife management systems (including species, habitats and major threats) in Guyana. Ouboter (2000) covers the current status of wildlife in Suriname and the major human influences on this resource, including hunting, fishing and pet trade. Ochoa et al. (2000) discuss the importance of wildlife in the Venezuelan Guayana, commercial use and the illegal trade, as well as recommend strategies for conservation.

With regard to the wildlife trade, most work focuses on the three Guianas. Recent Arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum) is one of the fish species traded in the floating port of reports by Duplaix (2001) and Ouboter (2001) on behalf of the regional office of Manaus, Brazil. Photo: D. Zwaan

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people involved in extractivism declines (Richards, 1993), an estimated 1.5 mil- 2 lion people still depend on commercial NTFP extraction in the Brazilian Amazon (Browder, 1992). It should be noted, however, that the ‘Amazon region’ is formed BRAZIL by the States of Maranhão, Pará, Amapá, Amazonas, Roraima, Mato Grosso, Rondônia, and Acre, an area much larger than the Brazilian Guiana Shield. Since most publications on nature conservation or NTFP extraction consider the 1. Commercial NTFP extraction Brazilian Amazon as more or less one geographical unit, it was quite difficult to interpret the existing studies for the much smaller Guiana Shield area. The Brazilian part of the Guiana Shield is situated north of the Amazon River and Furthermore, production figures and harvested volumes are mostly given per includes the States of Roraima, Amapá and the northern parts of Pará and state (Table 3). The fact that only parts of Pará and Amazonas lie within the Amazonas (see Map). For the commercial harvesting of NTFPs, Brazil is without Guiana Shield makes it even more complicated to estimate the economic impor- doubt the most important country in the Guiana Shield. Although the number of tance of NTFPs in the study area.

Map: RV Verlag, Ostfildern

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The majority of the commercially extracted NTFPs in the Brazilian Amazon are 2.2 Wildlife marketed in Manaus and Belém, the two major Amazonian ports, and to a lesser extent in Macapá and Santarem. Manaus and Belém are situated outside the 2.2.1 Commercial wildlife harvesting Guiana Shield, but are taken into account as they are the main points for trade in Freshwater aquarium fish are the most important commercial animal product in NTFPs from the surrounding regions. The presence of such large cities in a vast Brazil, especially in the Upper Rio Negro region. Freshwater fish for food is area of rain forest, a reasonably developed infrastructure and a large population another important commercial product and sport fishing is becoming a popular willing to harvest, provide ample market opportunities for NTFPs. In this report, tourist activity. Besides aquarium fish, the trade in other live animals is not con- we will focus on those NTFPs that are commercially harvested within the Guiana sidered significant in northern Brazil. Illegal wildlife export from northern Brazil Shield, although they may be stored and shipped from Manaus or Belém. Table 1 is thought to occur on a very small scale, with perhaps a few monkeys finding shows the export value of various Brazilian NTFPs. The species in the table are their way to Japan, where they are purchased as a status symbol. There is a local harvested in the Guiana Shield area, but export figures only existed for the entire pet trade in this area, as a by-product of subsistence hunting. Commercial bush country or the Amazon region. The main states where commercial NTFP extrac- meat hunting is also not considered to be a problem in the north of Brazil, tion takes place are Pará and Amazonas, followed by Amapá and Roraima (Table although hunting does certainly occur for subsistence use (van Roosmalen, pers. 3). The major NTFPs per state are given below: comm.) and there is quite some hunting pressure along the coastal areas of Amapá (Takiyama, pers. comm.). Pará: açai juice (from the fruits of Euterpe oleracea), palm heart (Euterpe oleracea), Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), wildlife, and rubber (Hevea brasiliensis). Other, 2.2.2 Wildlife regulations and management less important products are coumarin (Dipteryx odorata), balata (Manilkara Brazil has very strict environmental laws. The country’s environmental crime law bidentata), rosewood oil (Aniba rosaeodora), andiroba oil (Carapa guianensis), of 1998 prohibits the hunting, capture, transport or keeping of native species in jatoba (Hymenaea courbaril), maçaranduba (Manilkara huberi), copaiba balsam captivity, punishable by fines and/or imprisonment unless permission is granted (Copaifera reticulata), rotenone (Lonchocarpus spp.), and ucuúba (Virola by the Federal Government. Wildlife export is prohibited, with the exception of surinamensis). freshwater fish. IBAMA, Brazil’s Institute for the Environment and Renewable Resources, regulates the 1998 law and issues the required permits for aquarium Amazonas: Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), wildlife, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), fish. Unfortunately, there seems to be little capacity for law enforcement. açai (Euterpe oleracea), piassaba (Leopoldinia piassaba), copaiba balsam (Copaifera reticulata), sorva gum (Couma macrocarpa), rosewood oil (Aniba 2.2.3 Illegal Trade rosaeodora) and ucuúba (Virola surinamensis). Wildlife is being illegally transported out of Brazil, as border controls are weak or non-existent. Reptiles native to Brazil have been found in neighbouring Amapá: palm heart (Euterpe oleracea), rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), Brazil nut Suriname, indicating smuggling is going on (Hoogmoed, pers. comm.). There has (Bertholletia excelsa), açai (Euterpe oleracea), wildlife and medicinal plants. been a lot of press interest in the status of illegal wildlife trade in Brazil, stimulated by a report produced by the Brazilian NGO RENCTAS (National Network for Roraima: Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa), wildlife, sorva gum (Couma Combating the Traffic of Wild Animals). This report made an attempt to uncov- macrocarpa), piassaba (Leopoldinia piassaba), and ornamental plants. er the scale and economic value of the illegal wildlife trade. However, this type of analysis is always highly contested as getting accurate figures on an illegal activity is by definition near impossible (Cook et al., 2002). The report claimed that wildlife trade is worth US$ 1 billion for Brazil alone and estimates that 12 million animals are taken from the wild each year (RENCTAS, 2001). Despite being based on guesswork, the report was picked up by the Brazilian and international press (e.g. The Economist, 2001).

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Table 1: Value of NTFP exports from Brazil [in US$ x 1,000] Table 2: Areas of wildlife capture and sale in the Brazilian Guiana Shield (Major commercial centres are given in capitals)

Product Scientific name 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2001 STATE Capture Capture and Sale Sale Wildlife various species 1 x Amazonas São Gabriel da Cachoeira, Moura, Novo Airão, 106 Santa Isabel do Rio Negro, Manacapura, Autazes, Balbina, Ornamen- various species 618 651 721 460 826 3,000a Urucará, Presidente Figueiredo, tal fish Arquipélago das Anavilhanas MANAUS Brazil nuts Bertholletia 3,058 6,126 3,638 5,676 4,520 2,500 Roraima Parima, Boa Esperança, Boas Amajari Pedra Preta, Mutum, São excelsa Novas, Surumú, Eurico Lima, Sebastião, Bonfim, Morico, Sorva Couma 6,183 3,775 5,111 3,147 3,086 Rorainópolis Sucurijú, Nova Cinta, macrocarpa Caracaraí, Poço Ferreira, Rubber Hevea brasiliensis 20,736 BOA VISTA Palm heart Euterpe oleracea 10,220 11,823 19,349 Pará Lapiro, Rufino, Lucas Borges, Santarém BELÉM Cumaru Dipteryx odorata 97 52 224 29 Óbidos, Oriximiná, Alter do Rosewood Aniba rosaeodora 1,417 444 183 334 1,390 Chão Monte Alegre oil Amapá Mazagã, MACAPÁ Copaiba Copaifera spp. 263 116 115 551 350 890 balsam Source: RENCTAS, 2001 Piassaba Leopoldinia piassaba 124 41 59 103 36 Balata Manilkara bidentata 71011114 2.2.4 Ornamental Fish Maçaran- Manilkara Brazil is the main exporter of aquarium fish in South America, with 80% of the duba amazonica 79 4 41 239 ornamental fish exported originating from the Rio Negro Basin (Woeltjes, 1995). Barbatimao Stryphnodendron barbatiman 816 The black-water streams of this area have notably high fish diversity. A prelimi- Jaborandi Pilocarpus nary list of Brazilian aquarium fish can be found at www.ornamental-fish- jaborandi 55 3,573 int.org/brazillist2.htm. IBAMA reported the export of 20-25 million individuals Medicinal various species 5,900 4,874 5,856 3,090 per year from Amazonas State (via Manaus), generating an annual revenue of plants US$ 3 million, making it the third largest extractive product (Chao and Prang,

Data are given for the country as a whole. Source: Broekhoven (1996), RENCTAS (2001), Ribeiro Silva et al. 2002). This is a dramatic increase compared to the export figures in the 1980s, (2001), Banco do Brazil, cited in Richards (1993). a Data for Amazonas only: Chao and Prang (2002). Data for which were around half a million US$ per year (Table 1). IBAMA regulates the piassaba are probably lumped figures for Leopoldinia piassaba and Attalea funifera. trade in aquarium fish; exporters must have licences and a closed season is maintained to prevent over-exploitation (Woeltjes, 1995). Importers have an interest in preventing over-exploitation to guarantee a steady supply in the following years, The major areas for (illegal) wildlife trapping and trading as identified by but complain that they receive little information on the exact period of the closed RENCTAS (2001) are given in Table 2 (see also Map). Manaus is a major centre season, providing little time to increase their stocks before the supply is stopped in the area for capture, sale and export, whilst Belém is a key area for the sale of (Grosman, 2002). wildlife products (RENCTAS, 2001). In Belém, jars containing the purportedly medicinal – but prohibited – body parts and oils of endangered animals such as The trade in Brazil is based mainly on the cardinal tetra (Paracheirodon axelrodi). the manatee, Amazon turtle and pink river dolphin can be bought in plain sight The collection of this species is concentrated in the surroundings of Barcelos (Faiola, 2001). (Amazonas), provides 10,000 jobs and is responsible for 80% of the income of the municipality (Geer, 2000). The success and extent of the cardinal tetra trade is due to a few factors: 1) the demand for the species in developed countries is high, 2) breeding in captivity is difficult, 3) cardinal tetras naturally reproduce in extremely large numbers, enabling collectors to supply large quantities without

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(theoretically) endangering the survival of natural populations. Fish farms in 2.2.5 Freshwater fish Florida have recently managed to breed the cardinal tetra in captivity, but are still Fish consumption in the Brazilian Amazon is one of the highest in the world, with not able to supply it in large quantities. Wild specimens from Brazil still dominate per capita consumption reaching 480 grams per day in Pará State (Gerrits, 1997). the market, but if captive breeding techniques improve, this could have major The growing populations of Manaus and Belém and their commercial fishing implications for Brazilian collectors and exporters of aquarium fish (Chao and fleets have led to a decline in numbers and size of commercially valuable species Prang, 2002). in the states of Pará and Amazonas, such as the pirarucu (Arapaima gigas), tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum), tucunare There are varying views on the sustainability of this trade. The cardinal tetra is (Cichla spp.), matrincha or jatuarana (Hemiodopsis spp.), jaraqui (Semaprochy- effectively an annual fish; therefore most individuals die each year in the dry sea- lodus spp.), surubim (Pseudoplatystoma fasciatum), tamuata (Hoplosternum son regardless of the extraction. Trade levels remain constant – indicating that thoracatum) and piramutaba (Brachyplatystoma vaillantii) (Gerrits, 1997). Over- harvesting is sustainable (Chao and Prang, 2002). Watson (pers. comm.) men- exploitation probably has the greatest effect on Arapaima gigas, a large air breath- tioned that besides the physical difficulty of collecting fish in fast flowing water ing fish, which is considered a delicacy in the region. The Mamirauá Sustainable 10m deep, numbers of specimens collected are kept deliberately low to keep the Development Institute in Amazonas has developed a successful management and price up. This makes good economic sense, as there is relatively low demand for monitoring model for Arapaima. This model has recently been introduced in the fish with a high price tag and the tendency is that once a market is over-supplied, North Rupununi, Guyana, where the species has suffered declines due to the high the price crashes and never recovers. By keeping prices high and limiting supply, demand from neighbouring Brazil (Iwokrama, 2001). livelihoods may be assured and the resource can be exploited sustainably. Success relies on a limited entry into the fishery and a certain amount of cooperation Portuguese businessmen in Manaus have started a large-scale breeding project for between collectors (Watson, pers. comm.). It has been noticed that harvesting commercial fish species. Surveys of reproduction cycles and other important fac- boats are moving further up the Upper Rio Negro each year and are now reach- tors will be carried out by biologists (www.amazonia.org.br). There is concern in ing Santa Isabel do Rio Negro, suggesting possible over-exploitation (van Brazil about fish being smuggled into Colombia: out of the 600 tonnes of fish Roosmalen, pers. comm.). This phenomenon could be due to the population caught annually in from the Upper Solimões River (Amazonas), some 400 tonnes doubling in Barcelos over the last decade; the number of collectors has grown were said to be illegally exported to Leticia, from there it is re-exported to the US substantially due to the lack of economic alternatives in the Rio Negro Basin and Europe. Brazilian fishermen are exchanging their catches for nets and food, (Chao and Prang, 2002). According to van Roosmalen (pers. comm.), IBAMA while the Colombians re-sell the fish for US$ 15/kg (www.amazonia.org.br). does not have the capacity to monitor the ornamental fish trade and feels that a comprehensive monitoring system would be necessary to control the trade. Van A fish raising project in Roraima, carried out by Cooperativa de Produtores Roosmalen suggests that the harvest might be sustainable, but there are no studies Rurais da Região do Apiaú (CEPRRA) between April and November 2002, was to back this up. However, Project Piaba (see below) has been monitoring the trade funded by the Brazilian GEF Small Grants Programme. The aim of the project and considers it to be sustainable (Chao and Prang, 2002). was to increase income and quality of life using native species of fish and forest fruit trees. The species tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) and curimatã The trade in cardinal tetras in the middle Rio Negro led to the initiation of (Prochilodus spp.) were raised in tanks and food was provided for the fish by ‘Project Piaba’ in 1991, an interdisciplinary, community-based project to keep the planting Mauritia flexuosa and Euterpe oleracea nearby. The fruits of these palms ornamental fishery commercially feasible and ecologically sustainable. The belong to the natural diet of these fish species. Unfortunately, the project failed as Project works closely with the University of Amazonas (Manaus), INPA (National many fish died due to a lack of technical assistance (Fleischer, pers. comm.). Institute for Amazon Research) and IBAMA, educating collectors and communities on the best practices for harvesting, handling and shipping of fish (Watson, 2.2.6 Bush meat 2000a). The Project slogan, “Buy a fish – Save a tree” originates from the fact that Although commercial trade in wild meat in the north of Brazil is not considered the cardinal tetra needs the shade of intact forest cover to survive (Geer, 2000). to be significant, there is hunting pressure in populated areas, particularly along On the other end of the supply chain, the project informs consumers of the ‘green’ the coastal region of Amapá. Commercial Brazilian hunters are known to cross value of these fish, in view of the fact that purchasing them will help to conserve into French Guiana to hunt for the markets of Regina and St. George, French the ecosystems in which they were harvested. Guiana (Richard-Hansen, pers. comm.). It is common knowledge that trade in bush meat is illegal and therefore it is only rarely seen on markets in Brazil (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). In August 2002, IBAMA seized a tonne of wild

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meat from a boat in Manaus, containing expensive alligator and anteater meat, as a problem by attacking locals, in particular during the dry season. well as the fish species pirarucu and tambaqui (www.amazonia.org.br). (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). Commercial trade in freshwater turtles remains a problem in Brazil (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). The Amazonian manatee (Trichechus inunguis) was hunted almost to extinction for its meat, fat and hides (Emmons, 1997). Although manatees now have legal Freshwater river turtles (Podocnemis spp.) used to be an important source of food protection, locals continue killing the animal for its meat, that is sold on the black in the Amazon and Orinoco regions (Hildebrand et al., 1988). Populations have market in Santarém. There are just a few remaining populations in the Amazon declined due to the trade in meat and eggs, which can still be found on the mar- River, its tributaries in Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela (Rodriguez, 1998) and in the kets of Manaus and Belém (Broekhoven, 1996; van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). The Rupununi and the Essequibo Rivers in Guyana (Emmons, 1997). Van Roosmalen giant South American turtle (Podocnemis expansa) occurs in Brazil, Colombia, (pers. comm.) has discovered viable populations (either unaffected or slightly Guyana and Venezuela, as well as other Amazonian countries, and is probably also affected by hunting) along rivers in the Brazilian Amazon. Its status on the IUCN found in Suriname and French Guiana. P. expansa is listed on the IUCN Red List Red List is Vulnerable (A1cd) (IUCN, 2002) and the species is listed on CITES as Low Risk - Conservation Dependent, which is encouraging, as on the 1994 Red Appendix I. The ‘Project Manatee’, supported by the National Rubber Tappers List this species was considered Endangered. Other commercially harvested river Association, studies the status of the Amazonian manatee in several rivers includ- turtles are the red-headed river turtle (P. erythrocephala) and the yellow-spotted ing the Amazon and Negro in the state of Pará. Conservation strategies will be river turtle (P. unifilis). P. erythrocephala is found in the Amazon region of Brazil, developed from the results of these surveys (www.amazonia.org.br). The West Colombia and Venezuela. P. unifilis has a broader distribution, covering the entire Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) is found along the seacoasts of the Guiana Guiana Shield. Both species are considered Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List Shield, as well as in the mouths of the Amazon, the Cauca and Magdalena Rivers (P. erythrocephala: Vu A1bd and P. unifilis: Vu A1acd). All three species are listed in Colombia and the Orinoco in Venezuela. This species suffers from the same on CITES Appendix II. There are several projects protecting the nesting beaches problem of over-hunting as the Amazonian manatee (Emmons, 1997). of river turtles in Brazil located along the Purús River and within nature reserves (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). In general, primates are only affected by local hunting and not by commercial trade (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). One primate that is vulnerable to hunting A study on the breeding of river turtles in small ponds in the Cuyabeno Reserve pressure is the common woolly monkey (Lagothrix lagothricha, L. poeppigii and in Ecuador calculated that the value of turtle meat was US$ 20,000, with 22,000 L. cana); it is recorded as the most intensively hunted monkey in this region, as its kg being produced per hectare, much more than can be made by producing beef meat is prized above all other large primates. The woolly monkey is usually the (Nations and Coello Hinojasa, 1989). However, many turtle breeding initiatives first species to disappear where subsistence hunting is intense. Its’ preference for have run into difficulties. A study funded by the Brazilian GEF Small Grants undisturbed vegetation and its’ low reproductive rate makes it vulnerable to Programme on the husbandry of P. expansa was expected to function as an extinction (Emmons, 1997). When female woolly monkeys are killed for food, income generation activity for local fisherman of the Lower Rio Branco in their young are sometimes sold as pets on local markets (van Roosmalen, pers. Roraima. The project, which lasted from May 1998 until April 2000, was very comm.). Within the Guiana Shield region the species is distributed in Colombia, promising at first, but by the end of the project there were problems with keeping and west of the Upper Rio Negro, Rio Uaupés and Rio Tiquié and Rio Tapajós in the turtles and organising activities. The turtles were eventually released into the Brazil. They are listed on Appendix II of CITES. L. poeppigii and L. cana are list- river. Although not successful in generating income for the locals, the project was ed as Vulnerable (A1c) on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2002) and L. lagothricha proved valuable for research purposes (Fleischer, pers. comm.). appears on Brazil’s list of threatened animals (IBAMA, 1992) and as Vulnerable on the Colombian Red List (Rodriguez, 1998). Commercial exploitation of black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) continues in Brazil, whereas it has stopped in most of the other range countries (Ross, 1998). Black caiman meat and skins can be found on the market in Pará, coming from Amazonas (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.), while the meat from the Upper Amazon region is being sold in Leticia, Colombia (Ross, 1998). Populations of black caiman are recovering and fairly stable in Brazil, and the Madeira, Purús and Juruá Rivers are nowadays teeming with large individuals that often become

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NC-IUCN/GSI SERIES • COMMERCIAL NTFPS OF THE GUIANA SHIELD BRAZIL 9 3 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.7 Attalea funifera Attalea 34 and 27 36 10 0.8 0.1 0.2 0.8 0.2 16 13 0.3 0.2 5 4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 5 4 4 4 4 3 1.2 0.7 0.3 0.3 62 52 55 25 30 15 7 2 87 10 4 9 9 11 9 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.4 0.4 1 0.5 1 0.6 0.2 0.4 0.5 4 5 3 0.4 0.1 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 ’00 187 536 545 809 1,264 1,338 1,459 1,246 160 216 268610 425 284 432 264 364 450 356 362 134 196 253 Leopoldinia piassaba Leopoldinia 1,977 351 314 951 1,202 1,243 1,389 545 210 tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes ** 19 503 552 0.4 4 3 6 7,779 (4 spp.) Copaifera reticulata Copaifera Aniba spp. Aniba Copaifera M. elata Aniba rosaeodora Aniba Carapa guianensis Carapa Euterpe oleracea Virola surinamensis Virola Hevea brasiliensis macrocarpa Couma bidentata Manilkara Bertholletia excelsa Euterpe oleracea Dipteryx odorata Astrocaryum murumuru Manilkara huberi Manilkara barbatiman Stryphnodendron Piptadenia paniculata Hymenaea courbaril Mauritia flexuosa piassaba Leopoldinia mangle Rhizophora Pilocarpus jaborandi Psychotria ipecacuana Copaiba balsam Copaiba Rosewood oil Rosewood Ucuúba Cumaru Murumuru Rubber Sorva Balata Brazil nuts hearts Palm Maçaranduba Andiroba Açai juice Barbatimao Jatoba Buriti Piassaba Mangrove leaves Jaborandi Ipecacuana Angico bark Angico oils / wax latex food Product Species 1976 1977 1979 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 fibres tannins medicine Product Species 1976 1977 1979 1982 1984 1985 1986 1987 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Table 3:Table of Production region Amazon the from Brazilian NTFPs selected (Maranhão, Pará, Amapá, Amazonas, Roraima, Grosso, Mato Rondônia,Acre)* and Source: (1988),Anderson IBGE data in (1995a/b) (1993) and Coppen Richards * NB: Shield region of is larger than the Guiana This area Brazil for lumped figures probably ** Data for piassaba are   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 34

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2.3 Plant Products support a large palm heart industry. The main area is Pará and to a lesser extent Amapá, worth some US$ 120 million annually in domestic consumption and 2.3.1 Açai export value (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988). The palm hearts are processed and The fruits of the palm species Euterpe oleracea are one of the most important veg- canned in factories on the banks of the Amazon. The cans are transported to etal NTFPs in the Brazilian economy (Table 3). This multi-stemmed palm is Belém, from where the best quality hearts are exported to Europe and the US, widely distributed in the swamplands of northern South America and attains the while the smaller and more fibrous hearts are distributed on the domestic market greatest concentrations in the brackish Amazon estuary (Henderson and (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988). Galeano, 1996). E. oleracea has a major fruiting season from August to December in Brazil (Kahn and de Granville, 1992). People harvest the fruits by climbing the After having depleted natural stands of the single-stemmed Euterpe edulis in palms, cutting the inflorescences, and extracting the fruit pulp mechanically or by southern Brazil during the 1960s, the palm heart canning industry shifted to hand. This highly nutritious liquid is processed into a beverage, ice cream, pas- E. oleracea in the Amazon Estuary in the 1970s (Galetti and Fernandez, 1998). tries, and other food items. Mixed with cassava flour, rice, or sugar, açai is con- Euterpe resources in the Amazon have certainly dwindled since then. Pollak et al. sumed in huge quantities by the poor section of the Amazonian population. In (1995) predicted that the economic boom in the palm heart industry would be some areas, people consume over two litres a day (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988; de short-lived, since many of the hundreds of canning factories in the Amazon estu- Castro, 1993). People also cultivate E. oleracea for its fruit. As long as people climb ary were closing down in the early 1990s. An important reason for this over-har- the trees to collect the fruit, instead of cutting all mature stems, açai production vesting is that Brazilian factories do not request a minimum size for their palm can be considered sustainable. Other sustainable management practices are selec- hearts. Unlike the canning industry in Guyana, low-grade or small-sized palm tive thinning of forest competitors (lianas) and pruning to increase production hearts are kept for the national market in Brazil (Strudwick and Sobel, 1988; (Anderson and Jardim, 1989). Pollak et al., 1995; van Andel et al., 1998). IBAMA has proposed a minimum diameter size of 2 cm, but regulations are not enforced and many ‘illegal’ palm The bulk (92%) of the açai fruits is collected and processed in Pará (Richards, hearts are still being processed (Pollak et al., 1995). Furthermore, the palm 1993). The main marketing constraint is the high perishability; fruits must reach swamps are generally not allowed sufficient time to recover from cutting. the market place within 24 hours. This limits the commercial extraction to areas Repeated harvesting with short rotation periods leads to the weakening of the near market centres. However, the short distances, the ease of processing and the individual palm clumps and a slower regeneration. Ecological research on Euterpe absence of complex wholesale and export market structures, result in a high pro- populations has pointed out that harvesting at short intervals (1-2 years) causes portion of the sale accruing to the producers. Most fruits are brought by the har- clump mortality and a steady decline in production. Harvesting at longer inter- vesters themselves to the processing plants. Açai supports a huge domestic econ- vals (4-5 years) causes less damage to the natural stands and produces a higher omy in the Brazilian Amazon (Table 3), but until recently it was hardly exported palm heart yield (Pollak et al., 1995; van Andel, 2000; Peña-Claros and Zuidema, (Richards, 1993, Broekhoven, 1996). The market for indigenous Amazon fruits, 2001). however, has been growing steadily in the past few years, because of the popularity of health stores in the Amazonian countries themselves and in Europe and the Several authors have designed large-scale management systems for the Brazilian US. If the açai fruit pulp is frozen at -18ºC, it can be transported over long dis- palm heart industry. Calzavara (1972) presented results from a plantation, in tances (Villachica, 1996). Açai is now widely for sale in the form of bottled drinks which palm hearts were harvested every four years, felling 30% of the stems > and frozen pulp on the Internet. The drink is very popular among Brazilian 10 m and 30% of the stems between 2 and 5 m during each harvest. Anderson and immigrants in the US (www.aruanda.com.br, www.ast-int.com.br). Jardim (1989) reported a system in which three large palm hearts were extracted from each clump every third year, combined with selective thinning of vegetation 2.3.2 Palm heart without local uses. Strudwick (1990) gave an example of a successful management The same palm that produces açai (Euterpe oleracea) also yields an edible palm plan in Marajó, in which a factory divided an area of 5 x 2 km into smaller rec- heart. A palm heart consists of the young, rolled leaves in the crownshaft that have tangles of 200 x 500 m. These plots were harvested every four years and actively not yet been exposed to sunlight. It can be consumed raw or cooked and is con- managed. Undesirable vegetation and palm leaf debris where cleared to provide sidered a delicacy. Although several palms have edible hearts, E. oleracea is now sufficient light and a better germination of E. oleracea. The forest was thus main- the world’s main source of industrially produced palm heart (Strudwick, 1990). tained in an optimum state for the future production of palm heart. This system To harvest a palm heart, the entire stem is cut down and its crownshaft removed. supplied approximately 700 harvestable stems per ha. It was estimated that it Because of its frequency and clonal, self-regenerative habit, E. oleracea is able to would take just over two years to harvest the entire area. Upon completion, the

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project would go to another area and return two years later, when the palms had 2.3.3 Brazil nut reached a sufficient size to harvest again. To encourage the cutters to follow this The Brazil nut, locally known as castanha do Pará, is the seed of Bertholletia management scheme, they were paid two times the standard payment. Palm heart excelsa. This giant tree is mostly found in groves of 50 to 100 individuals in undis- operations of the same company, using similar methods in other areas, had been turbed rain forest. The nuts are sold with their shell or are cracked in local plants. in practice for over ten years, thus demonstrating the apparent sustainability of They are eaten raw or roasted. Oil extracted from the nuts is used in cosmetics, the system (Strudwick, 1990). soap and aviation lubricants. The main export is directed towards the US, the UK, Germany and Australia. Brazil nuts are one of South America’s most important Notwithstanding the available sustainable harvest techniques, over-harvesting NTFPs, marketed worldwide for about US$ 30 million annually (Broekhoven, and low-quality palm hearts have already weakened Brazil’s position on the world 1996). Export from Brazil in 1988 was US$ 4.5 million (Table 1). market (Richards, 1993). In the 1990s, other Latin American countries (e.g., Costa Rica, Ecuador) started to harvest palm hearts from Bactris gasipaes plantations and filled the gap in the export market to France. This multi-stemmed species, locally known as pupunha or pejibaye, needs only two years to produce adequately sized palm hearts. If properly managed, a Bactris plantation can yield ca. 4500 palm hearts annually per hectare in the first ten years (PROMAB, 1998), which is more than six times the rate of E. oleracea in experimental plantations (Arkcoll and Clement, 1989). However, with such extensive wild resources at hand and the desire to enhance the value of natural forests, priority should be laid on the sustainable extraction of NTFPs, instead of establishing large plantations of an agricultural product with similar properties.

Palm heart harvesting does not necessarily have negative consequences for fruit collection. Leaving intact one mature stem per cluster increases the vitality of the clump and supplies the extractor with fruits (Peters et al., 1989b). Alternative land use practices permitting both fruit harvests and palm heart extraction are being increasingly implemented by the rural population in Amazonia (Anderson and Jardim, 1989). Some 4000 ha of Euterpe forest in Marajó island (Pará) were certified by Imaflora and the Smartwood Programme, according to sustainability guidelines of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC). The canning company, Muaná Alimentos, buys palm hearts and açai from forest dwelling communities (Smartwood Program and Imaflora, 2000). In 2000, the company produced 540 tonnes of palmito with a value of US$ 4 million. In the same year, 7 tonnes of pure and sweetened açai pulp were exported to the US. To market palmito and açai Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa) for sale in the streets of Belém, Brazil. Photo: D. Zwaan with the FSC logo, the chain of custody for these products still needs to be assessed (www.smartwood.org/reports/pdfs/muana.pdf). In the Cajari River Extractive Reserve (Amapá), WWF (together with several local NGOs) is Recently, Brazil nut harvesting shifted from Pará (34% of the Amazonian pro- implementing a project in which an alternative income is created for rubber tap- duction) and Amazonas (24%) to Acre (33%). This caused significant increases in pers and Brazil nut gatherers in the area. In 1997, a community-based palm heart production and transport costs, due to lower densities of trees and the greater dis- factory was established, which produces up to 30 tonnes of palm heart per tance to Belém, where a few large companies handle 70% of the Brazilian exports. month, worth US$ 27,000. The palm heart is marketed in Macapá. Their IBAMA Brazil nut collection is less significant in Amapá (5% of the national production) approved management plan covers 1,100 hectares of Euterpe swamp and Roraima (2.2%). Over-harvesting, a lesser demand, the felling of mature trees (www.wwf. org.br). for timber, a lack of regeneration and the hunting of agouti’s (the tree’s main dispersal agent) are threatening the Brazil nut industry (Richards, 1993). Export values dropped to US$ 2.5 million in the 1990s; figures of recent date were unfortu-

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nately unavailable. Attempts to produce Brazil nut in plantations in Amazonas Shield (see Discussion Chapter). The establishment of extractive reserves was ini- and Pará have had limited success, probably because of the tree’s complicated pol- tiated by requests of the rubber tappers to escape this depressing debt peonage lination biology, as well as soil and climatic factors (Mori and Prance, 1990; system (Broekhoven, 1996). The future of natural rubber is rather hopeless, as Broekhoven, 1996). 60% of the national production now comes from large plantations in Mato Grosso and São Paulo (Browder, 1992). Moreover, the leading processing factory In Riberalta (Bolivia), scientific research on the sustainable harvesting, general for rubber and sorva in Manaus has recently stopped its activities ecology and population dynamics of B. excelsa is carried out by the Dutch- (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.). Bolivian PROMAB programme (Boot, 1997; Zuidema, 2000; Peña-Claros, 2001). One of these studies indicated that high levels of Brazil nut extraction may be sus- 2.3.5 Balata tained for at least several decades, without reducing production potential and Sometimes described as South American gutta-percha, balata is obtained from with good prospects for continued regeneration of exploited populations the latex of Manilkara bidentata, a rain forest tree found in northern Amazonia (Zuidema, 2000). Another study reports a method for increasing the density of and the Guianas. Its’ non-elastic, insulating properties make balata suitable for B. excelsa in secondary forests by enrichment planting, which seems to be a good submarine and telephone cables. In the first half of the 20th Century, Brazil (Pará) option for the management of Brazil nut resources (Peña-Claros, 2001). It was the main supplier on the world market, followed by Guyana, Peru, Venezuela remains a question, however, whether the results obtained in Bolivia can be and Suriname (Fanshawe, 1948; Coppen, 1995a; van Andel, 2000). Nowadays, extrapolated to the situation in Brazil. balata is almost totally replaced by synthetics, exported only in small quantities for root canal fillings in dentistry (Pennington, 1990) and the chewing gum The extraction of Brazil nuts often goes hand-in-hand with the tapping of rub- industry (Rehm and Espig, 1991). Balata is also sold on the national market in the ber. Some major extraction areas for these NTFPs in the Brazilian Guiana Shield form of animal figures and other tourist crafts (Coppen, 1995a). are the Cajari River Extractive Reserve, the Maracá Reserve, and the Trombetas, Erepecurú (Oriximiná), Jauaperi, Xeriuni and Branco Rivers. Indigenous people 2.3.6 Maçaranduba are often involved in the collection of these NTFPs, like the Maroons along the The latex from the maçaranduba tree, Manilkara huberi, also used to be exported Rio Trombetas and Macushi and Wai Wai Indians in Roraima (van Roosmalen, to the US for the chewing gum industry. After the development of synthetic gums, pers. comm.). production dropped from 1000 tonnes per year in 1965 to ca. 30 tonnes in 1994 (Table 3). The main production area is Pará, with Manaus as the principal pro- 2.3.4 Rubber cessing centre. Maçaranduba is sometimes sold on the Belém market (Coppen, After the establishment of plantations in South East Asia and the development of 1995a). The product is also in decline because the tree is logged for its timber synthetic substitutes, natural rubber tapped from wild Hevea brasiliensis trees has (Richards, 1993). lost most of its economic importance (Richards, 1993). Extraction in Brazil has only continued as a result of government policy to subsidise national production, 2.3.7 Sorva gum resulting in Brazilian rubber prices up to three times the international price Tapped from the bark of a 30 m high forest tree (Couma macrocarpa), sorva has (Fearnside, 1989). Until 1992, rubber was a major NTFP in the Brazilian Guiana now largely been replaced by synthetics in the chewing gum industry, which has Shield, both in volumes and value (Table 1 and 3). Schwartzmann (1989) esti- led to a drastic decline in demand (Table 1 and 3).In 1978, sorva exports were val- mated that in the 1980s, half a million people in the Brazilian Amazon depended ued at almost US$ 10 million, while the most recent export values are around US$ on the extraction of rubber and other latex products for their income. Today, 3 million. Brazil is currently the only supplier in the world market, with most of most rubber is collected in Pará and Rondônia, followed by Acre and Amazonas the export going to the Far East. Amazonas was the centre of Brazilian produc- (Richards, 1993). tion, with Roraima as the only other source of sorva (less than 10% of the production). Nevertheless, sorva latex remains an important extractive product in Rubber is mostly collected in the dry season; extractors often shift to harvesting Amazonas, especially when conditions for rubber collection are bad. Destructive Brazil nuts in the rainy season. Most of the present-day rubber tappers are still tapping methods seem to have changed towards more sustainable methods using involved in the aviamento system, in which middle-men supply market goods on climbing irons (Sizer, 1991). The Brazilian chewing gum industry relies totally on credit at inflated prices, to be paid for in rubber, which is purchased at low prices synthetic ingredients, so there is no domestic market for sorva. The processing (Richards, 1993). This system, also known as debt peonage, is not exclusive to the and storing of sorva for export takes place in Manaus (Coppen, 1995a), but the rubber industry, but prevalent in the extractive economy throughout the Guiana main processing factory recently closed down (van Roosmalen, pers. comm.).

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2.3.8 Copaiba balsam 2.3.10 Other oils and waxes This oleoresin is obtained by tapping trees of Copaifera reticulata (the main Coumarin is produced from cumaru nuts or tonka beans, harvested from source in Brazil) and several other Copaifera species. The oil is used industrially Dipteryx odorata, a common but not abundant tree in the Guiana Shield. The for soap, lacquer, varnish, tracing paper and perfume (Rehm and Espig, 1991). seeds contain coumarin, used industrially to flavouring tobacco, as a vanilla sub- Brazil is the main exporter of copaiba balsam in the Guiana Shield, and the fra- stitute and in perfumes. Cumaru nuts are harvested mainly in Pará (Richards, grance industry is the main consumer. There is a substantial national market for 1993). As a result of the development of synthetic coumarin, prices and export copaiba oil (Ribeiro Silva et al., 2001). The product is sold in small bottles in local volumes have been declining since the 1940s (Schwartzmann, 1990). pharmacies for skin complaints, antiseptic and anti-inflammatory use, and is processed into shampoo, soaps and cosmetics. The domestic production (ca. 500 Ucuúba oil, extracted from the seeds of Virola surinamensis and V. sebifera,is tonnes per year) is even larger than export market (50-100 tonnes/year; only commercially harvested on a small-scale in Amazonas. The product is used in the export figures for Copaiba balsam are given in Table 3). International demand for manufactory of soap and candles, and has a regional market as medicinal oil. copaiba oil is only likely to increase, if there were to be a wider use of it for phar- Resources have dwindled lately due to timber harvesting, low prices, rural to maceutical purposes (Coppen, 1995a). Primary production has been dependent urban migration and alternative income-generating possibilities, which reduced on tapping wild forest trees. The state of Amazonas is the main producer (81%); labour availability and supply consistency (Richards, 1993). V. surinamensis is also the remainder is produced in Pará (Richards, 1993). Annual fluctuations in pro- logged for timber, and as a result listed as Endangered (A1ad+2cd) on the IUCN duction are due to the variation in river levels, which may hamper access to col- Red List (IUCN, 2002). lection areas and river transport. Prices in 1993 were US$ 7.5/kg in Belém and $11/kg in New York (Coppen, 1995a), but value and demand have increased on Andiroba or crabwood oil is obtained from the seeds of the crabwood tree the export market lately (Table 1). Trees of C. reticulata are also logged for the (Carapa guianensis), a common tree throughout the Guiana Shield that is also timber industry (Schwartzmann, 1990). valued for its timber. In Brazil, the oil is industrially used for soap production and as illuminator. Pará produces 38% of the andiroba oil; the remainder comes from 2.3.9 Rosewood oil outside the Guiana Shield area (Richards, 1993). According to Schwartzmann Rosewood oil or ‘pau rosa’ is an essential oil, harvested by felling entire trees (1990), the nuts have virtually disappeared from the commercial market due to (including the roots) of Aniba rosaeodora and extracting the oil in a distillery. low prices and logging. However, throughout the Guiana Shield, it is a common Production is export-oriented for the perfume industry in the US, France and medicinal oil on the domestic market (van Andel, 2000). Several initiatives are Switzerland. Rosewood oil has the highest unit value (US$ 27/kg in 1992) of all being developed to promote the oil on the international market (www.amazon Brazilian NTFPs of vegetal origin (Richards, 1993). Mobile distillation factories coop.org). have moved deep into the forest to reach the more remote stands of rosewood trees, principally in Pará and Amazonas. Destructive harvesting methods and Cauassu wax is obtained from the leaves of the herb Calathea lutea slow regeneration have almost depleted rosewood trees from the easily accessible (Marantaceae), which grows in clumps along the Amazon River. It appears to have forests of northern and central Amazonia (Coppen, 1995b). The few remaining the same quality (but is cheaper to harvest) than carnaúba wax, produced from distilleries in Manaus now process juvenile trees and other Aniba species that were the palm Copernica prunifera in north-eastern Brazil (National Academy of previously left untouched, since the yield and the quality of their oil is poor. The Sciences, 1975). Although carnaúba wax has lost importance due to synthetics, it quality of exported rosewood oil has also deteriorated by the practice of adulter- still retains a market for high quality floor and automobile polishes (Johnson, ation with synthetic linalool (Richards, 1993). In the past, Colombia, Venezuela 1997). Cauassu wax might play a role as an Amazonian alternative to carnaúba and the three Guianas all produced rosewood oil for the international market, but wax (National Academy of Sciences, 1975). resources have dwindled to such an extent that Brazil is now the sole producer (Coppen, 1995b). The lifetime of the rosewood oil industry is expected to be 2.3.11 Piassaba short. A. rosaeodora is listed as an Endangered (A1d, 2d) on the IUCN Red List, In the Roraima and Rio Negro area, beard-like fibers are collected from the leaf due to past and possible future exploitation (IUCN, 2002). Revitalisation in the base of the palm Leopoldinia piassaba and used to manufacture rope, brushes and longer term will depend upon the success of cultivation and agro-forestry trails. brooms. This palm grows in nearly pure stands in dense, seasonally flooded Several projects in Pará and São Paulo are assessing the potential for perfume oil forests. L. piassaba (Pará piaçava) is endemic to the basins of the Rio Negro and production through non-destructive leaf and branch harvesting (Coppen, 1995b; Upper Orinoco Rivers (Putz, 1979). Collection of these fibres is a benign and sus- Reuters, 2000). tainable form of exploitation, providing that trees are not damaged during har-

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vesting (Johnson, 1997). Cutting the fibres does not damage the terminal bud of percentage of Brazil’s population depends heavily on medicinal plants for pri- the palm, but when demand is high and the trees are too tall for collection from mary health care (Ribeiro Silva et al., 2001). An example of a registered trader is the ground, palms are sometimes cut down to obtain the fibres (Putz, 1979). To the Instituto de Pesquisas Científicas e Technológicas do Amapá (IEPA) that coor- ensure a continuing growth, two to four leaves are left intact on the palm, so after dinates several medicinal plant projects and publishes simple, well-illustrated four to five years the palm can be harvested again. Overexploitation can lead to phytotherapeutic manuals for local people (IEPA, 1999, 2000). The States of scarcity of fibre-producing individuals, but not of the palm stands themselves Paraná and São Paulo are the main exporters of medicinal plants. The main (FAO, 1997). Along coastal Brazil, similar fibers are harvested from Attalea importing countries are the US and Germany (Ribeiro Silva et al., 2001). In June funifera (Bahia piaçava), while in Acre the product is obtained from yet another 2001, Brazil decided that all research and commercial use of biological material palm species (Aphandra natalia). Unfortunately, the Brazilian Institute of must be approved by a new council linked to the Office of the President. Geography and Statistics (IBGE) combined all piassaba fibres in its export statis- Companies must share any royalties from commercial use of natural resources tics (Table 1). No information was given on the direction of the export or the rea- with the Government and local institutions or pay steep fines. The Constitution son for the exceptionally large production figures in 1992 (Table 3). According to of 1999 ‘guarantees and protects’ knowledge, technology and innovations of Voeks (1988), 83% of the national production comes from Attalea funifera, while Amerindian communities. It requires that all activity related to genetic resources Pará piassaba accounts for less than 10% of the national market. Still, the and knowledge associated with them be shared collectively and prohibits compa- Amazonian fibres could become more important in the near future, as natural nies from patenting materials they use or discover. stands in Bahia are threatened by over-harvesting and fire (Voeks, 1988). 2.3.13 Tucumã 2.3.12 Medicinal plants The spiny tucumã palm (Astrocaryum aculeatum) produces large bunches of Ethnobotanical research has pointed out that a great number of medicinal plants fruits, which are highly prized and sold fresh and processed on the market in are being used by indigenous groups in northern Brazil, like the Yanomami Manaus. Its’ leaf fibres are woven into hammocks and sacks, while the seed are (Milliken and Albert, 1997; Milliken, 1997) and Waimiri Atroari Indians used in various crafts (Kahn and Moussa, 1999). In Guyana and Suriname, the (Milliken et al., 1992). Few of these medicinal plants were reported as being com- species is only found near past or present human settlements, and therefore its mercialised. According to IBAMA, only 88 native medicinal plant species have status as NTFP is questionable (Wessels-Boer, 1965; van Andel, 2000). In Brazil, it been identified and traded on the domestic and/or export market. However, unre- is sporadically found wild in undisturbed forest and along the savannah-forest ported use and trade is common throughout Brazil, as medicinal plants are high- boundary (Henderson, 1995). However, the bulk of the commercialised fruits is ly valued in health care and used widely for therapeutic and religious purposes. A harvested from cultivated individuals (Kahn and Moussa, 1999), and therefore, joint IBAMA/TRAFFIC study (Ribeiro Silva et al., 2001) revealed that large we do not consider A. aculeatum a NTFP. amounts of medicinal plants are exported from the country (www.traffic.org/ news/brazilmp.html). The study estimates the total export of medicinal plants 2.3.14 Babaçu from Brazil at almost US$ 6 million per year in the mid 1990s (Table 1). Jaborandi Babaçu (Orbignya phalerata) is a multi-purpose palm that yields a wide array of leaves (Pilocarpus jaborandi), used in the treatment of glaucoma, makes up a sig- commercial and subsistence products. The kernels are used for cooking oil, soap, nificant part of this export. The species appears in a list of threatened species in animal fodder and chemical applications, husks are made into charcoal and leaves Brazil (Ribeiro Silva et al., 2001). The IBAMA/TRAFFIC figures place medicinal are used for shelter. The babaçu is a pioneer palm that thrives in degraded plants as a major export NTFP next to Brazil nuts, but official export figures from and burned forests, covering more than 12 million ha in central and northeast the Banco do Brasil (Table 1) and IBGE (Table 3) are much lower. Ribeiro Silva Brazil (Peters et al., 1989) and providing an income for some 450,000 Brazilian and co-workers do not distinguish between cultivated medicinal species and households (May, 1990). Although the palm does occur in the Guiana Shield those harvested from the wild (NTFPs). These confusing figures illustrate the lack (Henderson, 1995), all Amazonian production takes place in the state of of trustworthy data on the trade in NTFPs, and on medicinal plants in particular. Maranhão (Richards, 1993). Therefore, babaçu is not a major NTFP in the study More clarity in the legal instruments and recording systems regulating harvest area. and trade in the medicinal plants is also urgently needed (Ribeiro Silva et al., 2001). 2.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Brazil A total of 70 companies and individuals have officially registered with IBAMA to trade in medicinal plants. This is a small number, considering the fact that a large The international trade in natural gums, resins and latex has declined over the

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past years, due to the development of synthetic alternatives. Some of these mar- The Rio Jauaperí project aims to investigate and implement sustainable forest kets (especially for latex) will never recover; for others, however, there will con- exploitation techniques. From the mouth of the Jauaperí to the Igarapé Xixuaú, tinue to be a demand. The need to maintain or improve quality in order to retain several shamans, midwives and local experts on medicinal plants have con- or increase markets cannot be over-emphasised. Quality depends on the species tributed to an ethnobotanical database (www.amazonia.org/htm/pt/relatori. used, environmental factors, harvesting methods, cleaning and handling prac- htm#4), which unfortunately lacks many scientific names. IBAMA is currently tices. Better tapping techniques should be developed to prevent over-harvesting setting up an extractive reserve in the Xixuaù area, where Brazil nuts and cupuaçu and exhaustion of trees. For rare species like rosewood, plantations may reduce (Theobroma grandiflorum) will be commercialised (www.amazonia.org/htm/ the pressure on natural forests (Coppen, 1995b). Special attention should be paid jauaperid.htm). to protect NTFP-producing trees (e.g., Copaifera reticulata, Carapa guianensis, Virola surinamensis) from logging. The BioTrade Initiative, launched by UNCTAD in 1996, aims to enhance the capability of developing countries to produce value-added products and services There appears to be a need to review the trade in fish resources in the Guiana derived from biodiversity, for both domestic and international markets Shield part of Brazil. Although aquarium fish is identified as an important eco- (www.biotrade.org). They support the regional programme Bolsa Amazonia, nomic NTFP for Brazil, attention must be paid to the rapidly increasing numbers which establishes links between the market sector and indigenous communities of aquarium fish collectors in harvesting areas, as limited entry into the trade is interested in marketing natural products (www.bolsaamazonia.com). They pro- key factor in the success of a sustainable business. It is essential to monitor this mote the trade in Brazil nuts, açai pulp and copaiba oil, focusing on sustainable industry more closely before it collapses or becomes less competitive with neigh- management, processing, marketing and commercialisation of NTFPs. A sister bouring countries. The presumed illegal trade of fish from Amazonas into organisation of Bolsa Amazonia is POEMA (Poverty and Environment in the Colombia is also likely to put extra pressure on the Brazilian resources. Amazon Programme). Created in 1992, POEMA is a research and development programme based at the Federal University of Pará involving rural producer The Brazilian Government is taking a leadership role in providing subsidies for cooperatives, governmental bodies, NGOs, science and technology institutions small NTFP enterprises. Several community-based NTFP ventures, co-managed and the private sector, with the goal of alleviating poverty and conserving the by local and international NGOs, seem to do quite well. For instance, the success- Amazon (www.ufpa.br/poema). ful establishment of the Xapuri Brazil nut plant by Cultural Survival and the Kayapo Amerindians is now being followed by more similar de-shelling plants. In Amapá, several smallholders processing NTFPs or agricultural products have organised themselves into cooperatives, trying to market their products for a reasonable price. The ‘mercado dos produtos da floresta’ in Macapá sells processed Brazil nut products, preserved forest fruits, palm heart, açai, honey and crafts for prices that ensure a sustainable income for local extractors (www.amazonia.org. br, www.amazoncoop.org).

A total of 200,000 Amerindians live in the Brazilian Amazon. From ethnobotanical surveys we know that they use a wide variety of plants and animals (Cavalcante, 1972, 1974, 1979; Milliken et al., 1992; Milliken and Albert, 1997, 1999; Shanley et al., 1998), but most of these NTFPs are used only for subsistence. Unlike in the other countries of the Guiana Shield, Amerindians are not the main people involved in commercial NTFP extraction in Brazil. Most indigenous groups live in reserves far away from markets, and thus face few opportunities to market their products. In the Waimiri Atroari Reserve, on the border of Roraima and Amazonas, the National Foundation for Indigenous Affairs (FUNAI) tries to encourage craft production and Brazil nut gathering for the Manaus market (Milliken et al., 1992). A small craft project with Ischnosiphon polyphyllus, carried by the Artisans Association of Novo Airão, is co-funded by WWF-Brazil.

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COLOMBIA

3.1 Commercial NTFP extraction

Colombia, with its very diverse landscapes and numerous climatic zones, is a so- called ‘mega-diversity country’ that harbours 10% of all plant and animals species in the world (Castaño-Uribe and Cano, 1998). The Guiana Shield area of Colombia includes the administrative divisions of Amazonas, Caquetá, Vaupes, Guaviare, Meta, Guainía and Vichada (see Map). These are the political divisions covering the Amazon and Orinoco Basins. At the Priority Setting Workshop in April 2002, it was determined that the western boundary of the Colombian Guiana Shield should be the rocky outcrops of Chiribiquete, based on the over- lap of distributions of various taxonomic groups. This would exclude the Serranía de Macarena, a mountain range that was considered part of the Guiana Shield during preliminary discussions.

The Llanos Orientales (250,000 km2) can be characterised as a vast savannah that is partially flooded during the rainy season. Gallery forests are found along the main rivers. The region is sparsely populated: the indigenous population is mainly found in Meta, Vichada, Guaviare and Guiania. Cattle-breeding is the main economic activity, followed by cash crop agriculture. Guerrilla activities and coca cultivation are quite prominent in the Llanos. The main NTFPs are wildlife, piassaba (Leopoldinia piassaba), crafts and canangucha (Mauritia flexuosa).

The Colombian Amazon (400,000 km2), covered largely with pristine tropical rainforest, is sparsely populated by Indian tribes. Major deforestation is taking place at the foothills of the Andes, where there is a high concentration of colonists and the majority of the coca is produced. Guerrilla activities of the FARC are concentrated in this area. Deeper inland, their presence is less evident, although increasing (M. von Hildebrand, pers. comm.). The main commercial NTFPs in Amazonas are rubber, wildlife, canangucha (Mauritia flexuosa), asahí (Euterpe precatoria), copoazu (Theobroma grandiflorum), milpesos (Jessenia bataua), and crafts (wood carvings, basketry and cumare fibers from Astrocaryum chambira).

The two largest cities in the Colombian Amazon are Leticia and Florencia. Leticia, with 22,000 inhabitants, is the only Colombian port along the Amazon River. Although Leticia is located outside of the Guiana Shield, it is a major market for NTFPs from the region. Most transport is by boat; the city is well connected to the large Amazonian ports of Iquitos (Peru) and Manaus (Brazil) and linked with Map: RV Verlag, Ostfildern the rest of Colombia by aeroplane (Pulido and Cavelier, 2001). Florencia, with a

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population of 90,000, has a strategic location at the foot slopes of the Andes, with 3.2 Wildlife good connections by river and roads to other parts of Colombia (Pulido and Cavelier, 2001). However, Villavicencio on the Orinoco plains is the main centre 3.2.1 Commercial wildlife harvesting for logistics and aerial transport of goods and NTFPs for all of the south-eastern The main commercial NTFP of the Colombian Guiana Shield appears to be fresh- part of Colombia (Mojica, pers. comm.). water fish, both for food and the aquarium fish trade, although official export figures are not detailed enough to make a definitive assessment. There is a consider- The Serranía de la Macarena (3000 km2) is an independent mountain range sep- able domestic wildlife trade in Colombia: Bakker (1999) found several species, arated from the Andes, with peaks up to 2500 m high. There is much discussion especially birds, on markets in the centre of Colombia that originate from the among scientists about the origin of these mountains: whether they are a true Amazonia or Orinoco areas. Colombia has specialised in export of several cap- remainder of the Guiana Shield or a separate eastern part of the Andes (Cleef, tive-bred CITES listed reptiles. In the late 1980s, Colombia exported thousands of pers. comm.; Huber, pers. comm.). The interior of the Serranía de la Macarena is live primates, mainly Saguinus oedipus, (Broekhoven, 1996), but this no longer practically unexplored, but initial studies have shown that these forested moun- occurs. tains are among the richest biological reserves of the world (Castaño-Uribe and Cano, 1998). Access to the region is restricted, as it is a centre of guerrilla activi- 3.2.2 Wildlife regulations and management in Colombia ty. No Indians live in the Macarena region, since they were eradicated by a rubber Colombia ratified CITES in 1981 and introduced administrative and scientific company some 50 years ago. Present inhabitants are recent settlers to the area authorities in 1997 to effectively manage the CITES regulations (Bakker, 1999). (Muntingh and Veening, 1999). Wildlife is the main NTFP harvested here. Colombian legislation has recently changed to allow for commercial use of both flora and fauna under a new law instated in 2001 (Law 611). The new general The Guiana Shield region of Colombia, which comprises more than one third of parameters for management are still very general (Ramos, pers. comm.). Wildlife the country, harbours 58 indigenous groups, with a population of 78,200 people use and hunting is regulated by the Ministry of Environment. and 25 million hectares of National Parks and Amerindian territories (‘resguardos indígenas’). Colombia is a leading country in the recognition of indigenous peo- 3.2.3 Illegal Wildlife Trade ples, in the sense that more than 20 million hectares are declared Indigenous ter- Wildlife trafficking is reported to be a problem in the Colombian Guiana Shield. ritory (van der Hammen, 1992, 2003). Indigenous peoples have the exclusive right Primary centres of illegal wildlife trade are: Leticia, Florencia, Puerto Inírida, San to harvest NTFPs in these ‘resguardos’,which they manage themselves (Ruiz et al., José del Guaviare, Miraflores and Puerto Carreño (Bakker, 1999). Wildlife is 1993), assisted by an extensive network of local NGOs, grouped together in the transported across the borders of Venezuela and Brazil regularly, as control is Consolidation of the Colombian Amazon (COAMA). COAMA’s main focus is on weak and not focused on animal transport. The army is reported to be engaged in legal and political assistance, health, education and the management of natural illegal trade in caimans and monkeys. In the Serranía de Macarena, poaching by resources. Commercialisation of NTFPs is not one of their main development colonists and the army is a great problem (Muntingh and Veening, 1999). The priorities at present (M. von Hildebrand, pers. comm.). local NGO Asocación para la Defensa de la Reserva de la Macarena is involved with the rehabilitation of wild animals that are confiscated by the authorities, From ethnobotanical studies we know that a wide variety of plants and animals such as parrots and macaws, but their present facilities are rather poor and in are used by the indigenous people of the Amazon and Llanos (Schultes and need of upgrading (Muntingh and Veening, 1999). Illicit trade in Crocodilian Raffauf, 1990; Schultes, 1992; Galeano, 1991; van der Hammen, 1992; Bernal, skins is undermining efforts of sustainable use programmes (Ross, 1998). 1992; Sánchez, 1996; Balcázar and Sastoque, 1999; Rodriguez, 1999a; Cárdenas and López, 2000; Balcázar, 2000, 2002). However, the bulk of these species are A recent report commissioned by WWF-UK and TRAFFIC discovered parallel used for subsistence. Only a tiny fraction of this biodiversity reaches a market. smuggling routes: traditional drug trade routes are also being used for wildlife Duivenvoorden et al. (2001) conducted floristic and ethnobotanical surveys in the trade (Cook et al., 2002). In 1993, a shipment of Boa constrictors from Colombia middle Caquetá region. To monitor the commercialisation of NTFPs, they held with legitimate CITES (Appendix II) documentation was discovered to contain regular market surveys in Florencia and Leticia. Official export data on NTFPs 39 kg of cocaine. The cocaine was packed in condoms and found inside the from Colombia are scarce, but from the few publications dedicated to commer- snake’s digestive system; all 225 snakes used to smuggle the cocaine died (Cook et cial NTFPs (Broekhoven, 1996; Bernal, 1992; Rodriguez, 1999a; Pulido and al., 2002). Cavelier, 2001, Ajiaco-Martínez et al., 2002; Blanco, 2002), we have compiled an overview of NTFP trade in the Colombian Guiana Shield.

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3.2.4 Freshwater fish fish to almost 24 million in 1999, but recently figures have somewhat lowered The most important commercial NTFPs within the Colombian Guiana Shield are (Table 4). According to Ajiaco-Martínez et al. (2002), these figures should be the large catfishes, caught mainly in the Vichada, Meta, Guaviare and Caquetá interpreted with care, since collectors often supply unreliable information. Rivers (Rodriguez, 1999a; Mojica, pers. comm.). Commercial fishing forms the basis of the local economy and is the primary source of income for local inhabi- Table 4: Export value of ornamental fish from Colombia (1995-2001) tants along the middle Caquetá River (Rodriguez, 1999a). Commercial fishing is mainly an activity of the colonists, while the Indians catch smaller fish for subsis- Year Number of fish Export Value [US$] tence (van der Hammen, 1992). The annual catch in the Caquetá River is between 1995 19,595,000 4,420,907 100-120 tonnes per year and the total industry was worth over US$ 780,000 in 1996 17,355,000 4,461,032 1993 (Rodriguez, 1999a). The final intermediaries get the majority of the profits, 1997 15,755,000 3,736,333 while the fishermen get only 14% of the total income generated (Rodriguez, 1998 18,404,000 3,679,483 1999a). The most important commercial species are: dorado (Brachyplatystoma 1999 23,599,000 4,215,475 flavicans), lechero (Brachyplatystoma filamentosum), pejenegro (Paulicea lutkeni) 2000 14,854,221 2,663,473 and pintadillo (Pseudoplatystoma tigrinum and P. faciatum). Of secondary impor- 2001 14,922,000 3,609,525 tance are cajaro (Phractocephalus hemiliopterus), baboso (Goslinia platynema), Source: Blanco, 2002 pirabutón (Brachyplatystoma vaillanti) and pejeleño (Sorubimichthys planiceps) (Rodriguez, 1999a). Pulido and Cavelier (2001) found that 8,525 tonnes per year of fish were sold on the market of Leticia between 1992 and 1996; making Leticia The majority (76%, 110 species) of aquarium fish originate from the Orinoco the main trade centre for commercial fish. Nineteen species are found on the Basin. Major centres of harvesting are Arauca, Puerto Carreño, San José del market in Leticia; however two species form the bulk of the trade (46%): dorado Guaviare, Puerto Gaitán, Villavicencio and especially Inírida (Guainía), where (B. flavicans) and pintadillo (P. faciatum). The majority of the fish found on the 50% of all fish are collected (Ajiaco-Martínez et al., 2002). The Inírida Rivers har- Leticia market, however, originates from Brazil (Mojica, pers. comm.). The fish bours a great diversity of ornamental fish species, providing an important eco- are stored in deep freeze units in Araracuara, La Pedrera and Leticia before being nomic resource for the indigenous population of the area. An estimated 194 transported by aircraft to Bogotá (Rodriguez, 1999a). Freshwater fish were hard- ‘pescadores’ fish for ornamental species along the Inírida, Orinoco and Atabapo ly sold on the Florencia market (Pulido and Cavelier, 2001). Rivers. It is especially important as there are very few alternative sources of income in this area. The total value of the aquarium fish trade in the Inírida The large catfish of the Caquetá River have been under continuous pressure for region was estimated at US$ 110,000, based on the price paid to the fishermen decades, but with the introduction of deep freeze units and improved fishing (Ramírez-Gil and Ajiaco-Martínez, 2002). The remainder of the aquarium fish equipment this pressure has increased dramatically (Rodriguez, 1999a). The (22%) are caught in the Amazon Basin (Leticia, La Pedrera and Puerto Tropenbos-Colombia programme helps local people to monitor their fish Leguizamo) (Ajiaco-Martínez et al., 2002). Harvesting of certain species can be resources and examine the dynamics between the forest, the river and the fish limited to particular localities, for example the tetra brillante (Hemigrammus sp.) populations (Rodriguez, pers. comm.). Colombia has a legal quota system for its comes primarily from Puerto Gaitán (Ajiaco-Martínez et al., 2002). fisheries. Colombians are crossing the border, fishing in Venezuela and Brazil and exporting their catch from Colombia or Venezuela. There is a mafia style racket A total of 155 species are commercialised in Colombia. The most important in Amazonas State controlling the commercial fishing (Mojica, pers. comm.). commercial species are the neon tetra (Paracheirodon innesi), cardinal tetra (P. axelrodi), otocinclo (Otocinclus spp.), arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum, 3.2.5 Ornamental fish O. ferreirae), tetra brillante (Hemigrammus sp.), estrigata (Thoracocharax sp., Ornamental fish have been exported from Colombia for more than thirty years Carnegiella spp.), tigrito (Pimelodus pictus), corredora (Corydoras spp.) and (Ajiaco-Martínez et al., 2002). The Colombian Guiana Shield is the most impor- rojito fino (Hyphessobrycon sweglesi). One of the economically most valuable tant harvesting area, especially the Meta, Bita, Inírida, Tomo, Vichada and species is the black arawana (Osteoglossum ferreirae). There are some concerns Atabapo Rivers. Most ornamental fish are transported to Bogotá and from there that this species is being over-exploited and it is considered Endangered in exported to the US (58%), Europe (23%), Japan (13%) and other Asian countries Colombia (Mojica, et al., 2002). (Ajiaco-Martínez et al., 2002). The Instituto Nacional de Pesca y Acuicultura (INPA) has registered the export since 1991. Export increased from ca. 13 million

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3.2.6 CITES Reptiles Least Concern) in Colombia (Rueda, 1998), but there are concerns about declin- Colombia exports several captive-bred CITES listed reptiles: green iguana (Iguana ing numbers. It is listed on CITES Appendix II, originally listed due to the trade iguana), spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and C. c. fuscus),tegu in its skin (Hoogmoed, pers. comm.). lizard (Tupinambis teguixin) and the Boa constrictor (Table 5). The increase in trade in reptiles is probably driven by the growing US market for reptiles as pets. The green iguana is bred in captivity in many Latin American countries, such as In 1997, the US imported 1.8 million reptiles worth more than US$ 7 million Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama and Colombia. Management schemes for the (UNEP, 2000). green iguana can vary from raising iguanas in closed confinement to the management of wild populations (Werner, 1991). From a conservation point of view, Table 5: Colombia’s CITES Export Quotas 1997-2002 managing wild populations is more advantageous, as the natural habitat of the iguana is maintained. Captive reproduction of iguanas is very difficult. This holds true for all reptiles, due to low reproductive rates, low fertility and high hatching Animal Product 1997 % export 1998 % export 1999 % export 2000 % export 2001 2002 (captive-bred) realised realised realised realised failure for eggs produced in captivity (Werner, 1991). Unlike birds and mammals, Caiman 660,000 79.2 500,000 145 660,000 123 660,000 2.6 690,000 599,000 reptiles have a very slow growth rate due to a low metabolic rate. One technique crocodilus ª to bypass the high hatchling mortality is to raise them in captivity until they skins 660,000 79.2 500,000 145 660,000 123 660,000 2.6 690,000 599,000 obtain a ‘safe’ size; they can then be released into tree stands until they reach a Iguana iguana 600,000 55.9 450,000 71.2 400,000 70.1 400,000 13.5 192,393 300,000 ‘harvestable’ size. The habitat into which the iguanas are released can be manip- live ulated by adding feeding stations, thermoregulation spots and hiding places. Boa constrictor 30,000 71.0 25,000 88.6 11,000 48.7 no quota _ 6,535 17,928 Collection of eggs from wild nests is too difficult and natural incubation of arti- live Tupinambis 3,000 0 2,500 0 3,000 0.03 5,000 36.2 3,778 3,778 ficial nests is also not feasible (Werner, 1991). The various management tech- teguixin live niques mentioned in Werner (1991) are relatively easy and often inexpensive to implement.

ª Caiman crocodilus crocodilus and C. c. fuscus (mainly C. c. fuscus); _ actual export of 2,717 Boa constrictors, but Colombia issued no quota in 2000. Source: UNEP-WCMC, 2002 Boa constrictors have a widespread distribution covering Mexico, Central, South America and several Caribbean Islands. The most common subspecies found in the pet trade is Boa constrictor constrictor, also sometimes known as the The green iguana (Iguana iguana) has a widespread distribution covering parts of Colombian red tail boa. This snake is listed on CITES Appendix II. Almost all the US, Mexico, Central America, the north of South America and many Colombian captive-bred Boa constrictors are imported by the US for the pet trade Caribbean Islands. The green iguana is herbivorous, lives in trees and occurs in a (UNEP-WCMC, 2002). Captive-bred Boa constrictors sell for between US$ 200 variety of tropical and subtropical forest types. Nowadays, the species is exported and 300 in the US, depending on skin pattern and age. Boa constrictors are also mainly for the pet market in the US, where it is currently considered to be the bred in captivity in the US and Europe. most popular reptilian pet. Between 1993 and 1997, Colombia exported more than 2.4 million iguanas, 95% of which were imported by the US (UNEP, 2000). Northern tegu lizards (Tupinambis teguixin) are found in all countries of the Guiana Shield as well as Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago. Tegu lizards Colombia has by far the highest export quotas exporting iguanas of the Guiana are now primarily exported for the European and US pet markets. Although Shield. Export quotas from Guyana and Suriname are much lower and are not Colombia has an official CITES quota for T. teguixin, they did not record any close to being realised. The green iguana is listed on Annex B of the European exports. However, the US did record the import of 1,800 tegu lizards from Regulations, which regulates import of the species into Europe. As well as being Colombia in 2000 (Table 5). Tupinambis spp. were previously heavily hunted for exported internationally, the iguana is hunted locally for the trade in its eggs and their skins (Bakker, 1999) and eggs are harvested for local consumption across meat, especially in the Caribbean region of Colombia (Bakker, 1999). Green igua- Latin America (Broekhoven, 1996). T. teguixin is not listed on the IUCN Red List, na has been an important protein source across Latin America for thousands of but is listed on CITES Appendix II and Annex B of the EC Regulations. years (Broekhoven, 1996) and this still holds true for rural communities today (Werner, 1991; Ojasti, 1996). Bakker (1999) records values of 30-80 pesos (US$ 3.2.7 CITES Reptiles: Crocodilians 0.07) per iguana egg purchased from a hunter, and each egg is then sold on for Many crocodilians are exploited for their valuable skin, which supports an inter- 200 pesos (US$ 0.30). Iguana iguana is not considered threatened (Low Risk – national trade worth over US$ 500 million annually. However, the main threat to

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crocodilians worldwide is habitat loss. Many species have suffered drastic declines traps. Ross (1998) recommended more basic ecological studies, population sur- in numbers and in the extent of their distributions due to commercial over- veys, and regional management coordination to develop compatible sustainable exploitation and indiscriminate killing in the past. Although, there have been no use programmes and control illicit trade. The Von Humboldt Institute, in coop- extinctions due to direct human exploitation, over-exploitation combined with eration with the Ministry of Environment, is carrying out a national census of the severe habitat loss has brought several species to the brink of extermination crocodilians. (Ross, 1998). One of the most endangered crocodile species in the world is found in Colombia – the Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius). The spectacled The Orinoco crocodile (Crocodylus intermedius) is restricted to the middle and caiman and black caiman historically have been decimated by the skin trade lower reaches of the Orinoco River in Venezuela and Colombia and is considered across their entire ranges, but are described below as Colombia is exporting skins to be one of the most seriously threatened New World crocodiles (Ross, 1998). It from captive breeding programmes. is mainly found in the Llanos savannahs, where it nests in holes. The Orinoco crocodile appears on CITES Appendix I and is listed as Critically Endangered The CITES Appendix II-listed spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) is found (A1c, C2a) on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2002). Wild adult populations may across the Guiana Shield. It is much smaller and more abundant than the black stand at less than 250 individuals (Ross, 1998). Commercial exploitation from the caiman. It is quite an adaptable animal and can be found in many wetland habi- 1930s to the ‘60s has decimated wild populations, and little recovery has been evi- tats. With the depletion of the more valuable larger crocodilian species by the dent since that time. Orinoco crocodiles group together in ponds and rivers dur- 1950s, the trade turned to the spectacled caiman. Colombia topped the statistics ing the dry season, which is thought to be a factor leading to its decimation (Ross, for C. crocodilus, exporting more than 11 million skins between 1951 and 1980 1998). (Ojasti, 1996). Colombia is now also heading the CITES statistics with the highest quotas for export in captive bred C. crocodilus skins (Table 5). Although The Von Humboldt Institute census of crocodilians focused on C. intermedius. caiman hides have a relatively low value compared to skins of other crocodile The Colombian Government is considering future commercial exploitation of species, the spectacled caiman, along with the yacaré caiman (Caiman yacare), Orinoco crocodiles based on closed-cycle farming. The Ministry of the supplies approximately 75% of the world trade in legal crocodilian skins (Ross, Environment is developing an experimental breeding program at their Guafal 1998). Good survey data exist for this species across its range and it numbers in Biological Station in Arauca. Captive breeding for release into the wild is being the millions. It is listed as Low Risk-Least Concern on the IUCN Red List, done by the Universidad Nacional de Colombia at the Roberto Franco Biological although it is locally depleted or extirpated in some localities (Ross, 1998). The Station in Villavicencio. Preliminary survey work has been carried out in neigh- subspecies Caiman crocodilus apaporiensis, a narrower snouted form, has a very bouring Venezuela and a reintroduction programme has been started by a group restricted distribution in the Upper Apaporis River and its status is virtually of NGOs (Ross, 1996). unknown. Urgent action is needed to conserve this subspecies and surveys are needed to determine its population status (Ross, 1998). C. crocodilus apaporiensis One of the main focuses of the IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group has been the is listed on CITES Appendix I. development of sustainable use programmes (Thorbjarnarson, 1992; Ross, 1998). They convinced large international traders and manufacturers of the economic The CITES Appendix I-listed black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) is found benefits of sustainable harvest. The support from the commercial sector in turn throughout the Guiana Shield, except for Suriname and Venezuela. It lives in a put pressure on the producers to set up sustainable management systems for these wide variety of habitats including large rivers and streams, oxbow lakes, and valuable species. In many cases, it was difficult to determine if harvesting schemes sometime seasonally flooded savannah. As with the spectacled caiman, the black were indeed sustainable, although it is relatively easy to recognize when use is not caiman used to be abundant in the Colombian Amazon region, but was virtually sustainable as the resource soon becomes depleted. Illegal trade threatens the sus- extirpated due to the skin trade in the 1950s and ’60s, when the populations of tainable channel and has a detrimental impact on its economic viability. more desirable crocodile species (Crocodylus acutus, C. intermedius) had already Combating illegal trade requires continued enforcement and regulation. The reg- massively declined (Ross, 1998). It is currently listed on the IUCN Red List as Low ulation of the international trade is under the remit of CITES, implementation in Risk-Conservation Dependent (IUCN, 2002) and is considered Endangered the region and the obligation to tag all crocodilian skins are both steps to help (A1cd) on the Colombian Red List (Rueda, 1998). Since 1968, the species has had curtail the impact of illegal trade (Ross, 1998). full legal protection in Colombia, but this has recently been reversed as the population has substantially recovered (Ross, 1998; IUCN, 2002). Local people continue to hunt the black caiman for its meat, (medicinal) fat and as bait for tortoise

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3.2.8 Bush meat A primate species particularly susceptible to hunting pressure is the white-bellied Until recently, the trade in bush meat was prohibited in Colombia, so there are spider monkey (Ateles belzebuth). It occurs in Colombia, Venezuela and mainly few official data on commercial hunting and wildlife trade. Pulido and Cavelier south of the Amazon River in Brazil, as well as Ecuador and Peru (Emmons, (2001) did not include animal products in their market survey, since this trade 1997). This primate is hunted for meat in Colombia (Bakker, 1999). Like the black was illegal at the time of their study. However, the inclusion of wildlife would have spider monkey (A. paniscus), the white-bellied spider monkey has slow reproduc- given a much better impression of the NTFP commercialisation in the region. tive rate. Its main threats include agriculture, habitat fragmentation, hunting and Hunting for bush meat occurs widely in the Colombian Guiana Shield. Colonists illegal pet trade (IUCN, 2002). It is listed as Vulnerable (A1c) on the IUCN Red migrated into forested areas for economic reasons, resulting in high hunting pres- List (IUCN, 2002) and the Colombian Red List (Rodriguez, 1998). It appears on sure in forest edges and along roads. There are also professional commercial CITES Appendix II and all imports into Europe are regulated (EC Regulation hunters coming to these areas for the trade in wild meat. Larger species, such as Annex B) (CITES, 2002). tapir, deer, peccary, primates, curassows and capybara tend to be affected by hunting first, followed by smaller species such as agouti, smaller primates and toucans 3.2.9 Macaws (Bakker, 1999). Several of the hunted species have potential for captive breeding. Recently, a small project was started to repopulate indigenous territories with The Asocación para la Defensa de la Reserva de la Macarena, is developing breed- macaws (Ara spp.) and revive a limited trade between indigenous groups for tra- ing programmes for peccary, capybara and agouti (Muntingh and Veening, 1999). ditional use of the feathers in head-dresses (Rodriguez, pers. comm.). Ara popu- A new project is being set up by the Von Humboldt Institute focusing on the man- lations have declined in the territories of the Uitoto, Andoke and Nonuya, due to agement of capybara (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) in the Guiana Shield region of the disturbance of the breeding grounds and the decrease in enrichment planting Colombia (Ramos, pers. comm.). At the moment, capybara meat is exported to of food trees (Rodriguez, pers. comm.). Parrots confiscated in Bogotá will be Venezuela once a year. The project works with local communities on market taken to the indigenous communities, where they will start captive breeding. The issues and business plans to realise the economic value of the trade in capybara focus of this project is not commercial, but to increase traditional trade of macaw meat (Ramos, pers. comm.). feathers between indigenous communities, a practice which has been lost over the generations. Pilot studies are being carried out by the Von Humboldt Institute on the sustainable management of Ara spp. with traditional techniques such as planting certain fruit trees which are favoured by macaws (Rodriguez, pers. comm.).

3.3 Plant Products

3.3.1 Rubber The extraction of NTFPs in the Colombian Amazon has a turbulent history. Towards the end of the 19th Century, rubber exploitation produced short but intense economic upheavals in different regions throughout the country. The rubber boom in the Colombian Guiana Shield lasted between 1890 and 1935. At the same time, there existed a trade in animal skins and the medicinal root of the sarsaparilla liana (Smilax officinalis and S. syphylitica), used to cure syphilis. The rubber exploitation started with caucho (Castilla spp.). Exploitation was destructive: trees were cut down and the latex collected afterwards. When this source was exhausted, extraction turned towards Hevea spp., of which the bark can be tapped without felling the trees. H. brasiliensis, the purest and most manageable of all natural rubber species, can only be found in the southernmost part of the country. Other Hevea species (including H. pauciflora, found in Putumayo) produce Pacas (Agouti paca) harvested for bush meat. Photo: H. Muntingh less valuable latex. Demand increased and transport improved with river steam- ers (Broekhoven, 1996; Davis, 1996).

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Table 6: National production (volumes) of NTFPs in Colombia* Table 7: National production (value) of NTFPs in Colombia*

Product Species 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Product Species 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ Rubber Hevea spp. 982 Rubber Hevea spp. 6 million Palm heart Euterpe oleracea 13 0.8 14 112 265 749 700 Palm heart Euterpe 28,900 19,800 19,800 202,500 500,300 2 million 3 million 4 million Balsam Myroxylon balsamum oleracea Hymenaea courbaril 1.2 < 0.1 1.2 0.8 0.7 0.4 0.1 Balsam Myroxylon 43,300 18,200 36,500 33,700 36,500 21,000 5,500 Copaifera canime balsamum Piassaba fibre Leopoldinia piassaba 830 830 Hymenaea Firewood Various species 10 courbaril million Copaifera canime * Data are presented for the whole country, not just the Guiana Shield area. Source: Broekhoven (1996) * Data presented is from the whole country, not just the Guiana Shield area. Source: Broekhoven (1996); Bernal (1992) The rubber fever brought with it the cruellest period for the natives. Slavery returned in its most inhuman form and the Indian population was wiped out by 3.3.2 Forest fruits violence, disease and starvation (Davis, 1996; Broekhoven, 1996; Sánchez, 2001). According to Pulido and Cavelier (2001), a total of 11 species of wild forest fruits The Huitoto Indians experienced the worst: they were almost totally exterminat- were marketed in Leticia in 1997-1998. The bulk of this merchandise consisted of ed (some 50,000 people died). Today, their population is estimated at 10,000. In fruits of Mauritia flexuosa (canangucha), Theobroma grandiflorum (copuasú), the beginning of the 20th Century, rubber production from Asian plantations and Euterpe precatoria (asahí). These fruits were either sold fresh or as pulp, used began to take over the world production. During World War II, when rubber to make sweet drinks, compotes, ice cream or alcoholic beverages. Asahí has a export from Asia was hampered, there was a short revival of the rubber market similar taste and texture as the Brazilian açai, but the Colombian drink is made (Davis, 1996). Due to better quality, however, Brazil remained in monopoly. In from the fruits of the single-stemmed palm Euterpe precatoria, instead of from the 1984, 982 tonnes of natural rubber were still produced in the Departments of multi-stemmed Euterpe oleracea, which does not occur in this region. A total of Putumayo, Amazonas, Vaupes and Guaviare (Table 6), with an annual value of 69.4 ton of these fruits were sold annually on the Leticia market in the years 1993- US$ 6.2 million (Table 7). Unfortunately, apart from Broekhoven (1996), no 1995, but only 18% of this produce was harvested in Colombia (Table 8). The other data on rubber collection were available for Colombia. Duivenvoorden et al. remainder came from Peru (67%) and Brazil (15%). Less important Colombian (2001) do not mention any commercial rubber tapping along the Middle Caquetá wild fruits marketed in Leticia were Genipa americana and the palm fruits River, although their local field guides pointed out the Hevea trees as latex source. Oenocarpus bacaba and Jessenia bataua (Pulido and Cavelier, 2001). Therefore, the actual status of rubber as a commercial NTFP in Colombia remains unclear. Table 8: Mean annual volumes of NTFPs in tonnes commercialised in Leticia (Colombia)

The same accounts for the harvest of other natural gums and balsams. Apart from Product Species 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 the species and volumes mentioned by Broekhoven (1996), no further informa- tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes tion could be found on present-day harvesting of Myroxylon balsamum, Freshwater fish mainly catfish 8,525 8,525 8,525 8,525 8,525 Hymenaea courbaril and Copaifera canime in the Colombian Guiana Shield. The Canangucha Mauritia flexuosa 16.8 40* 40* 0.63** decline in production volumes and value in the 1980s suggests that these prod- Copoasú Theobroma grandiflorum 4.9 14.1* 14.1* 1.71** Asahí Euterpe precatoria 0.6 15.3* 15.3* 0.37** ucts are hardly commercialised anymore (Table 6 and 7). Milpesos Jessenia bataua 0.07 0.23** Bacaba Oenocarpus bacaba 0.09** Huito Genipa americana 0.08

* Commercialised in Colombia, but 82% of this volume is harvested in Peru and Brazil. ** Only fruit pulp figures, no figures available for whole fruits. Source: Duivenvoorden et al. (2001); Pulido and Cavelier (2001)

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A confusing aspect of this study is that Pulido and Cavelier (2001) list some obvi- the continuation of Andean production systems by immigrants, systems poorly ous NTFP species under the ‘cultivated fruits’ (e.g., Bertholletia excelsa, Poraqueiba adapted to the Amazonian environment. But if the researchers had included bush sericea), while some species denominated as ‘wild forest fruits’ are in fact culti- meat and medicinal plants in their survey, their conclusion would have been quite vated (Artocarpus altilis, Luffa cylindrica). Theobroma grandiflorum (copuasú), different. often mentioned as a NTFP, may occur as a wild tree in Pará and Maranhão (Brazil), but outside this region the species is cultivated. Due to its state as pre- 3.3.4 Palm heart Columbian cultivar, however, it is sometimes hard to tell if the tree is occurring Palm heart represents the most important export commodity for Colombia natural or propagated by humans (Villachica, 1996). The same accounts for (Bernal, 1992). In 1990, the export value totalled US$3 million (Table 6 and 7). Astrocaryum aculeatum. Palm hearts are in particular shipped to France. The palm in question, which is locally called naídi, was known in Colombia as Euterpe cuatrecasiana 3.3.3 Crafts and other NTFPs (Broekhoven, 1996), but recent studies identify the species as Euterpe oleracea Other wild species are commercialised in the form of handicrafts, such as (Bernal, 1992). The palm is very common in the flooded forests along the Brosimum utile, B. rubescens and Ochroma pyramidale (wood carvings), Magdalena River and in the Chocó region along the pacific coast. The species Brosimum utile and Ficus insipida (bark cloth), Heteropsis jenmani and does not occur in the Guiana Shield area and is therefore not treated in detail in Astrocaryum chambira (basketry). According to Bernal (1992), hammocks and this report. hats made of cumare (Astrocaryum chambira) are sold in many town stores in the Amazonas and Orinoco, as well as in the larger cities. The extraction of 3.3.5 Piassaba Astrocaryum fibers from the young palm can be destructive, often causing the Piassaba fibre (Leopoldinia piassaba), locally known as chiqui-chiqui, is harvested death of the plant. A detailed study on indigenous craft making was carried out in the Rio Negro and Orinoco Basins. It grows in dense stands on poor and sandy by Balcázar (2000) along the Rio Uvá. Several plant species were employed: soils, usually associated with black water. The leaf fibres are used to manufacture Heteropsis flexuosa, H. jenmanii, H. spruceana, Thoracocarpus bissectus, Desmoncus ropes and brooms (Bernal, 1992). Of the total volume of fibre extracted, 30% orthacanthos, and several Clusia species. Some of these crafts are sold at the mar- comes from the Guainía-Negro Rivers, 46% from Atabapo, and 24% from the ket in Puerto Inírida. Inírida River. Fibre harvest generates a substantial income for a few hundred indigenous families. In May 1991, the price of the fibre in Bogotá was US$ 450 per All medicinal plant species sold in Leticia (Uncaria tomentosa, Imperata brasilien- ton (Etter et al., 1997). Fibres from the Atabapo and Inírida Rivers are processed sis and Maquira coriacea) were harvested in Peru (Pulido and Cavelier, 2001). in Bogotá, while those from the Rio Negro and Guainía Rivers are transported Several wild trees were sold as firewood. Throughout the Guiana Shield, data on (through several intermediaries) to Manaus (Brazil). Palm fibre productivity in firewood consumption are almost non-existent, although it is often the only fuel Guainía was in the order of 5-10 kg/ha per year (Etter et al., 1997). While in the source for the rural population. Only Broekhoven (1996) gives an estimation of 1960s up to 2,000 tonnes of fibre were extracted annually from Guainía, the pro- the annual firewood consumption in Colombia: 10 million tonnes were used in duction of piassaba has decreased because of the replacement by plastic brooms. the country in 1985. The use of firewood merits more scientific attention, as it In 1996, there were about 20 small fibre factories (mainly in Bogotá) that pro- contributes seriously to deforestation in some areas of the Guiana Shield. duced between 500,000 and 700,000 brooms per year. Etter et al. (1997) conclude that the future of the extractive system depends more on institutional factors, pol- Despite the strategic location of Florencia at the foothills of the Andes, even less icy and market structure, than on fibre supply and harvest limits. Amazonian NTFPs were marketed in Florencia than in Leticia. All three ‘forest fruits’ mentioned in Pulido and Cavelier (2001) are agricultural products. The 3.3.6 Medicinal plants only NTFPs sold in this town were handicrafts: wood carvings of Brosimum utile Medicinal plants are only permitted to commercialise in Colombia if the species and B. rubescens, basketry and weavings made from Ischnosiphon arouma and are officially registered by the National Institute for Control of Medicines Astrocaryum chambira. Most crafts were made outside of Amazonas. Firewood is (INVIMA). So far, only 11 native medicinal species have been registered, while hardly sold on the Florencia market. Medicinal plants, however, were sold in large more than 200 species are traded regularly in large volumes at local markets in quantities. Unfortunately, the authors were not able to identify the species. The Bogotá (Duque, 2001). In 2000, the BioTrade Initiative in Colombia general conclusion of Pulido and Cavelier (2001) is that commercialisation of (‘Biocomercio Sostenible’) of the von Humboldt Institute (www.humboldt. NTFPs in the Colombian Amazon is marginal, except for catfish. The reasons for org.co/biocomercio/) organised a workshop on the sustainable use and trade in this phenomenon must be sought in the lack of commercialisation channels and medicinal plants in Bogotá, to compile information on current legislation, trade

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controls, research and industry related to medicinal plants in Colombia After a care for the most elderly shamans, most of whom live in great poverty. They fur- detailed survey of the medicinal plant market in Bogotá, Duque (2001) found ther support travelling health brigades that provide traditional medicine services that only 41% of the traded medicinal species were native to Colombia. The to communities, the construction of traditional ceremonial houses and medicinal majority of those plants was from Andean origin and cultivated. Only a few wild plant gardens (www.ethnobotany.org/actnew/umiyac.html). medicinal species originated from Amazonas and Putumayo: chuchuhuaza (Maytenus laevis), sangre de drago (Croton lechleri) and uña de gato (Uncaria In collaboration with a Colombian physician, Ingano healers are teaching tomentosa). No further details on their trade were provided. shamanistic practices and knowledge to young Inganos and neighbouring Correguajes, whose last true shamans died over a decade ago. In addition, pri- BioTrade and the von Humboldt Institute are also promoting a network for users mary health care is being provided to both Mestizo and Afro-Colombian com- and producers of NTFPs in Colombia, with a database under construction on the munities that have little or no access to western medicine (Martin, 1997). In Internet (www.humboldt.org.co/biocomercio/bolsaamazonia/). They are inviting September 2001, UMIYAC received an award in the ‘Citizen Initiative Project in community-based projects that want to trade biodiversity according to the Environmental Stewardship’ category, from the then Colombian president BioTrade sustainability guidelines to submit their business plans for technical and Pastrana (www.ethnobotany.org/actnew/news-colenviroawards.htm). financial support (www.biotrade.org). Bioprospecting is regarded with much scepticism in Colombia. Until now, the government has not given out any licences for the prospecting of medicinal plants, because of the unsolved issue of intellec- 3.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Colombia tual property rights. The agreement on a biosafety protocol is still pending (Muntingh and Veening, 1999). 3.4.1 Milpesos Another palm product from the Colombian forests that could provide a basis for 3.3.7 Shaman’s Apprentice Programme an extractive system, is the oil from the milpesos palm, also known as seje palm. In June 1999, the Amazon Conservation Team (ACT) sponsored a gathering of 40 The milpesos or Jessenia bataua (a synonym of Oenocarpus bataua) is a common shamans from seven Indian tribes from the Colombian Amazon in Yurayaco, palm of the Amazon region and gallery forests of the Orinoco region. It is also Caquetá. During this meeting, the indigenous healers discussed for the first time very abundant in the pacific provinces. The fruits are made into a popular bever- the future of their territories, their medicine and their people. They organised age, but also yield an oil similar to olive oil, which can be used for cooking and themselves into the Union of Yagé Healers of the Colombian Amazon (UMIYAC), cosmetic purposes (Balick, 1988). According to Bernal (1992), the installation of with the goal of unifying and placing in the service of humankind a knowledge small presses in the villages, palm-climbing equipment and an active marketing inherited from generation through generation among the indigenous peoples of process could make seje palm oil into a successful extractive product. The high the Amazon. The organisation does not have any commercial or promotional quality of this oil gives this palm a potential for domestication in agroforestry interest that could distort the authentic essence of their knowledge and their con- projects (Johnson, 1997). There seems to be a keen interest from cosmetic firms trol of the powers of Yagé (www.ethnobotany.org/actnew/umiyac.html). Yagé is in the US to import this oil for a fairly high price (M. von Hildebrand, pers. the local name for the liana Banisteriopsis caapi, made into a hallucinogenic brew comm.). also known as ayahuasca, and used in shamans’ healing ceremonies (Schultes and Raffauf, 1990; Davis, 1996). Travel agencies advertise on the Internet with yagé 3.4.2 Other forest fruits and nuts tours, while suppliers of ‘Amazon herbs’ sell bulk quantities of Banisteriopsis A botanical guide of forest fruits and their uses from the Duda River (Serranía de caapi, for as much as US$ 100/kg. Most of it is imported from Peru la Macarena) was published with financial aid from the NC-IUCN small grants (www.yage. net/hosted/suppliers.phtml). programme (Stevenson et al., 2000). Such illustrated field guides can serve as a base for further projects in the field of nature conservancy, ethnobotany and The UMIYAC plans to conceive and institute a certification procedure for tradi- commercialisation of NTFPs. The von Humboldt institute is investigating the tional healers, apprentices and disciples. It also bans the consumption of alcoholic (inter-)national market for preserved Amazonian fruits and nuts. Provided that beverages during healing ceremonies, as well as the sale of yagé or medicinal harvesters and producers follow their guidelines for sustainable management, plants to outsiders. With the assistance of ACT, they published the book ‘Beliefs they see a great potential to exploit the diversity of fruits and nuts of the of the Elders’, which serves as a Code of Ethics of Indigenous Medicine of the Colombian forests (www.humboldt.org.co/biocomercio/). Colombian Amazon (UMIYAC, 2000). ACT also helps UMIYAC to achieve other goals, such as the establishment of a fund to provide meals and emergency health

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The Amazon Treaty provides good online publications about the characteristics and preservation techniques of Amazonian fruits (www.tratadoamazonico.org). Examples of potential NTFPs occurring in the Colombian Guiana Shield are inchi nuts (Caryodendron orinocense), guaraná (Paullinia spp.), camu (Myrciaria dubia) and canangucha (Mauritia flexuosa). Management plans including sustainable harvest levels need to be developed for the major wild fruit crops in the country. Some research has been done on the management of Mauritia flexuosa swamps (Urrego, 1987, Villachica, 1996; Hiraoka, 1999; Ponce et al., 2000). Population growth models for Mauritia have been developed by the Pontifica Universidad Javeriana and the Yamato Foundation for the Llanos (Zea, 1998).

3.4.3 Paper from natural fibres Along the Rio Apaporis, the NGO Gaia Foundation has started a project in which indigenous communities produce a high quality paper from the fibres of a Ficus species, common in secondary forest and locally known as ‘marima’.The product proved to be successful in Bogotá, but new markets are required and the community needs training in accounting and management (Muntingh and Veening, 1999).

3.4.4 Ornamental plants No quantitative information is available on the extraction of ornamental plants from Colombia. Colombia harbours a great diversity of orchids, some of which are very popular on both the domestic and international market. The extraction of Anthurium species is a recent development (Broekhoven, 1996). Colombia’s large variety of Heliconia species could also be interesting in this respect (Martinez and Galeano, 1994).

3.4.5 Political problems Unfortunately, NTFP commercialisation and nature conservation are not top priorities for decision-makers in Colombia. The ongoing turmoil in violence and civil warfare is paralysing large segments of the political, economic and social system in Colombia (Muntingh and Veening, 1999). In fact, the FARC guerrillas control large parts of the Colombian Guiana Shield; the government has little or no influence. Foreigners are strongly advised not to enter the region without permission of the guerrilla. In order to be successful, new initiatives in this region should be coordinated and carried out by organisations that are ‘on speaking terms’ with the FARC. The NGO network COAMA seems to be a suitable partner for such projects, since they have firm roots in the region, they can count on much credit from the local population and know how to deal with the omnipresent guerrilla. Recent reports indicate, however, that currently no outsiders enter the region (P. von Hildebrand, pers. comm.). The coca trade with its attractive salaries and working conditions is the main economic activity for those living in the Colombian Guiana Shield (Mojica, pers. comm.).

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FRENCH GUIANA

4.1 Commercial NTFP extraction

French Guiana became an Overseas Department of France in 1946 and is an inte- gral part of France. The country is as large as Portugal (ca. 8.4 million hectares), and has a population of only 160,000, living mainly in the coastal area. French Guiana is covered for more than 80% with largely undisturbed tropical rain forest. People in the urban areas along the coast have a near European standard of living. In the hinterland, however, social circumstances are much poorer. French Guiana is populated by 10,000 indigenous peoples, forming seven ethnic groups (Arawak, Carib, Palikur, Wayãpi, Wayana, Emerillion and Oyapi), and 22,000 Maroons, organised in four ethnic groups (Aluku, Ndjuka, Paramaccans and Saramaccans). Many of these Maroons are refugees from the Surinamese civil war in the 1980s (Kambel and MacKay, 1999).

Ethnobotanical studies have pointed out that Amerindians and Maroons in French Guiana use a wide variety of NTFPs (Moretti and Grenand, 1982; Grenand et al., 1987; Grenand, 1992; Grenand and Prévost, 1994; Cadamuro, 2000). The great majority of this species is used for subsistence; very few NTFPs are commercialised. The country’s official wages are based on the national wages in France, and thus are far higher than in the surrounding countries. Consequently, it is economically more interesting to import NTFPs from neighbouring countries than to extract them commercially in French Guiana. Podosiri (the juice of Euterpe oleracea fruits), wood crafts and basketry are all purchased from Surinamese merchants in the border town of Saint Laurent du Maroni. Many of the wood carvers in French Guiana are Ndjuka refugees from Suriname; they sell their wares along the road from Saint Laurent du Maroni to Kourou (Duplaix, pers. comm.). Many of these products are resold for higher prices in the capital of Cayenne. Wildlife, particularly bush meat, appears to be the main commercial NTFP extracted in French Guiana.

4.2 Wildlife

4.2.1 Wildlife regulation and management in French Guiana France signed the CITES convention in 1978. French Guiana enacted legislation Map: RV Verlag, Ostfildern in 1986 and issued outlining rules for wildlife protection in 1995. For the great majority of species, export out of French Guiana (including to France) is prohibited, with the exception of fish and some minor insect products. French hunting

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law does not apply in French Guiana, as it does in the other overseas departments. Table 9: Most commonly hunted and traded bush meat species in the Guianas Hunting permits are not required, perhaps to respect the traditional hunting rights of Maroons and Amerindians in the interior, and there is no closed season Scientific Name Common Name Guyana Suriname French Guiana for hunting (Duplaix, 2001). There are some antiquated hunting bag limits that Hunting Status Hunting Status Hunting Status were set in 1975 (Duplaix, 2001). In fact, French Guiana has some of the most lax Pressure Pressure Pressure hunting restrictions of all the Guiana Shield countries (Richard-Hansen, 1998). Birds Currently, there are three categories that wildlife fall into: fully protected species, Ara ararauna, blue and yellow/ red *** Ex *** G/Ex *** F Pr species which can be hunted but not traded, and those which can be hunted and A. chlorptera and green macaws traded locally (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 1998). However this law is not Ara macao scarlet macaw *** Pr *** G/Ex *** F Pr detailed enough (i.e., given numbers of catches permitted per hunter) to control Cairina moschata muscovy duck *** G *** G/Ex *** F Pr certain allegations that come up regularly, such as the collection of toucans, par- Crax alector black curassow *** G/Ex *** G/Ex *** H/LT Penelope marail marail guan *** G *** G/Ex *** H/LT rots and troops of peccaries (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 1998). Wildlife man- Psophira crepitans grey winged *** Pr *** G/Ex *** H/LT agement in French Guiana is administered by the Office National de la Chasse et trumpeter de la Faune Sauvage (ONCFS), the Direction des Douanes, the Direction Ramphastos spp. toucans *** Ex ** Ex *** H Régionale de l’Environnement (DIREN) and the Office National des Forêts Tinamus major greater tinamou *** G *** Ex *** H (ONF) (Richard-Hansen, 1998). Mammals Agouti paca paca *** G/Ex *** G/Ex *** H/LT 4.2.2 Illegal trade Ateles paniscus black spider monkey *** - *** - *** F Pr Despite the restrictions on wildlife export, there is evidence of illegal trade of Alouatta seniculus red howler monkey *** Pr *** - *** H wildlife into and out of French Guiana, as border controls are weak. Parrots, small Cebus apella tufted capuchin *** Ex *** G/Ex *** H birds, bush meat, and sea turtle eggs are openly sold by Surinamese Amerindian Cebus olivaceus weeper capuchin *** Ex *** - *** H Dasyprocta spp. agouti *** G/Ex *** Ex *** H/LT and Maroon trappers in the border town of St. Laurent du Maroni. Bush meat Dasypus kappleri greater long-nosed ** - ** G *** H/LT from the Brazilian Oyapock River (Amapá) is regularly sold at St. Georges and armadillo Camopi. Commercial Brazilian hunters are travelling north along the new road Dasypus 9-banded armadillo *** Ex *** G *** H/LT into French Guiana to hunt for the markets of Regina and St. Georges (Ouhoud- novemcinctus Renoux, 1995; Richard-Hansen, pers. comm.). Caimans are said to be hunted in Hydrochaeris capybara *** Ex ** Ex *** H/LT the Coesewijne River (Suriname) destined for the restaurants of French Guiana. hydrochaeris Mazama spp brocket deer *** G *** G *** H Special butchers on the Marowijne (Maroni) riverfront prepare the wildlife Myoprocta exilis acouchi ** - ** Ex ** H brought in before it is being transported to Kourou and Cayenne. Ground border Tapirus terrestris lowland tapir *** G *** - *** H/LT controls may be weak, but French Guiana has stringent airport controls (Richard- Tayassu pecari white-lipped peccary *** G *** G *** H/LT Hansen, pers. comm.). In 1995, German wildlife traffickers were caught smug- Tayassu tajacu collared peccary *** G *** G *** H/LT gling more than 500 specimens of reptiles and amphibians (mainly the frog Saimiri sciureus squirrel monkey * Ex * Ex * H Dendrobates tinctorius); they were jailed for three months and were fined more Reptiles than 7,600 Euro (Hansen, 2001). In 1999, some rare hummingbirds were seized Caiman crocodilus spectacled caiman ** Ex ** Ex *** H by customs and the ONCFS in the airport French Guiana (Hansen, 2001). Iguana iguana common iguana ** Ex ** G/Ex *** H/LT Finding illegal pets (such as macaws and spider monkeys) and bush meat for sale Geochelone red-footed tortoise *** Ex *** Ex *** H in markets or in unlicensed restaurants is now less common, as the ONCFS is carbonaria Geochelone yellow-footed *** Ex *** Ex *** H enforcing the regulations in the coastal zone (Duplaix, 2001). denticulata tortoise

Hunting Pressure *- *** (Duplaix, 2001) Pr = Protected, Ex = Exportable, G = Game sp. (in Suriname = species with closed season under the 1954 Game Act). F Pr = Fully protected, H = Hunting Legal but trade prohibited, H/LT = Hunting and Local Trade legal Sources: Craig-Clarke et al., 2000; Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2000, 2001; Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 1998

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4.2.3 Bush meat from permanent riverine forest. Tapirs consume an enormous variety of plants Bush meat appears to be the most important NTFP in French Guiana. The list of and are considered important seed dispersors. Due to its prized meat and its rel- species that can be traded locally, but not exported, includes: the white-lipped and atively low reproduction rate, the tapir has become scarce or extirpated in areas collared peccary (Tayassu pecari and T. tajacu), agouti (Dasyprocta leporina syn- where it has been over-hunted (Brooks et al., 1997; Bevilacqua et al., 2002). The onym D. agouti), nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), great long- biomass of tapir meat hunted is on average more than a fifth of all meat harvest- nosed armadillo (D. kappleri), tapir (Tapirus terrestris), capybara (Hydrochaeris ed and often makes up a large part of a hunter’s income (Brooks et al., 1997). In hydrochaeris) and paca (Agouti paca). Game birds listed are the marail (Penelope French Guiana, tapir (along with peccary) made up most of the bush meat bio- marail), black currasow (Crax alector) and grey winged trumpeter (Psophia mass found on the Cayenne market between 1986 and 1997 (Richard-Hansen and crepitans). The green iguana (Iguana iguana) also appears on this list. These same Hansen, in press). Sport hunting by hunters from urban areas also occurs in animals can legally be served in licensed restaurants in French Guiana (Richard- French Guiana. Hansen and Hansen, 1998). Controls have tightened with regard to monitoring bush meat in restaurants especially in Kourou and Cayenne. Illegal species, such There have been several models and studies attempting to determine whether as brocket deer (Mazama spp.) and caiman, are now rarely found on the menu hunting for lowland tapir is sustainable in the Amazon region (Bodmer, 1995; (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). Hunting pressure for the local trade and Robinson and Redford, 1991b, 1994). The latter authors developed a population lack of a closed season are thought to be resulting in unsustainable collection lev- growth model to determine if a harvesting level is sustainable. These studies indi- els for the tapir (T. terrestris), the red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) and the cate that sustainable harvesting level would be 0.03 tapir per km2 when the pop- three game birds (Duplaix, 2001; Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press.). ulation is at its maximum production level. The general rule used by Robinson Duplaix (2001) recommends a review of the status of Crax alector and other heav- and Redford (1991b) for long-lived mammals, like the tapir, is 20% of the popu- ily hunted game species. The status of the main traded bush meat species in the lation’s production can be harvested to maintain a stable population. Tapirus ter- three Guianas can be found in Table 9 and a few are described in more detail in restris is considered threatened by over-hunting across the Guiana Shield (Brooks the sections below. et al., 1997; Bevilacqua et al., 2002; Duplaix, 2001). T. terrestris is listed as Vulner- able (A2cd, 3cd, 4cd) on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2002) and appears on CITES Hunting pressure is particularly high along the coast (Richard-Hansen, pers. Appendix I. Many South American countries have legislation allowing for subsis- comm.). Maroon hunters sell deer (Mazama spp.), agouti (Dasyprocta agouti), tence use (Table 9), as the vulnerability of tapir to over-hunting was overlooked paca (Agouti paca) and armadillo (Dasypus spp) along the road between Saint when the legislation was drawn up (Brooks et al., 1997). The lowland tapir is also Laurent du Maroni and Kourou (Duplaix, pers. comm.). Increased hunting pres- threatened by habitat loss due to logging, mining and other infrastructure devel- sure is partly due to better access that the highway linking French Guiana to Brazil opments (Brooks et al., 1997). brings (Duplaix, 2001). The opening up of areas with roads soon leads to local extirpation of the most vulnerable species, such as spider monkeys (Ateles spp.) Tapir are considered important seed dispersors for Mauritia flexuosa and and game birds (i.e., Crax spp.), whilst other species can withstand hunting pres- Maximilliana maripa. The over-harvesting of palm fruits and/or palm hearts by sure, although densities can get very low (Richard-Hansen, pers. comm.). There humans therefore has an effect on the availability of the preferred food resources have been several long-term market studies in French Guiana monitoring the of the lowland tapir. Local communities can help maintain tapirs in palm forest occurrence of bush meat on markets (Richard-Hansen & Hansen, in press.). On by dispersing the palm seeds to increase the productivity of these forests (Brooks the Cayenne market, the total amount of bush meat sold has greatly reduced since et al., 1997). The Tapir Conservation Action Plan recommends the development 1986. However, this might represent a shift away from bush meat traders selling of projects that reduce hunting, work directly with rural hunters to promote the on the market to selling direct to restaurants and individuals – a situation which sustainable harvest levels and reduce habitat loss with soundly managed agro- is harder to regulate and monitor. The ONCFS is enforcing the regulations in the forestry projects. There are definite long-term economic benefits to conserving coastal zone, but capacity remains low (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). tapir populations. For one, the economically important palm forests will be maintained for future use. Indeed, the benefits from productive palm forests might 4.2.3.1 Tapir well outweigh the costs to local people of restricting tapir hunting (Brooks et al., The lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris), the largest terrestrial mammal native to the 1997). Guiana Shield, is one of the top providers of game meat. Widespread throughout tropical South America, it is found in a variety of habitat types: tropical lowland 4.2.3.2 Peccaries rainforest, palm forest, savannah, tropical dry deciduous forests, albeit never far The collared peccary (Tayassu tajacu) is extremely widespread, from the southern

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US to northern Argentina (Emmons, 1997). The collared peccary lives in herds of (see Table 9). Commercial operations (e.g., logging and mining) are a problem for six to over 30. In general the collared peccary is not considered threatened due to peccaries, as wild pig meat is a major source of food for the workers; this exerts a its widespread distribution, high population densities, relatively high reproduc- heavy hunting pressure on the surrounding peccary populations (Bodmer et al., tive rate and varied habitat choice: from semi-desert to tropical rainforest 1993). With proper management, peccaries can bring economic benefits to local (Emmons, 1997; Oliver, 1993). Indigenous hunting of collared peccary has been people, urban markets and the national economy (Bodmer et al., 1993). Both occurring for innumerable generations, making up an important protein compo- species are listed on CITES Appendix II. nent of their diets. Indigenous adaptations to forest habitat for agriculture are often favourable to the collared peccary, sometimes to the extent that they 4.2.3.3 Armadillos become a nuisance (Oliver, 1993). Peccaries are often hunted while local people The great long-nosed armadillo (Dasypus kappleri) is found in Brazil (North are collecting other NTFPs, such as palm fruits (Bodmer et al., 1993). However, Pará), Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and the three Guianas. This animal is restrict- the widely hunted collared peccary is absent in parts of its range, due to heavy ed to lowland rainforest, with a somewhat patchy distribution, common in some hunting pressure (Oliver, 1993). Despite not being a conservation priority, the areas and scarce or absent in others. This armadillo is hunted for its meat and Conservation Action Plan recommends that all populations are monitored for sometimes for its carapace, which is used to make musical instruments (Emmons, habitat loss and the potential for over-exploitation (Oliver, 1993). 1997; Bakker, 1999). The nine-banded long-nosed armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) is more widespread that D. kappleri, with a distribution extending The white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) is distributed from southern Mexico to from southern US to Argentina, including some Caribbean islands (Emmons, South America. Found in herds of 30 to more than 300 individuals, the white- 1997). Found in all Guiana Shield countries, armadillo meat is hunted extensive- lipped peccary is the only terrestrial species to form such large troops in ly by indigenous people. Armadillos were found on the Cayenne market Neotropical forests (Emmons, 1997; Oliver, 1993). White-lipped peccaries have a (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). The animal is also used in handicrafts very patchy distribution and are most abundant in lowland rainforest (Oliver, and medicines (Bakker, 1999). The species can be scarce in areas where there is 1993). They are less frequent than the collared peccary (Emmons, 1997). The subsistence hunting, but it appears to be able to withstand heavy hunting pressure white-lipped peccary plays an important role in forest ecology as a seed dispersor (Emmons, 1997). Both armadillos are under relatively high hunting pressure in and predator. The large herds have an impact of the composition of the lower for- the three Guianas (Table 9). Neither species are listed on the IUCN Red List nor est stories (Oliver, 1993). It is recorded as one of the most important meat species on the CITES Appendices. for many indigenous groups across the Amazon and the Guiana Shield (Bevilacqua et al., 2002; Oliver, 1993). The status of this peccary is not well 4.2.3.4 Curassows, guans and chachalacas (Cracididae) known, but it is thought to be threatened in parts of its range. Populations of the This primitive family of Neotropical game birds plays an important role in the Amazon Basin and the Guiana Shield are thought to be the most important regeneration of tropical forests through seed dispersal and predation. They are strongholds for the species (Oliver, 1993). This species has a low tolerance to considered important biological indicator species and possibly a keystone species deforestation, as there is less cover protecting it against hunting (Oliver, 1993). It (species upon which other species depend). Yet half of all species are threatened is often extinct near human settlements, but Tayassu pecari is also naturally absent by habitat destruction and hunting (Brooks and Strahl, 2000). These birds often in parts of its range (Emmons, 1997). The white-lipped peccary is thought to be have strict habitat preferences and a relatively slow reproductive rate, making more susceptible to commercial hunting than the more adaptive collared peccary them vulnerable to human disturbance and over-exploitation (Silva and Strahl, (Oliver, 1993). The Conservation Action Plan recommends developing projects 1991). Cracids provide an important protein source for indigenous people and that encourage self-regulation by subsistence hunters and curtailing large-scale could also be a focus for ecotourism. They make up the highest biomass of all commercial hunting and trade (Oliver, 1993). birds hunted for meat and even when compared to biomass of mammals, cracids still rank highly. Unfortunately captive breeding techniques are poorly docu- Peccary meat and skins (collared peccary pelt is the most valuable) are sold on mented, although it has certainly been attempted on many occasions (Brooks and urban markets by rural hunters and provide an important source of income, Strahl, 2000). The economic importance of this family of birds should be empha- although hunting for skins is no long as prevalent (Bodmer et al., 1993). Peccary sised, as they have a considerable impact on the economies, especially subsistence meat (along with tapir) made up most of the bush meat biomass found on the economies of Latin America. Cayenne market between 1986 and 1997 (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). Local trade of both species is permitted in Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana Two species of cracid birds are commonly mentioned as being part of the bush and the species are under relatively high hunting pressure in all three countries meat trade throughout most of the Guiana Shield: the black curassow (Crax

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alector) and the marail guan (Penelope marail). Both are heavily hunted in the pink-toed tarantulas, are more often sold live for the pet trade (Garrouste, pers. three Guianas (Table 9; Duplaix, 2001) and curassows are listed as being a com- comm.). T. leblondi can be bought on the Internet for approximately US$ 150 mon food source in the Venezuelan Guayana (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). They can (www. chameleoncounters.com/tarantulas.html). Tarantulas are also collected in be served legally in restaurants in French Guiana, along with the other game bird the Cacao area (Garrouste, pers. comm.). The French Guiana pink-toe (A. avicu- the grey-winged trumpeter (Psophia crepitans) (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, laria) is a popular tarantula in the pet trade and is often sold as a good ‘beginners’ 1998). tarantula (www.gherp.com/gherp/pages/beginner.htm). A wild caught adult sells for US$ 10-25. It is possible to breed this arachnid in captivity. At present, DIREN 4.2.4 Insects and Spiders is in the process of establishing quotas for tarantula export, but research is first Although French Guiana has effectively banned wildlife exports, export of sou- being carried out to assess the impact collection has on tarantula populations venir invertebrates (such as arachnids and Morpho butterflies) for personal use is (Garrouste, pers. comm.). permitted, as they are not covered by the French Guiana game law (Duplaix, 2001). Insects are not an important economic product for French Guiana, but it is a trade with potential (Garrouste, pers. comm.). An important insect collection 4.3 Plant Products area is Montagne de Kaw. This has been a favourite area for entomological collection for about 30 years and is especially popular for the collection of the large 4.3.1 Palm products Coleopteras for trade, attracting collectors from Cayenne and Kourou (Garrouste, Forest fruits are marketed on a very small scale in French Guiana. The juice and pers. comm.). One species collected for trade is one of the largest beetles in the the entire fruits of the palms Jessenia bataua, Maximilliana maripa and world, Titanus giganteus, which has a maximum size of 20 cm. This beetle is very Oenocarpus bacaba are locally commercialised in the interior. Fruits of difficult to find in the wild, although its status remains unknown. T. giganteus can Astrocaryum vulgare (awara) are sold for Easter to make a juice called ‘bouillon fetch very high prices depending on its length; a specimen of 15 cm sells for d’awara’ (de Granville, pers. comm.). Palms are sometimes cut down to obtain the approximately for an equivalent of US$ 150, but the rare individuals of 18 cm fruits, a fairly destructive form of harvesting (Kahn and de Granville, 1992; long become virtually priceless (Garrouste, pers. comm.). A 16 cm T. giganteus Cadamuro, 2000). The leaves of several palm species are used for roof thatch in collected in French Guiana was selling for US$ 1,200 on the Internet (www.over the interior. Some of these palm leaves (e.g., Euterpe oleracea, Maximilliana land.net/~ insects/ auction.html). A specimen in a display box can be bought for maripa, Manicaria saccifera) are commercialised for roof making in the tourist US$ 350 (www. expandtheworld.com/html/shadowbox_displays_page_1.html). industry (Conseil d’Architecture d’Urbanisme et d’Environnement de la Guyane, Another popular scarab, the large Megasoma action, commonly known as the rhi- 1991). Euterpe oleracea forms extensive, monospecific stands in some coastal noceros beetle, finds its way to the European market. Its status in the wild is also areas, especially in the Kaw floodplain, which has recently been declared a Nature unknown. They are also sold on the Cayenne market and in tourist shops Reserve. Several attempts at developing a palm heart canning industry in French (Garrouste, pers. comm.). Guiana failed, because of bad management and the high costs of labour in comparison to neighbouring countries (Ricci, 1987; de Granville, 1999). Blue morpho butterflies (Morpho spp.) are not listed on CITES, so the scale of the trade in this insect is unknown. The main product, pictures made out of the 4.3.2 Medicinal plants wings, is aimed at the tourist market and sold mainly in Cayenne, Kourou and An excellent pharmacopoeia of French Guiana was published by Grenand et al. Cacao (Garrouste, pers. comm.). It is thought that blue morpho wing pictures are (1987), which included the screening results of a great number of medicinal often made in Brazil and are brought into French Guiana. Most morphos are col- plants. Although indigenous groups use a wide variety of medicinal plants, there lected in the coastal region. A popular collection area is Cacao; the collection of seems to be hardly any trade. Rosewood oil (Aniba rosaeodorea) is still harvested butterflies in this area may have an impact on the population (Garrouste, pers. near Tumacumaque (Saúl). The species has been overexploited in the past and is comm.). officially protected by law, so it is probably cultivated there (de Granville, pers. comm.). Crab oil (Carapa guianensis) is also traded on a small scale in the coastal Preserved tarantulas can legally be exported out of French Guiana as a souvenir, area. since tarantulas are not listed on the CITES Appendices. Although a large shipment of live tarantulas was once prosecuted (Duplaix, 2001). The largest species of tarantula, Theraphosa leblondi, commonly known as the Goliath bird eater tarantula, is most often killed and dried for souvenirs, while Avicularia spp. or

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4.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in French Guiana

Although there is little commercial extraction of vegetal NTFPs in French Guiana, wild plants remain important for subsistence use. Wages in French Guiana are probably too high to support sustainable NTFP enterprises. It is cheaper to pay extractors from neighbouring countries. For the Amerindian populations in the south of the country, commercialisation of NTFPs is problematic because of the large distance to the market. Trade with Brazil is perhaps a better option. A new programme is being developed at the Institute of Research and Development (IRD) in which the economic potential of NTFPs in the country is investigated (Fleury, pers. comm.).

Since 1998, there has been active academic research in French Guiana on the scale and impact of bush meat hunting, and a new collaborative research programme is underway (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). The ONCFS are enforcing regulations and this is having an impact. Illegal pets and bush meat on markets or in unlicensed restaurants is now less common. However, the ONCFS lacks the capacity to monitor all of the country’s borders and hinterland (Duplaix, 2001; Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). Smuggling remains a problem, as is the influx of commercial hunters from Brazil. Several species that are vulnerable to hunting pressure, specifically tapir and game birds, should be surveyed and legislation should be reconsidered based on these findings. Although hunters are nervous of possible new hunting regulations, according to Richard-Hansen and Hansen, hunters are starting to agree that there is a need to curb excessive hunting as finding bush meat in accessible areas is becoming difficult.

The export of insects and arachnids as pets and decorative items is an animal product with potential due to high value and small size. Trade in the popular species (Colepteras and Morpho butterflies) is not monitored, although DIREN is beginning to set quotas for tarantulas.

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GUYANA

5.1 Commercial NTFP extraction

Guyana is a poor and sparsely populated country that harbours large tracts of undisturbed rainforest. More than 80% of the country’s 19.6 million hectares is covered with forests, and much of this is still in a pristine state (Sizer, 1996; ter Steege, 2000). The country has a population of less than 800,000, of which the great majority lives on a narrow coastal strip. Guyana’s interior is sparsely populated by nine Amerindian tribes: the Arawak, Akawaio, Arekuna, Carib, Macushi, Patamona, Wai-wai,Wapishana, and Warao. Their total population is estimated at 60,000 (Kambel and MacKay, 1999).

At present, many NTFPs are harvested from natural forests in Guyana. Only a few products are extracted on a commercial basis, and even fewer species are exported, with the exception of wildlife. Several ethnobotanical studies from Guyana have been published (Fanshawe, 1948; Lachman-White et al., 1987; Johnston and Culquhoun, 1996; Forte, 1996; Hoffman, 1997; van Andel, 2000), but only the latter two publications deal with commercial NTFPs. Guyana’s most important NTFPs are wildlife, palm heart, and nibi and kufa furniture. Minor export products are mangrove bark, crafts, ornamental and medicinal plants.

5.2 Wildlife

5.2.1 Commercial wildlife harvesting Wildlife is by far the most important commercial NTFP in Guyana and the country’s wildlife exports are significant on a global scale (Broekhoven, 1996; Duplaix, 2001). Guyana and Suriname are the only South American countries to legally export wild animals (Duplaix, 2001). In 1992, Guyana was the world’s fifth largest bird exporter (Sizer, 1996). Other commercial animals are reptiles, amphibians, mammals and freshwater fish (for food and ornamental purposes). Wildlife export is directed mainly to Europe and the US. The annual revenue for legal wildlife exports varies between US$ 1.2 and 2 million (Tables 10 and 12). Profits generated by illegal export of live animals and bush meat would add significantly to this estimate (van Andel, 1998). Guyanese wildlife trappers and traders feel at a disadvantage to their Surinamese counterparts, because levies paid in Guyana are higher than those in Suriname, with the result that Suriname has a competi- Map: RV Verlag, Ostfildern tive advantage in the wildlife export business (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000).

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Since the majority of wildlife trappers in Guyana are Amerindian, most harvest- licensing the traders, but this remains the WSD (Watkins, pers. comm.). Since ing takes place in indigenous regions, such as the North-West District and signing the CITES convention in 1977, Guyana has had two CITES imposed bans Southern Guyana (Forte et al., 1992; Edwards et al., 1994; van Andel, 2000; Craig- on their wildlife trade. The first, January until October 1987, was to allow more Clarke et al., 2000). The Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice watersheds (see Map) comprehensive legislation and a quota system to be drawn up. The second, from are also major trapping areas (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). An area important for February 1993 until November 1995, was again to pressure the Government to bird trapping is the north-east of Guyana near the border of Suriname (Edwards improve wildlife legislation. Traders and Amerindian trappers suffered economi- et al., 1994). Indigenous groups living in extremely remote areas, such as the Wai- cally during these wildlife trade moratoria (Duplaix, 2001). Harvest quotas have wai, are reported to walk for weeks along their forest trails to trade their captured been set since 1988 for all species legally exported. The country has imposed parrots and songbirds on the closest market (Jansen-Jacobs, pers. comm.). Bush closed seasons for wildlife trapping: for birds from January to April (Kratter, meat and freshwater fish are traded within communities, on village markets and 1998) and for mammals from June to August (Edwards et al., 1994). Guyana’s with gold miners and loggers. Although the prices the trappers receive are very wildlife legislation is now much stronger, with the Environmental Protection Act low compared to consumer prices outside Guyana, it is still a reasonably lucrative of 1996 and the Species Protection Regulations of 1999, as well as the long stand- business. Somewhere between 6,000 and 54,000 people are involved in wildlife ing Wild Birds Protection Act. New Wildlife Management and Conservation trapping (Thomas et al., 1996; Iwokrama, 1998). Regulations of 2000 are currently under consultation (Duplaix, 2001; Hoefnagel, 2001).

Table 10: Export values of wildlife from Guyana Other wildlife management agencies include the Wildlife Division Veterinary Inspection, Customs and the Fisheries Department. Customs have the task of controlling illegal trade on the borders of Suriname and Venezuela, where they Animals exported 1998 [US$] 1999[US$] have four stations. The Fisheries Department of the Ministry of Fisheries, Crops and Livestock issues licenses to aquarium fish traders, although the relationship CITES birds 913,140 919,472 with the WSD is somewhat unclear (Hoefnagel, 2001). The Environmental CITES reptiles and amphibians 228,633 144,726 Protection Agency (EPA), set up in 1998, is now fully functioning, but could CITES mammals 151,658 104,682 undergo restructuring within the next year to include the WSD as prescribed in CITES animals total 1,293,431 1,168,880 the new draft Wildlife Management and Conservation Regulations. Discussions about the establishment of a Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources are Non-CITES reptiles and amphibians 47,527 21,839 also taking place (Hoefnagel, 2001). Non-CITES mammals 25,039 15,003 Non-CITES birds 15,260 4,890 The structure of the wildlife trade industry in Guyana is made up of trappers, Non-CITES animals total 87,826 41,732 middlemen, exporters and the WSD. Guyanese exporters must have a license issued by the WSD: 30 wildlife exporters (excluding aquarium fish exporters) are Total CITES and Non-CITES animals 1,381,256 1,210,612 listed in Duplaix (2001). Middlemen and trappers must also be licensed. Licensing generates revenue, which is then transferred to a Wildlife Fund, Note: Figures are based on Free on Board (FOB) values and realised export. amounting to approximately US$ 112,000 per year (Duplaix, 2001). The Wildlife Source: Duplaix (2001) Fund is used to cover the costs of monitoring and enforcement by the Wildlife Division.

5.2.2 Wildlife regulation and management 5.2.3 Illegal trade The Wildlife Services Division (WSD), set up in 1986, registers and monitors the Animals are smuggled into Guyana from all neighbouring countries. Differences legal export of animals from Guyana and is the official Management Authority for between quota systems and levies between Guyana and Suriname are leading to CITES (Hoefnagel, 2001). The WSD was part of the Ministry of Agriculture and wildlife traffic across the border, often to fill quotas in the other country later part of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), but it now falls direct- (Duplaix, 2001). In Guyana, the general perception is that there is more leakage ly under the Office of the President (Hoefnagel, 2001). These shifts have resulted of animals from Guyana into Suriname (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000; Duplaix, 2001). in substantial confusion as to who is managing the wildlife trade and who is Kratter (1998) claims that almost half of the birds harvested in Guyana are end-

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ing up being exported from Suriname. Animals, particularly parrots, are being smuggled into Guyana from Venezuela via the Orinoco Delta (Bevilacqua, 2002). River turtles, arapaima and caimans are poached in the Rupununi for the Brazilian market (Parker et al., 1993; Forte and Benjamin, 1993). Live animals are shipped in cargo planes and flown from Lethem to Georgetown or further into Brazil. Plans to upgrade the road from Boa Vista (Brazil) to Georgetown could increase the flow of wildlife between Brazil and Guyana, unless adequate management systems are put in place. Easier transport could facilitate the supply for both the export and domestic market, given the popularity of birds and monkeys as pets and the growing demand for bush meat in Georgetown and Brazil (Forte, 1990; Iwokrama, 1998). Conservation International raised concern for the fate of the wildlife in the Kanuku Mountains (southern Guyana), as the Boa Vista- Georgetown road passes close to this area. In the early 1990s, local villagers had already complained of declining animal populations caused by over-harvesting, forest fires and improved hunting techniques (Parker et al., 1993).

5.2.4 Psittacines The Psittacine family includes macaws, parrots, parakeets and parrotlets. It is the most important group for Guyana’s wildlife trade, representing 72% of the total legal animal trade and over 90% of all birds legally traded in 1999. The Psittacines generated over US$ 850,000 in 1998 and 1999 based on FOB prices and export realised (Table 11). The two most important species with regard to income generation are the orange-winged parrot (Amazona amazonica) and the red-and- green macaw (Ara chloropterus), which together brought in more than US$ 450,000 revenue in 1998 and 1999 and a FOB value of US$ 288 per bird (Table 00043144 11). Trade in these birds dates back to pre-Columbian times, as Amerindians used live parrots and feather ornaments as trade commodities (Thomas and Brautigam, 1991; Snyder et al., 2000). Caged parrots, macaws, and parakeets can still be seen across the Guiana Shield region, as keeping birds remains a popular

hobby. Parrots are also considered a delicacy food in many parts of the Guiana ’99 [US$] [numbers] 1998 [%] [US$] [numbers] 1999 [%] [US$] Shield. Occasionally, parrots are killed in Guyana because they are perceived as pests in orchards and agricultural areas (Kratter, 1998), especially during the 1999 parrot invasion of the Pomeroon fruit crops (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). orange winged parrot macaw and green red macawblue and yellow 32.00 parrotyellow-headed 288.00mealy parrot 252.00 macawred-bellied black-headed caique/parrot 86.00 7,043blue-headed parrot 807 50.00 614 macawred-shouldered 65.00fiery-shouldered parakeet 72.00 869 78 36.00 50.00 36.00 532 90 85 384 798 225,376 87 678 588 232,416 89 154,728 26 7,132 80 74,734 792 75 59 678 26,600 24,960 79 57,456 852 24,408 29,400 88 517 94 506 228,224 875 85 711 475 228,096 170,856 86 34 86 73,272 79 48 25,850 32,890 63,000 25,596 23,750 painted parakeetpainted 110.00 29 10 2,929 0 0 0 golden winged parakeet rumpedgreen parrotlet parakeetwhite-eyed 22.00 parakeetbrown-throated 22.00 14.00 72.00 15 38 46 18 8 6 9 6 330 836 644 1,296 5 3 0 0 3 0.5 0 0 110 66 0 0 Pionites melanocephala Pionus menstruus Pyrrhura egregia egregia Pyrrhura picta Brotogeris chrysopterus passerinusForpus Amazona amazonica Amazona chloropterus Ara ararauna Ara ochrocephala Amazona farinosa Amazona manilata Ara nobilis Ara Aratinga leucophthalmus Aratinga pertinax Aratinga Latin name Name Common FOB 1998, Export 1998 Quota realized 1998 Value Export 1999 Quota realized 1999 Value TOTAL 12,459 67 856,133 12,550 67 871,854 Source: Duplaix 2001 from compiled price on Board Free FOB = minimum Table 11:Table for 1998 and 1999 Guyana from Export for the Psittacines data   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 84

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No figures are available for the domestic market, although Kratter (1998) esti- (Deroptyus accipitrinus). Kratter recommended a limited trade of two previously mated that 10% of the Psittacines are sold on the national market. Export is zero quota species: the dusky parrot (Pionus fuscus) and the blue-cheeked parrot mainly focused on the European market. Previously, the US was a major market (Amazona dufresniana). Guyana raised these small quotas in 2000: the dusky par- for parrots, but this trade was cut off in 1992, when the Wild Bird Conservation rot went from the recommended 500 individuals to 780 and the blue-cheeked Act (WBCA) was passed. This Act requires that birds are harvested from the wild parrot from the recommended 200 to 520 individuals (Duplaix, 2001). sustainably, and until this can be proven no birds can be exported to the US. The Additionally, the previously recommended zero quota for the hawk-headed par- US market is a potentially valuable one, with captive-bred blue and yellow rot went up to 780 individuals. Besides the legal trade for which CITES quotas are macaws selling for US$ 900-US$ 1,400 and captive-bred scarlet macaw selling for set, there is an active illicit trade in Psittacines with Venezuela, Suriname and pos- US$ 1,200-US$ 1,600 on the Internet. Worldwide legal trade in parrots was sibly Brazil (Kratter, 1998; Duplaix, 2001). Duplaix (2001) mentions an anecdote greatly diminished during the 1990s, due to the introduction and tightening of of scarlet macaws (Ara macao) being transported from Suriname into Guyana legislation (Snyder et al., 2000). The introduction of national legislation, the through Nickerie. Guyana has a zero quota for scarlet macaws, but it was sug- significant trade review process by the CITES Animal Committee, stricter EU gested that they might be exported out of Guyana as the similar red and green legislation, the WBCA in the US and transport restrictions put in place by com- macaws. mercial airlines, have all made headway into reducing live bird trade (Duplaix, 2001; Snyder et al., 2000). Although there are many threatened parrots in the Neotropics (see Snyder et al., 2000), the blue-cheeked parrot (A. dufresniana) is the only parrot in the Guiana Trapping parrots is fairly labour intensive, involving two people, a (sticky) perch, Shield region with an IUCN threat category. Although relatively widespread in a long-pole with lasso and a ‘calling bird’. One trapper hides in a tree (often an the Guiana Shield (French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela), it is listed Euterpe palm, a popular food source for parrots) with a captive ‘calling bird’,while as Low Risk - Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, as habitat loss and trade the second person waits on the ground. Attracted by the captive parrot’s calls, the have caused a population decline (IUCN, 2002). Although it does not have an unsuspecting wild bird lands on the sticky perch, where it is caught with a lasso IUCN threat category, the sun parakeet (A. solstitialis) is now very rare and close and sent to the trapper on the ground. Trappers are often farmers or palm heart to extirpation in Guyana. The sun parakeet is also found in eastern Brazil, cutters who trade wildlife to supplement their income during the low season Suriname and French Guiana with one historical record from southern (Duplaix, 2001). Trappers are often supplied with trapping equipment by the Venezuela. This parakeet was common in the Rupununi and the decline is attrib- middlemen or exporters. Trappers bring the birds to villages where they are sold uted to trapping for the wildlife trade in the early 1980s, as well as smuggling to to middlemen or sometimes direct to exporters (van Andel, 2000; Kratter, 1998). Brazil (Kratter, 1998; Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). Trapping of the sun parakeet was The birds must then be checked at a quarantine station and a permit must be made easy by their habit of using the same nest tree every year. A trapper claimed issued before they can be exported. Kratter (1998) estimated the mortality rate that declines are also due to habitat changes. This parakeet is fairly easy to breed (including damaged parrots) at about 15%. Quotas for exporters are determined in captivity, but there is still demand for wild sun parakeets to maintain the genet- simply by dividing the total quota for a species by the number of licenses. For ic diversity of the breeding stock (Kratter, 1998). There is a preliminary plan to each bird exported a tax of 20% of the import value is collected for the Wildlife reintroduce the sun parakeet with a captive breeding programme followed by a Fund. Parrot values substantially increase as you follow the export chain. ranching programme (Wiley et al., 1992), which would also be sought after by Exporters sell the parrots for seven times the price bought from the middlemen, bird watchers. The idea to set up a cooperative between an existing tourist ranch and 11 times the price bought from the trappers. This trade was estimated to in the Rupununi and exporters has not yet been developed. However, populations directly benefit approximately 584 people in Guyana (Kratter, 1998). of sun parakeets are so low in Guyana that breeding stock would have to be brought in (Kratter, 1998). A total of 28 parrot species occur in Guyana, all of which are listed on CITES Appendix II, except for the scarlet macaw (A. macao) which is listed on CITES Duplaix (2001) states that Guyanese “exporters expressed an interest in receiving Appendix I. Kratter (1998) suggested maintaining zero quotas for several rare expertise and assistance in setting up captive breeding or ranching projects. They Psittacine species, specifically the scarlet macaw (A. macao), chestnut fronted are willing to provide the facilities, but need training in captive management and macaw (Ara severa), sun parakeet (Aratinga solstitialis), dusky billed parrotlet husbandry techniques. This would be a costly proposition. Some exporters sug- (Forpus sclateri), tepui parrotlet (Nanopsittaca panychlora), lilac-tailed parrotlet gested exporting breeding stock to breeding facilities overseas to save time and (Touit batavica), sapphire-rumped parrotlet (Touit purpurata), caica parrot reduce expenses.” However, these facilities already exist. This raises again the (Pionopsitta caica), festive parrot (Amazona festiva) and the hawk-headed parrot Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the benefit sharing question:

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when direct economic benefits of a country’s biodiversity are being exploited out- for this species, which was worth almost US$ 11,000 in 1999 (Duplaix, 2001). The side the native range, shouldn’t some of the benefits be returned to the country? rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria) is widespread in South America and is distrib- How will Guyana compete with US entrepreneurs breeding Guyanese birds? uted throughout the Guiana Shield. This CITES Appendix II snake generated an income of just over US$ 5,000 in 1999 for Guyana (Duplaix, 2001). Trappers 5.2.5 Ramphastidae would make approximately US$ 10 for a rainbow boa, while the retail price in the The rest of the CITES bird trade is made up of toucans and aracaris. Five species US is more than US$ 200 (van Andel, 1998). Surveys of the boid snakes have been are exported from Guyana for the pet trade: black-necked aracari (Pteroglossus carried out by CITES and the EPA. aracari), green aracari (Pteroglossus viridis), toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), red- billed toucan (Ramphastos tucanus) and channel-billed toucan (Ramphastos The yellow-spotted river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis), distributed throughout the vitellinus). In 1998, these birds made up almost US$ 50,000 of the wildlife export Guiana Shield, is considered Vulnerable (A1acd) on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, revenue and US$ 57,000 in 1999 (Duplaix, 2001). However, export quotas are 2002). It is a CITES Appendix II species. Guyana has a zero quota for this river never fully realised; out of a total quota of 842, only 451 were exported (Duplaix, turtle, whereas Suriname has a quota of 630 (CITES, 2002). The giant river turtle 2001). It is possible to breed these birds in captivity: prices vary from US$ 1,000 (P. expansa) is legally protected in Guyana, but considered to be locally threatened for a captive-bred green aracari up to US$ 9,000 for a captive-bred toco toucan in in the Rupununi due to exploitation for the Brazilian market (Craig-Clarke et al., the US (www.emeraldforestbirds.com). 2000). A point of interest with regard to the CITES quotas for the red-headed river turtle (Podocnemis erythrocephala) is that Guyana had a quota of 50 indi- 5.2.6 Songbirds viduals since 1997, despite the fact the species is not recorded as occurring in Seed finches (Oryzoborus angolensis and O. crassirostris) are very popular Guyana (CITES, 2002). It was, however, deleted from Guyana’s quota list for 2001. songbirds in Guyana. These songbirds, as well as three species of Sporophila According to Edwards et al. (1994), none of the tortoises (Geochelone carbonaria (S. schistacea, S. lineola and S. minuta), are entered into singing competitions for and G. denticulata) should be exported (i.e., zero quotas set) until adequate field cash prizes up to G$ 100,000 (~US$ 520). The best singers can be locally worth surveys are carried out. In 1998, both tortoises quotas (of 704) were filled and up to G$ 200,000 or US$ 1,080 (Williams and Watkins, 2002). Most song birds are almost filled in 1999– an export worth in total about US$ 20,000 (Duplaix, 2001). transported over great distances from the North-West District and the Rupununi These species are also consumed regularly in indigenous communities savannahs to the coast (van Andel, 1998). International trade in the towa towa (van Andel, 2000). (O. angolensis) and the twa twa (O. crassitostris) is banned from Guyana, although it is not regulated by CITES. Nevertheless, songbirds are smuggled into Suriname Spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) have been extensively surveyed under the and further afield to Trinidad and the US. There is growing concern about popu- auspices of CITES, resulting into a management plan with a monitoring scheme lation declines in these songbirds due to the trade (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000; put in place by the Guyanese government (Edwards et al., 1994). Guyana’s quota Williams and Watkins, 2002). A new project funded by the Audubon Society for C. crocodilus is 20,000 skins and 10,000 live individuals. In 1999, export of live investigates the socio-economics of the songbird trade in Guyana (Williams and spectacled caiman generated about US$ 30,000 (Duplaix, 2001). The black Watkins, 2002). caiman (Melanosuchus niger) is found in the Rupununi and the Upper Essequibo Rivers, and has a scattered but viable population (Ross, 1998). In the past, the 5.2.7 Reptiles and amphibians Guyanese black caiman population was severely hit by skin traders from Boa Vista Guyana has specialised in non-CITES reptiles and amphibians: currently some 38 (Ross, 1998). It is listed on CITES Appendix I, which bans all international trade. non-CITES species are being exported, as well as 21 CITES listed species (Table Dwarf caiman (Palaeosuchus palpebrosus) and the smooth fronted caiman 10). Guyana exports approximately three times the numbers of non-CITES rep- (P. trigonatus) are both widespread in the Guiana Shield. These small caimans are tiles than Suriname (Duplaix, 2001). The most economically valuable reptile in not considered threatened (they are not interesting for the skin trade), and both Guyana was the emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus), making over US$ 40,000 in are listed on CITES Appendix II. Primarily hunted for subsistence by 1999 (based on FOB values and realised exports). Guyana has a quota of 880 indi- Amerindians, these species are also commercially exploited in Guyana for the pet viduals for this CITES Appendix II snake. The emerald tree boa is also found in industry (Ross, 1998). A few hundred Palaeosuchus spp. were exported in 1998 Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela and other Amazon and 1999 worth approximately US$ 2,000 (Duplaix, 2001). countries. Its presence in Colombia has recently been confirmed (Rodriguez, pers. comm.). The slender tree boa (Corallus hortulanus), with a similar distribution to Guyana exports six species of dendrobates frogs: Allobates femoralis, Dendrobates the emerald tree boa, is also exported from Guyana. Guyana has a quota of 3,000 azureus, D. leucomelas, D. tinctorius, Epipedobates pictus and Phobobates

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trivittatus; all of which have a quota of 500 and are exported live for the pet trade captured by local people in creeks and ponds in the beginning of the dry season. (www.CITES.org). This trade was worth only US$ 650 in 1999 (Duplaix, 2001). Dealers maintained that this trade did little ecological damage, as the fish would In the past, Guyana listed frog and reptile species on its CITES quota lists that do die anyway during the dry season. However, no surveys had been conducted in not actually occur in Guyana, due to confusion as to taxonomy and the geo- the North-West District and little is known about the impact of the extraction on graphical distributions of Guianan Herpetofauna (Hoogmoed, pers. comm.). The the populations of these species (van Andel, 2000). No harvest quota or closed blue poison arrow frog (Dendrobates azureus) only occurs in the Sipaliwini seasons exist for ornamental fish in Guyana. Iwokrama is developing an aquari- Savannah in Suriname. In neighbouring Guyana, the frog is said to be found in um fish project with communities in their surroundings. A holding station for only one location west of the Sipaliwini, although its distribution in southern aquarium fish has recently been built in the North Rupununi and preliminary Guyana has been recently investigated. Despite the fact the species is protected in results have been published on the potential of the trade (Geer, 2000; Watson, Suriname, Guyana continues to allow an export of 500 individuals per year 2000b). (www.CITES.org). Duplaix therefore recommends that species that are endemic and protected in one of the Guianas, and have small populations in a neighbour- 5.2.10 Arapaima ing country, should not be exported from those countries. Reaching up to 3 metres in length, the ancient, air-breathing arapaima (Arapaima gigas) is the largest scaled freshwater fish in South America. It has a pan- 5.2.8 Primates Amazonian distribution and is considered a delicacy in the region. A large ara- Currently, four primate species are legally exported from Guyana: the weeper paima can fetch approximately G$ 40,000 (~US$ 120) (Iwokrama, 2001). The capuchin (Cebus olivaceus), brown capuchin (Cebus apella), red-handed tamarin arapaima is in high demand in Brazil, which has resulted in a decimation of its (Saguinus midas) and the common squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus). Guyana population in Guyana (Iwokrama, 2001). Arapaima is currently protected by fish- exports more primates than Suriname and is the only country exporting the eries regulations (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). The species appear on CITES weeper capuchin. The most traded primate is the squirrel monkey, exported for Appendix II, but is considered Data Deficient on the IUCN Red List (IUCN, the pet trade and until recently for use in laboratories. In 1998, squirrel monkey 2002). export was valued just over US$ 100,000 (Duplaix, 2001). Several field surveys of the primates have been carried out in Guyana (e.g., Lehman, 2000; Sussman and Although protected, the lucrative trade meant that regulations have often Phillips-Conroy, 1995). ignored. Communities in the North Rupununi Wetlands have embarked on a new initiative to manage the arapaima trade with support from the EPA and the 5.2.9 Ornamental fish Fisheries Department. Together with Iwokrama, the North Rupununi Guyana is not a major aquarium fish exporter like Brazil, Colombia and Development District Board (NRDDB) is looking at the possibilities for the sus- Venezuela, but the trade does have a long history and there is a steady demand for tainable harvest of arapaima. Regular surveys of more than 180 lakes are being fish from Guyana (Watson, 2000b). Some 76 species of fish are exported live for carried out in the region by the NRDDB, the Mamiraua Institute for Sustainable aquariums by six exporters (DeSouza, 1997). This limited number of low-value Development (Brazil), the Guyana Fisheries Department and Iwokrama. Results aquarium fish exported leaves a significant unexploited potential to increase the have shown that there are not many large fish remaining. Based on experiences in range of fish exported, especially those of higher value (Watson, 2000b). Prices Brazil, the study came up with several recommendations for the management of paid for ornamental fish vary; rare species fetch higher prices, such as the motoro arapaima in Guyana: 1) the Government should permit limited local arapaima stingray (Potamotrygon motoro), worth about US$ 2 per individual. Export is con- fishery in Guyana rather than in Brazil; 2) only local communities should be centrated towards the US market (Watson, 2000b), although European importers allowed to fish arapaima, to allow direct economic benefits for the indigenous have expressed interest in increasing their imports from the Guiana Shield region communities; 3) local communities and the NRDDB should calculate the per- (Grosman, 2002). In 1992, the potential value of export quota for aquarium fish missible harvest based on stock surveys by trained fishermen; 4) the minimum was calculated at just over US$ 250,000, making up 13% of the total wildlife harvest size should be 1.5 meters in length; 5) arapaima fishery should be banned export revenues; this value increased to over US$ 550,000 in 1997 (Table 12). during the breeding season (Iwokrama, 2001).

The ornamental fish harvest is concentrated in the Mahaica-Mahaicony area, near 5.2.11 Bush meat Soesdijke, Rockstone, the Berbice River and the Barima River in the North-West Bush meat and freshwater fish have been traded for years between forest commu- District (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000; van Andel, 1998). The main species harvested nities, gold miners and loggers (Forte, 1995, 1999). Nowadays, the trade in bush along the Barima River is the silver-hatchet (Gasteropelecus sternicla), which is meat is increasing, and more focused on the Georgetown and Trinidad markets

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(Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). Main commercial species include labba (Agouti paca), ket, but nowadays the main threat to the margay is habitat loss (Nowell and brocket deer (Mazama spp.), tapir (Tapirus terrestris), white-tailed deer Jackson, 1996). (Odocoileus virginanus), muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), cracid birds, iguanas (Iguana iguana) and tortoises (Geochelone denticulata and G. carbonaria). Wild The oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) seems to be rare across its range and its distribu- meat is becoming more prevalent on restaurant menus in the larger towns and tion is not completely known, especially in the Amazon and Guiana Shield villages in Guyana (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). The game birds Psophia crepitans regions (Emmons, 1997). Very little is known about the status of this species, as it and Crax alector are also exported from Guyana. Guyana has set non-CITES occurs mainly in high elevation habitats and has never been studied in the wild. export quotas for these species: in 1998 about US$ 15,000 revenue was generated The species is considered Near Threatened under the IUCN Threat Categories and in 1999 US$ 5,000 (Table 10). No quantitative data exist on the national mar- (IUCN, 2002). The jaguar (Panthera onca) occurs throughout Central and South ket for bush meat and freshwater fish in the country, although it is the main America and is often found along watercourses, where it hunts capybaras, turtles, source of protein in the interior. However, there is a general perception that there caiman and fish. The jaguar became rare because of the fur trade in the past, but are more wild meat users than ever before (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). also suffers from habitat loss and extermination by ranchers (Emmons, 1997). The fur trade has diminished since the jaguar’s listing on CITES Appendix I. It is The growing bush meat trade in Guyana is focused on deer (O. virginanus and also listed as Near Threatened under the IUCN Threat Categories (IUCN, 2002). Mazama spp.) as well as labba (Agouti paca) (Craig-Clarke et al., 2000). The In spite of this, jaguar, puma (Puma concolor) and smaller cat skins were still white-tailed deer is hunted for its meat in many parts of the Guiana Shield and is offered for sale in 1998 by souvenir shops in Georgetown (van Andel, 2000, see considered threatened at the national level in many Guiana Shield countries (i.e., front page of this report). In the Iwokrama area, sightings of jaguar occur regu- Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela). It is not, however, listed on the IUCN Red List. larly and it was suggested that sightings could be guaranteed for tourists if a few The widespread brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira and M. americana) are hunt- days were spent in a hide (Cassels, pers. comm.). ed across the Guiana Shield, but there remains very little information on the status of these species. Both species of brocket deer are listed as Data Deficient on IUCN Red List (IUCN, 2002). A. paca has an extremely widespread distribution Table 12: Export values of major NTFPs from Guyana and is usually found near water and swampy habitats where it feeds on grass and fallen fruits. Labba is the most prized Neotropical game animal for its tender, Product 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 veal-like meat (Emmons 1997). Like many other bush meat animals, labbas are US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ US$ rare or locally extinct in accessible areas (Ouboter, 2000). Labba meat is found on Wildlife 1,500,000 1,871,000 banned banned - 2,100,000 - 1,381,256 1,120,612 markets in parts of the Guiana Shield (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, in press). Ornamental fish - 250,000 - - - 400,000 558,000 285,000 - Due to their preference for fairly inaccessible habitats, they cannot be considered Palm heart 734 tons 797 tons 941 tons 1,500,000 2,071,162 1,965,978 2,338,431 - - threatened. It should therefore be possible to sustainably hunt this species from Nibi and kufa - - - - 190,133 137,120 125,165 - - its natural habitat (Emmons, 1997). Tibisiri crafts - - - - 11,209 10,401 4,850 - - Medicinal plants - - 0.33 tons 1.96 tons 5,361 6,213 2,313 - - Mokru crafts - - - - 1,823 131 75 - - 5.2.12 Spotted Cats

Across the Guiana Shield, the ocelot, margay, oncilla and jaguar all suffered heav- Total - - - - 2,279,688 4,219,843 - ily from the fur trade of the 1970s and early 1980s. Today they are all listed on CITES Appendix I, prohibiting international trade. National legislation forbids Figures are given in tons if revenues were not available. - = Data not available the hunting of the spotted cats in all countries of the Guiana Shield (Craig-Clarke Sources: Edwards et al. (1994), World Bank (1995), Sizer (1996), Thomas et al. (1996), NGMC (1996, 1997, et al., 2000; Nowell and Jackson, 1996). The widely distributed ocelot (Leopardus 1998), Watson, 2000b, van Andel (2000), Duplaix (2001) and Hall et al. (2001). pardalis) was heavily hunted for its fur until the mid 1970s. Since its CITES Appendix 1 listing in 1989, hunting pressure was greatly reduced and there are signs of population recovery (Nowell and Jackson, 1996). The smaller margay (Leopardus wiedii), from which almost 14,000 skins were exported between 1976 and 1984, is also a widespread species (Nowell and Jackson, 1996). Margay fur is less valuable than ocelot fur, but margays were often caught in traps set for ocelots (Emmons, 1997). There are reports of illegal hunting and trade for the black mar-

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5.3 Plant Products the region. A socio-economic study on the livelihoods of palm heart extractors is also planned by the GFC (Evans, pers comm.). Since the potential for conflicting 5.3.1 Palm heart land uses (commercial agriculture, mining or logging) is minimal, the extraction Palm heart from Euterpe oleracea supplies a canning industry worth US$ 2 mil- of NTFPs seems to be the most viable form of land use in Euterpe swamps lion annually in export value, and is Guyana’s most important vegetal NTFP (van Andel, 2000). (Table 12). Canned palm heart is hardly sold on the national market; most is exported to France. The multi-stemmed palm species, known locally as ‘mani- 5.3.2 Nibi and kufa cole’, grows in large numbers in the brackish coastal wetlands, particularly in the After wildlife and palm hearts, the most important NTFPs in Guyana are the aer- country’s North-West District. Some 1,000 palm heart harvesters are active in this ial roots of several hemi-epiphytes. They provide the raw material for a furniture region, the majority of which are Amerindians. This region produces 60% of the industry that is best compared with the rattan manufacture in East Asia. The national palm heart production. The French-Guyanese company AMCAR has main species are nibi (Heteropsis flexuosa) and kufa (Clusia grandiflora and recently opened a canning factory along the Berbice River, where 40% of the C. palmicida). The hemi-epiphytes grow in the canopy of non-flooded primary national production takes place. forest, although Clusia is occasionally found in swamp forests (van Andel, 2000; Hall et al., 2001). The hemi-epiphytes hardly occur in secondary forests. To assess the sustainability of current palm heart extraction by AMCAR, the Germination takes place in the tree crowns, after which aerial roots descent Tropenbos-Guyana Programme carried out a four-month pilot study in north- towards the forest floor. Kufa roots are bent into furniture frames, while the pli- west Guyana. Vegetation structure, regeneration and mortality were compared able nibi roots are woven between these frames. Nibi is also used in basketry (van between areas with a high and with low harvest intensity. An undisturbed area Andel, 2000). was taken as a control. In Euterpe populations that had been harvested for several years, stems were significant smaller in size and diameter than populations har- Nibi and kufa are harvested in the Pomeroon and Mabaruma regions; some vested only once or twice. Palm heart weight and yield were much lower in high- extraction takes place near Mabura Hill (van Andel, 2000; Hall et al., 2001). From pressure areas, whereas clump mortality was almost three times higher than in the the 1930s, Arawak and Carib communities in the Pomeroon region have been control plot. In areas where people combined subsistence farming with palm harvesting kufa and nibi roots for commercial furniture making. Nowadays, heart harvesting, fallow periods tended to be longer and less damage was done to Amerindians are still the main extractors of this resource. In the 1970s, the first the vegetation. Neglect of traditional farming and dependency on the palm heart roots were transported to Georgetown for furniture production, and export to the industry has led to overharvesting and socio-economic problems in several Caribbean Islands begun. Since then, the furniture market has been unstable, regions (van Andel et al., 1998; van Andel, 2000). partly due to political turmoil in Guyana (Hall et al., 2001). Furniture for the local market is still made in the Pomeroon, but Georgetown factories are taking over On request of the Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), Peña-Claros and the export market. Guyanese furniture supplies the tourist industry on the Zuidema (2001) developed a Code of Practice for palm heart harvesting. Based Caribbean Islands, with Barbados as the biggest importer. Only a small percent- on the field data of van Andel et al. (1998), they developed a harvesting model, age is exported to the US and Canada (van Andel, 1998; Hall et al., 2001). which clearly showed that very short cutting cycles (less than 1 year) and a high Furniture is sold on the national market for US$ 20 per chair, export pieces can harvesting intensity (95% of the mature stems) result in a rapid decline in densi- cost up to US$ 1,000. Exports values for furniture and other nibi crafts vary ty of harvestable stems. A detailed management plan is needed to ensure the between US$ 125,000 and US$ 200,000 (Table 12). future supply of palm hearts. Peña-Claros and Zuidema recommend that only palms higher than 7 m should be cut, harvesting intensity should be around 50- Liana Cane Interiors Ltd. is a major furniture exporter in Guyana. The company 75% and fallow periods should be at least 5 years. An extensive survey of palm strives to conduct a business that is responsible in both social and environmental heart resources has to be carried out in the region, and harvest activities must be aspects. They only buy certain diameter sizes of nibi and kufa roots and work with monitored regularly. Maintaining a minimum diameter for palm heart is a pow- a permanent team of collectors and middlemen. In 1997, the company already erful method to prevent the extraction of immature stems. Permanent sample expressed the need for applied research on growth rates of nibi and kufa roots to plots should be established to obtain basic information on growth, survival and calculate sustainable harvest levels (Hoffman, 1997). After 1998, the overharvest- reproduction rates of manicole in natural stands. Once these measurements are ing of kufa roots and logging of host trees resulted in a decline in diameter and followed, the abundance and rapid growth of Euterpe oleracea offers good oppor- availability of roots from the Pomeroon. Kufa is nowadays extracted along the tunities for sustainable extraction, which is of vital importance to employment in road to Mabura Hill (central Guyana), while nibi is still extracted along the Pomeroon River (Dow, pers. comm.).   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 94

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extraction of nibi and kufa roots (Alphonso, pers. comm.). The GFC has plans to In general, the individual epiphytes are not killed during harvesting. In the case undertake a pilot project on nibi and kufa roots (Evans, pers. comm.). of nibi, the roots are easily pulled down from the trees. Only a very small pro- Opportunities for eco-certification of the furniture business should be investigat- portion of the roots are fit for harvesting. For kufa, however, collectors have to ed, as this might have a positive influence on the export market. Although nibi climb the trees to harvest the roots. This is a dangerous job, so more roots are har- and kufa furniture will probably never compete on the global market with the vested to make the climbing worthwhile. If no more than 50% of the roots of kufa cheaper rattan furniture from Southeast Asia, markets could be expanded in the are harvested and the largest root is unharmed, the plants have a good chance of Caribbean and the US, as export taxes for Guyana are reduced (Hall et al., 2001). survival (Hoffman, 1997). Standing primary forest is needed to harvest nibi and kufa. A host tree for these epiphytes can provide more money in the long run than 5.3.3 Mangrove bark after a single logging event. As long as reasonable prices are paid for these roots, The bark from Rhizophora mangle and Avicennia germinans, used for tanning their extraction can actually prevent deforestation (van Andel, 2000). leather, is commercially harvested in the coastal swamps of the North-West District. Entire mangrove trees are cut down and skinned; the bark is sold to middlemen in Mabaruma who ship the produce to the capital, where the actual leather production takes place. Since the 1970s, mangrove has lost its economic importance, probably as a result of the decline in cattle production in southern Guyana. In 1998, the production remained at 35 tonnes (van Andel, 2000). The GFC does not want to hand out more harvesting permits before a proper management plan is developed. Although mangroves occur in near monospecific stands along the coast, felling of trees could increase the damage on seashore and riverbanks by tidal movements. The GFC is now undertaking a study to develop a Code of Practice for mangrove bark harvesting (Evans, pers. comm.).

5.3.4 Crafts The majority of the Guyanese handicrafts are made in the Amerindian villages of Santa Rosa (Moruca), Karakaburi (Pomeroon), Santa Mission (Demerara), St. Cuthberts (Mahaica River) and the Rupununi Savannah (see Map). Most crafts are sold in shops in the Georgetown. Export of crafts (Table 12) is predominantly directed to the Caribbean Islands, were they are resold in tourist shops for much higher prices (van Andel, 2000). Except from nibi and kufa, several other NTFPs are used in craft production. Tibisiri is a fibre obtained from the young leaves of Mauritia flexuosa. The twine is woven into hammocks, basketry, car seats and carpets. The palm occurs in large quantities on the flooded coastal plains, in swamp forests and the Rupununi savannas. Tibisiri harvesters complain that the Small furniture workshop, Pomeroon, Guyana. Photo: T. van Andel frequent burning of savannahs in the dry season forces them to travel further each year to obtain their raw material. Although probably beneficial at first, (the sur- The Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC) recently set up a draft Code of Practice rounding vegetation is eliminated and seed germination is enhanced), the burn- on nibi and kufa harvesting (Hall et al., 2001). The GFC organised workshops for ing of the savannah eventually becomes fatal to Mauritia saplings (van Andel, collectors, middlemen and furniture manufacturers. It was decided to maintain a 2000). regeneration period of ten years after harvesting of nibi and kufa roots. Minimum and maximum diameter sizes for the roots were set, to ensure the survival of the Mokru is a strong fibre split from the stems of Ischnosiphon arouma and I. obliquus plants and sustainable harvesting (Hall et al., 2001). There still remains a need for shrubs that grow in secondary forest. The fibre is woven into household basketry more baseline information on the ecology, distribution, preferred forest types, and tourist souvenirs (van Andel, 2000). Furniture and basketry from Guyana are host preferences and growth rates of nibi and kufa plants. Permanent sample now offered for sale on the Internet (www.artscraftsGuyana.com). Balata, the latex plots should be established in which regeneration is studied after experimental of the bulletwood tree (Manilkara bidentata), used to be Guyana’s most important

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NTFP.It was exported as raw material for the rubber industry, but has lost its eco- 1987; Reinders, 1993; van Andel, 2000). A total of 85 species are offered for sale nomic importance since the invention of synthetic substitutes and the establish- on the herbal market in Georgetown, but just a handful of species are exported ment of Hevea plantations in Asia (Pennington, 1990). In the 1990s, a successful (van Andel, 2000). Guyana’s neighbouring country Suriname exports substantial project of Conservation International in the Kanuku Mountains reintroduced the volumes of medicinal plants to the Netherlands (van ‘t Klooster, 2000). Many of use of balata for making handicrafts, which are now sold at Georgetown tourist these species successfully marketed by Suriname also occur in Guyana, but it shops (Conservation International, 1997). seems that this country still has to discover its commercial potential on the world market. Guyanese medicinal plants, barks, roots, oils, and resins could have a much larger potential for the national and regional market if they would be 5.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Guyana processed in a more sophisticated manner, such as ready-to-use tonics, powders, tablets, ointments, or pre-packed herbal teas and baths. Of the 294 medicinal 5.4.1 Expanding the export of NTFPs plant species recorded in the North-West District by van Andel (2000), only one The current state of the economy in Guyana is critical and has been unstable over was commercialised on a regular basis. Crab oil, extracted from the seeds of the recent years. This has detrimental effects for the international trade in NTFPs. crabwood tree (Carapa guianensis), is the sole herbal medicine offered for sale in Companies active in forest product trade have a hard time finding financial the interior shops. The oil is used throughout the country as mosquito repellent, resources to stay in business and build a socially acceptable and ecologically hair and medicinal oil. Its complicated processing method makes crab oil rela- sound enterprise (Hall et al., 2001). There is an urgent need for the development tively expensive (US$ 7 per litre). Iwokrama recently initiated a study on the pro- of sustainable harvesting levels for palm heart, nibi and kufa, products that have duction and market prospects for crab oil in Guyana (www.iwokrama.org). a great potential for sustainable harvesting. Guyana is a member of the CARICOM, which might offer opportunities for creating markets in the Bioprospecting was mentioned as an opportunity to obtain extra benefits from Caribbean, especially for crafts and furniture. More attention should be given to the country’s biodiversity (Sizer, 1996; Iwokrama, 1997). The Environmental community-based commercial NTFP enterprises. The recent activities of the Protection Agency (EPA) is now developing a policy and institutional framework Guyana Forestry Commission in developing draft Code of Practices for NTFPs to regulate the collection of specimens by scientists and pharmaceutical compa- are promising and should be stimulated. nies in Guyana (EPA, 2000). Recently, Iwokrama has developed a bioprospecting programme through a partnership with CABI Bioscience, the Royal Botanical 5.4.2 Potential plant products Gardens in Kew, the Institute of Applied Science and Technology (University of For some reason, the Guyanese do not like the juice of Euterpe oleracea fruits. The Guyana) and the University of the West Indies. To date, the main focus of the pro- palm heart processing company was not interested in processing these fruits gramme has been the establishment of a national biodiversity screening labora- (van Andel et al., 1998). The same accounts for the fruits of Mauritia flexuosa, har- tory in Guyana, and research on bioactive metabolites of pharmaceutical and vested only occasionally by Amerindians, but not processed commercially like in insecticidal significance from fungi and their host plants. Local Amerindians have Venezuela and Colombia. Products with such an enormous potential, occurring in been recruited to carry out field surveys and laboratory activities. Any commer- large quantities in areas not suitable for agriculture or logging, remain unused cial exploitation is capped until Iwokrama has intellectual property rights and because they lack opportunities on the domestic market. Palm heart and tibisiri benefit sharing agreements in place (Iwokrama, 2002). fibre harvesting does not necessarily have negative consequences for fruit collection, as long as sufficient mature stems per clump are left to supply the extractor with The Amazon Conservation Team has plans to expand their Kwamalasamutu fruits (in the case of Euterpe oleracea) and Mauritia palms are not chopped down to Brazil nut project in Southern Suriname to the neighbouring Wai-wai communi- harvest leaves or fruit (Peters et al., 1989b). Since malnutrition is not uncommon in ties in Guyana, where a 150 km strip of Brazil nut trees exists. The possibility of the Guyanese interior (Forte, 1995), the use of palm fruits in the local diet should linking the two initiatives increases the potential for economic sustainability of be promoted. Once a stable external market is found, Guyana might reconsider the project. Some of the advantages include easier access to markets, an increase developing a conserving system for fruit pulp export. Using the existing infrastruc- in sale and decrease in relative transport costs (ACT, 2000). However, it remains ture for palm heart collection, the revenues from the coastal swamps could increase to be seen if the high transport costs will not be an obstruction to make this proj- significantly, resulting in more employment for local people. ect economically viable.

Medicinal plants are definitely an underdeveloped resource in Guyana. Hundreds Live orchids (e.g., Brassia verrucosa, Catasetum spp., Encyclia diurna, Oncidium of medicinal species are used in the country for subsistence (Lachman-White, baueri, Rodriguezia lanceolata, and Zygosepalum labiosum) from the North-West

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District are sold to merchants in Parika (Essequibo) for up to US$ 20 per plant (van Andel, 2000). The Guyana Forestry Commission authorises the export of orchids (all orchids are listed on the CITES Appendix II) and bromeliads. The above-mentioned species are rather common elements in the coastal wetlands. Taxes paid by orchid exporters were reported as very low, while the specimens were valued at hundreds of dollars in the US (Edwards et al., 1994). No official figures exist on the marketing of wild ornamental plants from Guyana.

5.4.3 Sustainable wildlife harvesting According to Ziegler and Zago (1993), the export of wildlife from Guyana, if properly regulated, could be a profitable and sustainable use of renewable natural resources. Edwards et al. (1994) state that the economic potential of the wildlife trade may be the only viable counter-argument to the massive deforestation that will surely result from the anticipated timber harvests. Sizer (1996), however, argues trapping does lasting damage to the forest and is thus inherently unsustainable.

Since 1996, there have been significant advancements with regard to management and regulation of the wildlife trade (Duplaix, 2001). A common criticism of wildlife management in Guyana has been the lack of baseline data on population sizes, spatial distribution and breeding seasons, making it difficult to estimate the impact of the wildlife trade on animal populations (Edwards et al., 1994; Sizer, 1996; Nasir et al., 1997). Several surveys have been carried out in recent years, such as the brief survey of the Psittacines by Kratter (1998). Surveys are a requirement of CITES; if no population data is available for high volume species, then further trade bans could result under the CITES Significant Trade Review process (CITES, 2001). The stated prerequisite for baseline biological studies before management is thought by some to be a misguided assumption, as biological surveys often do not provide suitable data for management purposes, not to mention the high costs of carrying out these surveys (Watkins, pers. comm.). Research is certainly necessary, but should be an integrated part of the management system. Particularly needed in Guyana are socio-ecological studies of wildlife trappers, market surveys and the design of management systems that work economically as well as socially and culturally (Watkins, pers. comm.). WWF–Guianas is actively working on dialogues between the wildlife management authorities and exporters in Guyana and Suriname to make headway on harmonisation of quotas as part of their Wildlife Trade Management Programme for the three Guianas. Iwokrama leads the way with innovative projects on the sustainable harvesting of wildlife in collaboration with local communities. These programmes, set up to provide alter- Palm heart (Euterpe oleracea) harvester along the Waini River, Guyana. native mechanisms for sustainable harvesting and equitable benefit sharing, will Photo: T. van Andel hopefully provide insights into wildlife management and trade that can be shared with other nations of the Guiana Shield.

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SURINAME

6.1. Commercial NTFP extraction

Suriname, a country where more than 90% of its surface (163,820 km2) is covered with dense tropical rain forest, has only 450,000 inhabitants. The population is concentrated in the capital of Paramaribo and the coastal zone. This population consists of Creoles, Maroons, East Indians, Javanese, Chinese and small groups of Syrians, Lebanese and Europeans. Brazilian immigrants, legal and illegally employed in the gold mining industry, have recently become part of the population as well. The forested interior is inhabited predominantly by Amerindians and Maroons or Bush negroes, descendants of African slaves who fought their way to freedom creating their own societies. The Maroons are the largest group (about 45,000): they have settled along the Suriname, Saramacca, Tapanahony and Marowijne Rivers in the east and central part of the country (Kambel and MacKay, 1999). Their community is divided into different ethnic groups: Saramaccans, Paramaccans, Ndjuka (Aucans), Matuwari, Aluku (Boni) and Kwinti. The indigenous population (estimated between 10,000 and 22,000) is found in the most southern part of the country (Trio, Wayana and Akurio). Some tribes (Arawak, Carib) live in the savanna belt in the coastal region (Kambel and MacKay, 1999). The population living or working in the interior of Suriname (including gold miners and loggers) is estimated at between 60,000 and 80,000 (de Dijn, pers. comm.). These figures may increase in the future because of massive gold mining and timber exploitation activities (Sizer and Rice, 1995; Colchester, 1995; Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 1996).

The civil war between 1986 and 1992 and the economic crisis of the last decade has hit the Surinamese society very hard. It has left a completely devastated economy and a disintegrated interior (Colchester, 1995; Teunissen et al., 1999). As a result, project activities are mostly concentrated on the rehabilitation of villages, basic needs and transportation facilities. At the same time, there is an increased asser- tiveness of the Maroon and indigenous population in respect to their rights in cultural, social, economic and political terms (Amazon Cooperation Treaty, 1996). Map: RV Verlag, Ostfildern Quite a number of publications have stressed the importance of wild plants for subsistence use in the country (Stahel, 1944; Ostendorf, 1962; May, 1982, Heyde, 1990, Raghoenandan, 1994), but little is published on commercial NTFPs in Suriname (Peneux, 1999; van ‘t Klooster, 2000). Except for wildlife, Suriname does not appear in South American export statistics of NTFPs (Broekhoven, 1996). Export of NTFPs from Suriname is covered by the Law on Forest

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Management, but this law covers only plant products and excludes wildlife Table 13: Export values of wildlife from Suriname (de Dijn, pers. comm.). Scientists working in Suriname state that there exists a (Based on FOB values and realised export) lively national market in forest products. From the scattered published information and personal comments of experts, we can say that Suriname’s main commercial NTFPs are wildlife, podosiri (Euterpe oleracea) and other palm fruits, Animals exported 1997 [US$] 1998 [US$] 1999 [US$] 2000 [US$] medicinal plants, crafts and Brazil nuts. CITES birds 884,129 727,377 676,843 591,440 CITES reptiles and amphibians 134,439 122,044 77,513 126,848 CITES mammals 290,778 151,387 133,300 86,575 6.2 Wildlife CITES animals total 1,309,346 1,000,808 887,656 804,863

6.2.1 Commercial wildlife harvesting Non-CITES reptiles and amphibians 24,077 11,636 17,772 133,591 Wildlife can be legally exported from Suriname. Along with Guyana, they are the Non-CITES mammals 900 822 0 2,160 only two South American countries exporting considerable quantities of wildlife, Non-CITES birds 68,407 49,678 36,874 98,954 generating a significant income (Duplaix, 2001). Revenues of wildlife export fluc- Non-CITES animals total 93,384 62,136 54,646 234,705 tuate around US$ 1 million per year (Table 13), with CITES-listed birds, reptiles and amphibians making up the bulk of the export (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, Total CITES and Non-CITES animals 1,402,730 1,062,944 942,302 1,039,568 2001). Since 1997, the trade in CITES-listed species has declined. Primates were no longer exported in 2000 (Duplaix, 2001). For most CITES-listed species, Source: Duplaix (2001) realised exports are much lower than the allowed quota, due to a decreased demand, new international restrictions and transport problems (Ouboter, 2001). The trade in bush meat and live animals is very important in Suriname’s interior. Maroon and Amerindian trappers sell birds, frogs, reptiles and fish to traders 6.2.2 Wildlife regulations and management from Paramaribo, who market the meat in French Guiana and export the live Suriname ratified CITES in 1981, after which the Government established an animals to Europe and the US (Duplaix, 2001; Boven, pers. comm.). There is a export quota system. Export is only allowed for those species mentioned on the small-scale domestic trade in live animals in Paramaribo, although no quantita- quota list and quotas are determined annually, although Ouboter (2001) con- tive data are available on this, but it is thought most live animals are destined for cluded that the quota list should be revised and based on scientific studies and the export market (De Dijn, pers. comm.). A possible exception may be the conservation approaches. All plants and animals (including dead specimens and domestic trade in songbirds. parts) leaving Suriname require an export permit; permits for CITES and non- CITES species are granted by the Nature Conservation Division (NB) of the Key wildlife collection areas in Suriname are Apura, Washabo, Tepu and Kwama- Suriname Forest Service (LBB). The LBB, with funding from WWF-Guianas, has lasamutu (Boven, pers. comm.; Duplaix 2001). Psittacines are trapped in the produced a guidebook with animal pictures in full colour explaining the wildlife Apura region on the Corantyne River and in the extreme south of Suriname in export rules. The Surinamese Game Law of 1954 determines when hunting can the Sipaliwini savannah, like Palumeu, Pelelutepu, Kwamalasamutu and the occur and permits will not be issued during closed hunting season. However the Sipaliwini airstrip (Duplaix, 2001; Ottema, Playfair, Teunissen, pers. comm.). Bird Game Law applies only to the coastal areas, not to the interior of Suriname. trade from Kwamalasamutu was hampered because of restricted access by middlemen, but local people are now bringing the birds to Paramaribo themselves The export of aquarium fish is regulated by the Fisheries Department (Ministry (Boven, Ottema, Teunissen, pers. comm.). Reptiles are caught across the entire of Agriculture). Fishing in the interior is not regulated at all (Ouboter, 2001). country, including close to Paramaribo (Playfair, pers. comm.). Most wildlife Although wildlife export is by many accounts well regulated in Suriname, the exports, especially birds, have been traditionally exported to the Netherlands, LBB-NB still lacks financial and technical support. They have too few officers in from where they are often immediately re-exported (Duplaix, 2001). Recently, order to cover all the accessible areas to counteract smuggling and breaches of the wildlife exports are directed towards Belgium, since the main airline (KLM) does closed seasons (Colchester, 1995; Ouboter, 2001). WWF-Guianas maintains a not accept wildlife cargo anymore (Duplaix, 2001). Wildlife exporters also coop- Wildlife Trade Management Programme for the three Guianas. Their main goal erate closely to charter private planes to ship their animals to Europe (Teunissen, is to strengthen regional institutional capabilities, legal mechanisms and national pers. comm.). structures for the sound management of wildlife trade, and promote the appro-

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priate framework for the sustainable use of wild resources in the Guianas. Their from 70 to 786, making it higher than Guyana’s quota for this parrot. The quota headquarters are located in Paramaribo. for Amazona amazonica went up from 4,800 to 6,140 (www.CITES.org). Captive breeding of macaws and parrots is not common in Suriname, despite captive bred 6.2.3 Illegal trade parrots having a higher value in the pet trade. A couple of species (Pionites Wildlife is smuggled across the Suriname border with all neighbouring countries: melanocephala and Amazona dufresniana) are now being bred in captivity by Guyana, French Guiana and Brazil (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001; Hoogmoed, exporters (Ouboter, 2001). pers. comm.). Parrots, game birds, bush meat and sea turtle eggs are offered for sale across the Marowijne River in St. Laurent du Maroni (French Guiana). Here, The exact status of Psittacines in the country is not known, but the general specialised butchers prepare the wildlife before it is transported to Cayenne. impression is that most populations are stable (Ouboter, 2001). There are a few Animal exporters often cross the Guyana-Suriname border to meet quotas in the exceptions: the blue cheeked parrot (Amazona dufresniana) is less common than other country (Duplaix, 2001). Poachers from French Guiana enter Suriname to other parrots, golden-crowned conure (Aratinga aurea) has a distribution limited hunt the scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber) between the nature reserves of Galibi and to the Sipaliwini savanna in Suriname and exporters are reporting a decline in the Wia Wia (Spaans and Teunissen, pers. comm.). Capturing birds during the closed red and green macaw (Ara chloropterus). It is clear that population surveys of season and in designated areas of Suriname (e.g., around the Brokopondo Lake), psittacines should be carried out, especially because their trade is regulated by is illegal, but continues to occur. Birds trapped during the closed season are some- CITES (Ouboter, 2001). times kept in captivity until the season opens again (Duplaix, 2001). The trapping of parrot species is allowed between July and December (Ouboter, 6.2.4 Psittacines 2001). Most bird trade is legal. However, differences between the quotas and dif- Psittacines (macaws, parrots, parakeets and parrotlets) are the most economical- ferences in parrot populations between the countries increases illegal cross bor- ly valuable group of Suriname’s wildlife trade (Duplaix, 2001, Ouboter, 2001). der trade (Kratter, 1998; Duplaix, 2001). Duplaix witnessed Guyanese trappers They represent more than 90% of the export value of CITES-listed birds and on catching scarlet macaws in the Apura region, along a creek near the Corantyne average 60 % of the export value of all wildlife. However, as with other exported River, which entered Guyana via Nickerie (Duplaix, 2001). Another report by the animal species, the export realised within this group is much below the export chief French Customs Inspector mentions smuggling of parrots between quota (Table 14). In 2001, the earnings for export of the parrot family dropped Suriname and French Guiana across the Marowijne River; the birds are then sold further to US$ 450,000; a 45% decline over 5 years. The blue and yellow macaw on the roadside between Saint Laurent du Maroni and Kourou (Duplaix, 2001). (Ara ararauna) and orange winged parrot (Amazona amazonica) generate by far the most income (Table 14).

A total of 20 species are commercialised. All species are listed on CITES Appendix II, except for the scarlet macaw (Ara macao) which is listed on Appendix I. Suriname maintains a quota of 100 for the scarlet macaw and registered exports in 1997 and 2000 (Duplaix, 2001). The scarlet macaw is also the most valuable per individual with an FOB value of US$ 873 (Table 15). When compared to neighbouring Guyana, Suriname has much lower quotas and realised exports, but con- versely has higher FOB prices (Broekhoven, 1996; Duplaix, 2001). For many of the commercial Psittacine species listed for Guyana, Suriname has zero or low export quotas. For example, the 2001 quota of blue-cheeked parrot (Amazona dufresniana) was 70 individuals in Suriname, whilst in Guyana the quota was 520. For a few species Suriname has higher quota, for example the 2001 quota of the brown-throated parakeet’s (Aratinga pertinax) was 2,710 for Suriname and 500 for Guyana.

Suriname’s 2002 CITES quotas show an increase across the board from their 2001 quotas. Particularly notable is the quota for Amazona dufresniana, which jumped

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Indigenous groups traditionally use parrots feathers for ornamentation and rituals (Thomsen and Brautigam, 1991). The Wayana and Tirio Indians use many feathers to make head-dresses, arrows and “aboriginal plumage art” (Boven, pers. comm.; Thomsen and Brautigam, 1991). Sometimes tail feathers are removed every year from captive raised parrots, but parrots are also killed for both the feathers and the meat. An increased commercialisation of the craft for the tourist market has occurred in parts of the Amazon (Thomsen and Brautigam, 1991). The large head-dresses made out of many different feathers are sold for US$ 1,000 (Boven, pers. comm.). However, this ceremonial usage is very small compared to the pet trade.

6.2.5 Ramphastidae The rest of the CITES bird trade is made up of toucans and aracaris. Four species are exported from Suriname for the pet trade: the black-necked aracari (Pteroglossus aracari), the green aracari (Pteroglossus viridis), the red-billed toucan (Ramphastos tucanus) and the channel-billed toucan (Ramphastos vitellinus). Unlike Guyana, Suriname does not export Ramphastos toco. The export was worth on average US$ 50,000 between 1997 and 2000 (Duplaix, 2001). The channel-billed toucan made up half of the trade in this group. Export quotas are far from being realised. Most of toucans and aracaris are exported to the Netherlands (Duplaix, 2001).

6.2.6 Songbirds Surinamese men are very fond of their songbirds, so much so that possibly the most expensive bird for sale in Suriname is the twatwa (Oryzoborus crassirostris), a small black seed finch. The twatwa fetches prices up to US$ 40,000, provided it is a top class singer (Duplaix, 2001). A close second in popularity is the pikolet (Oryzoborus angolensis). The gelebek (Sporophila schistacea) and rowti (Sporophila minuta) are also popular caged songbirds, but are of lesser impor- [Numbers] 1998 [%] [Numbers] 1999 [%] [Numbers]* 2000 [%] tance economically and in contests. Although less valuable than both the twa twa and pikolet, the gelebek can still fetch sums of up to 100,000 Sur. Guilders [US$] 1998 realised 1998 [US$] 1999 realised 1999 [US$] 2000 realised [US$]* 2000 (~ US$ 45). Immature birds are carefully trained to sing, using cassette tapes available on street stands. These songbirds are entered into singing competitions that take place weekly in Paramaribo and Nickerie, culminating in a yearly cham- pionship between the two cities. The winner is the owner of the bird that sings the most phrases in 15 minutes. Birds can be bought at the market, at the contests or at the local airport. It is difficult to walk around Paramaribo without seeing at least one song-bird in a cage. blue and yellow macawblue and yellow 300.00orange wingedparrot macaw and green red 33.00 537 parrotyellow-headed 342.00 4,840 parrothawk-headed 86.00mealy parrot 83 232 251.00black-headed parrot 101 455 parrot 161,100blue-cheeked 158 93 45.00 159,720blue-headed parrot 306.00 79.00 78 macawred-bellied 1,014 79,344 53scarlet macaw 559 28.00 3,618 384 66 macaw fronted chestnut 39,130 56.00 139.00 74parakeet painted 923 39,658 86 251 parakeetbrown-throated 85 94 75 873.00 102 121 7.00 45,630 macawred-shouldered 167,700 484 62 119,394 39.00 rumpedgreen parrotlet 195 46.00 100 30,336 20,196 22 0 556 48 parakeetwhite-eyed 4.00 119 25,844 83dusky parrot 85,842 795 624 3,244 67 65 11.00golden winged parakeet 16,819 380 21 5,712 338 0 41,624 60 12.00 14 48,945 58 299 105 45 80 61 214 3,892 163 45.00 8 167 75 142 35,775 86 187,200 107,052 464 4,641 0 13 3,082 45 111 75 629 26,702 14 18,360 1,520 67 885 30 18,760 65 441 73,188 242 1,155 79 28 23,213 53 1,956 0 421 7,952 1,243 39,904 33 51 27,861 24 458 28,305 28 222 35 6,195 52 27 0 306 60 19,845 159 60 9,438 25 299 25,359 2,438 28 4,972 15,606 26 20 555 22 12,824 0 106 2,442 37 3,672 48 543 8,340 8,904 11 13,455 10 10 192 3,885 1 8 99 4,134 39 20 0 2,208 2,172 7 2,112 8,730 2 1,188 1,755 golden-crowned conuregolden-crowned 17.00 32 32 544 16 16 272 16 6 272

Seeing a twatwa in the wild in Suriname is another story. Due to the popularity of this hobby, and the high value of the twatwa, it is not surprising that this species is almost extinct in Suriname (Ottema and Spaans, pers. comm.). It is no longer found in the coastal areas and it is depleted in the savannah area as well (Ouboter, 2001). In the Coesewijne Nature Reserve, Amerindians burn large areas Ara ararauna Ara amazonica Amazona chloropterus Ara ochrocephala Amazona Deroptyus accipitrinus farinosa Amazona Pionites melanocephala dufresniana Amazona Pionus menstruus manilata Ara macao Ara Ara severa Pyrrhura picta pertinax Aratinga nobilis Ara passerinusForpus leucophthalmus Aratinga Pionus fuscus Brotogeris chrysopterus Aratinga aurea Aratinga TOTALS 10,883 49 668,584 10,174 46 637,151 7,855 36 552,839 Latin name Name Common FOB Export Quota Value Export Quota Value Export Quota Value Table 14:Table Suriname 1999-2000 from Export Data for the Psittacines Source: Duplaix 2001 from compiled a permit in 1999, that received 1999 (birds from * data includes overrun not exported until 2000) but were price on Board Free FOB = minimum   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 108

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of swamps to create the grassy savannahs that attract the valuable seed finches Apart from songbirds, Suriname exports many other non-CITES birds: 86 species (Duplaix, pers. comm.). In addition to the massive decline of O. crassirostris, in total (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001). Voluntary quotas for these birds are set exporters also report a decline of the species O. angloensis, S. minuta and and represent an important proportion of the non-CITES trade (Table 13). S. schistacea (Ouboter, 2001). Captive breeding is fairly limited in Suriname, due to the effort and money required (Ottema, pers. comm.). 6.2.7 Reptiles Suriname exports 11 CITES-listed reptile species and 16 non-CITES species, all for the pet trade (Ouboter, 2001). The most valuable is the emerald tree boa (Corallus caninus) making US$ 40,715 in 2000. The reptile traded in the greatest quantities is the green iguana (Iguana iguana), with 5,574 individuals exported in 2000 (Duplaix, 2001). Iguanas are collected mainly from the coastal areas (Hoogmoed, pers. comm.). There is concern that the emerald tree boa is being over-exploited in accessible areas for the export trade, based on Ouboter’s (2001) discussions with exporters. The rare rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchris) is also exported for the pet trade. Population assessments are needed for the emerald tree boa and the rainbow boa and export quotas adjusted to prevent over-exploitation (Ouboter, 2001).

The yellow-spotted river turtle (Podocnemis unifilis) is also very rare in Suriname. Ouboter (2001) recommends that this species be removed from Suriname’s export list. The European Commission has decided to restrict the import of this river turtle from Suriname. The tortoises Geochelone carbonaria and G. denticulata are also becoming rare in readily accessible areas as they are captured for the pet trade and hunted for their meat (Ouboter, 2001). The non-CITES reptiles include some relatively rare species: Anolis punctatus, Polychrus marmoratus and Songbird cages on the Paramaribo market, Suriname. Photo: A. MacKinven Uracentron azureum, all of which have high export quotas. However, only a very small fraction of the quota are actually exported (Ouboter, 2001). The entire snake family (Colubridae) also has a quota; this quota therefore covers many Song birds are coming into Suriname from Guyana, French Guiana and Brazil species, some of which are rare (Ouboter, 2001). and possibly further afield from Venezuela and Trinidad. Birds originating from Sipaliwini savannah are much preferred to foreign birds. Several songbird owners The spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus) is under threat from intensive hunt- advised to find out the origin of the songbirds, as those from Guyana and French ing for its skin and meat. The Global Environment Facility (GEF) Small Grants Guiana die quickly and can result in embarrassingly low scores in contests. Many Programme is currently funding a feasibility study for the sustainable exploita- twatwas are collected by the Tirio Indians in the Paru Savannah (Brazil), which tion of the spectacled caiman in the Coesewijne River. The local community of borders to the Sipaliwini Savannah in Suriname, and are exported by pilots of Bigi Poika participates in the regulatory aspects and is expected to benefit eco- charter planes to Paramaribo. Brazilian authorities recently prohibited the catch- nomically from a sustainable management programme. A survey to determine ing of twatwas in the Paru Savannah (Teunnissen, pers. comm.). Oryzoborus spp. the current status of the population will be carried out by community members songbirds are very popular in Brazil as well, but since the 1980s, captive breeding and the economic feasibility of sustained exploitation will be determined. has greatly reduced the pressure on the wild populations. Captive-bred songbirds are legally exported from Brazil (Tostes and Preto, 2001). The export of twatwas 6.2.8 Amphibians and pikolets from Suriname is prohibited, but birds are smuggled in hand luggage Poison dart frogs (Dendrobatidae) are extremely popular in Europe and the US. to the Netherlands (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001). Caged seed finches are fre- All Dendrobatidae are listed on CITES Appendix II. Two CITES-listed poison quently seen and bred in the Netherlands (e.g., Amsterdam Zuid-Oost), as they frogs are exported from Suriname; the dyeing poison frog (Dendrobates are popular with Surinamese immigrants. Ouboter (2001) recommends listing tinctorius) is the most traded species (Table 15),followed by the three-striped poi- the twatwa on CITES Appendix III and suggests a ban on the capture of this bird. son frog (Phobobatus trivittatus). These two species together were worth about

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US$ 13,000 in 1998, US$ 9,000 in 1999 and US$ 18,500 in 2000 (Duplaix, 2001). Non-CITES amphibians exported are species of the genera Phyllomedusa, In 2001, Suriname was hit with a CITES ban for D. tinctorius, because trade num- Ceratophtys, Hyla, Bufo and Phrynophyas as well as the species Pipa pipa (Duplaix, bers rose above certain levels and questions on the species’ population status were 2001). Their export value varies between US$ 6,000 (1998) and US$ 26,000 not answered (www.cites.org; Hoogmoed, pers. comm.). Despite the CITES (2000). Suriname has a voluntary quota system for non-CITES amphibians, restrictions, Suriname has increased the export quota for this frog in 2002 (Table mostly listed at the generic level (Duplaix, 2001). 15). 6.2.9 Primates The impact of the pet trade on frog populations remains unknown. The Global Three primate species used to be exported from Suriname: the brown capuchin Amphibian Assessment is currently evaluating all amphibians against the IUCN (Cebus apella), red-handed tamarin (Saguines midas), and the common squirrel threat categories (Long, 2001), but data are not yet available for the Guiana monkey (Saimiri sciureus). The squirrel monkey is the most traded and brought Shield. The spectacular okopipi frog (Dendrobates azureus) only occurs in the in US$ 213,300 in 1997. Exports dropped substantially afterwards, and in 2000 no Sipaliwini Nature Reserve and in one location west of the Sipaliwini in Guyana primates were exported (Duplaix, 2001). Japan was the main importer of squirrel (Duplaix, 2001). The blue frog is protected in Suriname, but Guyana allows an monkeys as laboratory animals, but the demand decreased due to the high cost of export of 500 individuals per year, which stimulates smuggling across the border quarantining the animals (Ouboter, 2001). Some Surinamese exporters have (Duplaix, 2001). There is a colour morph of Dendrobates tinctorius that closely started breeding squirrel monkeys (Ouboter, 2001). All primates mentioned in resembles the protected D. azureus; this variety is also protected and cannot be this section are listed on CITES Appendix II. Export is for the pet or laboratory exported for commercial purposes (Duplaix, 2001). Ouboter (2001) recommends trade, although many of these species are also hunted as bush meat. that more surveys on the distribution and abundance of the most important colour morphs of Dendrobates tinctorius are carried out and that the quotas be set Capuchin monkeys (Cebus spp.) are an important food source for communities accordingly for different varieties. in the interior, as well as the larger spider monkeys (Ateles paniscus) and howler monkeys (Alouatta spp.) (Ouboter, 2001; Teunissen, pers. comm.). The brown On the Oelemari and above Litani, Wayana Indians are selling poison frogs to capuchin monkey (Cebus apella) is widespread in South America. It is threatened traders for US$ 5 per frog. The Wayana now claim that they are getting very dif- by intensive hunting for meat in most parts of its range, including the Guianas ficult to find (Boven, pers. comm.). The Tirio in southern Suriname used to sell (Table 9), but has greater reproductive potential, habitat flexibility and recupera- D. azureus to traders for as little as US$ 0.20 per frog, but stopped this practice tive capacity than larger monkeys (Emmons, 1997; IUCN, 2002). The wedge- once they realised the frogs were being sold on for US$ 300 in the US, not to men- capped capuchin monkey (Cebus olivaceus) occurs in Venezuela, the Guianas, and tion the rarity of the species (de Beer, 1997). in Brazil east of the Rio Negro and the along the Amazon River, where it lives in mature evergreen forest and gallery forest (Emmons, 1997). It is hunted heavily Table 15: Export of Dendrobates tinctorius from Suriname for its meat in the three Guianas and the Venezuelan Guayana (Duplaix, 2001; Bevilacqua et al., 2002). In Suriname, the smaller Cebus species are not as popular as the larger monkeys (Ouboter, 2000). Year Quota Numbers % Realised Value [US$] The black spider monkey (Ateles paniscus) is found in Brazil and the three 1997 1,886 845 45 7,605 Guianas. In Suriname, it is rare or absent in accessible forests due to over-hunt- 1998 1,886 1,059 56 9,531 ing (Ouboter, 2000) and this holds true for the rest of the Guianas (Table 9). It 1999 1,886 695 37 6,255 2000 1,886 1,448 19 13,032 can still be commonly found in areas with little human population (Emmons, 2001 1,886 banned ? ? 1997). The black spider monkey is vulnerable to hunting pressure, as it has a slow 2002 2,104 banned ? ? reproductive rate (Emmons, 1997). The red howler monkey (Alouatta seniculus) is widely distributed across northern South America, but intensively hunted for Sources: Duplaix (2001), www.cites.org its meat in many areas. In the Upper Amazon Basin, the red howler is rare or non- existent near human settlements (Table 9). In Suriname, the species is traded as bush meat, but is still found in most forested areas (Ouboter, 2000; 2001).

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6.2.10 Bush meat have voluntary export quotas for agouti. Guyana has a quota of 350 for D. agouti Bush meat is a very important source of protein for the local communities in (= D. leporina) and Suriname a quota of 250 for D. leporina and 200 for Suriname’s interior. However, increasing populations are putting pressure on D. cristata. This export is never fully realised; Suriname exported only 25% of its bush meat species around villages (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001). Commercial quota to the US in 2000 (Duplaix, 2001). bush meat trade is a burgeoning industry in Suriname with professional hunters working year-round in the interior (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001). Game birds, such as black curassow (Crax alector), marai (Penelope marail) and Unfortunately, there are no figures available on this trade in Suriname (Ouboter, kamikami (Psophia crepitans) also play an important role in the national bush 2001). Bush meat can regularly be found on local markets in Paramaribo and meat trade. Export is negligible for the game birds, except for the kamikami of most bush meat is consumed in Paramaribo and Saint Laurent du Maroni, French which 20 birds are exported annually to the Netherlands (Ouboter, 2001). Guiana (De Dijn, pers comm.). Wild meat is also sold on markets in the border Ouboter (2001) recommends that the birds with quotas but no realised export towns of Orealla and Springlands (Guyana) (Duplaix, pers. comm.). Over the last (e.g., C. alector and P. marail) be removed from Suriname’s export list. These five years, a lot of bush meat appears to be collected in the interior and sold to hunted birds are all but wiped out from easily accessible areas (Ouboter, 2001). mining and logging crews, to Brazilians in East Suriname and Asian immigrants The greater tinamou (Tinamus major) and P. crepitans are important protein in West Suriname (De Dijn, pers. comm.). Wayana Indians are selling bush meat sources in the interior. P. crepitans is sometimes kept by rural communities to small-scale gold miners along the Lawa River and to restaurants in Maripasoula (Ouboter, 2001). Breeding programmes could be encouraged for those commu- (French Guiana) (Boven, pers. comm.). nities that eat these game birds, to boost protein supply in the interior (Ouboter, 2001). Hunting pressure on these species is considered to be high in all of the Commercial hunting is putting pressure on game species in the more accessible Guianas (Table 9). areas (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001). Control on hunting in Suriname is lax due to the scarcity of game wardens and adequate equipment, leaving this trade vir- In the Bigi Pan region, Matapica area and around Weg-Naar-Zee, hunters are tually unregulated (Ouboter, 2001). In the Apura–Wasabo region of Suriname, shooting hundreds of shorebirds every year for the local trade (Ottema and there have been difficulties reported in finding bush meat (Duplaix, 2001). Spaans, pers. comm.). Most shorebirds are legally protected in Suriname. In spite Ouboter (2001) observed that the most popular hunted animals have become of this, several species are declining rapidly due to hunting for food, such as the very rare in accessible areas. The main bush meat species include peccaries jabiru (Jabiru mycteria), wood stork (Mycteria americana), and the roseate spoon- (Tayassu spp.), brocket deer (Mazama spp.), tapir (Tapirus terrestris), agouti bill (Platalea ajaja) (Ottema and Spaans, pers. comm.). The muscovy duck (Dasyprocta spp.), paca (Agouti paca), tortoises (Geochelone spp) and Iguana (Cairina moschata) used to be common in the coastal swamplands, but has iguana (Table 9). Tapir is now very rare in the Apura area where it was common become rare in Suriname over the last 10 to 20 years (Ouboter, 2001). This duck 25 years ago (Duplaix, pers. comm.). Paca is being bred by a couple of exporters is listed on CITES Appendix II, although no export was registered between 1997 in Suriname (Ouboter, 2001). Agouti paca was once deemed to be too difficult to and 2000 (Ouboter, 2001). Hunting is permitted during the open season. domesticate, as pacas in the wild are monogamous, territorial and have a low reproductive rate, and rarely breed in captivity. Fortunately, a methodology for 6.2.11 Scarlet ibis domesticating paca has been developed, involving the shifting pacas into polygy- The bright feathers of the scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber) are fashioned into deco- nous groups. This technique requires high capital investment and has to be car- rative flowers in French Guiana. The birds are hunted along the Suriname coast ried out on a large scale to make it economically viable (Smythe, 1991). smuggled into French Guiana (Teunissen,pers. comm.), although this bird is fully protected in both countries (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 1998). Even though The red-rumped agouti (Dasyprocta leporina) is widespread and usually very such handicrafts are banned from trade, they might accidentally be offered to common throughout South America. The species is found in most forest types, tourists as souvenirs. including disturbed forest. The species is hunted for its meat across its range (Emmons, 1997). Both agouti species (D. leporina and D. cristata) suffer from 6.2.12 Freshwater fish high hunting pressure in the three Guianas (Duplaix, 2001). Only the Suriname Members of the armoured catfish family (Callichthyidae) are the most important agouti (D. cristata), restricted to Suriname, is listed on the IUCN Red List as Data commercial freshwater species (Ouboter, 2001). Official export figures mention Deficient (IUCN, 2002) and none of the aforementioned Dasyprocta spp. are list- only small amounts (62 individuals in 1999), but frozen armoured catfish (local- ed on the CITES Appendices. In Suriname, however, declines in Dasyprocta spp. ly known as kwikwi) are frequently found in Surinamese shops in the have been reported by exporters (Ouboter, 2001). Suriname and Guyana both Netherlands. There are indications that species of the genus Hoplosternum and

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Hoplias aimara (anyumara) are over-exploited in easily accessible areas (Ouboter, these species are NTFPs, such as loksi pods (Hymenea courbaril) and sawarinoto 2001). There is no trade in ornamental fish in Suriname. The trade could not sur- (Caryocar nuciferum). vive due to competition from neighbouring Brazil and other South American countries and captive breeding enterprises in importing countries (Ouboter, 6.3.3 Brazil nuts 2001). Obtaining reliable information on freshwater fish trade is difficult, as the In the Tirio village of Kwamalasamutu in Southern Suriname, the Amazon Fisheries Department in Paramaribo only records local names (Ouboter, 2001) Conservation Team (ACT) is stimulating the harvest and marketing of Brazil nuts. This region probably represents the northern boundary of Bertholletia excelsa (Mori and Prance, 1990), although smaller clusters are found more north 6.3 Plant Products in Kabalebo and Apura (Teunissen, pers. comm.). ACT assisted the Tirios to create a detailed map of their traditional lands, including the location of Brazil 6.3.1 Podosiri nut groves (ACT, 2000; Boven, 2001). A sustainable exploitation plan for Brazil Podosiri is the Surinamese term for açai, the fruit juice of the pina palm (Euterpe nuts will be developed, as well as an inventory of other NTFPs with market poten- oleracea). Podosiri is probably the most important vegetal NTFP in the country. tial (ACT, 2000). In March 2001, ACT has sold four tonnes of Brazil nuts from The palm is very abundant in the coastal swamps, forming almost pure stands, Kwamalasamutu on the Paramaribo market (Teunissen, pers. comm.). Since the while in the interior the species is restricted to swampy places along creeks on village can only be reached by plane, it remains to be seen if the nuts can compete sandy soil (Wessels-Boer, 1965). Throughout Suriname, the entire fruits and the with cheaper nuts from Brazil. Nonetheless, as a result of the mapping process, processed podosiri drink are commercialised. Maroons and Amerindians harvest the Tirio seem to have fortified their control over gold miners and started other the fruits by climbing the palms and cutting the infructescences. Cars pass sever- initiatives to preserve their territory and their culture (www.amazonteam.com). al times per week along the Perika-Moengo road to collect full bags of ripe fruits, which are processed and sold in Paramaribo. Recently, a small factory in the cap- 6.3.4 Crafts ital started bottling podosiri (de Dijn, pers. comm.). Ndjuka women used to trade The Surinamese Maroons are renowned for their decorative woodcarvings. For podosiri juice on the border with French Guiana (Boven, pers. comm.). In some combs, spoons and paddles, the plank roots of the tall parelhout tree places, people also cultivate E. oleracea for its fruits. As long as people climb the (Aspidosperma spp.) are used. Mature trees often have a deeply fluted trunk, so trees to collect the fruit instead of cutting the stems, podosiri production should cutting pieces out of the buttress roots will not seriously affect the tree be sustainable. Remarkably, palm heart is not a commercial product in Suriname. (van Andel, 2000). However, the cedar (Cedrela odorata) is more often used for According to Playfair (pers. comm.), some palm heart from the coastal and river- wood carvings, and this requires cutting of the tree (Teunissen, pers. comm.). ine swamps was exported, but no information about processing factories was These products are actually not considered as NTFPs, as they are side products of available. commercial timber harvesting. The carvings are sold within interior villages and in Paramaribo craft stores. Amerindian crafts based on several NTFPs find a 6.3.2 Other forest fruits growing market in Suriname. Wayana Indians sell their crafts on the French Along the road to Bigi Poika (Zanderij), there exists a lively market in the palm Guianese border, where they find their way to Cayenne and Paris. In Matta, ham- fruits maripa (Maximiliana maripa) and awara (Astrocaryum vulgare). Both mocks from the fibre of Mauritia flexuosa are woven for the Paramaribo market palms are said to occur in the wild in Suriname (Wessels-Boer, 1965), but they are (Boven, pers. comm.). An increase in tourism in Suriname will certainly have a increasingly cultivated for their fruits, which are consumed fresh and made into positive influence on the craft trade. drinks and cooking oil. Another palm fruit that is commercialised in the Surina- mese interior is kumbu (Oenocarpus bacaba), but the fruits are less popular 6.3.5 Medicinal plants (Boven, pers. comm.). The palm occurs naturally in never-flooded forest on The presence of many different ethnic groups in Suriname corresponds to a sandy soil, but according to Wessels-Boer (1965), it may be locally almost extinct, wealth of ethnobotanical knowledge. Several attempts have been made to docu- as natives cut down the trees to make a beverage from the fruits. The species is ment this knowledge (Stahel, 1944; Ostendorf, 1962; Heyde, 1990; May, 1982, often cultivated in house yards, just like wapu (Jessenia bataua), of which the Raghoenandan, 1994), but only few of these publications have verified the scien- fruits are made into a similar drink. The yellow-orange mopé fruits (Spondias tific names of the local plant names by collecting botanical specimens (Stahel, mombin) are exclusively harvested from the wild. They are made into a popular 1944; Raghoenandan, 1994; van ’t Klooster, in press). Suriname exports substan- juice, which is widely sold. A small shop in the international airport sells many tial volumes of fresh, dried, and frozen medicinal plants to the Netherlands, types of wild fruits and nuts to Surinamese travelling to the Netherlands. Some of where they seem to play a key role in the health care of Surinamese immigrants.

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Van ’t Klooster (2000) found more than 180 wild and cultivated plant species in (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Missouri Botanical Garden) an Amsterdam shop owned by Saramaccan Maroons specialised in traditional and a pharmaceutic company (Bristol Myers Squibb, New York) cooperate with a Winti religion. There are at least two firms in Paramaribo involved in the medic- local pharmaceutical company (Bedrijfs Geneesmiddelen Voorziening, Suri- inal plant export, but no official figures exist concerning the value and scale of name), the National Herbarium of Suriname (BBS), Conservation International this trade. and a local NGO called Forest People of Suriname (Guérin et al., 1998). This ethnobotany-based initiative identifies and screens tropical plants for potential medicinal uses on international scale. Anticipated results of the initiative are economic alternatives to deforestation and conservation of biodiversity, financial benefits from any drug discoveries to Suriname and its native peoples, and technology transfer from the US to the conservation-based pharmaceutical industry in Suriname. In 1998, the project received funding from the National Institute of Health (US) for an additional five years.

Sales-based royalty payments are being deposited in a special ‘Forest Peoples Fund’, controlled by the leaders of the country’s traditional peoples. The Fund is used to promote sustainable forest use and conservation, and 50% of the royalties returned to Suriname from the future sales of any new identified drug will be dis- bursed through the Fund (Sizer, 1996). Traditional healers and local parataxono- mists also receive payment for their services and training in collection and identification techniques. The staff of the National Herbarium of Suriname received extra training in herbarium curation and botanical research (www.mobot.org/ mobot/research/appliedresearch/icbgsuriname.shtml). The ICBG programme requires both near and long-term benefits flow back to the collaborating communities, regardless of whether ethnomedicinal knowledge is utilised in the research or not. The pharmaceutical company involved in this project receives encoded samples without further botanical information. Medicinal plant stand, Paramaribo, Suriname. Photo: A. MacKinven Meanwhile, medicinal plant uses are stored in a database by Conservation International. No other institution receives information regarding the identity, A local NGO named Stichting Panda is developing a small ecotourism project on description, locality and traditional uses of these plants. According to Guérin et Tonka Island in the Brokopondo Lake. The project is led by the Saramaccan field al. (1998), this method ensures that no company can look for samples elsewhere botanist Frits van Troon and serves as a cultural centre where people can trans- and that Suriname and its local people are compensated for their contribution. mit information on herbal healing, handicrafts, and traditional forest manage- The Initiative is focused on identifying new medicines from Surinamese plants ment. This project received financial assistance from the Tropical Rainforest with anti-HIV and anti-cancer properties. Several new compounds have already Programme of the NC-IUCN. To reward his contribution to numerous ecologi- been found and published (Gunatilaka et al., 2001, www.mobot.org/mobot/ cal and (ethno-) botanical inventories of international rainforest researchers, research/applied research/icbgdiscoveries.html). It is hoped that in a later stage of van Troon received the Order of the Golden Ark from Prince Bernhard of the the project, the collected information is made available to a wider public. In this Netherlands in March 2001. A book about the medicinal lianas of Suriname by way, scientists, NGOs and local communities from outside the project area can van Troon, van Roosmalen and Hoffman still awaits publishing (www.amazon also learn from this bioprospecting experience. team.org). 6.3.7 Shaman’s Apprentice Programme 6.3.6 Bioprospecting: In the Tirio village of Kwamalasamutu, the Amazon Conservation Team is pro- In 1993, the International Cooperative Biodiversity Group (ICBG) launched a moting an integrated approach to health care, by using the best of both western five-year bioprospecting project, in which several US-based research institutes medicine and traditional practices. The Tirios have built a ‘Shaman’s Apprentice

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Clinic’, run by three shamans and six apprentices, with collaboration of the this will take the pressure of wild populations. These types of initiatives are Medical Mission, the agency responsible for the provision of primary health care uncommon in Suriname (Ouboter, 2001). The most often quoted reason for not in the interior of Suriname (ACT, 2000; Boven, 2001). By creating incentives for setting up these enterprises is the effort and capital required. Target groups are young members of Suriname’s indigenous societies to learn the traditional uses of psittacines, song birds and certain bush meat species. Innovative parrot ranching plants from their elder medicine men, the programme helps to keep critical projects, such as the Elé Project in Argentina (see Discussion), could open the indigenous knowledge within the tribes. Tribal elders, encouraged and assisted by door to the US market by meeting the criteria of the 1992 Wild Bird Conservation ACT, are now teaching youngsters everything from traditional healing and Act. It must be ensured that these projects benefit local trappers in the interior. medicinal plants to legends, music and handicrafts. The programme started Insects are also a product with potential; there is now one active butterfly farm in in Kwamalasamutu and recently included the village of Peleletepu. Currently Lelydorp exporting of live pupae to the US and UK (de Dijn, pers. comm.). there are six shamans, as well as 28 male and female apprentices involved (www.amazonteam.org). The project was selected as one of the Best Practices in Suriname harbours many native plants with a great ornamental potential, such as the field of indigenous knowledge by Nuffic and UNESCO (Boven, pers. comm.). orchids, bromeliads, Strelitziaceae and various species of Heliconia. If more effort would be devoted to the selection and hybridisation of wild species, Suriname could profit from the growing demand for exotic plants in Europe and the US 6.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Suriname (DeFilipps, 1992). To expand the legal trade in orchids from Suriname, illustrated manuals are needed to identify the species and distinguish cultivated orchids To fully understand their contribution to the national economy, there is a great from common or rare wild species (Ouboter, 2001). At present, customs officials need for detailed research on commercial NTFPs in Suriname. At this moment, have trouble identifying non-flowering orchids and smuggling of orchids is there are no quantitative data available on vegetal NTFPs traded in the country. known to occur (Ouboter, 2001). Collection of data on the limited orchid exports Future studies on NTFPs should make use of the botanical collections and knowl- would be useful (Ouboter, 2001). edge present in the National Herbarium of Suriname. New research opportunities may arise when Tropenbos-International starts a programme in Suriname. According to Sizer and Rice (1995), promoting NTFPs from well-managed forests could pay off handsomely for the Surinamese government and the public. The examples of commercial NTFPs in other Guiana Shield countries portrayed in this report may provide some ideas for new projects in Suriname.

Quantitative research is also needed on the rapidly growing bush meat trade. The wildlife export from Suriname is relatively well monitored, but revenues have declined and could drop further the near future due to changing attitudes toward keeping wild animals, new regulations and captive breeding in importing countries. Suriname will have to look for alternatives to exporting wild animals or use means to increase values of the species traded (lower numbers exported while increase prices), but this must be done in cooperation with Guyana. The decrease in CITES exports was coupled with an increase in non-CITES animal exports in 2000. Exporters would like to see more non-CITES species added to the quota list, but the status of new animals should be investigated (at species level) before any new quotas are set (Ouboter, 2001).

Research on the population status of several CITES and non-CITES animals is needed, especially for those species whose trade is regulated under CITES, such as Dendrobates tinctorius and the important Psittacines (e.g., Ara chloropterus and Aratinga aurea). Another priority is to monitor the scale of the songbird trade. Ranching programmes and possibly captive breeding should be encouraged, as

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VENEZUELA

7.1 Commercial NTFP extraction

The Venezuelan Guiana Shield, often referred to as the Venezuelan Guayana, covers half of the national territory, includes the States Delta Amacuro, Bolívar and Amazonas (see Map). Located south of the Orinoco River, the Venezuelan Guayana comprises the largest remaining block of intact forests in the country, harbouring most of the nation’s rich biodiversity and indigenous peoples (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Unfortunately, these forests are at risk from logging, mining, and encroachment of colonist farmers and ranchers. The southern half of Venezuela now has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the Neotropics (Kambel and MacKay, 1999). The Guayana region is characterised by a diverse topographical landscape, from extensive swamps at sea level to unique tepuyes, tabletop mountains nearly 3,000 m high, which contain many plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. Savannahs dominate the south-east of the country near the borders with Brazil and Guyana (Bevilacqua et al., 2002).

More than 85% of Venezuela’s 24 million inhabitants live in the urban areas north of the Orinoco River. The sparsely populated Guayana region is inhabited by approximately 1 million people, of which some 300,000 are indigenous peoples. There are some 28 different ethnic groups, such as the Warao, Yekuana, Piaroa, Pemon, Yanomami, and Guajobo Indians (Kambel and MacKay, 1999). Approx- imately 30% of the country’s forests are protected; the largest of these lay in the Guayana region. The legal status for half of the conservation areas remains unclear, because of conflicting objectives and uncertain boundaries published in official documents (Bevilacqua et al., 2002).

Ethnobotanical studies show that the indigenous groups living in the Venezuelan Guayana use a wide variety of NTFPs (Anderson, 1978; Wilbert, 1986; Prance et al., 1987; Hernandez et al., 1994; Melynk and Bell, 1996). The majority of NTFPs is used for subsistence only. No quantitative accounts exist for the national market for NTFPs, although Amerindians often sell seje palm oil, wild honey, crafts, and smoked bush meat to buy ammunition and other manufactured goods (Bevilacqua et al. 2002). NTFPs from the Venezuelan Guayana are marketed in the towns of Tucupita, Ciudad Guayana, and Ciudad Bolívar (National Academy of Sciences, 1975; Paoletii, 1999). The total export value of Venezuelan NTFPs was estimated at US$ 5 million in 1998 (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Information on extracted volumes is generally lacking, although some government sectors appear to be interested in stimulating the commercialisation of NTFPs (Altuve et al., Map: RV Verlag, Ostfildern

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1999). The overview of commercial NTFPs given below is therefore based main- There are also some illegal exports to Trinidad (Ochoa, pers. comm.). There have ly on preliminary and unpublished data. The most important commercial NTFPs been reports of over-exploitation of parrots in Venezuela and ‘rampant illegal of the Venezuelan Guayana are palm heart (Euterpe oleracea), moriche (Mauritia export’ from Venezuela to Guyana (Kratter, 1998). This smuggling route was flexuosa), wildlife, chiquechique (Leopoldinia piassaba), seje palm oil (Jessenia intensively used during the 1980s, but reduced export quotas in Guyana are now bataua), honey and handicrafts. making wildlife transport from Venezuela less profitable. The Warao Indians of the Orinoco delta are known to poach fauna to sell to both Venezuelans and non- Venezuelan traders (GEF Project Brief, 1999). The trade in live animals is not con- 7.2 Wildlife sidered to be a problem in the Caura region of Venezuela (Ochoa, pers. comm.).

7.2.1 Commercial wildlife harvesting 7.2.4 Commercial freshwater fish Subsistence use of wildlife is very important in the Venezuelan Guayana At least 40 species of fish are marketed in the Venezuelan Guayana. Several areas (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Commercial extraction does occur, but on a smaller along the Orinoco are important in terms of commercial fish production: near scale than in Guyana and Suriname. Commercial fishing (for food and the aquar- Cabruta and Caicara, the areas surrounding Las Majadas, near Ciudad Bolívar ium fish trade) is particularly important in the state of Amazonas, whilst com- and the delta Amacuro near Tucupita (Novoa, 1982). The Caura River is also mercial extraction of caiman (Caiman crocodylus) for the skin trade and capybara important in terms of commercial fishing. The principal fish market is Puerto (Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris) for bush meat takes place in the Llanos region. Ayacucho. Some of the main commercial species are the large catfishes Despite being illegal, wild meat can be found on markets and in restaurants. Live (Brachyplaystoma spp., Pseudoplatystoma faciatum, P. tigrinum, Goslynea animals for the pet trade are traded illegally with neighbouring Guyana and occa- platinema, Phractocephalus hemilopterus), as well as the tambaqui (Colossoma sionally with Trinidad. Since much of the trade is illicit, no information on trad- macropomum), Piaractus brachypomum and trahira (Hoplias malabaricus). ed volumes is recorded, so few quantitative data are available on the commercial Peacock bass (Cichla orinocensis), which is restricted to the Essequibo Basin, is wildlife trade in the Venezuelan Guayana (Altuve et al., 1999; Bevilacqua et al., primarily harvested along the Cuyuní River in Venezuela. Based on a recent sur- 2002). vey, fish diversity and abundance has declined in the Lower Caura River (Chernoff, pers. comm.). People from Marida-Trincheras travel up river with 7.2.2 Wildlife regulations and management large nets and ice chests to fish in the periphery of indigenous territories. Export of wildlife from Venezuela is prohibited by law. The legislation applying to Amerindian communities have detected a reduction in populations of the main wildlife management in Venezuela is the Wildlife Protection Act (1970), the consumption fish (Ochoa, pers. comm.). Destructive fishing techniques, such as Environmental Crime Law (1992) and various resolutions (1979) that protect trawling and unselective equipment causing high levels of by-catch, threaten fish certain species. Hunting is allowed with a government permit in certain cases, but diversity in the Orinoco delta (GEF Project Brief, 1999). Colombian fishermen the trade in bush meat is not permitted. Commercial fishing is managed and reg- fish across the border in Venezuela and sell their catch in their own country ulated by the Ministry of Agriculture. The National Guard assists the Ministry of (Mojica and Lasso, pers. comm.). Environment and Natural Resources (MARN), the National Parks Service (INPARQUES) and Ministry of Agriculture with enforcing environmental laws, 7.2.5 Ornamental Fish including the control of illegal trafficking of flora and fauna (Ochoa, There is a significant export of ornamental fish from Venezuela. The Ministry of pers. comm.). Recently, the trade was legalised for spectacled caiman and Agriculture and PROFAUNA are responsible for the regulation of the trade and capybara. Governmental institutions, such as the Venezuelan Wildlife Service the licensing of exporters. The Ministry of Agriculture has maintained records (PROFAUNA), are focused mainly on northern Venezuela and have limited or no of fish production since 1990. Fish collection increased from less than 400,000 presence in the Guayana region (Ochoa, pers. comm.). individuals in 1988 to almost 2 million in 1992, although these figures are questionable and probably represent an underestimate. The total revenue of aquarium 7.2.3 Illegal trade fish exported from Amazonas State in 1989 was over 5 million bolívares Evidence exists of wildlife trafficking into Guyana, as this country legally exports (~ US$ 150,000) (Royero, 1993). Important areas for the collection of aquarium live animals. There are reports of extensive collection of parrots, macaws, toucans fish in the Venezuelan Guayana are: the Orinoco River Basin around Puerto and other species for the pet trade in the Venezuelan Guayana. A large proportion Ayacucho and the Caicara del Orinoco area. The Puerto Ayacucho area is the of these animals are transported illegally across the Orinoco delta into North- most important area in Venezuela in terms of numbers and volumes of traded West Guyana (Ojasti, 1995; GEF Project Brief, 1999; Bevilacqua et al., 2002). species. In 1988, approximately 60 species were harvested, which made up 82% of

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the total recorded national revenue for ornamental fish (Royero, 1993). The main 7.2.6 Bush meat areas for harvesting around Puerto Ayacucho are the Tomo, Tuparro, Guaviare, Bush meat satisfies most of the protein needs of traditional indigenous commu- Inírida and the Colombian section of the Meta River. The area around Caicara del nities and forms an important part of the diet of small-scale farmers living in the Orinoco is relatively small and is not linked to the Puerto Ayacucho harvesting Venezuelan Guayana (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). The most commonly hunted area. The main rivers fished in this area are the Cuchivero, Chaviripa and Caura species are the tapir, white-lipped peccary, large rodents, capuchin monkeys, Rivers. Ornamental fish are also harvested in the Orinoco Delta (Royero, 1993). cracid birds and armadillos (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). In the Delta Amacuro area, local hunting methods can be quite destructive, such as tree felling and setting Tributaries of the Orinoco River on both sides of the border are important for forest fires (GEF Project Brief, 1999). Subsistence hunting, the bush meat trade both Colombian and Venezuelan ornamental fish collectors and crossing the bor- and forest conversion due to shifting cultivation, logging, and mining are the pri- der occurs regularly (Royero, 1993). Earlier reports indicated fish were transport- mary activities threatening the wildlife in the Venezuelan Guayana (Bevilacqua et ed to Colombia and exported via Bogotá to Miami (US), but actually it appears al., 2002). Bush meat can be found on the markets in cities (Puerto Ayacucho, that the main movement of fish is into Venezuela (Royero, 1993). Fish are trans- Ciudad Bolívar, Ciudad Guayana and Tucupita) and smaller (mining) towns ported by aeroplane to collection points such as Maiquetía and then to Caracas (Puerto Paez, El Callao, Tumeremo Guasipati, Upata, Caicara, Trincheras and (Royero, 1993). From there they are exported mostly to Miami and Europe Maupa) (see Map). Despite being illegal, wild meat can be found in restaurants (Lasso, pers. comm.). (Ochoa, pers. comm.). Warao Indians poach bush meat for the Mabaruma market in north-west Guyana (van Andel, 2000). The absence of guards and govern- The main commercial species are the cardinal tetra (Paracheirodon axelrodi) and mental institutions in many areas is the reason for the lax control of illegal hunt- the neon tetra (P. innesi), which represented 30 to 50% of the Puerto Ayacucho ing (Ochoa, pers. comm.). harvest in the late 1980s. Other important species are the sapura (Semaprochilodus theraponura), coridora (Corydora spp.), hachita (Carnegiella Some large mammals subject to high hunting pressure, such as the giant armadil- spp.) and bagre pintado (Pimelodus pictus). The sapura is the most prized speci- lo (Priodontes maximus), tapir (Tapirus terrestris) and the capybara (Hydrochaeris men, this fish alone generated more than 3 million bolívares (~US$ 90,000) in hydrochaeris), are becoming scarce in the Guayana region (Bevilacqua et al., 1989 (Royero, 1993). 2002). The giant armadillo, widespread in South America, is hunted for food, medicine and handicrafts. It is considered at greatest risk for extinction in the Another valuable species is the altum angel (Pterophyllum altum), endemic to the near future in the Venezuelan Guayana (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). In many parts of Venezuelan Guayana and restricted to the basins of the Orinoco and Negro Rivers its range, the giant armadillo has been wiped out due to hunting for its meat, (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). Specimens of this species found in trade are especially in savannah areas and near human settlements where it is unable to caught in the wild, as it rarely spawns in captivity. Very little is known about the hide (Emmons, 1997). The species is considered Endangered (A1cd) at the impact of this trade, as the ecology and population status of the species remain national and international levels (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999; IUCN, virtually unknown (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). It still appears to be very 2002) and appears on the CITES Appendix I. The giant anteater (Myrmecophaga common in its black water habitat, and the fact that the numbers captured are not tridactyla) has also been eliminated from parts of its range, as it is killed for its decreasing indicates that it is not being over-exploited. The altum angel therefore meat and skin (Emmons, 1997). The giant anteater is Vulnerable (A1cd) on the has an IUCN threat category of Least Concern (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, IUCN Red List and the Venezuelan Red List (IUCN, 2002; Rodríguez and Rojas- 1999). Despite the economic importance of ornamental fish, no studies have been Suárez, 1999). It appears on CITES Appendix II. done to assess the impact of extraction on natural populations (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). Populations should be monitored and sustainable harvesting Famous for being the world’s largest rodent, the capybara (Hydrochaeris levels determined to prevent possible over-exploitation in the future (Rojas, pers. hydrochaeris) is extremely widespread in Latin America and can be locally com- comm.). Data on breeding seasons of ornamental fish are also important to reg- mon. They are always found near water and prefer more open habitats, particu- ulate the harvest (Royero, 1993). There are also several species in the export larly seasonally flooded areas such as the Llanos (Emmons, 1997). The capybara records for Venezuela that are not officially registered as occurring in Venezuela, is extensively hunted for its meat across the Guiana Shield and can be scarce in like for example the black arawana (Osteoglossum ferreirae) (Royero, 1993). populated areas. The species is subjected to high hunting pressure in the Venezuelan Guayana and are the least abundant in this part of the country (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Venezuela and Colombia commercially trade capybara on a large scale on urban markets, as there is high demand for salted capybara

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meat (Ojasti, 1991). The animal’s skins are another valuable product and a medic- In the Caura watershed region, Creole people are entering into indigenous terri- inal oil is made from its fat. Due to its high reproductive rate, large body size, tory, clearing out the nests of the terecay (P. unifilis) and killing adults for food group living arrangement and herbivorous diet, capybaras are suitable for ‘farm- (Ochoa, pers. comm.). There is a project supported by the Wildlife Conservation ing’. This means that wild herds are managed with a sustainable off take (Ojasti, Society, which is working with the indigenous people to promote the restoration 1991). The legal hunting of H. hydrochaeris is limited to a few large private ranch- of the P. unifilis population in the Caura Watershed area (Ochoa, pers comm.). es in the Llanos that have conducted population inventories. The Venezuelan P. unifilis is considered to be not threatened, but the chimpire (P. erythrocephala) Wildlife Service has set up a quota system and gives out hunting permits for a few is listed as Near Threatened for Venezuela (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). months per year. A few years after the start of the project, the system was reviewed All three Podocnemis species are listed on CITES Appendix II and the EC has and experts found that there was evidence of over-exploitation. The extraction of restricted import of wild P. erythrocephala from Venezuela and Colombia. capybara was then limited to 20% of the population for animals weighing more than 35 kg (Richard-Hansen and Hansen, 1998). 7.2.8 Caiman skins Extensive work has been done in Venezuela on the sustainable management of the 7.2.7 Freshwater turtles spectacled caiman (Caiman crocodilus). Since 1983, Venezuela has carried out the Freshwater turtles, especially Podocnemis expansa and P. unifilis, are exploited in largest scale-cropping programme for any crocodilian, centred on controlled Venezuela for meat, eggs and fat. The tortuga arrau (P. expansa), the largest turtle culling by private landowners, mainly in the Llanos region. A quota and permit in this genus, suffered a severe decline during the second half of the 19th century system was set up allowing the ranchers to take up to 20% of the adult males due to over-exploitation. P. expansa can be found along the Orinoco River and its longer than 180 cm every year (Ross, 1998). The original quotas were based on major tributaries; numbers are greatest in the middle Orinoco from Caicara to surveys of each property by licensed surveyors, resulting in an average export of Puerto Ayacucho (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). The tortuga arrau is listed between 70,000-90,000 skins per year. In 1992, the arrangement was evaluated as Critically Endangered on the Venezuelan Red List and extinction in Venezuela and evidence was found of over-exploitation in some areas. After regional sur- is foreseen unless action is taken (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). veys, new harvest quotas were determined. The harvest was limited to 15% of the Internationally, this species is now considered Conservation Dependent (IUCN, adult males longer than 180 cm, reducing the total export to 30,000 skins per year 2002). (Ross, 1998). In 1996, Venezuela closed the caiman skin export to allow for a detailed analysis of the effects of harvesting on wild populations. Based on the Intense human pressure has not changed since colonial times and turtle popula- results of this extensive evaluation, the harvest was re-opened in 1997. According tions continue to decline despite conservation efforts. Over-exploitation is fur- to Ross (1998), this programme has offered “an unparalleled opportunity to ther exacerbated by aspects of the P. expansa’s natural history. For instance, the establish experimental harvesting regimes in conjunction with population stud- egg-laying females gather in large numbers during the nesting season, making ies”. The Orinoco Delta region has been incorporated into a program of caiman them an easy target for poachers. The knock-on effects of this harvesting method exploitation, based on population studies showing that only 3% of the individu- are many: reproductive females are removed from the population, the nesting als in this region are harvestable animals (Ross, 1998). grounds are altered, and human presence can lead also to delayed egg-laying resulting in many unsuccessful nests. Another aspect making P. expansa’s more 7.2.9 Psittacines vulnerable to exploitation is the naturally high mortality rate of nestlings due to As mentioned previously, there is evidence of illegal trade of birds, mainly of the extraordinary levels of predation (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). In 1989, a parrot family, from the Venezuelan Guayana across the Orinoco delta into ten-year project geared towards the conservation of P. expansa was set up by Guyana (Ojasti, 1995, Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Psittacines are being transported PROFAUNA. This project included the protection of nesting sites, a captive from as far as Puerto Ayacucho to Guyana (Rojas, pers. comm.). Several species breeding and reintroduction programme and awareness-raising of conservation were mentioned specifically: the blue and yellow macaw (Ara ararauna), the yel- and sustainable use among local communities. Results were successful: the popu- low crowned parrot (Amazona ochrocephala), the orange winged parrot lation decline slowed down and 100,000 nestlings were transported from high- (Amazona amazonica), the blue-headed parrot (Pionus menstruus) and the black- risk beaches to sites with greater chances for survival (Rodríguez and Rojas- headed parrot (Pionites melanocephala). Of these species, only the blue and yel- Suárez, 1999). At the same time, two protected areas were created along the mid- low macaw ranks as Near Threatened on the Venezuelan Red List (Rodríguez and dle Orinoco to protect the nesting beaches of river turtles: the Santos Luzardo Rojas-Suárez, 1999). National Park and the Tortuga Arrau Wildlife Refuge (Rodríguez and Rojas- Suárez, 1999).

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In the Delta Amacuro, Warao Indians trade wild birds, particularly the larger par- Like the giant otter, the widespread Neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis) is rots. Capture figures ranging from 15,000 to 60,000 birds were mentioned (GEF always found in or near water and feeds mainly on fish. Although it has a wider Project Brief, 1999). There are reports that destructive harvesting methods were distribution than the giant otter, it is rarely seen (Emmons, 1997). It was also dec- being used, such as tree felling to obtain nestlings (GEF Project Brief, 1999). imated by the fur trade, leading to its listing on CITES Appendix I. Little is known Several problems with parrot conservation were identified in Venezuela, such as a about the current level of hunting, although habitat destruction and water pollu- lack of long-term monitoring of populations, harvesting and trade (domestic and tion continue to threaten the species (Emmons, 1997). It is listed as Data international), weak enforcement of legislation regulating bird trade, legal loop- Deficient on the IUCN Red List as its’ status is poorly known (IUCN, 2002). A holes allowing for domestic ownership (but not trade for certain threatened subspecies Lontra longicaudis enudris is listed as Near Threatened on the species), nesting sites having open access, lack of adaptive management skills and, Venezuelan Red List (Rodríguez and Rojas-Suárez, 1999). finally, a pricing system which does not favour “sustainably produced” nestlings (GEF Project Brief, 1999). 7.3 Plant Products PROFAUNA executed a research project in which they collected crucial preliminary data on life cycles and habitat requirements of parrots and determined sus- 7.3.1 Palm heart tainable use ratios for the Monagas region of Venezuela (PROFAUNA, 1998, The Orinoco Delta is characterised by large tracts of permanently flooded swamp 1999). As a result of this research, Venezuela has now one legal parrot export proj- forests with huge amounts of Euterpe oleracea (Huber, 1995). Palm heart of ect operated by Warao Indians and based on sustainable harvest (Ochoa, pers. Euterpe oleracea is the most important commercial NTFP of Venezuela. Between comm.). The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Global 1997 and 2001, five nationally owned companies were harvesting palm heart in Environment Facility (GEF) have funded a nine-year project in the Orinoco Delta 44,000 ha of concessions allocated by the Ministry of Environment (Stauffer, with components focusing on community-based sustainable use management 1999; MARN, 1999). At present, there are only three companies producing palm models and producing a long-term strategy to control the trade in wild birds, heart in the Delta Amacuro State (Catalán, pers. comm.). National production including census taking, an assessment of demand and the development of a con- figures for palm heart are all but clear. According to MARN (1999) Venezuela servation plan with Waraos and scientists (GEF Project Brief, 1999). exported almost 2 million palm hearts in 1998, with an approximate value of US$ 99,000. Catalán (pers. comm.) mentions figures of 18 million palm hearts 7.2.10 Otters harvested between 1997 and 2001, resulting in an export value of US$ 4.8 million. The giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) is found in and along rivers and oxbow The product is exported to Europe and the US. No research has been done on the lakes throughout the Guiana Shield, from the eastern Andes in Colombia, south- impact of current extraction on the regeneration of E. oleracea, nor on the plant ern Venezuela, the Guianas, Brazil and south to northern Argentina (Emmons, and animal species that depend on this species for their survival (Bevilacqua et al., 1997). They feed primarily on large amounts of fish and can be quite common 2002). There exists an urgent need for sustainability studies like those carried out where there is little disturbance. Giant otter populations were hit very hard by the in Guyana (van Andel et al., 1998; Peña-Claros and Zuidema, 2001) and Brazil international demand for their fur. Intense hunting nearly extirpated giant otter (Anderson, 1988; Anderson and Jardim, 1989; Pollak et al., 1995). populations in vast areas of the Orinoco and Amazon Basins. In Venezuela, severe hunting pressure was exerted on the P. brasiliensis in the Caura and Nichare Indications of unsustainable palm heart harvesting were a motive for the World Rivers. The skin trade no longer exists and the giant otter is protected by nation- Bank to fund a project that aims at the conservation of biological diversity in the al legislation and its listing on CITES Appendix I. There are indications that pop- Orinoco Delta Biosphere Reserve and Lower Orinoco River Basin (GEF project ulations are improving, since this measure has been taken. Unfortunately, the brief, 1999). Demonstration projects are set up to assess the impact of palm heart giant otter is extremely sensitive to disturbance, including ecotourism. harvesting and to integrate conservation aspects into the extraction methods. Historically, hunting was the main threat, but currently the species is threatened Together with local Warao collectors, producers and the government, a plan is set by increased human colonisation (IUCN, 2002). Otters compete with humans for up to reduce the impact of palm heart extraction on the regional biodiversity fish, but also suffer from mercury contamination by gold mining activities. This (GEF project brief, 1999). None of the available references on palm heart har- otter is still considered Endangered (A1acde) on the IUCN Red List. WWF- vesting mention the marketing of Euterpe fruit juice. Guianas has set up a three-year giant otter conservation programme for the three Guianas.

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7.3.2 Moriche The overall chiquechique trade has decreased, most likely because of increasing The moriche palm (Mauritia flexuosa), is considered as the most important palm guerrilla activity along the Colombian border. The extraction and trade now has for both indigenous and non-indigenous peoples in the Venezuelan Guayana moved north towards Puerto Ayacucho (Aymard, pers. comm.). Drinks are made (Ponce et al., 2000). People use the roots, leaves, shoots, fruits, seeds, stem, starch from the fruits and the leaves are used to thatch roofs, which are extremely and even the larvae of a beetle feeding on the rotten palm trunks for food, medi- durable and can last up to 20 years. The impact of this extraction on the natural cine, handicrafts and house construction (Wilbert and Layrisse, 1980; Ponce et al., populations remains unknown (Stauffer, 1999). According to Johnson (1997), 2000). Mauritia flexuosa occurs in large quantities in the flooded swamps of the exploitation is probably sustainable, as long as trees are not damaged during har- Orinoco Delta. These so-called ‘morichales’ play an important role in watershed vesting. Fibre cutting is mostly done during the dry season, since swamps become protection and are essential for a wide variety of animals that feed on the fruits. impassable in the wet season. Unfortunately, the palm is quite vulnerable to water pollution caused by the petrol industry and commercial agriculture (Ponce et al., 2000). Palm swamps in 7.3.4 Crafts the Guiana Shield also suffer from the indiscriminate burning of swamps in the The aerial roots of the hemi-epiphyte mamure (Heteropsis spruceana) are used for dry season (Janssen, 1974; Teunissen, 1993; van Andel, 2000). Palms are felled or basketry and furniture, in a similar way as the roots of Heteropsis flexuosa in damaged for the trapping of parrots, the collection of fruits or shoots for craft Guyana. The roots are harvested and traded along the Orinoco River (Berry, pers. fibres, used in the tourist industry. Moreover, morichales in Venezuela are drained comm.). Locally, Heteropsis roots are said to be in decline and threatened by over- for agriculture or drinking water (Kahn and de Granville, 1992; Rodriguez, exploitation (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Crafts from Ischnosiphon obliquus,made by 1999b; Ponce et al., 2000). In spite of the ecological and cultural importance of local communities in the Gran Sabana, are sold to local tourists or shipped to Mauritia swamps, little is known about their morphology, regeneration strategy Caracas and Ciudad Guayana (Hernandez, pers. comm.). The species, traded in and the actual condition of standing groves (Johnson, 1997; Ponce et al., 2000). other parts of Venezuela as well, is said to be in fast decline (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). More attention should be given to sustainable harvesting techniques for Notwithstanding its multiple uses, Ponce et al. (2000) still consider Mauritia Heteropsis and Ischnosiphon fibres. Local extinction of these plants can have detri- flexuosa an underdeveloped NTFP.Although the fruit pulp is sold for about US$2 mental effects on the economy of indigenous communities, as they not only mar- per kg in Puerto Ayacucho and Ciudad Bolívar, the palm could provide much ket the crafts, but also use this basketry in the processing of their staple food cas- greater economic benefits to Venezuela than it does today (Paoletii, 1999; Ponce sava (Manihot esculenta). et al., 2000). In the Peruvian Amazon, Mauritia fruit pulp is processed into juice, ice cream and fermented drinks, and contributes substantially to the local econo- 7.3.5 Coumarin my (Padoch, 1988). The yellow, fibrous mesocarp is rich in nutrients and the seed The seeds of sarapia (Dipteryx odorata) are extracted in the north Caura region. kernels yield a good quality oil (Balick, 1979). As long as harvesters climb the trees The oil from the seeds (coumarin) is used in industrial flavouring and is instead of felling the trunks, fruit collection can be done in a sustainable way processed in a factory in Upata. From there the coumarin is transported to (Peters et al., 1989b). The same accounts for fibre harvesting for the craft indus- Cuidad Guayana. The extraction seems to be sustainable, although no research try. Overall, more scientific information on regeneration patterns is needed to has been conducted on this topic (Aymard and Rosales, pers. comm.). contribute to sustainable management (Clay and Clement, 1993). New markets should be developed for fruits and fibres: hammocks made from Mauritia fibre can be sold in Caracas for US$ 69, and the fruits also have a potential for pig food 7.4 The future of commercial NTFPs in Venezuela (Ponce et al., 2000). At the same time, there is a need for community development projects such as the Mapire project (Flores, 1999; Rodriguez, 1999b), to create a According to Global Forest Watch, parts of the Venezuelan Guayana have been greater awareness of the ecological and economic value of the morichales among relatively well researched, while others, such as the Imataca Forest Reserve and local people and to stimulate their conservation and wise management. Delta Amacuro State, have not. Data on the abundance, use, and economic value of NTFPs (including wildlife) are particularly lacking (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). 7.3.3 Chiquechique Huber (2001) states that the commercialisation of NTFPs in the Venezuelan Fibres forming the leaf base of the chiquechique palm (Leopoldinia piassaba) were Guayana is handicapped by the poor infrastructure, since transport is by boat or harvested intensively along the Rio Negro, the Casiquare and Upper Orinoco. small plane. Huber thinks that bioprospecting, ecotourism and scientific collec- Fibres were also sold in Colombian border towns (Putz, 1979). The broom facto- tion should be stimulated in the region, but strict rules are necessary to prevent ry in San Carlos de Rio Negro that processed these fibres closed down recently. environmental damage. NTFP commercialisation along the border with

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Colombia is hampered by guerrilla activities; armed groups sometimes enter Venezuela to flee from the Colombian army. 8

Venezuela has been leading the way with long-term research on sustainable use DISCUSSION and conservation of certain animal species (caimans, river turtles, capybaras and parrots). These projects can serve as an example to other parts of Venezuela and other Guiana Shield countries. Many active organisations (e.g., Fundación Polar, 8.1 Lack of quantitative data on NTFPs Fudeci, Provita, Acoana, Wildlife Conservation Society and PROFAUNA) are working on the sustainable extraction and conservation of wildlife (Ochoa, pers. Calculating the actual harvested volumes and value of commercial NTFPs for the comm.). According to Global Forest Watch, a significant proportion of NTFPs Guiana Shield countries is an arduous task. Production figures are often based on (including wildlife) used by indigenous and local communities is threatened, issued permits, not on the actual volumes extracted. Only legal export is regis- indicating critical resources for traditional livelihoods could disappear, impover- tered; revenues generated from illegal export remain unknown. To avoid taxes, ishing the lives of local indigenous peoples (Bevilacqua et al., 2002). Over-popu- exporters declare their commodities often substantially lower than their actual lation and increasing sedentary lifestyles of some indigenous communities repre- values. The domestic market in NTFPs is in most cases not monitored at all. The sent a factor in the reduction of certain NTFPs around traditionally colonised provenance of NTFPs in export or production statistics is not always clear. areas (Ochoa, pers. com.). Frequently, no distinction is made between species harvested from the wild and those harvested from plantations, agroforestry or, in the case of wildlife, from Some authors mention the potential commercial value of wild fruits from the captive breeding (Richards 1993; Broekhoven, 1996; van Andel, 2000). The vari- Southern Venezuelan forests, such as Solanum sessiliflorum, S. stramoniifolium ous references and national statistics used for this report often revealed different and Duguetia lepidota (Paoletti, 1999). Others promote the oil-producing palm production data for the same NTFPs. Values and volumes presented in this report fruits of Maximiliana maripa, Attalea butyracea, and Acrocomia aculeata should thus be seen as estimations, which might differ from actual numbers, but (Johnson, 1997). Oil from the seeds of Jessenia bataua and Oenocarpus bacaba is can at least make certain trends visible. harvested on a small scale in the Reserva Forestal Sipapo (Aymard, pers. comm.). Bevilacqua et al. (2002) mention that some medicinal plants have been evaluated To obtain an accurate overview in production figures and monetary values of in pharmaceutical tests to identify active agents with potential promise for NTFPs, detailed field studies are required, in which products are followed along Western medicine, but give no further details. The great horticultural potential of their chain of custody. Tracking a NTFP through all stages of the production the Mount Roraima area was brought up by DeFilipps (1992). Local populations process, from harvest site to marketplace, from exporter to consumer, can help us of the wild bromeliad Vriesia splendens seem to have more visual appeal in their to estimate the real importance of NTFPs for a country’s economy (de Beer and bronze leaf-bands than the selected forms now in cultivation. Several species of McDermott, 1996). Another crucial aspect is to have a sound identification of the rare and spectacular orchids from Mount Roraima are being cultivated and mar- species involved. Local names for plants and animals are quite variable, so data are keted by the Sociedade Orquidófila de Roraima (SORR) in Boa Vista, Brazil. hard to compare with other regions and projects. Reliable scientific names are needed to search for information on growth rates, distribution and other data needed to design proper management plans. NTFP research, including ethnobotanical studies and hunting surveys, should therefore always be carried out in cooperation with local and international Herbaria and Zoological research institutes.

Sustainable extraction levels are only available for a limited number of animal species (Robinson and Redford, 1991a), açai (Anderson and Jardim, 1989) and palm heart (Strudwick, 1990). The lack of ecological information on growth rates and population recovery after harvest hampers the design of adequate harvest models for the great majority of NTFPs. The potential yield from wild species is frequently over-estimated (SCBD, 2001). If NTFPs are already being harvested and undisturbed populations are not available anymore, monitoring the harvest-

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ing regime still provides useful information on the long-term impacts of extractive breeding and ranching programmes. These can play a key role in reducing the tion on the species (Nasi, 2001). impact of hunting on wild populations.

Bush meat is a region-wide NTFP, with commercial hunting on the increase in 8.2 Patterns in NTFP commercialisation throughout the Guiana Shield Guyana and Suriname. Demand for bush meat is growing with increasing human population in the remote interiors, along with increasing immigration for the Many commercially interesting NTFPs occur throughout the Guiana Shield, but mining and logging industries (Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001). There is a grow- the scale of their harvest and marketing differs greatly from country to country. ing demand from the urban centres for wild meat and bush meat is served in The marketing of a certain NTFP may be prohibited in one country, while it is a urban restaurants in all parts of the Guiana Shield. This results in increased hunt- major export product in another country. For example, Guyana and Suriname are ing pressure on the main commercial bush meat species across the Guiana Shield. exporting large quantities of wildlife, and have established export quota for both Some of most prized bush meat species are vulnerable to over-exploitation and CITES-listed and non-CITES animals. The export of these animals is generally are listed as threatened under the IUCN Threat Categories (e.g., tapir and giant prohibited in the other Guiana Shield countries. armadillo) and many are listed on the CITES Appendices (see Appendix 1). Throughout the Guiana Shield, there is a low capacity for enforcement of the var- Euterpe oleracea is occurring in harvestable quantities throughout the Guiana ious laws and regulations for hunting and commercial use of wildlife. Shield, but there is no palm heart processing industry present in Suriname and French Guiana. The wages in French Guiana are probably too high to compete Freshwater fish, particularly the large catfish, are an important food source across with neighbouring countries, but in Suriname the canning industry could pro- the Guiana Shield. The most important market for catfish appears to be Leticia vide a much needed source of income. The juice from Euterpe fruits is marketed (Colombia). Fish are also being transported from neighbouring Brazil and throughout the Guiana Shield, except in Guyana and Venezuela. A large NTFP Venezuela for the Colombian market. Ornamental fish are commercially harvest- resource with good possibilities for sustainable harvest is thus left untouched ed across the Guiana Shield, with the exception of Suriname, for export to the US because it lacks a domestic market. These countries should focus on the export and Europe. Brazil is the largest exporter of aquarium fish (mainly cardinal tetra), market, not initially towards Europe and the US, but rather to the CARICOM followed by Colombia, Venezuela and Guyana. The present export probably rep- countries or countries within the Guiana Shield. resents only a small fraction of the diversity of ornamental fish species available in the Guiana Shield. All European importers interviewed by Grosman (2002) Hemi-epiphytes of the genera Clusia and Heteropsis are also widespread through- were interested in increasing their imports from the Guiana Shield region, in par- out the Guiana Shield, but they are only extracted for the furniture industry in ticularly species of the Callichthyidae, Characidae, Cichlidae, Gasteropelecidae, Guyana (van Andel, 2000; Hall et al., 2001) and on a small scale in Pará and Loricariidae and Poeciliidae families, and to a lesser extent Aplocheilidae and Amapá (Whitehead and Godoy, 1991). An enormous potential for furniture pro- Lebiasinidae (Grosman, 2002). However, approximately 90% of internationally duction in the region thus remains unused. Workshops should be organised, in traded ornamental fish comes from fish farms in the Far East and Florida. To which Guyanese and Brazilian craftsmen could share their techniques with inter- maintain the aquarium fish trade from the Guiana Shield, it is therefore impor- ested people in neighbouring countries. According to Whitehead and Godoy tant to diversify into those high-value species that are not easily bred in captivity (1991), exploring the potential of exporting rattan substitutes to international (Watson, 2000b). markets could increase the income of poor rural citizens. Since standing forest is needed to supply these NTFPs, aerial root harvesting could protect host trees Brazil is by far the largest producer of commercial NTFPs. Although the trade in from logging, provided that reasonable prices are paid for these roots (Hoffman, some NTFPs may have declined over the last decades, there is still a large market 1997; van Andel, 2000). for other products. The total export value of NTFPs from Brazil varied between US$ 10 million in 1986 and US$ 53 million in 1990 (Richards, 1993; Broekhoven, International trade restrictions, such as the CITES Appendices and EU import 1996). Although these figures must be regarded as tentative estimations, they are restrictions, and national legislation have effectively contributed to the recovery certainly higher than the US$ 4 million of export revenues for NTFPs earned by of certain vulnerable species. The spotted cats, caimans and otters all experienced Venezuela (in 1998), Colombia (1990) and Guyana (1996). Exports of NTFPs massive declines in the first half of the 20th Century. Ever since the international from the Guiana Shield still remain very small compared to those of other com- skin trade has been restricted, these species have shown signs of recovery. modities such as oil, timber, rice and sugar. International trade limitations have also contributed to the development of cap-

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NTFPs are principally commercialised on the domestic market, and still represent yield studies (quantity of resource produced) are two operational steps to obtain a ‘hidden harvest’. However, they certainly contribute to the national economy baseline data on current densities and productivity of NTFP resources (Peters, and provide an income for a large number of forest inhabitants, among which 1994). These studies should be repeated every few years. Periodic regeneration many indigenous people. Many NTFPs that used to be extracted commercially surveys, harvest assessments and harvest adjustments make up the three opera- throughout the Guiana Shield (e.g., balata, rosewood oil, cumaru, copaiba bal- tional steps of monitoring the impact of extraction (Peters, 1994). The underly- sam), but were not economically viable in the long run, are still marketed in Brazil ing causes of deforestation and habitat loss also greatly influence the sustainable today. This country has the advantage of having large cities surrounded by sheer use of NTFPs, so it is important to understand what drives deforestation and endless forests (e.g., Manaus, Belém), a relatively good infrastructure and large habitat fragmentation. Fragmentation of habitats by logging, mining and new supplies of cheap labour willing to engage in collection activities. Furthermore, infrastructure can lead to an increased focus on NTFP collection and hunting in Brazil is one of the few countries in the world with an active government policy the areas where resources are still present (SCBD, 2001). on subsidising NTFP extraction and establishing extractive reserves. Brazilian institutions also have ample experience with providing technical support to com- The question remains whether natural populations are adequate to provide a reg- munity-based NTFP enterprises (Allegretti and Schwartzman, 1986). ular commercial harvest (LaFrankie, 1994). In general, animals have a much higher value per unit than vegetal NTFPs. Since transport costs are a major bottleneck for the commercialisation of NTFPs, wildlife is often the only product worthwhile 8.3 Sustainable extraction of NTFPs to transport over large distances (van Andel, 2000). Birds and mammals are significantly more threatened by exploitation than plants. Hunting, collecting and 8.3.1 Ecological sustainability trade has a negative impact on 42% of all threatened bird and mammal species, The sustainable extraction of NTFPs depends on ecological sustainability, eco- but only 8% of all threatened plants (Hilton-Taylor, 2000). nomic feasibility and socio-political acceptability (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). Extraction is generally considered ecologically sustainable if it has no long-term 8.3.2 Economic feasibility deleterious effect on the regeneration of the harvested population, and when the Assuming that a natural population is adequate to provide a regular harvest, a yield remains more or less constant throughout the years (Strudwick, 1990; Hall NTFP must have a lasting market appeal to be economically successful. and Bawa, 1993; Pollak et al., 1995). The ecological impact of extraction depends Harvesters should receive a good price for the product in order to avoid destruc- strongly on the nature of the harvested product. Collecting leaves, eggs, honey, tive extraction techniques or abandoning the product altogether (Pollak et al., fruits or seeds clearly has a smaller impact than taking the bark, roots, trunk or 1995). However, very valuable products can lead to massive over-exploitation for the entire plant or animal (Boot, 1997). Harvesting pregnant females (e.g., river short-term gain, possibly leading to economic extinction of the species. The high turtles that come ashore to lay their eggs) obviously has a negative impact on the demand-high value scenario is more difficult to manage, as it can lead to survival of a population. On the other hand, a decreased competition due to a increased (illegal) collection as collectors are willing to take more risks and invest lessened density of individuals can sometimes stimulate the population growth. more effort in finding the species. Those species with very high economic value In that case, reproductive rates can be higher in exploited areas than in undis- have historically been decimated by uncontrolled harvesting (e.g., rosewood, turbed areas (Broekhoven, 1996). In general, extraction should be in balance with giant otter). Extremely high prices of certain desirable species have resulted in a the reproductive rate of a species; harvest should not exceed production link between illegal wildlife trade and organised crime (Cook et al., 2002). (Robinson and Bennett, 2000). The species most vulnerable to over-exploitation are those which are in high demand, slow to reach maturity, have specific habitat It remains by all means necessary to assign an economic value to NTFP-produc- requirements and a limited distribution (Cunningham, 1997). Therefore, fast ing forests and to weigh their advantages against alternative land uses (Peters et reproducing species with general habitat preferences (e.g., agouti, paca) are more al., 1989b; Godoy and Lubowski, 1992). Buyers must be guaranteed a consistent likely to stand a certain degree of harvesting. supply of the product, which requires that the harvest is also ecologically sustainable (Pollak et al., 1995). The amount of intermediaries in the product chain from Extraction techniques can make a substantial difference: climbing trees to collect harvest to marketplaces should be reduced to ensure that more revenue is earned fruits, eggs, parrot chicks or leaves are preferred to chopping down the tree and by the harvesters themselves. thereby losing all future supply. Reducing the post-harvest loss (e.g., mortality of live animals during transport, perishable fruits) could also greatly enhance sus- Volatile markets and price fluctuations are risk factors in the marketing of NTFPs tainability. Inventories (number of harvestable plants or animals per hectare) and (Rubino et al., 2000). It is best to focus on those NTFPs that have a market (Clay,

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1996). Rather than exporting the raw material, it is preferable to capture the value seldom paid in cash for their work. Instead they are advanced market goods by that is added as the product travels through the market system. This can be done buyers or middlemen on credit at inflated costs, while low prices are offered for by small, community-based industries that process the NTFPs near the extraction the extractive products. In these systems of bonded labour or debt-peonage, sites. Examples are the furniture workshops along the Pomeroon River in Guyana labourers find themselves unable to escape from the contractual obligations with (van Andel, 2000) and the fruit-preserving cottage industries in Amazonian Brazil their employers (Hoffman, 1997; Forte, 1999). These in-debt relationships are (Peters et al., 1989b). A diversification of marketed products reduces the depend- found in more and less exploitative forms among rubber tappers (Richards, ence on a single product (Clay, 1996). The development of commercial NTFPs 1993), Brazil nut harvesters (Assies, 1997), palm heart cutters (van Andel, 2000; can be stimulated by creating new markets for existing products and by improv- Forte, 1999) and aerial root collectors (Hoffman, 1997), but are definitely not ing market structures and facilities (Broekhoven, 1996). When searching for new confined to NTFP extractors. This highly regressive credit and marketing system markets, the immigrant populations in Europe and the US should not be under- is also prevalent in cash crop agriculture and gold mining throughout South estimated. There is a sizeable Latino population in the US, with a considerable America (Richards, 1993; Broekhoven, 1996; van Andel, 2000). The system surely demand for products from their home countries (e.g., açai, guaraná and other maintains extractors in severe deprivation, but Richards (1993) points out that it forest fruits). Surinamese immigrants in the Netherlands are also keen to buy also has the capacity to bridge the gap between remote subsistence economies and songbirds, medicinal plants and typical fruits and vegetables from their home the market economy. Furthermore, the system forces extractors to maximise the country. time devoted to the collection of NTFPs and leaves little time for subsistence agriculture. According to Richards (1993) this structure is thus more environmental- The main reasons for the lack of market development for NTFPs include the ly sound than the alternative, more autonomous labour relationships. absence of good infrastructure, high transport costs, limited access to market information and unfamiliarity with products on the part of consumers These arguments may be valid for Brazil, but the situation in northwest Guyana (Broekhoven, 1996; van Andel, 2000). The organisational capacity of local com- is just the reverse, since deforestation due to subsistence agriculture is not a major munities and NGOs is weak, particularly in relation to formulating business plans problem here. Bonded labour and the consequent neglect of traditional agricul- and marketing strategies (Clay, 1996). Forest-based enterprises often do not have ture have led to the destruction of palm heart resources in the coastal swamp adequate entrepreneurial and management skills. According to Rubino et al. region (van Andel, 2000). NTFP extraction should not be seen as a viable alter- (2000), uncontrolled extraction and the lack of market-chain analysis, processing native to shifting cultivation, since extractors often need to combine NTFP har- technologies and training required to ‘add-value’ to the products, are also con- vesting with subsistence agriculture, in order to make a decent living and provide straints faced by small biodiversity businesses. NTFP production may not be food security (Mori, 1992; de Beer and McDermott, 1996; Assies, 1997; van Andel, profitable enough by itself as an economic activity to support local communities. 2000). Commercial NTFP extraction can therefore hardly be defined as an exclu- In most cases, commercialisation of NTFPs must be seen as one of the options for sive land use type (Ros-Tonen, 1999). To secure a good base for increasing liveli- increasing sustainable livelihoods and creating a sustainable income base. hoods of local communities, it is best to have product diversification and multi- Additional activities might be needed to reduce negative impacts on the income ple product management (Richards, 1993). A great social advantage of NTFP from fluctuations on the market side and in the natural resource base. extraction is that it can be combined with subsistence activities like hunting, fish- Stimulating community-based ecotourism or animal ranching might be good ing, and slash-and-burn agriculture. This allows most harvesters to earn a living additional activities (SCBD, 2001). One could think of parrot ranching projects while spending most of their time within their traditional dwelling-grounds, an near tourist lodges to attract bird watchers and ecotourists and ornamental fish opportunity not offered by other means of employment in many rural areas of collection expeditions. the Guiana Shield. NTFPs can offer indigenous people an income, while staying close to their families, a fact that contributes to the preservation of indigenous 8.3.3 Socio-political acceptability cultures. The traditional knowledge of indigenous groups, with a historical tradi- Commercial extraction of NTFPs depends for a great deal on the knowledge and tion of extractivism and swidden farming, could provide a firm basis for sustain- skills of local people, as well as on their possibilities and willingness to engage in able forest management, incorporating multi-species extractivism and tradition- the collection and trade of NTFPs (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). Rural communities, al swidden management techniques (Richards, 1993). which have been relying on a variety of plant and animal species for their livelihoods, should have a direct stake and interest in the sustainable extraction of NTFPs (Posey, 1992; Hall and Bawa, 1993). Unfortunately, a crucial factor limiting the potential of NTFPs to improve local people’s income is that extractors are

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8.4 Extractive Reserves Initiative) in Colombia, WWF-Guianas, Cultural Survival, Body Shop, POEMA and Bolsa Amazônia in Brazil. Richards (1993) however, has serious doubts about In the late 1980s, the National Council of Rubber Tappers in Brazil (CNS) called the dependency effects and economic feasibility of these artificial marketing for the formation of extractive reserves. Their main goal was to provide a frame- arrangements. work for the sustained use and protection of NTFPs through the definition of property rights in favour of local communities (May, 1990). Extractive reserves The Brazilian Government subsidizes the extraction of Brazil nuts, babassu and are unique to Brazil, and remain under the joint control of the CNS and the rubber, providing an income to people that would otherwise be engaged in less Brazilian Environmental Institute (IBAMA). According to Browder (1992), the sustainable forms of land use (logging, slash-and-burn agriculture). However, objective of extractive reserves was to maximise human welfare, not necessarily to extractive activities should be firmly incorporated into regional and national preserve biodiversity. However, the fact that the land is leased by the State to the land-use planning to reduce counter-productive government subsidies, like the extractors avoids the normal process of deforestation that has followed the pri- promotion of cattle ranching in NTFP producing forest areas (Broekhoven, vatisation in the Amazon in the last decades (Richards, 1993). This was illustrat- 1996). Securing long-term financing can be difficult for small NTFP enterprises, ed by the situation in Acre, where the Brazilian government allowed commercial so more effective credit programmes are needed in rural areas (Rubino et al., farmers to remove the rubber tappers from their forests, which resulted in mas- 2000). Clay (1996) stresses that when community investments are required, loans sive deforestation (Richards, 1993). not grants must be used to enhance responsibility.

Broekhoven (1996) states that commercial rubber tapping in Brazil is probably The International Finance Corporation (IFC) sees real investment opportunities sustainable, since many rain forest areas have been occupied and exploited by in Latin America for small and medium sized businesses in agriculture (including rubber tappers for over 60 years, indicating that land and resource rights are as aquaculture), forestry, ecotourism, and sustainably harvested NTFPs (Rubino et essential to both income generation and conservation. Still, the effect of this long- al., 2000). The Terra Capital Fund, a private equity fund, invests in and catalyses term occupation on the forest biodiversity is unclear (Schwartzman, 1989). private enterprises that generate conservation benefits through sustainable use of According to Hardner and Rice (1997), extractive reserves may provide sufficient biodiversity in countries which have ratified the Convention on Biological income to local people only if their area is sufficiently large for continuous use. Diversity (this counts for all Guiana Shield countries). This fund also focuses on Therefore, restrictions on land use may be necessary, especially for clearing forest enterprises in NTFPs and has a stake in Muaná Alimentos, the company that for agriculture. Most rubber tappers are nowadays no longer tied to a patron for exports palm hearts from FSC-certified forest (www.ifc.org/enviro/EMG/ all transactions under the traditional debt peonage system, but many of them are Biodiversity/Terra/terra.htm). still in debt to intermediaries who advance goods and cash against future rubber production. Due to continued conflicts over land rights and exact boundaries of The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has devel- extractive reserves, progress has been slow and NTFP commercialisation has not oped a Market Analysis and Development field manual, which provides a frame- yet made its major contribution to forest conservation as was expected at first work for planning tree and forest product enterprises with local communities in (Richards, 1993; Broekhoven, 1996). three phases (Lecup and Nicholson, 2000). The first phase consists of assessing the existing situation, understanding the issues, defining problems and opportunities, and making a shortlist of possible products. The second phase is aimed at 8.5 Subsidising NTFP extraction identifying products, markets and means of marketing, while a decision is made on the best products and their further development. The last phase is concerned Improving the harvesters’ socio-economic situation can be achieved by granting with planning enterprises for sustainable development, formulating development them land tenure and by improving facilities for transport, processing and mar- plans and prepares for the implementation of these plans. keting. Governments can contribute by developing management guidelines and promoting health care and education in the area. Marketing arrangements with international NGOs or private companies interested in sustainable production of 8.6 Domestication of NTFPs NTFPs may triple the price paid to extractors. Such arrangements could be a useful mechanism to successfully promote NTFP enterprises, as the service organisa- 8.6.1 Plant domestication tion assists with marketing and offers technical assistance. Examples of such part- For rare species with high commercial value, domestication or captive breeding nerships are the programmes supported by the Biocomercio Sostenible (BioTrade might be a feasible solution to reduce pressure on natural stands, while ensuring

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the future trade. Domestication of plants may have a positive effect on the con- rot (Amazona aestiva). The project emerged directly from studies on the biology servation of wild populations, while breeding can increase the quality of the and trade of the parrot and a project determining the possibility of using the desired product (Lange, 1997). However, the value of maintaining wild relatives species sustainably. The programme works currently with 324 families that are for their germplasm is not always recognised, so after domestication there is gen- legal owners or occupants of the land where parrots nest. At the beginning of the erally less reason to preserve the forest previously used to harvest these NTFPs. season, each area is assigned maximum collection quotas. Collectors must leave at The argument that domestication leads eventually to forest conversion may be least one nestling in the nest and mark each nest from which chicks have been true for large-scale palm oil plantations, although these can be considered as removed; one nest is spot-checked at random for each collector. Juvenile parrots cash-crop agriculture (Ros-Tonen et al., 1995). NTFPs should preferably be are also collected in agricultural areas, but only those birds that land on cultivat- domesticated in agroforestry systems, like Amerindians have done for thousands ed plants are allowed to be captured. Each parrot harvested comes with a of years. Small-scale plantations may be a solution for very rare and valuable Certificate of Origin specifying the management requirement (Branchs, 2001). NTFPs, such as rosewood oil (Coppen, 1995b). A problem is that not all plants are easy to cultivate; some have very slow growth rates or their active ingredients (in The Elé programme established a Preservation Fund for the blue-fronted parrot, the case of medicinal plants) are reduced in cultivation (Lange, 1997). into which exporters are obliged to contribute money. This covers the costs of the programme, making it economically sustainable. The need for enforcement for 8.6.2 Captive breeding and ranching of animals each stage in the system, especially regarding quotas and harvesting methods, is The commercial breeding of wild animals in captivity can provide an economic very important. Success factors of the project have been attributed to the institu- alternative to domestic livestock production and can provide incentives for the tion network that has developed and the desire of the local people to participate species’ conservation (CITES, 1992). Breeding is often focused on CITES-listed (Ostrosky, pers. comm.). The programme has reduced illegal collection by animals, as they are the species with the greatest demand and economic value. In extending the programme, including properties where there was previously sig- captive breeding systems, the original parental stock comes from the wild and is nificant illegal trade (Branchs, 2001). A couple of limitations so far include: on- maintained without the introduction of specimens from the wild, except for the going habitat loss, illegal parrots out-competing legal parrots (due to lower costs occasional addition of animals to avoid detrimental inbreeding (CITES, 1997). It associated with illegal trade) and a lack of awareness by consumers to distinguish is a costly system, only suitable for very valuable species that breed easily in cap- between illegal and legal parrots (Branchs, 2001). Other limitations for parrot tivity. The term ranching is used for the rearing of wild animals in a controlled ranching are the high capital investment and maintenance costs, as young parrots natural environment or the careful management of wild populations, such as the are often susceptible to disease and parasites (Thomsen and Brautigam, 1991). removal of eggs, juveniles or adults (CITES, 2000). From a conservation view- On the other hand, additional revenues could be earned by ecotourism, as ranch- point, ranching is preferred, as the link with wild populations and natural ecosys- ing projects increase the ease of observing rare species in a wild setting. tem remains strong. Of great importance to these management systems is that all products, including live specimens, must be effectively identified with clear mark- Captive breeding of Psittacines is already practised in Europe, Asia and the US. An ings and documents to avoid confusion with truly wild specimens (Ross, 1998; advantage is that captive bred parrots have a higher market value, because they are CITES, 2000). preferred to wild birds as pets (Kratter, 1998). As with ranching projects, breeding stations are costly to set up and run, as costs for medicine and food are par- Just a few captive breeding and ranching programmes exist in the Guiana Shield, ticularly high in developing countries. They are also fairly labour intensive. These principally focused on parrots, caimans, and capybara (see previous Chapters). high costs plus transport make competing with breeders in Europe and the US Given their economic value and continued demand, the ranching of Psittacines very difficult (Duplaix, 2001; Watkins, pers. comm.). Breeding success in captivi- should be a priority. In parrot ranching projects, management techniques ty of certain Psittacines has not been great either. include: raising eggs that would not survive in the wild, removing only one chick per nest, setting up large PVC pipe nest boxes to promote breeding, or capture only those parrots that feed on agricultural lands (Thomsen and Brautigam, 8.7 Promising products for sustainable harvesting 1991; Kratter, 1998; Branchs, 2001). Extractivism is more likely to be successful in forests where a few marketable An innovative ranching project, located in the Chaco region of Argentina, pro- species dominate (Browder, 1992). Examples of these so-called ‘oligarchic forests’ vides an example of the potentials and problems with ranching parrots. Since in the Guiana Shield are the Brazil nut groves (Balée, 1986; 1987) and the exten- 1997, the Elé programme’s aim was to conserve and manage the blue-fronted par- sive swamps dominated by palms like Euterpe oleracea, Mauritia flexuosa or

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Leopoldinia piassaba (Anderson and Jardim, 1989; Peters et al., 1989a; Strudwick, or threatened species and takes into account the need for wildlife refuges in tim- 1990; Johnson, 1997; van Andel, 2000; Ponce et al., 2000). In terms of density and ber concessions. Forest management should also not reduce the resources of yield, oligarchic forests rival many commercial fruit orchards, while they often indigenous peoples. However, more attention should also be paid to hunting and occur on sites not suitable for agriculture, cattle ranching or logging (Peters et al., NTFP collection in FSC-certified timber concessions (Bennett and Robinson, 1989a). Palm-dominated swamps cover large areas along the (brackish) coastline 2001). of the Guiana Shield, particularly in the deltas of the Amazon and Orinoco. Products from these ‘natural monocultures’, such as açai, palm heart, Mauritia Preliminary research shows that aquarium keepers are willing to pay a slightly fruit and piassaba fibre, have the greatest potential for sustainable harvesting. higher price for (certified) sustainably harvested fish (Grosman, 2002; Watson, These impassable swamplands are also important refuges for wildlife, in particu- 2000b). A certification system has recently been launched for the marine trade lar for those animals that feed on palm fruits like the tapir (GEF project brief, called MAC (Marine Aquarium Council), which is an international certification 1999). system aimed at ensuring the quality of organisms in the marine aquarium trade (www.aquariumcouncil.org). A similar system could be set up for the freshwater aquarium trade, although a system of this kind incurs costs for monitoring and 8.8. Certification of sustainably harvested NTFPs direct marketing to consumers.

One of the market tools available to promote sound ecological and social practices is the certification of NTFPs (Clay, 1996; Maas and Ros-Tonen, 2001; Mallet and Karmann, 2001). The certification of forest products incorporates aspects from different sectors, including (agro-) forestry, organic agriculture and fair trade (Mallet, 1999). Several certification programmes can be applied to NTFPs. The programme of the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) focuses on sustainable forest management, while the International Federation on Organic Agriculture (IFOAM) is mainly concerned with organic agriculture, but also has criteria for products harvested from the wild. The Fair-trade Labelling Organisation (FLO) concentrates on socio-economic criteria, such as workers rights and benefits. Although the certification of NTFPs has received a lot of international attention in recent years, few products have been incorporated into existing certification programmes to date (Mallet and Karmann, 2001).

If sustainable forest management and biodiversity conservation is the main goal, the most appropriate certification programme seems that of the FSC (www.fscoax.org). Although the main focus of the FSC is timber harvesting and certifying forest management plans, field trials are undertaken to adapt the FSC principles and criteria for NTFPs (Mallet and Karmann, 2001). In the near future, the Rainforest Alliance will publish their guidelines on how to adapt the management and chain of custody of NTFPs towards certification (Shanley et al., in press). At the moment, the FSC approves NTFPs on a case by case basis (Pierce et al., 2002). Brazil is the only country in the Guiana Shield with FSC-certified forests and trials for NTFP certification. The Brazilian certifier Imaflora and the Smartwood network of the Rainforest Alliance are presently involved in the certification of Euterpe swamps on the island of Marajó (Amazon delta), where açai and palm heart are extracted (Smartwood Program and Imaflora, 2000). These Brazilian experiences might serve as examples for future certification projects in the Guiana Shield. The FSC has principles which promote the protection of rare

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Commercial NTFP extraction does not always contribute to biodiversity conser- 9 vation. Harvesting vulnerable species or using destructive harvesting techniques obviously has a negative impact on the populations of NTFP-producing species, CONCLUSIONS may lead to local species extinction and eventually even affects the entire ecosystem.

From this inventory we may conclude that Brazil is the most important country The most promising products for sustainable extraction come from forests where in the Guiana Shield concerning the commercialisation and export of NTFPs. a few marketable species dominate, like Brazil nuts, açai, palm heart, piassaba fibres, Mauritia fruit pulp and fibres. The major centres for the marketing of NTFPs from the Guiana Shield are Manaus, Belém, Macapá, Santarem, Bogotá, Caracas, Georgetown, Paramaribo, Abundant, fast reproducing animals with general habitat preferences are more Cayenne, Ciudad Guayana, Boa Vista and border towns like Mabaruma, Lethem, likely to stand a certain degree of harvesting. Sustainable extraction levels are Leticia, Puerto Ayacucho, San Carlos de Rio Negro, Saint Laurent du Maroni and available for only a limited number of animals. The lack of ecological information Nickerie (see Maps). on growth rates and population recovery hampers the design of adequate harvest models for the great majority of species. The main commercial NTFPs harvested in the Guiana Shield are parrots, freshwater fish (for consumption and aquaria), bush meat, palm heart, rubber, Brazil Transport costs are a major bottleneck for the marketing of NTFPs from remote nut, açai and craft fibres. (indigenous) areas. High value NTFPs, such as wildlife, are often the only NTFPs, worthwhile to transport across greater distances. Many thousands of people within the Guiana Shield region, including many indigenous groups, earn their living by collecting and marketing NTFPs. A much The knowledge and experience in NTFP extraction and marketing differs greatly larger number of people collect NTFPs on a daily basis for subsistence use. between countries in the Guiana Shield. Currently there is limited exchange of knowledge or technology between the countries. Many commercially interesting NTFPs occur throughout the Guiana Shield, but the scale of their harvest and marketing differs from country to country. This is Throughout the Guiana Shield, the control on the illegal harvest and trade of caused by differences in access to markets and market information, national leg- NTFPs is limited. The lack of finance and human resources results in poor islation, labour and transport costs, and familiarity with products on the part of enforcement of existing laws. the consumers. The harvesting of NTFPs needs to be incorporated in land use planning and for- The trade in NTFPs still represents a ‘hidden economy’. For many products, data est management. on harvested quantities, provenance, domestic trade, export volumes and revenues are unreliable or simply do not exist. Monitoring the market chains of More baseline scientific research is needed on abundance and diversity of NTFPs, NTFPs is essential to obtain insight in their role in the national and regional econ- growth rates and sustainable harvest levels. omy of the Guiana Shield. Since we are dealing with a wide array of biologically very different NTFPs (vary- By preventing (further) deforestation, commercial NTFP extraction can certainly ing from palm fruits to live snakes), there exists no ‘one size fits all’ model that can contribute to forest conservation. When standing forest is needed to supply be used for their sustainable management. NTFPs, for instance rubber tapping, Brazil nut gathering and aerial root collection, harvesters often deliberately protect NTFP-producing trees from logging. When NTFP harvesting is no longer economically viable, or when extractors are expelled from their collection sites, people may shift again to more destructive activities such as logging, cash-crop agriculture or cattle ranching.

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We recommend that more investments should be made in community-based 10 projects that deal with inventories and sustainable harvest of NTFPs. Indigenous monitoring schemes should also be promoted. RECOMMENDATIONS International donors should make more small grants and loans available for forest-based NTFP businesses. To obtain insight in their role in the regional and national economy, market chains of NTFPs, from harvest to consumer, should be monitored. This monitoring should take place in the major centres for NTFP commercialisation listed in the Conclusions. This research is needed in each Guiana Shield country, but data on commercial NTFPs are particularly lacking for Venezuela and Suriname.

There is an urgent need for applied research on NTFPs throughout the Guiana Shield. To assess the importance of NTFPs in a region, inventories are needed on local plant and animal use, both for commercial and subsistence purposes. To calculate sustainable harvest levels, research on abundance, distribution, growth rates and regeneration after harvesting is needed for the vast majority of NTFPs. The focus should be on those NTFPs already traded.

Governments of the Guiana Shield should be stimulated to enforce their control on the illegal harvest and trade of NTFPs. Local communities should be given an active role in these controls.

Informal and formal networks within the Guiana Shield for the research and development of NTFPs should be stimulated. Networks like the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (www.inbar.int) could be useful examples for commercial NTFPs in the Guiana Shield.

Workshops should be organised throughout the Guiana Shield, in which local NGOs, government institutes, craftsmen or private enterprises share their techniques and experiences with processing and commercialising NTFPs. Topics could include wildlife management, preserving forest fruits or palm hearts, and making furniture or other crafts.

Projects that entail ranching and/or captive breeding of vulnerable animal species should be stimulated, since these systems can reduce the pressure on wild populations. Local communities should be involved in these projects.

Care should be taken that the harvest of NTFPs (plants and animals) is incorporated in land use planning and forest management plans. More attention should be paid to hunting and NTFP collection in FSC-certified timber concessions. Research should also focus on the domestication of NTFPs in indigenous forest management.

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Appendix 1 Appendix Animal Species Animal spinaap, slingeraap (Sur) labba (Guy); waterhaas, he (Sur) atèle belzébuth (fr); marimonda (sp); (Bra); macacoarahna (Bra,coatá Col), braceador, (Col) choiba (local) Pet roncador, araguato, (Col, berreador Ven); babouin (FG); baboon (Guy); brulaap, baboen (Sur) mutsaap, bruine rolstaartaap (du); (Bra); macaco-prego (Col); maicero mico (FG); macaque noire ringtail (Guy); (Sur) keskesi Trade Pet grijze capucijneraap (du); blanche, tête cebus macaque blanc (fr);mono chuco, (Ven) mono capuchino Trade Pet Atelidae (e); spider monkey black macaco-arahna, (Bra); coatá kwata (FG, Sur); meat Bush II – AgoutidaeCebidae (e, paca Bra); pac (fr); guagua, buruga, lapa (Col);Atelidae pak (FG); (e); monkey howler red guariba (Bra); mono colorado, cotudo, spider monkey, white-bellied (e); spider monkey long-haired meat Bush meat Bush – II meat, Bush II – – VU (A1c) CebidaeCebidae capuchin, brown capuchin, tufted (e); blackapped capuchin Dasyproctidae capuchin, wedge-capped (e); monkey capuchin weeping Suriname agouti (e); (Sur) konkoni meat, Bush II meat, Bust II – – meat Bush – DD ) caiarara (Bra); (FG); capuchin ringtail (Guy); (Sur); bergikeskesi .C. seniculus (syn cristata Cebus apella Cebus olivaceus Cebus nigrivittatus Dasyprocta Ateles paniscus Ateles Agouti paca Agouti Alouatta belzebuth Ateles Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN MAMMALS This table lists all the scientific names, use of and main commercial names common animal species mentioned within the report. Thi list ofsive Shield. used in the Guiana all animals species (or names) being commercially Language: (du), Dutch English (e),Spanish (sp) or local country names: French Brazil (Bra), (Col), Colombia (Guy), Guyana (FG), Guiana French means that the skins oftorical) Suriname (Sur), (Ven). Venezuela traded heavily in the past; the species were lis usually due to reduced greatly the trade is now   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 168 Category Category VU (A1c) poeppiggii: Listing Threat Listing Threat rojo (sp);rojo pardo, veado (Bra); mateiro veado Colorado (Col); socho (FG);biche redidia, pranasidia, prasaradia (Sur); (Ven) locho plomo,venado gris venado (sp); birá, veado (Bra); catingueiro veado grissoche (Col); matacán (Col, Ven); (FG); cariacou (Guy); kariako koeriakoe, buskrabita (Sur) papa-formigas (Bra); oso caballuno, oso palmero, (Col); oso pajizoa grand fourmilier, tamanoir (FG); (Guy); bareme (Sur) tamanwa galeiro,veado cariacu (Bra); llanero, venado blanco, venado venado (Col);de cornamenta des palétuviers (FG); biche cariacú (Guy, Sur), sabanadia, (Sur) (a)woyodia real,tigre mariposo tigre (Col); tig (FG); (Guy); tiger penitigri, pakiratigri (Sur) manan,carachupa cuspon, tatú carreta, tatú gigante,tatú guazú (sp); tatu canastra, açu (Bra); tatu ocarro, jusa trueno (Col); géant, tatou cabassou (FG); granmankapasi (Sur) (A1cd) quinze kilos,quinze tatú canastra (Bra); armadillo aracacho, cachicamo grande, (Col); jusachula grand (FG); tatou makakapasi (Sur) cabiaï (FG); watras (Guy); kapoewa, (Sur) waterhaas (Bra); maracaya, tigrillo peludo (Col); tig (FG); chat (Guy) kuichua (local) Pet konkoni (Sur);konkoni picure, (Ven) acure armadillo (sp); (Bra); tatu-galinha (Col); cachicame à neuf tatou bandes (FG); kapasi, gewone diki-diki, (Sur) lontutere choro, barrigudo (sp); barrigudo macaco (Bra); choyo, churuco, (Col) chuluco (Bra); mourisco gato manigordo, solo, gato canaguaro, (local) Pet tigrillo (Col); podenco tig (FG); chat tigri-kati (Sur) gallinero,tigre tigrillo peludo (Col); (FG); chat-tigre tigrikati (Sur) (local) Pet d’agua, nútria (Bra); tig d’eau (FG); crab dog (Guy);(swampu)watradagoe (Sur), de agua pequeño perro (Ven) (local) Pet Cervidae deer (e); white-tailed strandhert,Felidae savannehert (du); (sp); venado meat Bush Dasypodidae jaguar (e, du); tigre, jaguar (sp); onça, onça pintada, (Bra); jaguareté giant armadillo (e); (du); reuzengordeldier armadillo gigante, – Skins (historical) I meat Bush – I NT EN CervidaeCervidae deer (e); brocket red boshert groot (du); colorado, venado venado meat Bush deer, brocket brown deer (e); gray brocket Dasyproctidae klein boshert (du);Myrme- (e); acouchi red cutiara (Bra); acoechi, mamboela (Sur) –cophagidae meat Bush (e); giant anteater gigante (sp); hormiguero (du); reuzenmiereneter tamandua bandeira, banderón caballo, tamanduá-açu, – DD meat Bush meat Bush – DD II DD VU (A1cd) Dasypodidae long-nosed armadillo great (e); (fr); Kappler de tatou tatú,Dasypodidae tatú 9-banded long-nosed armadillo (e); (du); gordeldier negengordelig Hydro- meat Bush chaeridaemeat Bush Cebidae – capybara (e); cabiaï (fr); ponche, capibara (sp); (Col), lancho capivara, chigüire, cupido (Bra); (Col, chigüiro Ven); –Felidae monkey, woolly common (e); monkey woolly Humboldt’s meat Bush – Felidae (e, ocelot du); – tigrillo, (sp); ocelote Felidae gato-maracajá, maracajá-açu, meat, Bush –Mustelidae oncilla (e); (du); ocelotkat tigrillo (sp); (Bra); gato-do-Mato Skins (historical), (e); margay II tigrillo, I (sp); tigre gato maracajá-peludo, gato-do-Mato (e); otter neotropical nutria, de rio lobito (sp); lontra, ca-chorro- – Skins (historical), Skins (historical) L. cana & I Skins (historical), I – I NT – DD Dasyproctidae agouti (e); red-rumped cutia (Bra); agouti (Guy); goudhaas, meat Bush – – ) M. exilis poeppigii . D. agouti) syn Odocoileus virginanus onca Panthera Priodontes maximus Mazama Mazama americana Mazama gouazoubira acouchy Myoprocta (syn. Myrmecophaga tridactyla novemcinctus hydrochaeris thricha cana pardalis Leopardus tigrinus wiediiLeopardus Lontra longicaudis ( Dasypus kappleri Dasypus Hydrochaeris Lagothrix lago- and Leopardus Dasyprocta leporina Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN

  NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 170 Category Category (A2d) ) Listing Threat Listing Threat loro real (Col, real loro Ven); geelvoorhoofd, (Sur) geelkop canindé, arara-de-barriga (po); amerella pechiamarilla, guacamaya azul (Col);guacamaya raaf, blauwgele tjambaraaf, tyambarafru, tyambarafru (Sur);guacamaya azul y amarilla (Ven) guacamaya meat Bush (Col); aliverde roja guacamaya (Guy, carapáico Ven); roodgroene raaf, warrauwraaf, warawrafru (Sur); (Ven) roja guacamaya meat Bush papagaio moleiro, juruaçu (po); lora basta, palmero, loro lora mojosa, lora choronga, (Col); churunguero loro mason (mealy) (Sur); burrón (Ven) loro papagaio-da-várzea, papa-cacau, lora rabadillirroja, lora (po); ora rabadillirroja, lora, (Col); cotorra lomirrojo, loro loro gorrocolorado (Ven) voorhoofdamazone, (du); panama-amazone (po); papagaio-campeiro amazone aourou (fr); aourou amazone curica, papagaio-grego, (po); papagaio-do-mange alianaranjada,loro cotorra, guahíbo (Col); kulekule (Sur); (Ven) guaro loro de dufresne,amazone à joues bleues (fr); amazone cariazul, amazona cariazul (sp) loro sauim, sagüi (Bra); (FG); sapajou noire sagoewijntje, (Sur) sagoewenki fraile, frailecito, barizo (sp); macaco-de-chiero, boca-prêta (Bra);titi (Col); singe écureuil, sapajou blanc (FG); sankie-winkie (Guy);monki-monki (Sur); tití, (Ven) calavera mono Trade, Pet meat Bush león americano, león bayo, mitzli, onza bermeja (sp) water dog (Guy);water waterhond, grote (bigi)watradagoe (Sur) (local) Pet (A1acde) sajino, saíno (sp); (Bra); caitetu jabalí (Col); (Guy); abuya pakira (FG, Sur); de collar, báquiro (Ven) chácharo amazónico, vaca marina amazónica, (sp); manatí amazónico (Bra)peixe-boi (Bra) peixe-boi Skins, (A1cd) Medicinal Zuidamerikaanse tapir (du);Zuidamerikaanse tapir, anta, (sp); danta anta brasileña, anta, (Bra); marebis tapir brasileño, danta, gran bestia, vaca (Col);sacha (Guy); bush cow tapir d’Amérique, maïpouri, (FG);tapir terrestre boskoe, (Sur) bosfroe (fr);blanche queixada,(Bra); porco-do-mato huangana, pecari labiado (Col); wild hog (Guy); (FG); cochon-bois pingo (FG, Sur); (Ven) báquiro (A2cd, 3cd, 4cd) PsittacidaePsittacidae parrot, yellow-headed (e); amazon/parrot yellow-crowned geel- (e); macaw yellow and blue ara (du); blauwgele ara bleu (fr); arara Trade Pet Psittacidae Trade, Pet (e); macaw and green red (du); groenvleugelara ara (fr); chlorptère II II Trade, Pet – II – – Psittacidae orange-winged (e); amazon/parrot oranjevleugelamazone (du);Psittacidae Trade Pet Psittacidae (e); amazon/parrot blue-cheeked (du); blauwwangamazone (e); mealy amazon/parrot (du); amazone grote II poudrée (fr); amazone Psittacidae Trade Pet Trade Pet (e); parrot festive (du); blauwbaard-amazone taboua (fr); amazone – II II Trade Pet LR/nt II – – CallitrichidaeCebidae handed tamarin, golden midas tamarin, tamarin red-handed (e); Trade Pet (e); squirrel monkey common (du); doodshoofdaapje II Lab Trade, – II – MustelidaeFelidae giant (e); otter ariranha (Bra); de agua, perro lobo, colón, ariraña (Col); (historical), Skins I cougar, tiger, deer tiger, red mountain lion (e); puma (e, fr, sp); Skins EN II NT Tayassuidae peccary collared (e); halsbandpeccarie (du); pécari(fr); à collier Trichechidae meat Bush (e); manatee Amazonian (fr); de l’Amazone lamantin lamantino Trichechidae meat, Bush manatee, Indian II West (e); Caribbean manatee vaca marina (sp); I meat Bush – I VU VU Tapiridae tapir, lowland Brazilian tapir,American tapir (e); South Tayassuidae lipped peccary white (e); witlippeccarie (du); pécari à lèvre meat Bush meat Bush I II VU – Emmons, 1997; Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001; www.CITES.org; IUCN, or www.iucnredlist.org); (www.redlist.org 2002 NC-IUCN (pers. comm., 2003 Tayassu tajacu Tayassu inunguis Trichechus manatus Trichechus Tapirus terrestris Tapirus pecari Tayassu ochrocephala amazonica dufresniana Saguinus midas Saimiri sciureus Pteronura Pteronura brasiliensis concolor Puma Amazona Amazona ararauna Ara chloroptera Ara Amazona Amazona farinosa Amazona festiva Amazona Amazona Amazona Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN BIRDS Sources:   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 172 – – – – – – Category Category Listing Threat Listing Threat corocoro rojo,corocoro ibis escarlata (sp); (Sur) kori-kori Handicrafts ipiranga, arara-canga (po); aliamarilla, roja guacamayo guacamaya colorada, bandera (Col); guacamayo raaf, roodgele bokraaf, bokrafru (Sur) meat Bush barriga roja,guacamayo (sp); ventrirrojo guacamayo maurisi (raaf) parkiet, morisi(rafru)prakiki (Sur) ara (du); ara noble, petit perruche-ara (fr); enano, guacamayo noble;guacamayo steenraafparkiet, stonrafruprakiki (Sur) (po);ararinhade-fronte-castanha cariseca (Col); guacamaya raafparkiet, rafruprakiki (Sur); maracaná (Ven) parkiet (du); couronnée, conure doré (fr); perruche à front aratinga frentidorada, (sp) frentidorada cotorra canure pavouane (fr); pavouane canure maracanãmalhada, periquitão-maracanã (po); ojiblanca,cotorra perico, catarnica (Col); koffiemammaparkiet, (Sur);kofimamaprakiki (Ven) ojoblanco perico (fr); à frontrouge conure (po); parda aratinga de brochecha carisucia,cotorra cariseca, (Col); cariseco perico korenparkiet, karuprakiki, (Sur); krerekrere carasucia perico (Col, Ven) soleil (fr); aratinga sol, dorado perico (sp) toui de Sclater (fr); de Sclater toui (po); tuim-de-bico-escuro amazónico, cascableito periquito, lorito, (Col); come-jenerito (Ven) periquito oscuro chirica, (sp) tepuí cotorrita musqué (fr);musqué criollo, pato (sp); real pato bosdoks, (Sur) busboksi (fr); garzón soldado, jabirú,Americano (sp); jabirú blasman (Sur) papegai maillé (fr); anacâ, (po); papagaio-de-coleira quinaquina (Col); wanakia (Guy); (Sur); Fransmadam cacique, loro (Ven) de penacho loro (e); parrotlet Venezuelan/Guiana (du); muspapegaai groene été (fr); toui (po);tuinsanto cardonero, cascabelito periquitos, (Col); cascabelitos okerparkiet, (Sur); okroprakiki periquito (Ven) (Guy, towa towa Sur), (Sur) pikolet twa twa (Guy, Sur) catita alidorada, periquito ala dorada (sp); kankantriprakiki (Sur) black curassow (e);black curassow (du); zwarte hokko (fr); hocco powis (Guy); powisi (Sur) meat Bush – – Threskiornithidae scarlet ibis (e); ibis (du); rode (fr); ibis rouge colorado, corocoro meat, Bush II Psittacidae parakeet/conure, white-eyed (e); conure green witoogaratinga (du);Psittacidae Trade Pet (e); parakeet brown-throated maïsparkiet (du); perruche cuivrée,Psittacidae II Trade Pet (e); parakeet/conure sun (du); zonparkiet perruche du soleil, conure Trade Pet II – II – – Psittacidae (e); scarlet macaw (du); geelvleugelara (fr); ara rouge arara-piranga,Psittacidae Trade, Pet Psittacidae (e); macaw red-bellied (du); roodbuikara (fr); ara macavouanne IPsittacidae macaw, red-shouldered macaw, Hahn’s (e); noble macaw roodschouder Trade Pet Trade Pet Psittacidae (e); macaw chestnut-fronted ara (du); dwerg ara (fr); vert maracanâ açu,Trade Pet II – II parakeet, fronted peach (e); conure golden-crowned goudvoorhoofd- Trade II Pet – – II – – AnatidaeCracidae Psittacidae duck (e); muscovy (du); muskuseend de Barbarie, canard canard parrot/caique, hawk-headed (e); parrot red-fan kraagpapegaai (du); meat Bush Psittacidae Trade Pet II green rumped parrotlet, and blue rumped green parrotlet, passerine/ Psittacidae II Trade Pet Ciconiidae billed dusky parrotlet, (e); parrotlet sclater’s (du); muspapegaai Sclater’s – Trade Pet II CiconiidaePsittacidae jabiru (e); ooievaar (du); jabiroe jabiru américain, jabiru d’Amérique II meat Bush Emberizidae (e); woodstork (du); kaalkop-ooievaar (Sur) nengrekopu (e); parrotlet/parakeet tepui (du); tepuiparkiet des tépuis (fr); toui Emberizidae (e); lesser seed finch (du); zwartkop-zaadkraker curío (Bra); I Trade Pet (e); large billed finch (du); dikbek-zaadkraker bicuda (Bra); meat Bush Trade Pet II – – Trade Pet – – – – Psittacidae golden-winged (e); parakeet oranje-vleugelparkiet (du); para (fr); toui Trade Pet II – ruber leucophthalmus pertinax solstitialis accipitrinus passerinus mycteria Jabiru americanaMycteria Nannopsittaca Oryzoborus angolensis Oryzoborus crassirostris Cairina moschata alector Crax Deroptyus Forpus sclateriForpus Brotogeris chrysopterus Aratinga Aratinga Aratinga Aratinga Ara manilata Ara nobilis Ara Ara severa aurea Aratinga Ara macao Ara panychlora Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Eudocimus Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN

  NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 174 – – – Categort Category Listing Threat Listing Threat zevenkleurenpapegaai (du);zevenkleurenpapegaai (fr); à sept couleurs toui cuarita colores, siete (Col);perico (Ven) colores siete perico parrotlet, (e); parrotlet Chapman’s paarsstaartpapegaai (du); à queue pourpréetoui (fr); cuarita rabadilliazul, (Col); loro periquito de rabadilla púrpura (Ven) toucan à bec rouge (fr); à bec rouge toucan rojo, pico piapoco grade tucán (sp); witborsttoekan, (Sur) bigikuyake meat Bush busitwatwa (Sur) versicolore (fr);versicolore tiriba pintade, tiriba-de-testa azul (po); barriguirroja,cotorrita loro, (Col); perico (Sur); kapuweriprakiki perico cabecidorado (Ven) verde,tucán de pico tucán grande (sp) meat Bush perico cabe cinegro (sp) cabe cinegro perico bruin margrietje (du); pione violette (fr); maitaca-roxa, curiaca violeta (po); cheja parda, (Col); cotorra basrafransmadam (Sur); moradacotorra (Ven) cabeciazul (sp);cotorra cheja cabeci azul, sirindero, tragaguamo, lorito guamero, cuara, curicunae (Col); margrietje (Sur); otorra cabeciazul (Ven) (po);jacamim-de-costas-cinzas grulla (sp); kamikami (Sur) araçari grigri (fr); (sp); tilingo cuellinegro (toekanet), bosrokoman (Sur) redibanti-kuyake (sp); toekanet, groennek (Sur) stonkuyake conure aile-de-feu (fr);conure egregia, cotorra (sp) colimorado perico jaune et blanche, ariel toucan (fr); acanelado, pico diostedé tucán (sp);piquirrojo geleborst toekan, blankanoso, (Sur) kuyake meat Bush maï-pourri (fr); (po); periquito de cabeça preta patilico, cacique,loro guahíbo, loro curumai, (Col), mocho loro (Col, calzoncito perico Ven); (Sur); wetbereprakiki colores, siete perico (Ven) calzoncito TinamidaePsittacidae tinamou (e); greater tinamoe (du); grote mamafowru-anamu (Sur)Psittacidae lilac-tailed parrotlet, parrotlet, seven-colored black-winged parrotlet, (e); Trade Pet meat Bush parrotlet, sapphire-rumped parrotlet, purple Guiana green-banded II – Trade Pet II – – – EmberizidaeEmberizidae (e); seedeater ruddy-breasted (du); dwergdikbekje rowti, oransyka (Sur) (e); seedeater slate-coloured leigrijs dikbekje (du); Trade Pet gelebek, – Trade Pet – – PsittacidaePsittacidae (e); fiery-shouldered parakeet/conure (du); roodschouderparkiet parakeet, painted (e); blue-winged conure parkiet (du); bonte perruche Ramphasidae Trade Pet Trade Pet Ramphasidae (e); toucan toco (du); reuzentoekan (fr); toco toucan II II toucan, red-billed (e); toucan white-throated (du); roodsnaveltoekan Ramphasidae Trade, Pet (e); toucan channel-billed (du); groef-snaveltoekan à gorge toucan Emberizidae Trade, Pet – Trade, Pet II (e); seedeater lined (du); witsterdikbekje ring neck (Guy) II II Trade Pet – – – – PsittacidaePsittacidae (e); caica parrot (du); caicapapegaai (fr); noire à tête caïque lorito caica, Trade Pet parrot, dusky dusky parrot, little violet parrot, (e); dusky pionus Psittacidae II Trade Pet (e); parrot blue-headed zwartoormargrietje (du); bleue (fr); pione à tête Threskior- Trade Pet Psophiidae II – spoonbill (e); roseate lepelaar (du); roze lepelbek (Sur) IIRamphasidae grey winged trumpeter (e); (du); trompetvogel (fr); agami trompette aracari black-necked (e); zwartbekarassari (du); araçari noir, à cou Ramphasidae meat Bush – – Trade Pet Meat Bush aracari green (e); arassari groene (du); araçari (fr); vert tilingo limón – Trade Pet – II II – – – – CracidaePsittacidae marail guan (e); (du); marailsjakoehoen marail (fr); (e); caique/parrot black-headed marai, (du); zwartkopcaique (Sur) marundi caïque Bush meat – Trade Pet II – – ) nithidae : Ouboter, 2001; & Hernández-Camacho, Rodríguez-Mahecha 2002; www.CITES.org; IUCN, or www.iucnredlist.org); 2002 (www.redlist.org Ajaja ajaja Sporophila minuta Sporophila schistacea Sporophila egregia egregia Ramphastos toco Ramphastos tucanus Ramphastos vitellinus lineola Sporophila Pyrrhura Pyrrhura picta Platalea ajaja (syn. crepitansPsophia Pteroglossus aracari Pteroglossus viridis Pionopsitta caica Pionus fuscus Pionus menstruus Penelope marail Penelope Pionites melanocephala Tinamus major Tinamus batavica Touit purpurata Touit Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Sources C.S. Roselaar, Zoological Museum, of University (pers. Amsterdam comm., 2003)   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 176 – – – (A1ac) Category Category (A1bd) (A1c, C2a) Listing Threat Listing Threat gifkikker (Sur) gifkikker ; commun, (fr); vert iguane gallina de palo (sp); leguaan, (Sur) legwana meat Bush okopipi (Sur) okopipi commun, (fr); vert anaconda sucury (sp); aboma (Sur) (fr); americano cocodrilo (sp) savanneschildpad (Sur);savanneschildpad American (e); tortoise tortue de l’Amérique du Sud, tortue dentelée,tortue denticulée (fr), morrocoy, (sp); motelo (Sur) bosschildpad Trade Pet caimán negro, lagarto negro (sp) (A1cd, Trade Pet Meat Bush jacaré, lagarto blanco, cocodrilo, ocoroche, cascarudo, cachirre,tulisio (sp); baba, babilla (Col, Ven);(Sur) wetberekaiman Meat Bush (sp); de jardín boa arborícola takrutitei, boomboa (Sur) slanke rana de bandas amarillas de punta de flecha (sp) picta (sp) de flecha irapuca (po); (sp) chimpire (du,geelkopschildpad Sur); podocnémide élargie (fr); tartaruga, (po);tartarugaAmazonia da tortuga arrau, (sp); tortuga del Orinoco charapa (Col), zamurita (Col, Ven) phobobate à trois bandes (fr) à trois phobobate simisimi (fr); tidetide, (Sur) gifkikker groengestreepte batidae (e); three-striped poison frog bandes, à trois dendrobate Trade Pet II – dusidaedusidae turtle (e); river red-headed (fr); rouge podocnémide à tête turtle, giant river arrau, arrau sideneck, turtleAmerican river (e); South meat Bush meat Bush II II LR/cd VU ) PolychrotidaeAmerican anole (e); green South anolis (du); hagedis (Sur) Trade Pet – – Testudinidae tortoise, yellow-footed Brazilian giant tortoise, tortoise, forest South Iguanidae meat, Bush Crocodylidae iguana, common iguana (e); green leguaan (du); groene Crocodylidae iguane, II iguane caiman (e); black zwarte kaaiman (du); caïman noir (fr); caimán, Trade, Pet Crocodylidae dwarf caiman (e); (du) dwergkaaiman Skins, headed caiman (e) wedge II VU Pipidae I – (e); Suriname toad pipapad (du); (Sur) papitodo LR/cd Trade Pet II Trade Pet Trade Pet – II – – Testudinidae (e); tortoise red-footed (du); kolenbranderschildpad meat, Bush II – Dendrobatidae (e); poison frog blue Dendrobatidae (du); gifkikker azuurblauwe bleu (fr); dendrobate Trade Pet (e); poison frog yellow-banded jaune et noir (fr); dendrobate BoidaeDendrobatidae II (e); poison frog spotted-legged Boidae Trade peint (fr); Pet epipedobate rana de punta (e); boa rainbow (Sur) regenboogboa Trade Pet II – (e, anaconda du, fr, sp); anaconda, green boa (e); water anaconda II Trade Pet – – II Trade Pet II – – BoidaeCrocodylidae (e, boa constrictor spectacled caiman, du); caiman (e); common dagwesneki, brilkaaiman (du); (Sur) tapijtslang jacaré tinga, Skins,BoidaeBoidaeCrocodylidae boa (e); emerald tree (du); boomboa groene (Sur) hondskopboa IICrocodylidae boa, tree slender (e); Trade American crocodile Pet boa (e); tree Amazon (du); spitssnuitkrokodil (fr); boa arboricole d’Amazonie d’Amerique crocodile Trade Pet Skins (historical) (e); crocodile Orinoco (sp) caimán del Orinoco Trade Pet I II – II II VU – – Skins (historical) – I CR Pelome Pelome Dendro Dendrobatidae (e); poison frog dyeing (fr); à tapirer dendrobate (Sur) gifkikker Trade Pet II – Dendrobatidae brilliant-thighed (e); poison frog fémorale, epipedobate epipedobate Trade Pet II – spp. Hylidae (e); frogs lemur (du, maki boomkikkers Sur) Trade Pet – – spp. Hylidae (du, boomkikkers Sur) Trade Pet – bates spp. Leptodactylidae (e); toads horny hoornpadden (du, Sur) Trade Pet – – D. femoralis do & Epipe spp. Hylidae (e), frogs tree (du, boomkikkers Sur) Trade Pet – spp. Bufonidae (e); toads padden (du, Sur) Trade Pet – – Corallus enhydris Corallus denticulata niger palpebrosus Phrynohyas Phyllomedusa Pipa pipa Podocnemis Podocnemis Geochelone Hyla iguana Iguana Melanosuchus Paleosuchus Paleosuchus Phobobates Geochelone carbonaria trigonatus leucomelas pictus Dendrobates azureus Dendrobates Dendrobates tinctorius cenchrisEpicrates Epipedobates murinusEunectes Boa constrictor Bufo Caiman crocodilus Ceratophrys caninus Corallus hortulanus Corallus syn. acutus Crocodylus Crocodylus intermedius Anolis punctatus Anolis femoralis femoralis (syns. Allobates femoralis Allobates Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS & REPTILES erythrocephala expansa trivittatus   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 178 – – – Category Category Category Listing Threat Listing Threat Listing Threat Pet Trade teju (du); grand téju, sauvegarde, téju noir, (fr); noires téju à taches Skins sideneck turtle (e); (fr); podocnémide de Cayenne tracajá, tracaxá(po); terecay, (sp) terecaya (A1acd) Osteoglossidae arapaima (e); pirarucu (po); (sp) paiche meat Bush II DD Teiidae tegu, northern lizard, tegu banded tegu, tegu, black (e); tegu common Trade, Pet II Erythrinidae trahira Bush meat–CharacidaeCallichthyidae tambaqui (Bra, Ven)Electroporidae green gold catfish (e); (Col) verde corredora – Gasteropelecidae electric eel (e); (sp) temblón marble hatchetfish, (e, hatchetfish spotted Guy)Gasteropelecidae hatchetfish, silver (e) hatchetfish river Pimelodidae slobbering catfish (e); baboso (Col)Erythrinidae Trade Pet Erythrinidae giant trahira Trade (e); Pet (Sur) anyumara Callichthyidae trahira Bush –Characidae (Bra) tamuata meat, Bush – Trade Pet Trade Pet tetra (e); phantom red fino (Col) rojito – – – – meat Bush – – – meat Bush – – Trade Pet – – – meat Bush – – – – Polychrotidae (e); American false chameleon marmerleguaan (du); hagedis (Sur)Tropiduridae Trade Pet (e), banded spine-tail lizard leguaan (Sur) stekelstaart – Trade Pet – PimelodidaePimelodidae dorado (Col) piramutaba (Bra); pirabutón (Col)Gasteropelecidae (e, hatchetfish silver Guy) meat Bush – meat Bush Trade Pet – – – – – Pelomedusidae turtle, river yellow-spotted sideneck, yellow-headed yellow-spotted meat Bush II VU Cichlidae bass (e) peacock meat Bush – – Gasteropelecidae (e); hatchetfish estrigata (Col) Trade Pet – – Pimelodidae (Col), lechero (Ven) lau-lau meat Bush – – ata sp. Characidae tetra brillante (Col) Trade Pet – – ) sp. spp. Callichthyidae catfish (e) armoured meat Bush – – ma spp. Hemiodontidae matrincha, jatuarana (Bra) meat Bush – – spp. Gasteropelecidae (Ven) hachitas Trade Pet – – spp. Callichthyidae corydoras (e); (Col); corredora coridoras (Ven) Trade Pet – – ) tejú, (Bra); teiu sapakara, (Sur) reuzenteju Megalam- spp. Cichlidae (Bra) tucunare meat Bush – – : Duplaix, 2001; Ouboter, 2001; www.CITES.org; IUCN, or www.iucnredlist.org); 2002 (www.redlist.org NC-IUCN (pers. comm., 2003) T. nigro- (syn. C. marthae, punctatus (syn. macropomum melanotaenia electricus maculatus sternicla Goslinia platynema Hemigrammus Hemiodopsis aimara Hoplias malabaricus Hoplias Hoplosternum Hoplosternum thoracatum Hyphessobrycon sweglesi phodus sweglesi Cichla Cichla Colossoma Corydoras Corydoras Electrophorus Gasteropelecus Gasteropelecus Carnegiella strig Brachyplatysto Brachyplatystoma flavicans Brachyplatystoma Carnegiella Carnegiella strigata Polychrus marmoratus Polychrus azureum Uracentron Podocnemis unifilis Podocnemis Arapaima gigas Arapaima Tupinambis teguixin Tupinambis Cichla orinocensisCichla & filamentosum vaillantii Thoracocharax Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN FRESHWATER FISH FRESHWATER Sources   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 180 – Category Category –– Listing Threat Listing Threat Pet Trade Trade Pet Pet Trade Pet Trade – – Pet Trade franela, vieja nigua, pez ángel (Ven) CharacidaeCharacidaePimelodidae tetra (e); cardinal (sp, cardenal Br)Pimelodidae neon tetra (e); tetraneón, neón (sp) pejenegro (Col)Characidae (Col) cajaro PimelodidaePotamotrygonidae tambaqui (Bra), blanca (Col); cachama (Ven) cachama stingray, river ocellate stingray (e) motoro pictus cat (e); tigre,Pimelodidae tigrito (Col); pintado (Ven) bagre Pimelodidae surubim (Bra)Cichlidae meat, Bush Trade Pet pintadillos, (Col) bagre Trade Pet Trade Pet Prochilodontidae deep angel, – altum angel (e);Venezuela, escalar de escalar franela, escalar, sapura – (Ven) Trade Pet Trade Pet Pimelodidae – pejeleño (Col) meat Bush – – – – meat, Bush – – DD – – meat Bush meat Bush – – – – Trade Pet – – meat Bush – – – – OsteoglossidaeOsteoglossidae arawana, (e); arowana aruanã (Bra); (Col, arawana Ven) arawana, black (e) black arowana meat, Bush Trade Pet – – Theraphosidae tarantula (e) pink-toed Guiana French CerambicidaeTheraphosidaeAmerican longhorn South beetle (e) tarantula (e) eater bird goliath trade Pet – Handicrafts Handicrafts, – – – – – Scarabaeidaeor Morphidae beetle, rhinocerous beetle (e) acteon Handicrafts – spp. Prochilodontidae jaraqui (Bra) meat Bush – – spp. Prochilodontidae curimatã (Bra) meat Bush – – P. fasciatum spp. Loricariidae (Col) otocinclo Trade Pet – – & spp. Nymphalidae morpho (e) butterflies Handicrafts – – : and Pauly, Froese 2002; Royero, 1993; IUCN, or www.iucnredlist.org) 2002 (www.redlist.org : and Pauly, Froese 2002; Royero, 1993; IUCN, or www.iucnredlist.org) 2002 (www.redlist.org axelrodi hemiliopterus brachypomus fasciatum Pseudoplatystoma altum Pterophyllum Semaprochilodus Semaprochilodus theraponura Sorubimichthys planiceps Otocinclus Paracheirodon innesi Paracheirodon lutkeni Paulicea Phractocephalus Piaractus Pimelodus pictus Potamotrygon motoro Prochilodus Pseudoplatystoma Osteoglossum bicirrhosum Osteoglossum ferreirae tigrinum Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Sources Megasoma actionMegasoma Morpho Avicularia aviculariaAvicularia Titanus giganteus leblondi Theraphosa Latin name Family Name Common Use CITES IUCN Sources INSECTS   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 182 Ornamental Ornamental Ornamental (possibly cultivated) Appendix 2 2 Appendix Plant Species kuru (Guy) palm heart (e); naídí (Col); podosiri (Sur) roof thatch Language: English (e), (sp). Spanish Moraceae (e); breadfruit fruta del pan (Col) (cultivated) Food spp. Clusiaceae cebolão, (Bra); rotinho kufa (Guy) Crafts spp. Lauraceae oil (e); rosewood (Bra) pau rosa oil Medicinal spp. Moraceae (Col) caucho Latex H. Karst. Euphorbiaceae nut, tacay (Col) inchi Food Aniba Aniba Mart. Arecaceae jacitara (Bra); (Guy) kamwari Crafts Mart. Arecaceae (Bra) murumuru Oils, wax , Clusia G. Mey. Arecaceae (Bra); tucumã acquero, Food, fibers Burret Arecaceae (Col) cumare Crafts, fibers Dugand Arecaceae palm heart (e); naídí (Col) Food (L.) L. Avicenniaceae (Guy) black mangrove Tannin (Miller) H.E.(Miller) Moore Arecaceae carnaúba (Bra) Wax Mart. Arecaceae (Sur, awara Guy) Food Taub. Moraceae (sp); palo de oro pau-rainha (Bra); satijnhout (Sur) Crafts L. Caryocaraceae sawari, (Guy); butternut (Sur) sawarinoto Food Ducke Fabaceae (Bra) copaiba Oil Barb. Rodr. Apocynaceae leche-caspi, sorva (Bra) Latex (Spruce ex(Spruce Malpighiaceae ayahuasca, (Col) yagé Medicinal, ritual (Jacq.) Arecaceae palm (e); macaw macaúba, (Bra); mucuja (Col); tamaco Oil Bonpl. Lecythidaceae Brazil nut, castañha (Bra); (Sur) Paranoot Food Aublet Meliaceae (Bra); andiroba (Guy) crabwood oil Medicinal Aublet Apocynaceae leche-caspi, sorva (Bra) Latex , Castilla Splitg. (Miq.) Pulle(Miq.) Annonaceae (Ven) yara yara Food (Balslev & An.(Balslev & Arecaceae piassaba (Bra) Fibers Harms Fabaceae (Col) copaiba Oil (Mutis ex L. ex (Mutis f.) Arecaceae American oil palm (e); jaci (Bra) Oil Ducke, Lindley Orchidaceae (Aublet) Willd. (Aublet) Fabaceae cumaru (Bra), (Bra, coumarin Ven), sarapia (Ven); bean (Guy) tonka Oil, food Rich ex Planchon & Triana Planchon ex Rich Clusiaceae kufa (Guy) Crafts Mart. Arecaceae açai (Bra); (Guy); manicole pina (Sur); (Bra, palmito Ven); Food, L. Meliaceae (Guy); cedar red sedre, (Sur) ceder Crafts Kunth Arecaceae palm (e); peach (sp); pejibaye pupunha (Bra); (Col) cachipay Food (Jacq.) Schlechter Orchidaceae Mart. Arecaceae Bahia piaçava, piassaba (Bra) Fibers (Kunth) Pittier(Kunth) Moraceae lechero, árbol vaca (Col) Crafts This table lists all scientific and common names and main commercial use of names and main commercial common lists all scientific and This table species mentioned within plant the report. Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae drago sangre de (Col) Medicinal (Aublet) G.(Aublet) Meyer Marantaceae cauassu (Bra) Wax Local country names: Brazil(Bra), (Col), Colombia (FG), Guiana French (Guy), Guyana Suriname (Sur), (Ven). Venezuela Mart. Arecaceae palm heart (e); açai, assai (Bra) Food spp. Apocynaceae peddelhout, (Guy); yarula (Sur) parelhout Crafts (Mart.) Müll. Arg. Apocynaceae leche-caspi, sorva (Bra) Latex Warb. spp. Araceae spp. Orchidaceae baboon goggle (Guy) Ornamental Lodd. Ex Mart. Barfod Hend.) (Col,Ven) corozo Couma macrocarpa Couma utilis Couma lechleri Croton Desmoncus orthacanthos Dipteryx odorata Duguetia lepidota diurna Encyclia cuatrecasanaEuterpe edulis Euterpe oleracea Euterpe Calathea lutea guianensis Carapa Caryocar nuciferum Caryodendron orinocense Castilla ulei Catasetum odorata Cedrela Clusia grandiflora Clusia palmicida canime Copaifera reticulata Copaifera Copernicia prunifera guianensis Couma Bertholletia excelsa verrucosaBrassia rubescensBrosimum utileBrosimum Bactris gasipaes Banisteriopsis caapi C.V.Griseb.) Morton Astrocaryum chambira Astrocaryum murumuru Astrocaryum vulgare butyracea Attalea funifera Attalea germinans Avicennia Acrocomia aculeata Acrocomia rosaeodora Aniba Anthurium natalia Aphandra altilisArtocarpus Aspidosperma Astrocaryum aculeatum Wess. Boer Species Family names and Common Vernacular category Use Species Family names and Common Vernacular category Use

  NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 184 (cultivated) Marantaceae (Bra) arouma Crafts Fabaceae barbatimao (Bra) Tannin spp. Euphorbiaceae rubber (e); seringueira (Bra); (Col) caucho Latex spp. Sapindaceae guaraná (Bra, Col), cupana (Col, Ven) Food Hevea Mart. (Mart.) Coville Jacq. Solanaceae (Tukano, etopa-a Col); buruburu (Guy) Food Paullinia Paullinia Stokes Rubiaceae (Bra) ipecacuanha Medicinal Ruiz & PavonRuiz Orchidaceae (e) orchid coral Ornamental ) Benth. Fabaceae bark angico (Bra) Tannin (Rudge) Körn.(Rudge) Marantaceae soft mokru (Guy) Crafts (Huber) A.(Huber) Chev. Sapotaceae maçaranduba, maparajuba (Bra) Latex Harms Fabaceae balsam (Col) Medicinal M.F. Dunal Solanaceae naranjilla (sp); cubiu (Bra) Food (Aublet) Körn.(Aublet) Marantaceae (Col); arouma mokru (Guy) Crafts (Cav. Lam.) Urb. ex Bombacaceae balsa (Col) Crafts (Aublet) Drude(Aublet) Arecaceae (Guy); kokerite maripa (Sur) Food, roof thatch, oil Schott Araceae titica, (Bra); junco (Ven) mamure Crafts Wallace ex Archer ex Wallace Arecaceae piassaba, (Bra); piaçava Pará (Ven); chiquechique (Col) chiqui-chiqui Fibers, roof thatch Holmes Rutaceae (Bra) jaborandi leaves Medicinal (A.A. DC.) Chev. Sapotaceae balata (Bra, Guy), (Guy); bullet tree American gutta-percha South Latex Trin. Poaceae yahape, sapé (Bra) Medicinal L. Fabaceae (Bra); jatoba locust (Guy); loksi, lokus (Sur) rode bark, Medicinal food (Poit.) Kunth (Poit.) Arecaceae dhalebana (Guy); tas palm (Sur); baru baru, palma trepadora (Ven) Roof thatch Mart. Arecaceae bacaba (Col); kumbu (Sur) Food Gaertn. Arecaceae (Guy, troolie Ven); truli (Sur) Roof thatch Mart. Arecaceae babaçu, babassu (Bra) Oil L. Rhizophoraceae manglar (sp); (Guy) mangrove red Tannin Oliver Araceae (Col) mimbre Crafts (Kunth) G.S.(Kunth) Bunting Araceae cipó-titica, (Bra), junco kamina (Bra, Sur); nibi (Guy) Crafts Tul. Icacinaceae umarí, (Bra, guacure Col); umari d’Amazonie, (FG) umari rouge Food L. Rubiaceae (Col) huito Food Crantz Crantz Euphorbiaceae yuca (Col); (Guy) cassava (cultivated) Food Mart. Arecaceae palm heart (e); asahí (Col); winamoro (Guy) Food L. Anacardiaceae plum (Guy), (Guy, mopé Sur) Food L. f. Arecaceae buriti (Bra); aguaje, (Col); canangucha ité, tibisiri (Guy); moriche (Ven) Food, fibers (Ducke) Chevalier(Ducke) Sapotaceae maçaranduba (Bra) Latex Müll. Arg., (Karsten) C.C.(Karsten) Berg Moraceae muiratinga (Bra) Medicinal Lindl. Orchidaceae (Guy) golden shower Ornamental Humb. Bonpl. & Willd. Ex Smilacaceae sarsaparilla (Col); sarsparilla (Guy) Medicinal Kunth Smilacaceae sarsparilla (Guy) Medicinal Kunth, (Spruce ex Benth.) ex (Spruce Euphorbiaceae rubber (e); seringueira (Bra); (Col) caucho Latex (Kunth) McVaugh(Kunth) Myrtaceae (Col) camu-camu Food (Allem. Miq.) ex Sapotaceae maçaranduba (Bra) Latex Reissek Celastraceae (Col) chuchuhuaza Medicinal Roem. Cucurbitaceae (Guy); ninwah luffa, sponge vegetable Food, sponges (Mart.) Burret (= synonym(Mart.) Burret Arecaceae patauá (Bra); milpesos (Col), seje (Col, Ven); wapu (Sur, Guy) Food, oil Willd. Moraceae figueira (Bra); (Col) chibecha Crafts spp. Fabaceae (Bra); rotenone (Col); barbasco hiari (Guy) Medicinal spp. Musaceae wild (Guy) banana Ornamental Oenocarpus bataua Leopoldinia piassaba Leopoldinia Lonchocarpus cylindrica Luffa Manicaria saccifera esculenta Manihot amazonica Manilkara bidentata Manilkara Heteropsis flexuosa Heteropsis jenmani Heteropsis spruceana Heteropsis Hevea brasiliensis Hevea pauciflora Müll. Arg. Hymenaea courbaril brasiliensis Imperata arouma Ischnosiphon obliquus Ischnosiphon polyphyllus Ischnosiphon bataua Jessenia for Euterpe precatoriaEuterpe insipida Ficus Genipa americana baculifera Geonoma Heliconia (Poepp. & Endl.) Körn Psychotria ipecacuanha mangle Rhizophora lanceolata Rodriguezia officinalis Smilax siphilitica Smilax Solanum sessiliflorum Solanum stramoniifolium mombin Spondias Stryphnodendron barbatimam Maximiliana maripaMaximiliana laevisMaytenus coriacea Maquira Myrciaria dubia balsamum Myroxylon Ochroma pyramidale Oenocarpus bacaba Oncidium baueri phalerata Orbignya cupana Paullinia Pilocarpus jaborandi Piptadenia paniculata sericea Poraqueiba Manilkara elata Manilkara Monachino huberi Manilkara Mauritia flexuosa Species Family names and Common Vernacular category Use Species Family names and Common Vernacular category Use Stryphnodendron adstringens   NTFP Report def.DEF. 11-12-2003 10:48 Pagina 186

Appendix 3 Threat Categories and Regulations Ornamental (probably (probably IUCN Red List Categories

cultivated outside Brazil) cultivated The IUCN Threat Categories used in this report are taken from the IUCN Red List last updat- ed in 2002 (IUCN, 2002). For the commercial wildlife species in the Guiana Shield, A1d or A2d are the most significant categories, as they indicate that the species is experiencing a population decline due to ‘actual or potential levels of exploitation’.Any category containing this cri- terion is considered to be threatened by over-exploitation. The IUCN Red List categories underwent revision in 2001. If the species was assessed between 1996 and 2000, often the 1994 categories and criteria were used. An overview of the IUCN Red List Categories can be found in the box below.

2001 Categories (version 3.1)

Extinct (EX)

Extinct in the Wild (EX)

Critically Endangered (CR) (Adequate data) (Threatened) Endangered (EN)

Vulnerable (VU)

(Evaluated) Near Threatened (NT)

Least Concern (LC)

Data Deficient (DD) Sterculiaceae cupuacu (Bra), copoazu, (Col) copuasú Food Not Evaluated (NE)

(Vell.) Harling Cyclanthaceae scraping nibi (Guy) Crafts Extinct (EX) A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has (Rich.) Garay(Rich.) Orchidaceae died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, Warb. Myristicaceae ucuúba (Bra); dalli (Guy) Oil DC. Rubiaceae (e); cats claw (Col) uña de gato Medicinal at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic range have failed to Lem. Bromeliaceae (e) flaming sword Ornamental

Aubl. Myristicaceae ucuúba (Bra) Oil record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form.

Extinct in the wild (EW) A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known only to survive in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past Zygosepalum labiosum (Willd. K. Ex Spreng.) Schum. tomentosa Uncaria Theobroma grandiflorumTheobroma bissectusThoracocarpus Virola surinamensis Virola splendens Vriesia Virola sebifera Species Family names and Common Vernacular category Use

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range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or 1994 Categories (version 2.3) expected habitat, at appropriate times (diurnal, seasonal, annual), throughout its historic Lower Risk (LR) A taxon is Lower Risk when it has been evaluated, does not satisfy the criteria range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to for any of the categories Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable. Taxa included in the taxon’s life cycle and life form. the Lower Risk category can be separated into three subcategories: 1. Conservation Dependent (cd). Taxa which are the focus of a continuing taxon-specific or Critically endangered (CR) A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence habitat-specific conservation programme targeted towards the taxon in question, the indicates that it meets any of the criteria A to E for Critically Endangered, and it is therefore cessation of which would result in the taxon qualifying for one of the threatened categories considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. above within a period of five years. 2. Near Threatened (nt). Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent, but which Endangered (EN) A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it are close to qualifying for Vulnerable. meets any of the criteria A to E for Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be facing a 3. Least Concern (lc). Taxa which do not qualify for Conservation Dependent or Near very high risk of extinction in the wild. Threatened.

Vulnerable (VU) A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets More information can be found on the Red List Categories and Criteria on any of the criteria A to E for Vulnerable (see Section V), and it is therefore considered to be www.redlist.org/info/categories_criteria.html. facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Near Threatened (NT) A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the cri- CITES teria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES) close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future. was established in 1975 to protect threatened species found in international trade. CITES is an international agreement that monitors the global trade in many species of wildlife and plants. Least Concern (LC) A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria A total of 151 countries, including all countries of the Guiana Shield region, co-operate and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. through a system of permits and certificates to confirm that trade in listed animal and plant Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category. species (including parts and derived products) is legal, and would not threaten their survival in the wild. Data Deficient (DD) A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or pop- The CITES convention is made up of three Appendices (see also www.cites.org): ulation status. A taxon in this category may be well studied, and its biology well known, but appropriate data on abundance and/or distribution are lacking. Data Deficient is therefore not Appendix I lists species for which trade in wild material is prohibited because of the threat a category of threat. Listing of taxa in this category indicates that more information is required of extinction. and acknowledges the possibility that future research will show that threatened classification is appropriate. It is important to make positive use of whatever data are available. In many Appendix II lists species which can be traded, but require special permits. cases great care should be exercised in choosing between DD and a threatened status. If the range of a taxon is suspected to be relatively circumscribed, and a considerable period of time Appendix III lists species that any party country wants listed to help regulate the level of has elapsed since the last record of the taxon, threatened status may well be justified. exploitation and for which it needs the co-operation of other parties to control the specimens in international trade. Not Evaluated (NE) A taxon is Not Evaluated when it is has not yet been evaluated against the criteria. To list species on Appendix III does not require a vote by all parties, as is the case for listing on Appendices I and II One category which has been adapted in the 2001 Version, but is often still recorded for those species evaluated between 1996 and 2000 is the Lower Risk category which is further split into Some CITES resolutions are of interest when developing sustainable use or animal husbandry Conservation Dependent, Near Threatened and Least Concern. The definition of this catego- projects: ry is given below, but is no longer used. Resolution 8.3: Recognition of the benefits of trade in wildlife: acknowledges that commercial trade may be beneficial to the conservation of species and ecosystems and/or the development of local people when carried out at levels that are not detrimental to the survival of the species in question.

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Resolution 8.9 (Rev.)/Decision 11.106 covers the Significant Trade Review Process, a process that is carried out if there is a significant trade in any species, defined as 100 units/year.

Resolution 8.15: Provides guidelines for a procedure to register and monitor operations breeding Appendix I animal species for commercial purposes.

Resolution 10.16: Deals with specimens of animal species bred in captivity.

European Commission Decisions When exporting plants and animals to European countries, the European Commission can issue import restrictions under EEC Regulation (N. 338/97, 939/97 recently amended as 1579/01/EC, 1808/01/EC and 2087/01/EC). While CITES focuses on the country of export, the EC concentrates on import bans and permits. The EC assess whether trade is detrimental for a species within each country of export. The outcome is a strict regulation above the national law within Europe. Following the CITES model, the EC Regulation is more stringent that CITES and covers more species (Cook et al., 2002).

The EC Regulation No 338/97 has four Annexes (A-D):

Annex A covers all CITES Appendix I species, some CITES Appendix II and III species for which the EU has adopted stricter domestic measures, and some non-CITES species.

Annex B covers all other Appendix II species, some Appendix III species, some non-CITES species.

Annex C covers all other Appendix III species.

Annex D covers some Appendix III species for which the EU holds a reservation and some non-CITES species.

For species in Annexes A and B, import conditions are also stricter than under CITES. The data on EC decisions are also stored in the CITES databases (www.cites.org).

Although the EC regulation is above national law, the penalties assigned by member states are not. As a result, European countries with weaker enforcement provisions are often targeted by those in the illegal wildlife trade racket (Cook et al., 2002). Border control in western Europe is sometimes lax, so once illegal wildlife products are in Europe (perhaps via one of the few countries that did not sign CITES), they can quite easily be distributed to the major markets in Europe (Cook et al., 2002).

US Regulation The USFWS (United States Federal Wildlife Service) is one of the other agencies responsible for wildlife trade, along with the US Customs. USFWS has an inspector and investigator function (Cook et al., 2002). The US maintains a complete ban on the import of wild and captive birds under the 1992 Wild Bird Conservation Act, unless certain standards and criteria are met (Duplaix, 2001).

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