PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1999 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON COASTAL AND MARINE TOURISM Balancing Tourism and Conservation
APRIL 26-29, 1999 VANCOUVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
EDITED BY MARC L. MILLER JAN AUYONG NINA P. HADLEY WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF KIM ENGIE PROCEEDINGS OF THE 1999 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON COASTAL AND MARINE TOURISM Balancing Tourism and Conservation
APRIL 26-29, 1999 VANCOUVER, BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
EDITED BY
MARC L. MILLER SCHOOL OF MARINE AFFAIRS UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON
JAN AUYONG OREGON SEA GRANT COLLEGE PROGRAM OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY
AND
NINA P. HADLEY TIDAL DELTA CONSULTING
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF KIM ENGIE
Oregon Washington
Published by the Washington Sea Grant Program and School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, WA (USA); Oregon Sea Grant College Program, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR (USA); and Oceans Blue Foundation, Vancouver, British Columbia (CANADA) WSG-WO 03-01/WASHU-W-99-003/ORESU-W-99-003 ii
Publication Date: 2002 Citation Miller, Marc L., Auyong, Jan, and Hadley, Nina P. (eds.). (2002). Proceedings of the 1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism: Balancing Tourism and Conservation. (26- 29 April, 1999, Vancouver, BC, Canada). Washington Sea Grant Program and School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, Oregon Sea Grant College Program, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, and Oceans Blue Foundation, Vancouver, BC.
Editors’ Note These Proceedings contain original material by many authors. No material is to be reprinted without prior permission from the author. The papers in these proceedings have been edited for consistency in format and length; minor changes have been made in language, syntax and punctuation. Bibliographic citations have been edited for clarity and consistency to the amount practicable. The authors’ styles, however, have been retained. The opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of the sponsors and publishers.
Publication of this document was facilitated by support of the Washington Sea Grant Program (NOAA Grant No. NA16RG1044 and Project No. A/PC-5) and the Oregon State College Sea Grant Program (NOAA Grant No. NA76RG0476 and Project No. M/A-1). Cover photograph courtesy of Tourism Vancouver.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism: Balancing Tourism and Conservation (1999 : Vancouver, B.C.) Proceedings of the 1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism : Balancing Tourism and Conservation : April 26-29, 1999 Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada / edited by Marc L. Miller, Jan Auyong, and Nina P. Hadley ; with the assistance of Kim Engie. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. 375). ISBN 0-934539-19-7 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Marine ecotourism--Congresses. 2. Coastal zone management--Congresses. 3. Marine ecology--Congresses. 4. Coastal ecology--Congresses. I. Miller, Marc L. II. Auyong, Janice. III. Hadley, Nina P. IV. Title. G156.5.M36I57 2002 338.4'791--dc21 2003000603 CIP Copies The Proceedings of the 1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism are available as a CD and also as a printed publication (WSG WO 03-01/WASHU-W-99-003/ORESU-W-99-003) from:
Washington Sea Grant Oregon State Sea Grant Oceans Blue Foundation, Program, College Program, 405-134 Abbott Street University of Washington Oregon State University, Vancouver, BC 3716 Brooklyn Ave NE 322 Kerr Administration, (CANADA) Seattle, WA (USA) Corvallis, OR, (USA) V6B 2K4 98105-5716 97331 Tel: 604-684-2583 Tel: 206-543-0555 Tel: 541-867-0233 Fax: 604-684-6942 Fax; 206-685-0380 Fax: 541-737-7958 Email: Email: Email: starfish@ oceansblue.org [email protected] [email protected]
Contents
Preface...... vii Acknowledgements...... viii
Papers
1. Introduction
Sustainable Coastal Tourism: Challenges for Management, Planning and Education M.L. Miller, J. Auyong and N.P. Hadley ...... 3
2. Keynote Plenary
Australia’s CRC Program: Collaborative Science for Sustainable Marine Tourism D. Alcock and S. Woodley...... 21
3. New Tourism Planning Perspectives
Economic Issues in Environmentally Sustainable Coastal Tourism T. J. Tyrell ...... 33
Management of Tourism on Australia’s Great Barrier Reef: Public and Private Dimensions of Regulation S. Parker...... 43
The Challenge of Ecotourism in the Caribbean: Overcoming Structural Constraints with Local Potential V. Dujon ...... 55
4. Tourism Planning Approaches
A Profile of Visitors to National Estuarine Research Reserves: Implications for Interpretive Programs W.C. Norman, T.J. McClinton and B. Martin ...... 65 iv
The Green Host Effect: An Integrated Approach to Sustainable Tourism and Resort Development J. Sweeting, A.G. Bruner and A. Rosenfeld ...... 71
“Best Practice” and Guidelines: Planning Tools for Sustainable Coastal Tourism in Australia L.Testoni...... 81
Coastal Resource Management and Sustainability of Tourism: A Comparative Study of Hakkuduwa, Sri Lanka and Goa, India G. Tantrigama...... 91
5. Who is Our Client?
Emerging Coastal Tourism Potential in British Columbia: The Fisheries Tourism Network and the German Market K. Fellenius, P. Williams and T. Hood...... 101
6. Market Strategies for the Nature Based Tourism Business
Market Feasibility of a Water Trail L. Uunila and R.l. Currie...... 115
Shipwreck Management: Developing Strategies for Assessment and Monitoring of Newly Discovered Shipwrecks in a Limited Resource Environment G. Van der Stoep, K.J. Vrana and H. Tolson ...... 125
Marine Ecotourism: An Update on Private Sector Best Practice and Guideline Implementation E. Halpenny ...... 137
Low Power Radio: An Antidote for Coastal Visitors Looking But Not Seeing! E. Williams and B. DeYoung...... 141
Thematic Itineraries: An Approach to Tourism Product Development R.S. Tabata...... 153
Marketing Cultural Heritage on Water Trails P. Labor ...... 159
7. Enhancing Marine Protected Areas
Debt-for-nature Swaps and Protected Area Tourism in Coastal and Marine Environments: A Symbiotic Relationship for Developing Countries B. Thapa and V. Sasidharan...... 161
Optimizing the Outcomes of Tourism in Co-managed Protected Heritage Areas: The Cases of Aulavik National Park and Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/ Haida Heritage Site D. McVetty and M. Deakin...... 169
v
Ecological and Economic Sustainability of Tropical Reef Systems: Establishing Sustainable Tourism in the Exuma Cays, Bahamas A.M. Lowe and K. Sullivan Sealey ...... 183
Planning and Management of Marine Protected Areas in Cuba R. Estrada and A. Puga...... 195
8. Transformations in Commercial Recreation
Marina Operators’ Perspectives on the Coastal Zone in British Columbia C.J.B. Wood and M. Stoilen ...... 203
Charting a New Course?: Sportfishing Lodges and Tourism in Coastal British Columbia J. Shultis...... 211
9. Exploring the Relationship between Brokers, Locals and Tourists
Power, Foucault and Coastal Tourism in Seattle, Washington S. Cheong and M.L. Miller ...... 223
Contested and Regulated Seaside Space at Durban R. Preston-Whyte...... 229
Otterskins, Clearcuts, and Ecotourists: Re-resourcing Haida Gwaii J. Martineau ...... 237
Travel Writers as Power Brokers: Testimonies From the Front Lines of Marine Tourism J.B. Davis and M.L. Miller ...... 251
10. Integration Strategies for Tourism
Gray Whale Watching and Local Tourism Management in Baja California Sur, Mexico L. Flores-Skydancer...... 267
Create A Good Fit: A Community-Based Tourism Planning Model D.P. Pinel...... 277
11. Strategies for Tourism Integration
A GIS-Based Analysis and Prediction of Land-Use Change in a Coastal Tourism Destination Area J.S. Allen, K. Lu and T.D. Potts...... 287
A Process for Community-Scale Tourism Development Modeling B. Whyte and D. Nicholson ...... 299
Oceans Blue Foundation: A Blue Revolution C. Breen...... 311 vi Making Tourism Sustainable, Sustainable Tourism, and What Should Tourism Sustain: Different Questions, Different Indicators S.F. McCool...... 315
12. Contributions
Still Seeking Sustainability S.F. McCool...... 327
Impediments and Opportunities in Tourism Development in Southwest Alaska T. Johnson ...... 333
Participatory Rural Rapid Assessment in Zanzibar I.M. Mlingoti and B.A. Koth ...... 341
Appendices
Appendix I: Field trip Summary Tourism and Sustainable Development on Vancouver’s Waterfronts: Summary of the Waterfront Tour R.F. Goodwin ...... 349
Appendix II: Abstracts of presentations sans papers
Community-Based Solid Waste Management in Coastal Tourism Development W. Trousdale ...... 353
Appendix III: Program of the Proceedings...... 355
Appendix IV: List of Participants...... 363
Preface
In 1990, the first Congress on Coastal and responsibly implemented in urban as well as Marine Tourism was a response to the rural settings. CMT99 workshops, field trips, growing need to bridge economic develop- and plenary sessions explored programs ment and conservation of our coastal re- and steps taken to promote the development sources. What we learned at CMT90 from of practical programs and strategies for en- participants was that the mixed record of vironmentally responsible tourism in coastal and marine tourism required imme- port/coastal cities, including greater com- diate and sustained study by a wide range munity involvement and awareness. of disciplines as well as a disciplined appli- cation of that information. We believe CMT99 was a success and we hope you will find this Proceedings of the In- At the World Congress on Coastal and Ma- ternational Symposium on Coastal and Marine rine Tourism which followed in 1996 we Tourism to be provocative and to stimulate wanted to learn whether we had progressed continued attention to the important prob- in our knowledge and abilities regarding lems and opportunities associated with sustainable tourism on the coast. Discus- coastal and marine tourism. sions at CMT96 showed that we still had a long way to go in achieving sustainability in coastal tourism. However, we did learn that Jan Auyong there was a widespread acceptance of the need to address coastal and marine tourism Chair, 1999 International Symposium on growth issues by governments, industries, Coastal and Marine Tourism Convening and others. Committee
As a result, International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism was convened in 1999 to focus not so much on the ends, but rather on the means of achieving more sus- tainable development. The selected theme for CMT99, “Choices, Responsibilities, and Practices,” reflected this focus. The venue for CMT99, Vancouver, BC, Canada, was influential in showing that environmentally sensitive, nature-based tourism could be Acknowledgements
The 1999 International Symposium on Grant Senior Graphics Designer for graphic Coastal and Marine Tourism owes many design; Karl Fellenius, Volunteer Coordina- thanks to the numerous institutions and in- tor, and his crew of dedicated volunteers dividuals that contributed financial, physi- who manned audio-visual equipment, as- cal, and moral support. Without the energy sisted speakers and delegates, and provided and enthusiasm provided, the Congress valuable support in general (Shari Currey, might not have occurred. Nina Hadley, Nicola Dedeluk, Ester Speck, So-Min Cheong, Susan Hootman). We also While it is impossible to name everyone in- would like to acknowledge the professional volved, the following people deserve special efforts of Heather Goodman, Development mention: Robert Malouf, Director of Oregon and Marketing Manager, Goodman Consult- Sea Grant College Program, who granted ing. Jan Auyong the time and considerable re- sources to pursue Congress planning and CMT99 would not have been possible with- implementation; Louie S. Echols, Director, out the contributions of the following or- and Andrea E. Copping, Associate Director ganizations and agencies: of Washington Sea Grant Program and Marc • BC Council of Tourism Associations J. Hershman, Director, University of Wash- • BC Ferry Corporation ington School of Marine Affairs, for their • BC Land Use Coordination Office generous aid in the production and printing • of the proceedings and support of the Con- BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism gress as a whole; Coralie Breen, President & Culture and CEO, Oceans Blue Foundation and Rick • BC Tourism Antonson, President and CEO of Tourism • Canadian Pacific Vancouver for publishing support; Nina P. • Canadian Tourism Commission Hadley, Principal of Tidal Delta Consulting, • Delaware Sea Grant for her editorial guidance; Kim Engie, As- • Fisheries & Oceans Canada sistant to the Editors, for her superb editing, • Granville Island/ CMHC patience and genial support; Susan Lynds, • Macmillan Bloedel for program support; Melissa O’Neill, • Minnesota Sea Grant Washington Sea Grant Communications • Naiad Explorer Manager, for her publication and logistical • Nimmo Bay Resort assistance in the production of these Pro- • Oceans Blue Foundation ceedings; Robyn Ricks, Washington Sea • Oregon and Washington Sea Grants ix
• People and Natural Resources Program, Pacific Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest Service • Simon Fraser University • Sustainable Development Research Institute • Tourism Vancouver • TREK International • University of Washington School of Marine Affairs • Vancouver City Councillors • Waterfront Center Hotel • The Westin Bayshore • Westin Bayshore Yacht Charters
Many thanks to all from the 1999 Interna- tional Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism Convening Committee:
Jan Auyong, (Chair) Oregon Sea Grant Coralie Breen, Oceans Blue Foundation;
Alison Gill, Simon Fraser University; Gordon Goodman and Lynelle Spring, BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism & Culture;
Robert Goodwin, Washington Sea Grant Program Marc L. Miller, School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington; and
George Stankey, People and Natural Resources Program/Pacific North- west Research Station, USDA Forest Service.
1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism
PAPERS
SUSTAINABLE COASTAL TOURISM: CHALLENGES FOR MANAGEMENT, PLANNING, AND EDUCATION
Marc L. Miller School of Marine Affairs University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Jan Auyong Oregon Sea Grant College Program Oregon State University (U.S.A.)
Nina P. Hadley Tidal Delta Consulting (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Coastal tourism development is an eller returneth home, let him not leave inherently controversial and increasingly com- the countries where he hath travelled al- plex phenomenon that forces deliberation over together behind him, but maintain a marine life and habitat conservation, economic correspondence by letters with those of improvement, and quality of life objectives. With his acquaintance which are of most this situation, the ideal of sustainable coastal worth.” tourism has found much support by brokers who --- Francis Bacon, The Essays control tourism, locals who witness tourism, and (1985 [1625]: 114) varieties of (eco)tourists. Mechanisms that have shown potential for shaping coastal tourism sys- In the seventeenth century at the time the tems in positive ways include tourism manage- Grand Tour was just taking shape as a tour- ment, tourism planning, and tourism education. istic institution and rite of passage in However, the attainment of sustainable coastal Europe, Francis Bacon recommended in his tourism goals will also depend on multidiscipli- essay “Of Travel” that tourists who gain an nary tourism research, enhanced broker-broker education in foreign lands not only prepare communication and cooperation, and the com- for their trips but also maintain “a corre- mitment of tourists to be alert to ecological and spondence” with people encountered. To- cultural consequences of their travel. day, the obligations of tourists (and those in government and commerce who promote Keywords: sustainable development, coastal tourism) have expanded. Sustainable tour- tourism systems, tourism brokers, tourism lo- ism requires understanding of the cultural cals, tourists, tourism ethics and sociological, the economic and political, and the ecological and biological conse- quences of travel. Introduction Coastal tourism is a process involving tour- “A [young man traveling] must have ists and the people and places they visit, some entrance into the language before particularly the coastal environment and its he goeth. … Let him carry with him natural and cultural resources. Most coastal also some card [map] or book describing tourism takes place along the shore and in the country where he travelleth, which the water immediately adjacent to the shore- will be a good key to his inquiry. Let line. Today, tourists travel to the coastal him keep also a diary. … When a trav- zone for parts of a day, for weekends, for 4 Miller, Auyong and Hadley short vacations, and for prolonged stays. modations and attractions, and by provid- Depending on the circumstances, they may ing touristic and recreational products and travel alone, with family, or in groups. They services. Competing marketing programs of may stay in coastal tourism accommoda- a multifaceted industry alert tourists and tions ranging from small residences and would-be travelers to coastal tourism prop- camping sites rented out as opportunities erties, amenities and activities. In fact, arise, to single bed-and-breakfast and hotel many coastal tourism activities count as a rooms, to luxury suites in resort enclaves. business for those in the tourism industry Some coastal tourism is organized for a spe- and as an experience for tourists. Scuba div- cial purpose such as ecotourism, adventure ing, for example, provides an excellent ex- tourism, scientific tourism, and dive tour- ample of how advances in technology have ism. As with other human endeavors in the provided foundations for business and have coastal zone associated with development, facilitated touristic access to the marine en- tourism is viewed positively by some for the vironment. Other coastal activities that have opportunities it creates, while others con- a business aspect (involving, for example, demn coastal tourism for its unacceptable guides and instructors, or special equip- consequences. ment) include recreational and sportfishing, boating, sailing and parasailing, and whale Coastal tourism destinations fall along an and bird watching. Then too, there are many urban-rural continuum. At one end of the forms of coastal tourism—swimming and scale are major cities and ports (Hong Kong, body surfing, snorkeling, beachcombing, Venice, New York, Rio de Janeiro, and Syd- hiking and rock climbing, sketching and ney come to mind) known for their cultural, painting, photographing, sightseeing—that historical, and economic significance. At the are “free,” but for which costs to providers other end of the continuum are the rela- are recovered indirectly through taxes, or tively isolated and pristine coastlines found are incorporated in standard hotel or ac- around the world that are valued for their commodation billing practices. natural beauty, flora and fauna. Of course, many coastal tourism destinations offer rich Coastal tourism is inherently controversial. mixtures of cultural, historical, social, envi- At the same time that coastal tourism fosters ronmental, and other values to visitors. economic relationships between industry producers and tourist consumers, the proc- Coastal tourism technologies of travel in- ess has shown itself to be an enormously clude both those which carry tourists from potent force in transforming the natural en- their homeland (e.g., airplanes, ships, cars, vironment and the lives of people who are buses, and trains) and which are regarded neither part of the business of tourism nor a by travelers as mere means to the end of member of the community of tourists. The arriving at destinations, and those which coastal zone is a scarce resource prized not transport tourists at coastal destinations but only by those who engage in and profit by which become part of the touristic experi- tourism, but also by those with personal ence (e.g., cruise ships, high-speed catama- residences near the sea, and those who find rans, personal watercraft, sailboats, dive employment in fishing, aquaculture, mari- boats, motorcycles, and bicycles). Transpor- time shipping, nuclear energy, and national tation technologies can, depending on the defense, among other industries. Congestion circumstance, be important for being both and competition in the coastal zone frames convenient and for being interesting or the characterization and the resolution of pleasing. tourism issues. Coastal tourism problems and opportunities are therefore properly In a manner of speaking, tourism is a matter debated as “multiple-use” or “multiple- of supply and demand. With this perspec- value” conflicts. tive, coastal tourism is a business for those who make a living by developing accom-
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 5
Magnitude of Coastal Tourism • According to Cruise Lines Interna- tional Association figures, the num- Although there are no standardized prac- ber of North American cruise vaca- tices for reporting tourism statistics within tioners in 2000 was nearly 6.9 mil- the coastal zone, it is not difficult to see how lion, an increase of nearly 17% over tourism has a major coastal aspect. Only the previous year (Bridges, 2002: several dozen out of well over 200 nations in 192). the world lack coastlines (Miller and • The Pacific Asia Travel Associa- Auyong, 1991b: 80-89). Of the world’s top tion’s (PATA) Pacific statistical re- 15 tourism destination countries in 2000, 12 gion (composed of Australia, New were countries having coastlines (WTO, Zealand, American Samoa, the Cook 2001: 2). Islands, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii, New Caledonia, the Northern Mariana Is- International Trends lands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, World Tourism Organization (WTO) statis- Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tahiti, tics confirm that tourism is the world’s larg- Tonga, and Vanuatu) has benefited est industry as measured by the number of from an annual (visitor) arrival people involved and by economic impacts. growth rate of 3.6% since the mid International tourism arrivals totaled 693 1990s (Bridges, 2002: 148). million in 2001 (WTO, 2002: 1). By the year • Sun, beautiful beaches, and warm 2020, it is estimated that international tourist ocean waters have become standard arrivals will reach over 1.56 billion. Statisti- vacation requirements for many cal estimations for total tourist arrivals by tourists. Forty-nine percent of those region show that in 2020 the top three re- visiting the Caribbean do so for the ceiving regions will be Europe (717 million beaches, while 28 percent are pri- tourists), East Asia and the Pacific (397 mil- marily interested in sightseeing, and lion tourists), and the Americas (282 million 17 percent in water sports. More- tourists), followed by Africa, the Middle over, roughly 25% of the jobs in the East, and South Asia (WTO, 2001: 6). Caribbean are directly or indirectly tourism related (Bridges, 2002: 93- In 1995, travel and tourism generated an 94). estimated USD$3.4 trillion in gross output creating employment for 212 million people US Trends and producing nearly 11% of the world In 2000, the number of international visitors gross domestic product (WTO, 2001: 2). In- to the US totaled 50.9 million persons, a ternational tourism receipts for 2001 value second only to that of France (75 mil- amounted to USD$463 billion (WTO, 2002: lion) The US ranked first in the world in 1). 2000 in generating USD$85.2 billion in tour- ism receipts (excluding international trans- A selection of international trends and sta- port) (WTO figures reported in Bridges, tistics illustrates the significance of tourism 2002: 6). to coastal economies: • According to the International Fund The Office of Travel and Tourism Industries for Animal Welfare (IFAW), whale- (Department of Commerce) anticipates that watching is a billion-dollar world- the number of international visitor arrivals wide industry (Bridges, 2001: 5). to the US in 2002 will reach 46.7 million, a • Gamefish tournaments and derbies 2.2% increase over the figure for the previ- which attract international anglers ous year (Travel Industry Association of are proliferating throughout the Pa- America, 2002a: 3). cific (Miller, et al., 2001).
6 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
Foreign tourists are especially attracted to costs (National Marine Manufacturers As- US coastal states (Houston, 1996: 4). In 1995, sociation, 2000b: 1). overseas visitors to the US increased by 12% to 20.6 million; three coastal states (Florida, A recent report of outdoor recreation in the California, and New York) hosted 74% of US revealed that for a 1994 -95 study period these visitors (Bridges, 1997: 63). More than 9.5 million people engaged in saltwater fish- 50 million people visit US beaches each ing, 1.1 million people participated in sail- summer; this activity accounts for 85% of all boarding and windsurfing, and that 7.2 mil- tourist revenue and generates USD$640 bil- lion people participated in snorkeling and lion a year for the US economy (Bridges, scuba activities (Cordell et al., 1997: 9-10). 2002: 8). US coastlines are popular sites for tourism and recreational activities, but coastal tourism and recreation activities of- Tourism Development ten overlap and are not always confined to the marine and coastal environment. For As described above, coastal tourism has be- example, diving, fishing and whale watch- come a major facet of modern life. Further, ing are often done while boating; surfing, tourism development in the coastal zone has swimming and bird watching are usually become a constant since the end of World done while visiting beaches and shorelines; War II. Well-known examples are found on and not all recreational boats are used ex- the coastlines and islands of Europe, North clusively in marine and coastal waters. and South America, Africa, and Asia (Miller Beach travelers take longer and more expen- and Auyong, 1991a and 1998a; Conlin and sive vacations, and are more likely to rent a Baum, 1995; Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, timeshare or condominium than average 1997). Tourism development often leads to tourists (Travel Industry Association of changes in the environment and society of America, 2002b: 1). some kind. While conclusions about the “appropriateness,” “success,” “inappropri- As in many locales around the world, com- ateness,” or “failure” of coastal tourism de- prehensive and time-series statistics measur- velopment projects vary to a degree with the ing employment, and the economic and so- political and economic orientations, aes- cial value of coastal tourism and recreation thetic standards, and environmental phi- in the US are not available. Quantitative and losophies of analysts and observers, there is reliable data measuring involvement in spe- no question about the power of tourism de- cific coastal recreation and tourism activities velopment to quickly effect dramatic in the US are limited (and often proprie- change. tary). Nonetheless, many small and uncon- nected studies have been conducted on spe- From an environmental perspective, tourism cific tourism topics and destinations in the development can lead to degradation of eco- coastal zone. systems. This, of course, is unavoidable with the building of airports, ports, road systems, Several boating and fishing statistics pro- hotels, resorts and other facilities. This said, vide some idea of the economic and social tourism development can also provide fi- importance of coastal tourism. In 2000, reg- nancial support for the protection of the ma- istered boats in the 50 states and US territo- rine environment and endangered species, ries numbered nearly 12.8 million (National as for example, in the creation of underwa- Marine Manufacturers Association, 2000a: ter and marine parks and protected areas. 2). In 2001, 69.5 million people participated in recreational boating and recreational From a societal point of view, tourism de- boaters spent nearly USD$225.6 million on velopment promises better quality of life. In new and used boats, motors and engines, theory, poverty is alleviated through the trailers, accessories, and other associated creation of new jobs. Personal income and
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 7 taxes derived from tourism then fosters bet- sustainable development will neces- ter health, education, and other social ser- sarily work to assure that growing vices. In practice, these goals are only some- economies remain firmly attached to times met. In many cases, failures of politi- their ecological roots and that these cal institutions have led to unfair distribu- roots are protected and nurtured so tions of tourism-generated revenues and to that they may support growth over problems of environmental justice. the long term.” (World Commission on Environment and Development, In some instances, changes in the commu- 1987: 40) nity that are derivative of tourism are unde- “(Sustainable development means) niably positive. In other cases, the effects are improving the capacity to convert a negative. In a study of tourism in a Mexican constant level of physical resource coastal community, McGoodwin (1986) has use to the increased satisfaction of identified a tourist impact syndrome which human needs.” (World Conserva- identifies the possible cultural costs to tour- tion Union, the United Nations En- ism system locals as including: 1) loss of vironment Programme, and the political and economic autonomy (including World Wide Fund for Nature, 1990: loss of real property), 2) loss of folklore and 10) related cultural institutions, 3) social disor- ganization (including radical changes in In working toward more sustainable coastal value orientations and in norms regarding tourism, an understanding about people- social relations; heightened desire for mate- place and people-people interactions would rial objects; changes in norms regarding be beneficial. work, sexual behavior, and drug use; pro- motion of illusory life aspirations; and loss of parental control and of respect for elders), Coastal Tourism Systems and 4) hostility towards tourists (e.g., thiev- ery, hustling, verbal aggression). Coastal tourism systems involve interactions
between people and place in destinations Over the last decades, there has been grow- that include small communities and villages, ing recognition of the social and environ- self-contained resorts, and cosmopolitan mental trade-offs of tourism and also of the cities. From a sociological perspective, unintended consequences and economic coastal tourism systems have three kinds of externalities of tourism development (see, actors --1) tourism brokers, 2) tourism locals, for example, Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Ed- and 3) tourists (Miller and Auyong, 1998b). wards, 1988; Pearce, 1989; Clark, 1996; Interactions within and between these actors Orams, 1999). With this, coastal tourism de- can affect the speed and character of devel- velopment is increasingly designed, de- opment. bated, and evaluated against the ideal of sustainable development. Two prominent A “broker-local-tourist” (BLT) model of a statements on this important concept follow coastal tourism system is displayed in Fig- (emphases added): ure 1 (see, Miller and Auyong, 1991b; “Economic growth always brings 1998b). Tourism brokers consist of persons risk of environmental damage, as it who in one way or another pay professional puts increased pressure on envi- attention to tourism. Main subcategories ronmental resources. But policy include 1) private sector brokers who are makers guided by the concept of
8 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
Human Setting Natural Setting Constraints
Brokers • Public Sector • Private Sector Locals • Social Movement • Traditional Tourists • New Residents Impacts • Domestic • International
Social Environment Natural Environment
Figure 1. Broker-Local-Tourist (BLT) Model of Coastal Tourism (adapted from Miller and Auyong, 1991b: 75)
part of the tourism industry, 2) public sector System Dynamics brokers at various levels of government who Coastal tourism systems change in size and study, regulate, and plan tourism, and 3) character over time. To understand and ul- social movement brokers in non- timately predict these changes, and also to governmental, non-profit, and environ- plan for desired societal and environmental mental organizations who address tourism outcomes, analysis must focus on the behav- issues. Tourism brokers of these and other ior of components of the system. In this re- types do not necessarily agree on the kind of gard, two processes merit attention. tourism that is “best” for coastal tourism systems. Indeed, broker-broker conflict is as First, population dynamics of the BLT common as cooperation. Tourism locals model should be monitored. It is not un- consist of persons who reside in the general usual for individuals in the system to region a coastal tourism destination, but do change statuses. This can occur as, for ex- not derive an income from tourism or en- ample, tourists who visit a coastal destina- gage in its management and regulation. Fi- tion decide to stay and take on a residence, nally, tourists consist of persons of domestic either as a broker of some kind (for example, and international origin who travel for rela- as a scuba dive shop entrepreneur or restau- tively short periods of time for business, rant owner), or as a local (for example, as a recreation, and educational purposes before lawyer or teacher). Other transformations in returning home. The tourism process pro- status take place as locals change occupa- vides incentives for locals to become tour- tions and become private sector brokers by ism brokers. The lives, then, of both locals engaging in a tourism business, or become and new brokers are changed by coastal de- public sector brokers by finding government velopment. employment that concerns tourism. Of
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 9 course, locals and brokers take on the role of side, coastal tourism can lead to problems of a tourist when they vacation on travel of overcrowding, social displacement, and their own. crime. Impacts on the natural environment are often biological, physical, and ecological Second, power dynamics of the BLT model in nature. Increased protection and conser- should be taken into account. Tourism is vation of many areas and species has been a often examined as a product of the aggre- positive result of coastal tourism; neverthe- gate decisions of individual tourists. The less problems of erosion, pollution, and loss relationship forged between the tourist and of species diversity occur far too frequently. the local is accordingly depicted as socio- It should not surprise that many coastal economic in nature; tourists and locals in- tourism issues simultaneously affect the so- teract as “guests” and “hosts” or as consum- cial and natural environment. ers and producers. Where power relation- ships are perceived to exist (as, for example, The viability of coastal tourism systems and between First World tourists and Third and the natural environment in which they occur Fourth World locals), it is argued that these is very much dependent on human behav- reveal the colonial and imperialistic leverage ior. The resolution of coastal tourism issues tourists have over those whom they visit. can arise from the work of tourism system From this perspective, tourism systems are brokers and also from the individual deci- controlled and determined - often in unfor- sions of locals and tourists. tunate ways - by the behavior of tourists. Of the multiple ways available to society to While there certainly are many instances in control human conduct, three mechanisms which tourists have exercised their influence are prominent in the coastal tourism context. to selfish and inappropriate advantage in These mechanisms are tourism management, coastal tourism settings, a narrow concentra- tourism planning, and tourism education. tion on the power of tourists can result in analysts missing the power of tourism bro- Tourism management, planning, and educa- kers. As Cheong and Miller (2000) have tion are crucial to the sustainable evolution pointed out, tourists are frequently vulner- of a touristic destination. It is therefore im- able to the power and control of brokers and perative that each are administered in such a locals. This is the case when, for example, way as to provide for the social and eco- tourists abide by laws and regulations of nomic needs of the community, while at the public sector brokers, and when they follow same time ensuring that environmentally the advice and instructions of private sector sensitive areas and ecologically important brokers such as tour guides and travel habitats are identified and excluded from agents. tourism pressure. It is also recognized that tourism management, planning, and educa- tion are necessary not only for scientific Toward the Resolution of Coastal purposes and to conserve the environment Tourism Issues for the benefit of residents, but also for the protection of long-term investments in tour- Coastal tourism has been seen to be respon- ism infrastructure, attractions, facilities, ser- sible for both positive and negative impacts vices, and marketing programs. It deserves to the natural and social environment (see to be noted that coastal tourism manage- Figure 1). The impacts of coastal tourism on ment, planning, and education programs are the social environment involve social, cul- often designed and implemented by the tural, political and economic issues. On the same agencies and organizations. This over- positive side, coastal tourism can foster lap is often desirable and is found in some community pride, improved quality of life instances of larger efforts of government to and new job opportunities; on the negative promote integrated coastal zone manage-
10 Miller, Auyong and Hadley ment (see Clark, 1996; Cicin-Sain and lar applicability to the management of tour- Knecht, 1998). ism in coastal areas.
The manner in which a country, region, or Two very significant parks utilize zoning as community chooses to conduct touristic a means of tourism management. The Great management, planning, and education ac- Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia is a tivities is framed by societal (political, eco- multiple-use protected area. With zoning, nomic, etc.) and environmental (geography, conflicting uses are physically separated. natural resource, etc.) constraints. In the The range of protection in the park varies long run, the wisest course of action is to from virtually no protection to zones where balance environmental, business, manage- human activity is conditionally permitted. ment, and social concerns so that tourism The adoption of this zoning scheme allows development is recognized as a potentially the park authority, in association with inter- dangerous, but also potentially valuable and ested members of the public and with other responsible course of action. agencies, to develop and apply a tourism strategy for the entire Great Barrier Reef Coastal Tourism Management Marine Park. Zoning ensures that the Reef Very generally, management concerns the will not become overpopulated with tourist actions of an executive decision-making en- and other structures, but also allows for tity in accordance with overarching goals of careful development in areas which are the larger enterprise in which it is housed. suitable for that purpose. The Galapagos Although resorts, hotels, restaurants, trans- Islands National Park in Ecuador also em- portation businesses, and many other firms ploys zoning strategies. The park is effec- in the coastal tourism sector do make deci- tively managed with intensive use, exten- sions in strategic and professional ways, sive use, and scientific use (off limits to all management, as the term is employed here, but a few visitors) zones. points to work engaged in or sponsored by public sector brokers to address problems Carrying capacity regulations illustrate the and opportunities of coastal tourism. “precautionary principal” method of natural resource management and are highly re- Throughout the world, coastal tourism is garded by practitioners of tourism man- managed by regulatory entities in accor- agement. Coastal tourism managers who dance with the structure and procedures of seek to determine the appropriate level of the prevailing political system. In practice, use that can be sustained by the natural re- coastal tourism management is conducted sources of an area are well aware that carry- by public sector brokers at all levels of gov- ing capacities and use-intensity limits of ernment, by private sector brokers in busi- tourism destinations are dynamic, and de- nesses, and by some NGOs and environ- pend greatly on the biological and ecological mental and social movement brokers. An processes of natural resources. array of tourism management tools (e.g., licensing regulations, zoning rules, tourist Coastal area carrying capacity can be evalu- quotas, time and areas restrictions, and car- ated in four ways (Sowman, 1987). Physical rying capacity and limits of acceptable carrying capacity is concerned with the change regulations) have been used success- maximum number of “use units” (e.g., peo- fully throughout the Pacific, in the Carib- ple, vehicles, boats) which can be physically bean, in the Atlantic and elsewhere (see, accommodated in an area. Economic carry- Pearce, 1989; Miller and Auyong, 1991a and ing capacity relates to situations where a 1998; Conlin and Baum, 1995; Lockhart and resource is simultaneously utilized for out- Drakakis-Smith, 1997; Orams, 1999). The door recreation and economic activity. Eco- concepts of zoning and carrying capacity de- logical carrying capacity (sometimes re- serve further attention due to their particu- ferred to also as physical, bio-physical, or environmental carrying capacity) is con-
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 11 cerned with the maximum level of recrea- Coastal Tourism Planning tional use that can be accommodated by an Planning, broadly conceived, entails the area or an ecosystem before an unacceptable consideration of a range of actions likely to or irreversible decline in ecological values contribute to the attainment of organiza- occur. Social carrying capacity (also referred tional goals. In some instances, overarching to as perceptual, psychological or behavioral goals are well known in advance and plan- capacity) is concerned with the visitor’s per- ning professionals concentrate on the means ception of the presence (or absence) of oth- that will ensure these ends. In other situa- ers simultaneously utilizing the resource of tions, the determination of goals requires an area. This concept is concerned with the prolonged deliberation. effect of crowding on the enjoyment and appreciation of the recreation site or experi- Coastal tourism planning is often integrated ence. with other resource analyses in the devel- opment of coastal area or region. Planners The limits of acceptable change (LAC) frame- take into account not only visitation rates work developed by Stankey et al. (1985) en- and statistics, but also the fact that tourists ables managers to move beyond calculation increasingly insist that destinations be high- of carrying capacity figures to address ac- quality and pollution-free, as well as inher- tions needed for management goals. This ently interesting. Therefore, it is in both the approach concentrates on establishing public and private sector brokers’ interest to measurable limits to human-induced implement a tourism planning strategy. The changes in the natural and social setting of goals and policies of government agencies parks and protected areas, and on identify- and businesses are, however, frequently dif- ing appropriate management strategies to ferent from one other and may even be in maintain and/or restore desired conditions direct conflict. To minimize and even pre- (Stankey et al., 1985). Knowledge of the vent disruptions and loss of time, communi- natural (physical, biological) setting is com- cation between tourism brokers is crucial. bined with knowledge of the human (social, political) setting in order to define appropri- The success or failure of a tourism project ate future conditions. frequently hinges on the conditions of natu- ral amenities in the surrounding environ- The LAC method employs nine steps as fol- ment. This is especially true for tropical en- lows: 1) identification of area concerns and vironments found, for example, on Pacific issues, 2) definition and description of op- and Caribbean islands. Parks and natural portunity classes, 3) selection of indicators resource areas, scenic vistas, archaeological of resource and social conditions, 4) inven- and historic sites, and coral reefs are all tory of resource and social conditions, 5) touted tourism attractions. Marketing specification of standards for resource and strategies for coastal, marine, and island social indicators, 6) identification of alterna- tourism especially promote destinations for tive opportunity class allocations, 7) identi- being close to white sand beaches. However, fication of management actions for each al- development of permanent structures for ternative, 8) evaluation and selection of an tourism near beaches often exacerbates alternative, and 9) implementation of ac- beach erosion, property damage, and re- tions and monitoring of conditions. To date, quires construction of shore protection the LAC system has proved to be a valuable structures. If touristic facilities are to be tourism management tool in several wilder- sited near beaches, proper planning is essen- ness areas in the US and has direct applica- tial for the protection of the coastal zone and tions to coastal areas as well. private property.
In many numerous coastal and island states located in the Mediterranean, Caribbean and
12 Miller, Auyong and Hadley the Pacific where tourism is a major eco- Because coastal tourism planning efforts are nomic force, major national-level depart- attuned to local conditions, constituencies, ments of government shape coastal tourism and financial constraints, there is no single through the design of investment incentives planning process for guaranteeing success. and international joint venture opportuni- This said, most professional planning en- ties. In nations such as Mexico and Costa deavors share a general structure. Grenier et Rica, these activities are linked to the prepa- al. (1993) suggest a three-phase tourism ration of strategic tourism plans. planning process. With this, a first “Front- end Planning” phase encompasses scoping In the US - and with notable exceptions such (entailing a statement of project philosophy, as those provided by the National Park Ser- pre-assessments of key issues and themes, vice - very little coastal tourism planning and formulation of objectives) and research takes place in the federal government. At (involving data collection and analyses sup- the state level, it is commonplace for de- porting cultural, institutional, and environ- partments of tourism to promote tourism. mental profiles; site reconnaissance; eco- While many states have experienced great determinant mapping; and analyses of con- success in attracting tourists with advertis- straints and opportunities). A second “Pro- ing strategies, most state departments of ject Planning” phase is focused on refine- tourism have yet to augment the marketing ment of project objectives, design and of tourism with the monitoring and assess- evaluation of alternative development plan ment of coastal tourism’s effects on the envi- concepts, and selection and approval of the ronment and quality of life. At the local preferred development plan concept. A level, many city governments have utilized third and final “Project Management” phase their planning departments to recommend concerns activities of implementation, moni- approaches to issues having to do with pub- toring and evaluation, and refinement. lic use of the shoreline and natural re- sources, the revitalization of waterfronts, Within the private sector, coastal tourism and zoning appropriate to resort and marina planning is an established professional spe- development. cialty. Firms of all sizes develop coastal tourism plans tailored by expert consultants Coastal tourism planning generally falls into to the needs of developer clients. Increas- two main categories, depending on whether ingly, social movement brokers are being the project in question is driven by a preser- seen to engage in professional coastal tour- vation or a development ethic. Preservation ism planning. Such planning efforts incor- goals predominate in the planning of recrea- porate motivational or satisfaction theories tional areas, in national park and marine to attract tourists or manage tourist systems protected area planning, and in planning and attractions. While there are many psy- that is part of natural resource management. chological, social psychological, and social The development framework has found ap- concepts and frameworks for accounting for plication in seaside resort and theme park tourism, only a few are mentioned here. planning, in condominium time-share plan- ning, and in varieties of coastal city plan- First and looking to the motives of tourists, ning. There are many examples worldwide Miller and Ditton (1986: 11) suggest that the of coastal tourism zones, replete with both fundamental promise of travel “lies in its preservation and development projects, promise of contrast.” In elaboration, these that extend from major cities. The Costa authors show that individual trips and vaca- Brava in Spain, the French Riviera, the Yuca- tions allow opportunities for contrast or per- tan Peninsula, the East Coast of Australia, sonal change along three dimensions. Rec- and the coastlines of the US and many Poly- reational tourism as engaged in by the athlete nesian islands illustrate mixed planning. or escapist has a restorative purpose, and provides for change in the physiological or emotional state of the tourist. Educational
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 13 tourism as pursued by the student has a phi- gether through the small and multiple secu- losophical purpose and provides a basis for lar rituals of travel. change in the intellectual and artistic under- standing of the tourist. Instrumental tourism In acknowledging this ritual potential, a as involving entrepreneurs, reformers, and third perspective on touristic motivation pilgrims exhibits an economic, political, or stresses the passionate commitment that religious purpose and leads to change in some tourists exude in performing their fa- business, network, or moral opportunities vorite coastal activity. In studies of ama- available to the tourist. With this frame- teurs, volunteers, and hobbyist in sports, work, a trip by one tourist to, say, a South science, and the arts, Stebbins (1992: 3) Pacific island might be experienced as noted intense levels of personal involvement highly recreational, mildly educational, and and high levels of technical competence, and not at all instrumental. Those accompanying coined the term serious leisure to describe such a tourist could, of course, experience commitment that was tantamount to profes- the trip with different weightings along the sionalism: three dimensions of touristic contrast. “[S]erious leisure can be defined as the systematic pursuit of an ama- A second way of considering the motivation teur, hobbyist, or volunteer activity of tourists emphasizes their intention to ex- that is sufficiently substantial and perience a psychological state of challenge interesting for the participant to find that Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1990) terms a career there in the acquisition and flow or optimal experience. When in a state of expression of its special skills and flow--as one might be when surfing, sailing, knowledge.” scuba diving, or even engaging in stimulat- ing conversation--the tourist has found a fine match between his or her abilities and In the realm of coastal tourism, tourists who the physical, intellectual, or social challenge pursue serious leisure are omnipresent as at hand. According to Csikszentmihalyi evidenced by scuba divers, sailors, whale (1975: 38-48) the flow experience is engaged watchers, amateur naturalists and marine in for its own sake and is marked by 1) a conservationists, and the like. merging of action and awareness, 2) a cen- tering of attention on a limited stimulus In summary, coastal tourism planning has field, 3) a feeling variously described as been fostered by public sector brokers at all “loss of ego,” “self-forgetfulness,” “loss of governmental levels, by consultants among self-consciousness,” and even “transcen- other private sector brokers, and by an im- dence of individuality,” and “fusion with pressive range of non-governmental and the world,” 4) a feeling of control over one’s environmental organizations in roles they actions and the environment, 5) coherent, have taken on as social movement tourism noncontradictory demands for action, and brokers. Coastal tourism planning practitio- clear unambiguous feedback, and 6) its ners have developed an array of planning autotelic [from Greek auto = self and telos = methodologies (e.g., comprehensive land- goal, purpose] nature. use planning, integrated coastal zone plan- ning, and strategic and special use planning) It is often remarked that people who travel and have utilized these throughout the together gradually develop a kind of touris- world, in many instances by cooperating tic solidarity. By seeing and doing the same with tourism brokers with management ex- things, by sharing emotions and reactions, pertise (see, Gunn, 1988; Pearce, 1989; Miller by facing a common set of logistic obstacles, and Auyong, 1991a and 1998a; Conlin and and even by jointly creating a set of “story Baum, 1995; Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, lines” with which they might talk about a 1997; Orams, 1999; Hadley, 2001). trip with others, tourists are brought to-
14 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
Coastal Tourism Education strategies to educate people and through The two mechanisms for the control of hu- this to change human behavior in coastal man behavior in coastal tourism systems tourism systems. While educator brokers discussed above - management and plan- seek to impart their message to tourists and ning - are similar to one another in that the to locals, they also educate one another as, tourism experts who analyze coastal tour- for example, when a non-governmental or- ism situations channel their recommenda- ganization (NGO) educates public sector tions upward to regulatory and planning and private sector brokers. authorities. These tourism brokers then im- plement policies and plans downward, in- Efforts to resolve problems and opportuni- fluencing tourism businesses, tourists, and ties of coastal tourism through education are locals. steadily growing throughout the world. Tourism brokers who are advancing this A third mechanism concerns coastal tourism promising agenda are benefiting from the education and communication. Although work of educators who have focused on en- education about coastal science and envi- vironmental and sustainability issues. Mon- ronmental issues is effectively transmitted in roe (1999) has characterized successful envi- classrooms, discussion here focuses on edu- ronmental education and communication cation and outreach in non-traditional set- projects as having features that allow for: 1) tings and how people learn through the ex- empowerment of local communities and use perience of being tourists or learn in the of their expertise, 2) attention to scientific, course of daily life. Guided tours, museums, social, economic, political, and cultural top- brochures, public lectures, newspapers, and ics, 3) identification of a variety of stake- signage are but a few of the devices that fig- holders and integration of them into the ure importantly in the educational processes process, 4) advancement of an environ- linked to coastal tourism. mental ethic as well as assistance to resi- dents in developing decision-making skills, In a manner of speaking, tourism education 5) development of a gender component, 6) contrasts with management and planning in flexibility in project design (including realis- that the first clients of analysts are not man- tic timetables), and 7) project evaluation. agers and planners in positions of authority, but tourists and locals. Whereas managers Coastal tourism brokers (for example, those achieve goals through policies and regula- in government or in NGOs) that provide tions and planners depend on plans, coastal international aid in developing and poverty- tourism educators succeed when people plagued states have also benefited from the take personal initiative to change their own cross-cultural advice of Brazilian educator behavior because they have been taught and philosopher, Paulo Freire. Feire has con- something. Tourism education, then, is a tended that the education process has for process in which analyst brokers direct their too long been regarded as a “delivery ser- ideas outward to people involved in tour- vice” from the scientific and technological ism. Tourism educators and communicators elite of the Western World to those suffering do not evaluate success or failure at attain- in the Third World. Freire’s (1999: 61, em- ing their goals with studies of “enforce- phasis added) solution lies in education pro- ment” or “compliance.” This is so because jects that emphasize collaborations between successful education motivates individuals experts and clients at all stages of the proc- by persuasion, not coercion. ess: “Through dialogue, the teacher-of- By definition and referring to Figure 1, the-students and students-of-the- coastal tourism educators are public sector, teacher cease to exist and a new private sector, and social movement bro- term emerges: teacher-student with kers. These brokers design products and student-teachers. The teacher is no
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 15
longer merely the-one-who-teaches, tal resolution of pressing tourism and but one who is himself taught in coastal development issues requires imagi- dialogue with the students, who in nation as well as sustained scientific and turn while being taught also teach. policy attention. Work to be done falls in the They become jointly responsible for areas of research, and tourism broker and a process in which all learn.” individual responsibility.
Tourism Research Few would disagree with the proposition that coastal tourism education has great po- Researchers in government, academe, and in tential to enhance the quality of tourism for the private and social movement sectors tourists and locals, and to also protect the constitute a first group of practitioners environment through responsible human whose work induces positive change in conduct. The importance of education (and coastal tourism systems. Fundamental ques- of overlapping fields such as communica- tions about physical, biological, ecological, tion, journalism, and environmental and social, cultural, economic, demographic, and science reporting by the media) is recog- political processes of coastal tourism are nized by virtually all marine scientists and posed and answered in assessments, impact researchers (see, Pearce, 1989; Miller and statements, profiles, and other products of Auyong, 1991a and 1998a; Conlin and natural, biological, and social scientists. Baum, 1995; Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, With reference to the condition of the envi- 1997; Orams, 1999). Still, many opportuni- ronment and society, the possibilities of ties to integrate coastal tourism education coastal tourism development raise not only with the mechanisms of management and the question “What is?” but also questions planning have been missed. about “What is ethical?,” “What is fair?,” and “What is beautiful?” As a result, analy- ses by professionals with backgrounds in Challenges Ahead the humanities and arts have proven to be useful in complementing those of scientists.
Over the last several centuries, the world’s The need to formally study tourism is rec- coastlines have been substantially trans- ognized more than ever in academe. Tour- formed to support recreational and touristic ism research methods are under continual pursuits. In some cases, coastal tourism development in such fields as public affairs, dominates the shoreline. In others, tourism business and marketing, architecture, urban is one of many industries. As coastlines be- planning and design, political science, soci- come more populated and sometime inac- ology, geography, cultural anthropology, cessible, it is ever more clear that however marine affairs, and environmental studies beneficial coastal tourism is to the tourist, it (see for example Gunn, 1979; Murphy, 1985; is neither a panacea that will invigorate any Ritchie and Goeldner, 1987; McIntosh and local economy, nor a pollution that will nec- Goeldner, 1990, France, 1997). Additionally, essarily ruin environments and corrupt cul- we are seeing growth in new tourism asso- tural traditions and values. Coastal tourism ciations and journals focusing on managing is a process amenable to management, plan- tourism development and more sustainable ning, and education. Sustainable coastal growth. tourism obliges humanity to have respect for other life forms and the environment, Tourism Broker Responsibilities while it affords opportunities for people to learn, recreate, and reach their potential as A second professional group made up of the individuals through travel. different types of coastal tourism brokers will be counted upon heavily in the future to Because the stakes are high and because cooperate with one another. This can occur, mistakes can be virtually irreversible, socie- for example, when investors and developers
16 Miller, Auyong and Hadley in the private sector coordinate goals and Papua New Guinea; Peru; Republic of the activities with those of government agencies Philippines; Russia; Singapore; Chinese and NGOs to make sustainable tourism a Taipei; Thailand; USA; and Vietnam. reality. Another kind of cooperation calls for tourism brokers to work effectively with In one of sixteen elements of the Seoul ac- government, business, and non- tion plan, the APEC Ocean-related Ministers governmental organizations in other eco- resolved to “increase efforts to sustainably nomic sectors. Better understandings of manage tourism activities that affect or po- tourism-fishery interactions, tourism- tentially affect marine and coastal environ- aquaculture interactions, and tourism-ocean ments” (Kim, 2002: 10). In the Seoul Ocean shipping interactions can lead to an im- Seminar held in conjunction with the meet- provement on single-sector governance with ing, participants identified a range of coastal partially (or, under ideal conditions, fully) tourism topics of concern and recommended integrated coastal management. integrated coastal zone management, re- sponsible ecotourism, and the adoption of In the aftermath of the terrorism attack on best tourism practices among other meas- the World Trade Center in 2001, the respon- ures to the APEC ministers. sibilities of tourism brokers have been en- larged. Brokers now must function not only Individual Responsibilities as stewards of the coastal environment, The discussion above has concerned the businessmen, and representatives of con- proactive roles researchers and brokers can stituencies, but also as protectors of residen- play in promoting sustainable tourism and tial and traveling publics. coastal development. To this must be added a comment about the personal responsibili- Uncertainties generated by the terrorism of ties of tourists and locals to contribute to- 2001 will change the ways in which coastal ward sustainability in the coastal tourism tourism is conducted in the US and else- systems which they visit or in which they where. It has long been known that too live. much tourism can be bad by when it leads to degraded ecosystems and undesirable To a certain extent, the social role of the changes in quality of life. Now it is apparent ethical tourist can be formulated to resemble that too little tourism can put entire coastal that of the good citizen. Good citizens learn economies at risk. Declines in coastal tour- from their families and schools to reach their ism can create serious social problems in the potential in society while knowing how to same way declines in fishery resources can behave in socially appropriate ways. Using threaten livelihoods. Ultimately, coastal this template, tourists would be expected to tourism and recreation destinations nega- behave in ecologically and culturally appro- tively affected by security-related changes in priate ways in the course of their domestic itineraries will become sustainable only to and international travel. Ecotourism the extent brokers make tourism safe. (Grenier et al., 1993; Miller, 1993a and 1993b; Miller and Kaae, 1993; Honey, 1999) and An excellent example of broker-broker co- ethnic tourism are two forms of tourism that operation is to be found in the 2002 Seoul have emerged to stress this self-conscious Oceans Declaration adopted by 21 represen- orientation. Many tourism brokers in busi- tatives from member economies of the Asia- ness, in government, and in non- Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) at the governmental organizations are now pro- First APEC Oceans-related Ministerial Meet- moting the development of “best practices” ing in South Korea. APEC members include and “tourism guidelines” to this end. Australia; Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Chile; People’s Republic of China; Hong It is obvious that there are many benefits of Kong, China; Indonesia; Japan; Republic of coastal travel that accrue to the tourist. Korea; Malaysia; Mexico; New Zealand;
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 17
These are found in recreational, aesthetic, to implement sustainable tourism. Partici- and educational activities. In exchange, the pants indicated that we still had a long way ethical tourist will strive to behave in a cul- to go in achieving sustainability in coastal turally and environmentally responsible tourism and that there was a need for direct, manner. As this occurs, locals are given an application-oriented information and proc- added incentive to orient their conduct to esses. It was also clear that the need to ad- the same ends. Improvements in the behav- dress coastal and marine tourism growth ior of tourists and locals toward one another issues was widely accepted by governments, and toward the coastal environment will industries, and others. Coastal tourism assist tourism providers and managers as needed to be understood and better man- they do their part to monitor and control aged rather than ignored. tourism, and improve the tourism experi- ence for all involved. With this evolution of analytical attention, the 1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism was organized 1999 International Symposium on to emphasize the means of achieving more Coastal and Marine Tourism sustainable development rather than the ends. Participants were asked to focus on Coastal tourism has demonstrated its con- analytical tools and concepts, evaluation siderable power to influence the fundamen- tools and methods, planning procedures, tal configurations of coastlines and the social etc. The theme of “Choices, Responsibilities, structures these support. Coastal tourism is and Practices” was selected to recognize that sometimes found to be unfortunate in every our decisions play an immense role in out- respect. Coastal tourism can, however, be comes. Further, the location of the 1999 designed to improve the lives of tourists and Congress in Vancouver, British Columbia, those who are part of the tourism industry, Canada, showed that environmentally sensi- conserve natural resources and protect the tive, nature-based tourism can be responsi- environment, and not offend locals. Cer- bly implemented in urban as well as rural tainly it is also important to share and pub- settings. lish lessons learned about how best to ad- dress the problems and opportunities of Based on the comments of participants and coastal tourism. the quality of the papers which follow in these Proceedings, it may be concluded that The first Congress on Coastal and Marine the 1999 International Symposium on Tourism in 1990 (Miller and Auyong, 1991a) Coastal and Marine Tourism was successful was proposed in response to the growing in sustaining attention to the challenges of need to bridge economic development and balancing tourism development and marine conservation of our coastal zone resources. conservation. One would hope that the in- The Congress participants shared experi- sights gained by tourism experts at the ences and results, as well as techniques and Symposium will contribute to more respon- tools by which to create and implement sible coastal tourism policies and to more coastal and marine tourism. Participants harmonious relationships linking human- concluded that the mixed record of tourism kind and the coastal environment. required immediate and sustained study by a wide range of disciplines. Authors’ Note The subsequent World Congress on Coastal Portions of this paper appear in 1) M. L. and Marine Tourism (Miller and Auyong, Miller (2002), “Coastal Tourism and Devel- 1998a) examined the status of activities since opment,” In: Proceedings of the International the initial Congress and asked whether there Marine Forum, (April 25, 2002; Inha Univer- was growth in our knowledge and abilities sity, Incheon City), Inha University: Incheon
18 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
City, Korea, pp. 81-97; and also published in Service and the Department of Agricul- the Proceedings of the Seoul Oceans Seminar ture and Applied Economics, University [Panel 5: Coastal Tourism], (22-25 April, of Georgia, Athens, GA. URL: 2002; Seoul held as part of the First APEC
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 19
McIntosh, R.W., and Goeldner, C.R., 1990. ings of the 1998 Pacific Island Gamefish Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. Symposium: Facing the Challenges of Re- (Sixth Edition). John Wiley & Sons, New source Conservation, Sustainable Develop- York. ment, and the Sportfishing Ethic. Western Miller, M. L. (1993a). The rise of coastal and Pacific Regional Fishery Management marine tourism. Ocean and Coastal Man- Council, Honolulu. agement, 20: 181-199. Monroe, M.C. (ed.). (1999). What Works: A Miller, M. L. (ed.) (1993b). Ecotourism in Guide to Environment Education and Marine and Coastal Areas. Special Issue Communication Projects for Practitioners of Ocean and Coastal Management. 20: 3. and Donors. New Society Publishers, Miller, M.L., and Auyong, J. (eds.). 1991a. Gabriola Island, British Columbia. Proceedings of the 1990 Congress on Murphy, P.E. (1985). Tourism: A Community Coastal and Marine Tourism: A Symposium Approach. Methuen, New York. and Workshop on Balancing Conservation National Marine Manufacturers Association. and Economic Development (Volumes I and (2002a). 2001 population estimates. URL: II). National Coastal Resources Research
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bound travel positive, e-Newsline [Vol- ume 2, Number 11, 6 June] URL:
Travel Industry Association of America (TIA). (2002b). Beach report: Americans love affair with beach travel, e-Newsline [Volume 2, Number 18; 23 September] URL:
(1995). Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tour- ism Industry: Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development. WTTC, London.
AUSTRALIA’S CRC PROGRAM: COLLABORATIVE SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE MARINE TOURISM
Don Alcock CRC Reef Research Centre James Cook University (Australia)
Simon Woodley CRC Reef Research Centre James Cook University (Australia)
Abstract: Australia’s Cooperative Research The paper will outline how formal research net- Centres Program supports long-term, high qual- works, innovative joint funding and collabora- ity scientific and technological research that con- tive partnerships with tourism operators and tributes to national objectives, including eco- Reef managers help resolve social, environmental nomic and social development, through collabo- and economic issues including people pressures, ration between the public and private sectors. coastal development, codes of practice, visitor experience, water quality and marine conserva- Each Centre links together outstanding groups tion policies. It will also show how interactive of research providers with research users from planning and communication can overcome op- industry, government and the community. In position and competition, and develop a “culture 1993, a Cooperative Reef Research Centre (CRC) of collaboration” between these often disparate was created to increase collaboration between groups. major science institutions, management agencies and industry groups in a joint venture for ecol- Case studies on sustainable diving practices, ogically sustainable use of the Great Barrier Reef vessel moorings near coral reefs, tour guide World Heritage Area. training courses, marine park planning data- bases and visitor interpretation will be given to Tourism on the Great Barrier Reef is a major and demonstrate the application of the CRC strategic growing industry. Currently, it is estimated as knowledge for industry groups and public pol- worth more than AUD$1 billion per annum icy. and, in 1997, attracted about one and a half mil- lion visitors per year. Reef tourism is mostly Keywords: cooperative research, marine sci- nature-based and generally non-extractive in- ence, integrated coastal development, ecotour- volving about 600 commercial operators provid- ism, sustainable use, Great Barrier Reef, marine ing a wide range of activities including scuba park, World Heritage Areas, CRC diving, snorkelling, sailing and island resort activities. Great Barrier Reef Tourism The paper will show how an integrated CRC program of research and development, training Marine tourism takes advantage of Austra- and extension, enhances Reef-based industries lia’s extensive and diverse coastline and, as and provides information for better tourism an industry, has an important role in the management and decision making. The $50 mil- stewardship of many unique environmental lion, seven-year program is funded jointly by and tourism resources. A recent survey by tourist operators (sourced through an environ- the Department of Industry, Science and mental management charge to visitors), State Resources (1998) concluded that marine and Commonwealth governments, and research tourism in ‘87/’88 was worth $5.9 billion, institutions. 22 Alcock and Woodley
growing to $22.7 billion in 93/94, and grow- person on a reef for a day) was 1,541,850 ing further to $31.6 billion in 95/96, repre- (QTTC, 1999). senting 15.7% of GDP today. Tourism is a relatively labour intensive industry, em- However, 26 resorts on 22 islands are also ploying around 694,000, or 8.4% of the Aus- popular destinations and account for 16% of tralian work force. Over the last ten years to the commercial accommodation in the GBR 1995, inbound tourism increased at an an- region, including mainland resorts. Green nual rate of 11% (Environment Australia, Island, for example, is a major day-trip is- 1998). Growth potential of this type requires land destination, attracting 200,000 visitors careful and specialised management. In an per year. Over the last 15 years, the number environment as vulnerable, and as poorly of resorts has increased by six (most islands understood as our oceans, such growth re- are Queensland National Parks and sites are quires professionally administered re-search limited) and total bed numbers have more and monitoring at the highest level. than doubled to more than 7000 beds in 2,780 rooms in 1996/7 (QTTC, 1999). A total The Great Barrier Reef (GBR) is a major number of 1,355,000 domestic and interna- tourist destination and contributor to the tional visitor nights were spent in the region economic value of the Australian industry. during 1996/7. Tourism in the GBR has been active for many years but it is only in the last decade The GBR tourism industry is predominantly and a half that it has matured to a highly environmental or nature-based, and gener- professional and comprehensive range of ally involves tourists in boat/vessel activi- enterprises. The GBR tourism industry of ties although some helicopter and fixed- private sector operators and investors has wing aircraft flights occur locally. Visitation developed in a framework of government is predominately by vessel-based day-trips management of the Great Barrier Reef Ma- with extended and overnight cruises, cruise rine Park and the Great Barrier Reef World ships, yacht charter, island transits and Heritage Area. Like the GBR tourism indus- charters for specific activities (e.g., game- try, the Marine Park management agencies fishing) representing specialist and addi- have been innovative and world leaders in tional activities. their approach to the conservation, protec- tion and wise use of the GBR. The devel- A special feature of the tourism industry in opment of the industry and the Park have the GBR has been the development and in- not been without conflict and this history stallation of floating pontoons at offshore provides a model for consideration in other reef sites throughout the area, especially parts of Australia and globally. offshore from Cairns. The 19 pontoons throughout these regions serve as day-trip GBR tourism has an estimated economic destinations serviced by modern, luxury value of more than AUD$1 billion and in- high-speed (30 knots) catamaran and volves more than 1.6 million visitors “wavepiercer” vessels, often carrying up to (GBRMPA, 1998). Fishing and ship- 400 passengers. Mainland-to-pontoon tran- ping/port industries in the GBR World sits of up to two hours provide opportunity Heritage Area are also significant economic for “educational” briefings on the GBR and activities. special features of the destination. Major tourist activities at resort islands and pon- The structure of the GBR tourism industry is toon destinations include: scuba diving, made up of three main parts: island resorts, snorkelling, glass bottom boat semi- mainland resort/accommodation and vessel submersible trips, underwater observato- access to reef sites. In 1996/7, according to ries, and limited reef walking. the Queensland Tourist and Travel Corpora- tion website,
Alcock and Woodley 23
torised sports (waterskiing, paraflying) and Technology improvements for new and fishing are major demand activities. The faster vessels carrying up to 600 passengers diving industry has expanded enormously at 30-40 knots is likely to expand day-cruise, with more than one million scuba dives in pontoon tourism activities. Tourism de- 1993 (David Windsor, pers. comm.). Camp- mand for more educational and science- ing on coral cays and opportunities for based ecotourism experiences is also ex- “wilderness experiences” are niche markets pected to increase. of ecotourism operations.
Passive and active tourism opportunities Reef Management and and activities differ regionally throughout Development the Great Barrier Reef, reflecting Reef access and natural structure, and support infra- In 1975, the Australian Government enacted structure, such as international and domes- the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act, tic airports. Domestic visitations exceed which provided a legal framework for plan- international visitor numbers although there ning and managing the Great Barrier Reef. are regional differences, again reflecting The Act provided for the establishment of direct airport access. the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- ity (GBRMPA) to manage a multiple-use The Cairns sector is strongly commercial marine protected area and plan for protec- with day-trips to Reef pontoons, Green Is- tion, conservation and “wise use” of the land and Low Isles and diving and fishing Reef. The Act established a Consultative expeditions dominating over private recrea- Committee of interest groups and govern- tional visits. The region attracts a high level ment agencies, specified functions of the of international tourists flying directly to Authority (including preparation of zoning Cairns International Airport. Domestic tour- and management plans, education and ists predominate in the Whitsundays and management programs). Australia has a southern region. The Whitsundays, with 74 federal system of government and the Act island national parks, is a mecca for sailing provided for cooperation with the Queen- enthusiasts and hosts a strong “bareboat” sland State Government. In 1981, the Great industry for self-charter groups. There is Barrier Reef was entered into the World also a growing cruise shipping industry of Heritage List. larger domestic and international vessels in the region. Over the last 15 years, the com- The federal Great Barrier Reef Marine Park bined tourism industry has increased dra- Authority is the principle management matically and is predicted to continue grow- agency for the Area, with the Queensland ing, particularly with the Sydney Olympics State Parks and Wildlife Service responsible and other millennium events in the year for most day-to-day management activities 2000. and management of state marine parks and island national parks. Other Queensland Today’s highly professional tourist industry authorities are responsible for relevant ac- in the Great Barrier Reef developed as a re- tivities including fisheries and shipping. sult of innovative approaches by private sector operators to sustainably utilise the The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- unique natural features of the Reef. Key fea- ity has as its goal, “to provide for the protec- tures have been the development of new tion, wise use, understanding and enjoy- technologies (vessels, pontoons, marine en- ment of the Great Barrier Reef in perpetuity gineering infrastructure), improved and through the care and development of Great expanded transportation and infrastructure, Barrier Reef Marine Park” (GBRMPA, 1993). and private sector investment for quality of In practice its management objective has visitor experience. been to provide for conservation and multi-
24 Alcock and Woodley
ple use. Human use is integral to the ap- The 25 Year Strategic Plan for the Great Bar- proach and managed on an “ecologically rier Reef World Heritage Area 1994 - 2019 sustainable” basis (Craik, 1992), whereby helps “to ensure the persistence of the Great economic development and environmental Barrier Reef World Heritage Area as a di- maintenance are not antagonistic but are verse, resilient, and productive ecological compatible goals. (ESD, 1990). system, while retaining the opportunity for a diverse range of experiences and is consis- An early cornerstone in managing the Great tent with Australia’s obligations under the Barrier Reef Marine Park has been the use of World Heritage Area”. The Plan is the zoning plans to limit extractive activities product of three years consultation between and separate potentially conflicting activi- more than 60 organisations representing ties. While some areas are protected from management agencies (Commonwealth, certain uses, other areas are suitable for par- Queensland State), Aborigine and Torres ticular activities (Kenchington, 1990) e.g., Strait Island groups, Reef user groups (tour- General Use Zones, National Park Zones and ism, fisheries, scientific) and interest groups Preservation/Scientific Zones. Commercial (conservation, coastal land use and agricul- and recreational use (including fishing) is ture). The internationally acclaimed Strate- allowed in the General Use Zones. The Na- gic Plan has extensive “ownership” by the tional Park ‘A’ Zones allow for “look but array of stakeholder organisations who in- don’t touch or remove” activities. dividually and collectively are implement- ing the Plan in their activities of use and Zoning plans allow for tourism, under per- management. The Plan has been used as the mits, to occur in 99.8% of the Marine Park. basis for strategic planning by stakeholders Zoning plans are complemented by a range and the CRC Reef Research Centre. of special area/use instruments including Plans of Management (gazetted in 1998 and In recent years the Australian government expected to come into legal effect in July has been acting to enhance a range of inter- 1999) that cap existing tourism levels for national agreements, treaties and concepts high use areas such as Cairns and the Whit- relating to the environment and especially sundays. In practice, it has been estimated to the marine sector. For example, United that tourism utilises 0.02% of the total Park Nations Convention on Law of the Sea area (Burgess 1993). However in areas off- (UNCLOS and EEZ commitments), Interna- shore from Cairns and the Whitsundays the tional Convention for the Prevention of Pol- use is much more intensive. lution from Ships (MARPOL) including “Special Area” designation for compulsory Enhanced public awareness over the last pilotage in the Great Barrier Reef, United two decades of the unique and special quali- Nations Conference on Environment and ties of the Great Barrier Reef is apparent in Development (UNCED) (Agenda 21). Na- the wider community and in the board- tional legislation dealing with Native Title rooms and actions of the Reef industry us- (GBRMPA, 1994) and Queensland State leg- ers. “Education not regulation” has been a islation for a revised Fisheries Act have im- deliberate approach by GBRMPA and other plications for the processes and mechanisms day-to-day management agencies. Putting of management and use of the Great Barrier aside this awareness and any sense of altru- Reef which are currently being evaluated. ism, it makes sound commercial sense for Other major international conventions Aus- the tourism industry, with investments of tralia has agreed to, affecting natural re- millions of dollars in expenditure, to ensure source legislation and management policy, the sustainable nature of the Great Barrier include the World Heritage Area and Ram- Reef environment on which each enterprise sar conventions. depends. In 1993, an Environmental Management Charge (EMC) was instituted by the Austra-
Alcock and Woodley 25
lian Government (through GBRMPA) levy- stimulate graduate education and industry ing a charge of $1 per head per day on tour- training programs. ism activities in the Marine Park to assist in meeting the increasing cost of management One of the principle reasons the Federal and associated research on the Reef. This Government introduced CRCs was to was raised to $4 per person per day in 1997. “change the research culture” of Australia. The introduction of the EMC was not with- The Government was concerned there was out discontent in the tourism industry - it not enough ready uptake of research inno- remains applicable only to commercial tour- vation by industry, particularly after con- ism and does not apply to other users of the siderable investment in research through Reef. universities and the Commonwealth Scien- The EMC adds more than AUD$4 million tific and Industrial Research Organisation annually to help manage the Marine Park (CSIRO). An independent report to the but equivalent reductions have been made Government (Changing Research Culture, to GBRMPA's annual operating budget. A 1995) found positive changes in research percentage of the EMC revenue (approx- culture were extending to industry who are imately 75% of the first $1) is applied annu- now more willing to become actively in- ally to key research issues through the CRC volved with longer term and more basic Reef Research Centre - a joint venture be- research. The review committee stated that tween the tourism industry, the manage- the following attributes when taken together ment agencies (GBRMPA, Queensland State give the CRC Program its distinctive nature: agencies) and research agencies (Australian • Based on strategic collaboration Institute of Marine Science, James Cook • Develops research user linkages University). Currently, the total annual cash • Has a central education and training and in-kind contribution by the tourism in- objective dustry to CRC research and education pro- • Tightly focused and outcome ori- grams is 11 percent (CRC Reef Research ented Centre, 1998). • Has upfront industry commitment
of funds and resources based on le-
gally binding agreements Cooperative Research and • Places the onus on participants to Development achieve good governance and man- agement control In the early 1990s Australia mapped out a • Places the onus on CRCs to be ac- vision to increase the effectiveness of our countable for their own direction, national research and development effort. A progress and outputs series of Cooperative Research Centres were • Represents a significant united established to link outstanding teams of re- funding base searchers with knowledge users, from in- • Selects CRCs on merit against pub- dustry sectors and government agencies to lished selection criteria and in com- address Australia’s social, environmental petition with other bids and economic goals. Some of these attributes are also present in The goals of the CRCs are: to keep pace with other Australian and overseas programs but rapid scientific and technological progress; the CRC Program encourages a synergistic to make Australian industry sectors more approach combining all the attributes. This internationally competitive; to enhance en- synergistic approach and the level of up- vironment management capabilities; to cap- front industry commitment are two factors ture the benefits of research in commercial attracting international interest in the pro- and public policy applications; and to gram. The federal government funds are seen as the “glue” attracting contributions
26 Alcock and Woodley
from participants: approximately one-third • Energise individuals through inter- government and two-thirds participants. actions with new ideas or problems • Participate in interdisciplinary and The concept underlying the CRC program is multi-agency research teams to bridge the gap between scientists, re- search institution government agencies and Organisational Benefits private industries. It aims to build on ac- • Gain access to new ideas, intellec- tion-centered collaborative teams that en- tual property and technologies able members to still retain their separate • Spread the risk and costs of some institutional affiliations. It focuses the re- ventures search on challenging national issues or • Learn new technical skills or strate- emerging industries in mining, medicine, gic planning processes agriculture, manufacturing and the envi- • Develop industry standards, meth- ronment. CRCs are networked around uni- ods or approaches versities to strengthen their education and • Increase access to useful informa- research programs. It involves research us- tion by pooling financial and hu- ers in the plans and operations of each CRC man resources so as to enhance the uptake of research out- • Increase public and user support for comes. Further information about the pro- collective products and services gram is found on the website
span and all are reviewed regularly (one, The key word in a CRC is cooperative. Any- three and five years) to ensure they are one studying the Australia CRC model must meeting their key objectives. CRCs seeking examine the meaning of words like coopera- funding support beyond their initial term of tion and collaboration to understand why seven years must submit entirely new appli- some collaborations work well and others cations in relevant selection rounds and don’t. compete against other CRCs as well as po-
tential newcomers to the program. On aver- Groups cooperate because they see an ad- age, each CRC has an annual budget of vantage in working together. “To let us AUD$7 million, which covers operating achieve something that would be more dif- costs and wages for staff. This includes cash ficult, or more unlikely, to achieve without and in-kind support by other core partici- the collaboration often, we collaborate with pants including companies, government others to share intellectual property or agencies and universities. Industry contri- physical resources to do a better job. We butions as a percentage of total resources seek an advantage and so do our partners. allocated to the national program have in- There are advantages to individuals, organi- creased from 12% at the start to around 25% sations and countries through collabora- today. (CRC Association) Many CRCs oper- tion.” (Cullen, 1996). There are benefits to ate from several sites, depending on the lo- individuals and organisations. cation of their research partners; typically
there is a small secretariat in one location Individual Benefits with staff working in offices/labs of the par- • Get access to additional intellectual, ticipating organisations. Funds go to pro- technical or physical resources jects rather than bricks and mortar. CRCs • Learn from associated parties at are like “virtual organisations”. both an individual or team level • Increase status by working with In the CRC for the Ecologically Sustainable particular people on important is- Development of the Great Barrier Reef, col- sues laboration is strategic, aimed at providing long-term benefit, and tactical, to enable
Alcock and Woodley 27
completion of particular tasks. In addition to search to community groups and increase a formal agreement by our five core partici- awareness of coastal management through pants with the Commonwealth Government the media (CRC Reef Research Centre An- there are various other formal and informal nual Report, 1997-8). management structures are systems to en- hance our collaborative efforts. The CRC encourages management agency or industry associates to work with re- The CRC Reef Research Centre is (at this searchers for each research task. These rep- time) an unincorporated joint venture be- resentatives help focus the quality of re- tween the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park search output. They act as partners with Authority, James Cook University, the Aus- researchers, helping to achieve goals, and tralian Institute of Marine Science, the ensure studies are practical, to publish in- Queensland Department of Primary Indus- formation to stakeholders and to implement tries, the Association of Marine Park Tour- changes from results. Their time is recog- ism Operators, the Queensland Commercial nised as in-kind support to the Centre. A Fishermen’s Organisation and Sunfish. In Users Advisory Group reviews applications addition to these core participants, more of research tasks and maintains contact with than 30 other organisations collaborate with stakeholders. The group helps convey re- the Centre’s research network on a regular sults and information to Reef management basis. The parties have signed an agreement agencies, shipping, fishing and tourism in- to commit specified resources (cash and in- dustries. kind) and nominated personnel over the seven-year life of the CRC. Experience in the CRC has shown that the boundary between users and providers of The management structure consists of a knowledge is a complex one, and does not Board, Director, Secretariat and several ad- work well if dominated by users. Hence, visory committees. Operations are carried the Australian CRC model is really a large- out through research, education and exten- scale experiment in collaborative research. sion programs, each with a range of specific projects that address problems or needs The model aims to establish partnerships based on collaborative planning by partici- between users and providers of knowledge pants organisations and user groups. Each and the relationship is a complex one, and program has a leader, and various chief in- does not work well if dominated by one vestigators are responsible for managing group (Cullen, 1996). specific projects. Ultimately, it is the interaction between in- Planning, discussion and debate is impor- dividuals that is at the heart of effective, tant in forging collaboration. The CRC has creative collaboration, and arrangements brought together a number of marine scien- exist to facilitate these interactions. Indi- tists, resource managers, tourism operators, viduals are the “glue” that cements research consulting engineers, academics, govern- and management efforts in an effective ment officials and commercial fishers who CRC. The CRC relies on creative people had no great history of working together. working together to stimulate interest in The CRC has led to better collaboration in coastal and marine issues at hand and let- terms of critical comment on the work of ting them find a common interest. others, through the various reviews and planning activities, and through general The boundary between science, resource support for teamwork rather than individ- management and industry in coastal and ual work. In addition to existing links that marine tourism is turbulent. Marine opera- each research task has with a Reef user tors, managers and scientists come from group, extra effort has been made to in- different backgrounds and work in re- crease internal collaboration, promote re- markably different cultures. They often
28 Alcock and Woodley
have a fairly poor understanding and toler- ment’s Chief Scientist, Professor John ance of each other. But creating an action- Stocker. Nevertheless, both reports made orientated network can help break down the recommendations to improve all CRCs and barriers. The mix of different disciplines and the program as a whole – particularly en- cultures can lead to a “bigger bang for the hancing the commercialisation and utilisa- buck” and the multiplier effect from this tion of the research outputs of the CRCs. synergy can achieve more than organisa- Comprehensive guidelines for applicants tions working independently. In a review of and general principles for operations of cen- the Reef CRC’s first five years, an independ- tre ensure each CRC has: ent panel found that the Centre “has made • A strong, independent Board with a excellent progress in converting research majority of users or of independent outcomes into products, processes and assis- members. tance to decision-making needed by its in- • A highly qualified chief executive dustry participants and the community in officer to manage the committed re- general… The panel has no doubt that the sources to achieve agreed out- Centre is adding value through cooperative comes. research, which would not have been at- • A focus on technology transfer to tained by the participants acting individu- industry and public policy, includ- ally.” (CRC Reef Research Centre, 1998). ing extension and training pro- Funding is shared by all participants in the grams. CRC’s original seven-year agreement and • A commitment to developing inno- from 1993 to 2000, was more than $50 mil- vative approaches to education of lion pledged as cash and in-kind contribu- higher degree students and training tions by our core participants. This figure for the particular needs of industry was surpassed with input from additional • Regular selection rounds (approxi- grants, income and in-kind support particu- mately every two years) and re- larly by the tourism sector and new associ- views to evaluate performance and ate organisations. The following graph indi- encourage competition between cates the relative percentages of contribu- new and existing CRCs tions and expenditure (CRC Reef Research • An increasing involvement by the Centre Annual Report, 1997-8). private sector in research and de-
velopment
The guidelines including those for selection and evaluation are available on the internet through the Australian Department of In- dustry Science and Tourism’s website
Examples of Cooperative Marine That both industry and Australia’s public research institutions and university are Tourism Research Outcomes benefiting strongly from their closer ties was shown by the favourable report in 1995 by A range of CRC Reef Research Centre out- the Program Evaluations Steering Commit- comes and applications have influenced tee, and again in 1997 by the Mercer report, public policy and industry practices in the “Review of Greater Commercialisation and GBR World Heritage Area. Some of these Self Funding in the CRC Program”, con- achievements are mentioned here. ducted by former ANZ Banking Group CEO, Don Mercer and the federal govern- Studies into the effect of scuba divers on coral reefs have influenced Dive Queen-
Alcock and Woodley 29
sland’s scuba training programs and codes including the development of a website for of practice used by dive operators, such as research summaries. Tourism Queensland revised pre-dive briefings and instructor continues to support the project and provide training programs. Studies into the impacts unit data from the Queensland Visitor Sur- of snorkelers and divers have received con- vey. Purdue University in the United States siderable overseas interest. Results have provides international survey data. The contributed to coral reef diver codes of con- “one-stop” visitor database describes all duct and on-site management of marine types of visitors to the Reef region and sur- parks in the Red Sea, Florida Keys, Yemen, rounding coastal centres, and assists tour Malaysia and the Mediterranean. The Pro- operators and associations develop better fessional Association of Dive Instructors marketing strategies and products. The CRC (PADI) is incorporating aspects of the CRC research team provides a direct advisory volunteer reef monitoring study into the service to any organisation wanting help on revised Research Diver Speciality Course. A visitor issues. training manual for volunteer monitoring of coral reefs has been produced to assist dive Reef Tourism 2005, a research and devel- masters, tourism operators and volunteer opment program involving Cairns marine groups in implementing “state of the reef” tourism industry groups working with gov- monitoring studies that are consistent with ernment management agencies and research scientific programs. Research evaluations of institutions, is implementing a regional potential tourism impact concerns, such as strategy. The CRC has provided more than SCUBA diving and fish aggregation at pon- $400,000 of in-kind support to RT 2005 since toons, have demonstrated existing man- 1994 to support a range of economic, train- agement and industry practices are ensuring ing, environmental and social initiatives in no significant impact by Reef visitors. the region.
Tourism researchers have helped a govern- A training needs analysis was conducted for ment agency, Tourism Queensland, marine the marine tourism industry in the Cairns park management staff and regional tour section through the Reef Tourism 2005 pro- operators to better understand the motiva- ject group and used to establish a marine tion and segmentation of Reef tourists, in tourism training committee and project offi- better marketing of their products and the cer. An implementation strategy is currently provision of quality services to domestic improving career pathways for local indus- and international Reef visitors. With sup- try staff, developing accreditation stan- port from regional tourism associations in- dards, helping young people with trainee- cluding Tropical North Queensland, ships and employment, and conducting staff Townsville Enterprise and the Whitsunday training programs to address environmental Tourism Bureau, more than 6,000 visitors and cultural issues. have been surveyed and coded into a data- base for use by stakeholder and interest Queensland tour operators are improving groups. Information on demographic their professional environmental interpreta- trends, activity preferences and satisfaction tion services for visitors. A Heritage and levels is now available to industry on the Interpretive Tourism (HIT) certificate course database at James Cook University. helps graduates take up new jobs in national parks, outback centres, marine parks and Industry can now access information on world heritage areas. The HIT course, ex- Japanese, Korean, Chinese, German and panded by the Centre through a Common- British visitor numbers and characteristics wealth grant, is now offered through 10 re- in the Cairns, Townsville and Whitsunday gional TAFE colleges and several secondary regions. Database workshops for resource schools. The Centre helped revise and pub- managers and business operators have lish new student learning guidelines, to helped in utilisation and access of results, conduct planning workshops and informa-
30 Alcock and Woodley
tion networks, and produce a “how to get Conclusion started” kit for industry. More than 40 large tourist operators in Queensland actively The CRC Program is becoming internation- support the course with industry placement ally recognised as a cost-effective model for programs. It is now expanding to other other countries to adopt. Several positive popular tourist regions throughout Austra- observations have been documented from lia. abroad. Professor Glen Edwards of the Colorado School of Mines who chaired a CRC engineering research into seabed ca- review of the CRC for Materials Welding and pacities of new screw anchor systems have Joining wrote, “I was very impressed with assisted one marine company, Pacific Ma- this Australian government program, which rine Group, install 180 “eco-friendly” an- incubates long-term and meaningful rela- chor systems at popular mooring spots tionships between strategic industrial sec- within the Marine Park. Working with tors, research laboratories, professional or- GBRMPA and Queensland Parks and Wild- ganisations and academic institutions.... life staff who identified each mooring site, During my recent CRC review experience I the permanent anchors, averaging about observed creative and cost-effective collabo- $5,000 each to install, are reducing anchor rations resulting from this program that damage to corals by commercial and recrea- would be the envy of any nation, if publi- tional vessels which previously anchored cized.” (Fletcher, 1998). This CRC model can over coral or tied chains around coral out- be utilised by any group of private and pub- crops. lic organisations concerned with the sus- Draft engineering “Guidelines for Infra- tainable use of marine and coastal areas. structure Development in Reef and Coastal Environments” are being prepared for the The CRC Reef Research Centre has recently Reef tourism industry, private engineering revised its research programs following re- consulting companies, GBRMPA and the newal by the federal government and its QPWS to streamline future tourist pontoon participants for continued support. The six development proposals. new programs will be:
• Management for Sustainability Groundwater studies have tested whether • Sustainable Industries effluent irrigation systems on island resorts • Managing Ecosystem Quality affect local fringing reef environments. • Information Systems Many resorts use treated sewage effluent • systems for golf courses, lawns and gardens. Education and Communication Results are being used to develop better is- • International and Advisory Services land land use management studies and maintain high standards of water quality. With logistic support from Club Med and Acknowledgements Australian Resorts, CRC researchers have Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Anne developed numerical models for predicting Campbell, Manager of the CRC Association the subsurface fate of nitrogen at four dif- and Ms. Annie Ilett, Director of Tourism ferent island resorts. Results show that is- and Recreation at the Great Barrier Reef Ma- lands will need to be considered individu- rine Park Authority for valuable comment ally to determine the most effective waste and assistance in the preparation of this pa- disposal procedures. Key results have been per. The CRC Reef Research Centre is sup- utilised by GBRMPA and QPWS staff to re- ported under the Australian Government’s fine existing wastewater management poli- Cooperative Research Centres Program. cies. Industry guidelines and local govern- ment planning codes for effluent irrigation may also be developed.
Alcock and Woodley 31
References Conference on Research and Develop- ment, Sydney. March . 12 pp. Burgess, M. (1993). Marine based tourism. GBRMPA. (1993). Annual Report 1996/97. In: Proceedings of the Marine Seminar: Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- North Queensland Regional Development ity, Townsville, Australia. 162 pp. in Marine Industries. D. Hopley (ed.). GBRMPA. (1994). The Great Barrier Reef: A 25 James Cook University, Townsville, year Strategic Plan for the Great Barrier Australia. pp. 37-43. Reef World Heritage Area, 1994 - 2019, CRC Association. (1998). Background notes. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- July. ity, Townsville, Australia. CRC Reef Research Centre. (1998) Fifth Year GBRMPA. (1998). Tourism and Recreation. Review. Stage One Panel Report. August. Information sheet, Great Barrier Reef Townsville, Australia. Marine Park Authority, Townsville, Cullen, P. (1996). Reflections on the collabo- Australia. rative process. In: CRC Association An- Hundloe, T., Vanclay, F. and Carter, M. nual Meeting, Coogee, NSW. (1987). Economic and Socio- Economic Im- Department of Tourism. (1994). National pacts of Crown of Thorns Starfish on the Ecotourism Strategy. Commonwealth Great Barrier Reef. Institute of Applied Department of Tourism. Australian Environmental Research. Griffith Uni- Government Publishing Service, Can- versity, Brisbane, Australia. berra, Australia. 68 pp. Hundloe, T., Newmann, R. and Halliburton, Myers, R. (1995). Changing research culture. M. (1988). Great Barrier Reef Tourism. In- Report of the CRC Program Evaluation stitute of Applied Environmental Re- Steering Committee. Department of In- search, Griffith University, Brisbane, dustry, Science and Technology. AGPS, Australia. 197 pp. Canberra, Australia. pp. 1-4. Kenchington, R.A. (1990). Managing marine Department of Industry, Science and Re- environments. Taylor & Francis, New sources. (1999). Australia’s Marine Sci- York. 248 pp. ence and Technology Plan. Marine Science Mercer, D. and Stocker, J. (1998). Review of and Technology Working Group, Can- Greater Commercialisation in the Coopera- berra, Australia. 15 pp. URL: tive Research Centres Programme. De-
ECONOMIC ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE COASTAL TOURISM
Timothy J. Tyrrell Department of Environmental and Natural Resource Economics University of Rhode Island (U.S.A.)
Abstract: There is a great deal of confusion about the future – our own and that of future about the precise implications of sustainable generations. This may require some new tourism. This paper attempts to clarify the analytical techniques. concept and its implications for practical economic analysis of tourism development It is our strongest recommendation that tourism projects. To do this, the paper describes a simple project analysis be conducted from the community model of community behavior focusing on point of view. This requires that the local natural tourism-related, economic and environmental and human interdependencies be recognized and variables. Using this, the basic notion of that attention be given to different recipients of sustainable tourism is examined from a profit costs and benefits. While all differing viewpoints maximizing, industry point of view and from a will not be reconciled, those that are will provide a quality-of-life maximizing, residential point of base of support for a development project. view. Three findings are that 1) different views Furthermore, the prospect of environmentally of sustainability may not be compatible, 2) sustainable tourism will be much more likely. certain target levels of environmental quality may not sustain a tourism industry, and 3) Keywords: community development, economic industry objectives and short planning periods analysis, sustainable tourism may lead to destruction of the natural resource.
The theoretical model of sustainability assumes Introduction: that information is known for current as well as Sustainability and Tourism future generations. Given this, an optimal development path could be charted to Tourism is a community industry. It cannot sustainability. In the real world however, we exist without support of public services, can, at best, determine “where we are” and public resources and public acceptance of “which way is up”. We may also have some congestion and other externalities. The information about how to control the system notion of environmental sustainability, toward “a better place”. The information for understanding “where we are” and how to when added to tourism gives added change is provided by a variety of methods and emphasis to the interdependence of data sources. Community indicators and benefit community activities and the natural cost analysis are recommended. A carefully resources upon which the tourism industry selected discount rate can be used to depends. conceptualize our value for a future that is just like the present, but this limits us to preferring it This paper tries to reconcile the long-term more or less than the present. We have difficulty goals of environmental sustainability and conceiving of a different future. To reduce risk tourism industry feasibility using dynamic from that uncertainty we recommend a bequest economic theory. It elaborates on a previous of specific environmental qualities to future paper (Tyrrell, 1998) and is intended for generations. We must analyze current non-economists. preferences to anticipate future values and existing processes to forecast future change. Other than that the best we can do is speculate 34 Tyrell
The Brundtland Report heard about the desirability of “sustainable The World Commission on Environment agriculture” and “sustainable economies” and Development report entitled “Our but these could easily refer to the Common Future” (1987), also referred to as perpetuation of non-mechanized agriculture the Brundtland Report, has given us the or pre-market economies. It is unlikely that most widely recognized definition of sus- users of the phrases had these ideas in mind. tainable development: “Sustainable poverty” is just as meaningful as “sustainable prosperity”, but the latter is “(D)evelopment that meets the needs of clearly preferred. Thus, the word the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet “sustainability” does not, by itself, provide their own needs.” us with a useful guide for business plans or government policies for economic develop- The Brundtland report (1987: 49) goes on to ment. In fact, it implies a wide range of suggest strategies that must be possibilities. implemented: A mathematical modeler’s definition of 1. Changing the quality of growth sustainability might be something like: “the 2. Meeting essential needs for jobs, ability to maintain a variable at a constant food, energy, water and sanitation level.” This implies that the variable might 3. Ensuring a sustainable level of be manipulated to take on some value and population keep it until eternity. Both definitions imply 4. Conserving and enhancing the re- that there are factors that can affect source base sustainability and that the planning period 5. Reorienting technology and manag- is infinitely long. These are the only traits of ing risk sustainability that we accept in this paper. 6. Merging environment and econom- We apply them to environmental quality ics in decision making and consider the implications for tourism.
These strategies suggest undisputed societal Environmentally Sustainable Tourism goals. However, for practical decision- making we need to decide how society “Environmentally Sustainable Tourism” is a values environmental goods in comparison level of tourism that can be based on a to man-made goods, and how society values sustainable environment. The primary the future in comparison to the present. We emphasis is placed on maintaining a certain also need to understand the dynamics of the level of environmental quality. The ecosystem, the tourism industry and the rest secondary emphasis is placed on the of the community economic system. Once economic viability of the tourism industry. these are understood we can begin to chart a However, environmentally sustainable course toward an environmentally tourism will be impossible without both a sustainable tourism. Specific tourism sustainable environment and a viable policies and investments can be used to tourism industry. keep a community on that course. Coastal tourism is no different from other Sustainability forms of tourism, except that the tourist is attracted, in part, by the unique features of Webster defines sustainable as “being the coastal environment. All forms of capable of being prolonged or endured” tourism depend on attracting, entertaining, from the Latin word sustinere “to hold up”. feeding and housing visitors. But the first The definition does not indicate the nature task of the industry is to attract the visitor. of the thing that is to be sustained. The unique character of a coastal However, its recent use in phrases environment can provide the means to describing economic activity seems to imply accomplish this. Thus, the maintenance of a sustainability is a good thing. We have Tyrell 35 high quality coastal environmental quality A Simple Model can be a profitable tourism industry strategy. A mathematical model can describe conditions for the existence of Community Tourism environmentally sustainable tourism at the The dependence of the tourism industry on community level and illustrate potential the local community is frequently conflicts between groups. Such a overlooked. It is unlike other industries in representation makes important concepts that respect. Attractions and services are precise and provides a simple means of packaged at the community level to create exploring the implications of alternative the image of a unique and interesting assumptions about behavior. For example, destination. Tourism development is the differences between preferences of promoted by local public and private community residents and tourism industry partnerships representing a broad planners might be described simply in terms constituency. Formal regulation by local of their relative valuations of the government and informal societal pressures environment and their rates of discounting can exert considerable control on the the future. industry. Often, a large share of attractions and facilities are locally owned and/or We denote environmental quality by X, operated. Most importantly, the greatest tourism industry profit by Π and residential benefits and costs of tourism are borne at quality of life by U. These variables are all the community level. modeled as depending on Q, the numbers of visitors. A simple community model of an The precise definition of a “community” is environmentally based tourism industry can not important – it can be a small village or be written in three equations relating these an entire province. It is simply viewed as a variables. The first equation describes the group of people who affect each other by dynamic behavior of a renewable resource; their actions and who have some collective the second describes the objective of the decision-making authority. The joint use of tourism industry and the third describes the recreation areas, transportation services and objective of residents. Optimal control public utilities by residents and visitors theory (Chiang, 1992) provides a means of requires community-wide decision-making translating these behavioral equations into for this industry. While enclave tourism an optimal profit-maximizing strategy for developments can be successful private the tourism industry and an optimal utility- investments, tourism projects with maximizing strategy for residents of the community support and involvement bring community. These strategies can be viewed the greatest and most enduring societal as development paths to a point of benefits. sustainability for each. The lessons learned from optimal control solutions can be The remainder of this paper outlines a helpful in identifying practical simple dynamic model of the tourism considerations for analyzing coastal tourism community. Environmental sustainability is development projects that promote environ- given a very specific meaning and the mental sustainability. objective functions of the tourism industry and residents are formulated as functions of numbers of visitors and environmental Dynamics of Renewable quality. From these formulations, optimal Resources paths to sustainability can be derived. Coastal environmental resources such as fisheries and coastal forests grow, reproduce and die. If left undisturbed they would 36 Tyrell reach some level where birth and growth An equation describing total changes in would just balance decay and death. This environmental quality will reflect both the point, the natural carrying capacity of the negative influence of visitors and the resource, would be sustainable, although it positive influence of natural growth4. would not necessarily support a tourism Sustainability of environmental quality industry. In the modern world resources depends on finding a balance between are not left undisturbed and tourism is one natural growth and visitor damage. Clearly, of the reasons. The mangroves and coral at its “natural carrying capacity”, environ- reefs around Phuket, Thailand have been mental quality is sustainable only if there is replaced by coastal tourism businesses. no use by visitors. At a level of X slightly Fisheries and coastal forests in Brazil have less than its maximum, some growth could also been irreversibly changed by tourism occur and some visits could be made development. without changing quality. In the middle of the range of environmental quality where In our simple model the condition of all the natural rate of growth is the highest, the renewable resources in the community is level of sustainable visitation is also the measured by one index variable X and highest. A possible pattern of sustainable referred to simply as “environmental levels of environment-al quality and tourist 1 quality .” This index consolidates the visits is labeled X& = 0 in Figure 1. Each notions of natural resource quality and point along this curve identifies a ecosystem service productivity for all types sustainable (visitors, quality)-pair, as long as of renewable resources into the same single tourism itself is economically viable at that variable. Non-renewable resources are not number of visitors. 2 considered in this model . Figure 1 may be somewhat intimidating to We assume that environmental quality will the non-economist. The next pages will change in proportion to the growth or explain that it illustrates the dynamic decline of the underlying resource. As the relationships between the resource, the forest or coral reef grows or renews itself, tourism industry and residents by three the qualities that enhance residential lines: the one just described gives all qualities of life and tourist experiences also possible levels of environmental sustain- increase. Further we assume that growth ability, the other two describe optimal might appear as a “ )” -shaped curve on a development paths for the tourism industry graph with growth on the horizontal axis and residents, respectively. and level of quality on the vertical axis. The bottom of the growth curve will touch the quality-axis – indicating that there will be no Tourism Industry Objectives growth when the resource is dead. When the resource is alive but small, Tourism is the business of marketing goods environmental quality will be low and and services locally to customers that come growth will be slow. At its maximum, X , from beyond the local area. It is a business there will be no growth, by definition. devoted to earning profits for private Growth will be fastest at some point investors and generating taxes and foreign between 0 and X , peaking at a point of exchange for governments. From the “maximum sustainable yield”. community standpoint, it is a business that provides a source of income to local When visitors disturb the resource, some of residents. Success for all these purposes its growth will be applied to recovery from depends upon positive visitor impressions its use3. In general we assume that higher and enjoyable experiences with natural levels of visitor use (Q) are be associated resource attractions. Thus, it is in the best with higher rates of environmental damage. interest of all to protect and maintain the Tyrell 37 qualities of those attractions in order for levels or to negative numbers of visitors. benefits to be sustained into the future. (Two of the inferior paths are illustrated by dashed arrows above and below T.) The While a community tourism industry may optimal paths describe a best long term pursue a variety of objectives, profit strategy for the tourism industry facing a maximization is generally the predominant specific current level of quality X: attract one, especially for publicly held companies. the number of visitors Q on path T An equation describing the profit objective associated with the current level of should reflect the positive influences from environmental quality X and follow this both the number of visitors and the level of optimal path to the steady state point of environmental quality5. Profits can be environmentally sustainable tourism. The controlled directly through the number of industry could deviate from this path to visitors Q, which in turn can be manipulated obtain short-term gains, but long-term through advertising, promotion and infra- losses will be incurred. structure development. Profits can also be controlled indirectly through environmental quality. Residential and Other Objectives
It is reasonable to characterize the long-term The above analysis suggests that the first industry objective as one of maximizing the practical question to answer about sum of discounted profits over time. In the environmentally sustainable tourism is: same way a bank recognizes the time value 1. Does an economically feasible of money by charging borrowers interest, steady state exist for the tourism the industry recognizes the cost of waiting industry? for future profits by discounting them. The relationship between the value of profits A second, equally important question to the earned now and the value of profits earned community is: in the future plays a key role in determining the behavior of the industry and the 2. If it does exist, does it also satisfy potential for sustainability. The discount residential and other objectives? rate6 measures this relationship. See Lind (1991). The answer to the first question depends strongly on whether the level of sustainable An optimal control solution to the tourism use that can be made of the resource is great development problem provides a path of enough to warrant the development of output levels that maximizes the industry tourism industry infrastructure. It is objective over time, while accounting for possible that the only economically feasible indirect changes in the resource quality7. In path will drive the resource into extinction. Figure 1 two time paths, each labeled “T”, Such a path seems to have been taken in one from higher levels of X and one from Pattaya, Thailand where development of the lower levels of X, lead to a point where the coastal tourism industry has lead to severe optimal combination of number of visitors pollution problems that make the water and environmental quality never changes. virtually unswimmable. Other This point is referred to as a “steady state” entertainment-based attractions have and is identified by a star on replaced the coastal environmental resources as a draw for the local tourism X = 0 8 the & curve . These are the only two industry. paths among an infinite number that satisfy certain optimality conditions and lead to a The answer to the second question depends steady state. All others lead away from the on residential and other objectives. Suppose steady state – either to points outside the we could formulate an objective function range of possible environmental quality that describes the way residents benefit 38 Tyrell from the combination of wages earned from A set of minimum acceptable levels of tourism and amenities derived directly from environmental quality might also be used to the natural resource base9 10. Given such a define the objectives of residents, the residential “utility” or “quality of life” industry and other groups. These might be objective and a residential discount rate we above or below steady state levels. One is can derive an optimal path for development illustrated as the dotted line in Figure 1. As according to the residential viewpoint. We long as the steady state level of expect this to be different from the path for environmental quality remains above the the tourism industry. In Figure 1 two minimum acceptable level, the optimal path illustrative optimal paths for residents are for residents will be the same as before. If it labeled R and lead from any value of X to a is higher, a different path leading to that new point on the X& = 0 curve. level should be taken (not illustrated). Of course if the minimum acceptable level for Just as we expect the objective function for residents is higher than the steady state residents to be different from the one for the solution for the tourism industry, conflict tourism industry, we also expect that a will again occur. single objective function will not characterize all residents. Nor will there be a common solution path or steady state Lessons from Optimal Control point. For moderate to high-income Theory residents, who derive significant aesthetic and other non-market benefits from The optimal control problem is based on the environmental quality, we might expect an assumption that the resource can renew optimal solution path to lead to a steady itself and recover from a certain amount of state point with higher environmental damage inflicted by tourist visits, the quality than for the tourism industry. For “control” variable. In practice the nature of low-income residents who value income for the resource and the type of use will have a its use in purchasing subsistence goods, we critical influence on the potential for might expect a path leading to a lower sustainability and the possible levels of point. The community will be comprised of sustainable use. Eco-sensitive tourism a variety of resident types – high and low technologies can sustain considerably higher incomes, dependent and independent of numbers of visits than traditional tourism. tourism to produce income. The optimal control solution specifies the Different paths and steady state points path for the control variable that will could also exist for other groups in the maximize the objective function for any community. For the analysis of a tourism particular interest group when moving development project we would want to between two environmental quality levels. examine, for example, the objectives and The steady state is not the ideal (visitors, discount rates of tourists, seasonal residents, quality)-pair for all time but rather the permanent residents, local government and ultimate destination of an optimal path non-local governments. Major conflicts can along an infinite planning period. arise over the differences. A common Alternative, ad hoc paths to this point are solution will require compromise. If, for possible but not optimal. In practice the example, the residents represented in Figure industry or government will be required to 1 can persuade the tourism industry to manipulate the number of tourists through accept lower long-term profits or the advertising, capacity controls, fees or direct industry can persuade the residents to investment in the resource and its accept lower long-term environmental protection. Bermuda, for example, has set a quality, the illustrated conflict might be strict limit on the number and arrival times resolved. Tyrell 39 of cruise ships in order to preserve quality. explain conflicts over steady state (See Riley, 1991.) levels of environmentally sustain- able tourism The length of time that is spent on any paths • That the length of a planning period is factored into the optimal control solution can determine the economic by means of the objective function, but the feasibility of sustainability - short solution path as illustrated in Figure 1 is term goals may lead to the independent of time. The hatch marks on destruction of the resource or the the upper R path suggests how movement industry. slows down as the steady state is • That minimum acceptable or target approached. The practical interpretation of environmental quality levels can the speed traveled along the optimal path is promote sustainability. that development should be cautious especially near the steady state. One should steadily approach an agreeable level of Recommendations environmental quality that can be sustained by natural processes. If a sub-optimal path This paper has described a simple model of is chosen, it could lead to the destruction of the behavior of tourism-related, economic the resource or the industry, or simply lower and environmental variables in a profits and qualities of life. community over time. Using this, it examined the basic notions of sustainable The control problem posed in the simple tourism from a profit maximizing, industry model above assumes an infinitely long point of view and a quality of life - planning period because of the assumed maximizing residential point of view. Three definition of sustainability. If, for some primary findings are that 1) different views reason the planning period is finite then of sustainability may not compatible, 2) there will be no benefit from leaving any certain target levels of environmental positive environmental quality at the end of quality may not sustain a tourism industry, the period. In this case the optimal solution and 3) certain industry objectives or short will lead to total destruction of the resource planning periods may lead to destruction of unless a minimum acceptable level is set or the natural resource. a specific level is bequeathed to society at the end of the period. Solutions to each of While information about the behavior of these finite problems bring us to the same people, industry and natural resources is practical solution as for the infinite problem desirable, it is never completely attainable of emphasizing a target or minimum and is generally expensive to obtain. The acceptable level of environmental quality. model of sustainability assumes that such information is known for current as well as The chief lessons from the optimal control future generations. Given this, an optimal theory exercise are: development path could be charted to • That an understanding of the sustainability. dynamics of the bio-economic system is critical for understanding In the real world we can, at best, determine issues of sustainability. This re- “where we are” and “which way is up”. We quires information on a) natural may also have some information about how resources, b) industry and to control the system toward “a better residential objectives, and c) place”. The information for understanding externalities produced by industry where we are and how to change is activities. provided by a variety of methods and data • That differences between objective sources. Monitoring “community indica- functions and discount rates can 40 Tyrell tors” and conducting “benefit cost analyses” 5 are recommended. An example is the equation: A carefully selected discount rate can be Π(Q, X ) = αQ β1 X β 2 used to conceptualize our value for a future where that is just like the present, but this limits us α > 0 , β > 0 and β > 0 . to preferring it more or less than the present. 1 2 6 If one dollar is invested at an annual rate of We will have difficulty conceiving of a 100r%, then at the end of one year the investment different future. To reduce risk from that will be worth 1+r dollars. The investor is uncertainty we recommend a bequest of indifferent between the two situations. Looking at specific environmental qualities to future it the other way, the present value of a dollar to be generations. We must analyze current received in one year is 1/(1+r) dollars. In this form preferences to anticipate future values and the interest rate is more generally referred to as a existing processes to forecast future change. discount rate. Other than that the best we can do is 7 speculate about the future – our own and A stylized description of the objective of the that of future generations. This may require tourism industry is offered by changing from some new analytical techniques. specific units of time (such as years and months) to a continuous concept of time. The summation is consequently replaced by the integral and the Finally, it is our strongest recommendation unit of time becomes infinitesimally small. that tourism project analysis be conducted Thus, the long-term of objective of the industry from the community point of view. This can be written as a maximization problem: means that the local natural and human ∞ interdependencies are recognized and that Maximize ∫ Π(Q, X )e −rt dt with respect to Q. attention be given to different recipients of 0 costs and benefits. While all viewpoints will This objective function says that the industry not be reconciled, those that are will provide wishes to maximize the sum of all discounted (e- a base of support for the project. rt) profits ( Π(Q, X ) ) from now (t=0) until the Furthermore, the prospect of end of time. environmentally sustainable tourism will be much more likely. 8 Specifically, this is the point where and Q& = 0 X& = 0 Notes: 9 For example, we could hypothesize the same equation for residents as we did for the tourism 1 In some future discussion we might extend the industryαQ β1 X β 2 , where the coefficients are concept of natural environment to include the human social and cultural environment – another the same β1 = β 2 for the tourism industry and renewable visitor attraction. β < β for residents. 2 Resources that are non-renewable, such as oil 1 2 and mineral deposits, imply a different model, 10 the solution for which is total preservation or It is clear that tourist visits can also have a depletion of the resource. negative influence on the social and cultural 3 We assume the impacts of residents on the en- environment through increased crime and vironment are already accounted for in the natu- congestion. ral growth rate. 4 An example is the logistic function:
∂X X X& = = γX (1 − ) − δQ 2 ∂t X where γ and δ are parameters that capture the regeneration rate of the resource and the damage rate of visitor use, respectively. Tyrell 41
Figure 1. Phase Space Diagram for Environmentally Sustainable Tourism
X& = 0
Sustainable Tourism (Resident Objective)
Sustainable Tourism (Industry Objective)
42 Tyrell
References
Chiang, Alpha C. (1992). Elements of Dynamic Optimization. McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York. Lind, Robert C. (1990). Reassessing the Gov- ernment’s Discount Rate Policy in Light of New Theory and Data in a World Economy with a High Degree of Capital Mobility. Journal of Environment-al Eco- nomics and Management 18: 8-28. Riley, Cordell. (1991). Controlling growth while maintaining your customer base. In: Proceedings of the 1991 TTRA Annual Conference. Travel and Tourism Research Association. Salt Lake City. October: 65- 73. Tyrrell, Timothy J. (1998). Elements of sus- tainable tourism. In: Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Tourism and Hotel Industry in Indo-China & South- east Asia, Price of Sonkla University. Phuket Thailand: 29-34. World Commission on Environment and Development. (1987). Our Common Fu- ture. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
MANAGEMENT OF MARINE TOURISM ON AUSTRALIA’S GREAT BARRIER REEF: PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DIMENSIONS OF REGULATION
Steven Parker Department of Political Science University of Nevada (U.S.A.)
Abstract: This paper examines the main plan- To understand the nature of our subject, we ning and management strategies used to guide must begin with a discussion of the size and and regulate marine tourism on Australia’s diversity of the resource itself. Although Great Barrier Reef. Much of the analysis focuses called The Great Barrier Reef, it is really a on the operations of two principle government marine system composed of some 2900 in- agencies, The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park dividual reefs and approximately 900 is- Authority and the Queensland Department of lands. Located near the equator in the state Environment. The former is in charge of func- of Queensland on Australia’s northeast tions like zoning, planning and the issuance of coast, it runs north/south for more than permits, while the latter has responsibility for 2000 kilometers (1200 miles). In terms of day-to-day implementation and enforcement. area, it is equal in square miles to one-half of Since government is not the only stakeholder on the state of Texas. If sheer size were not the Reef, the paper also assesses the various ap- daunting enough, add to the complexity of proaches to self-regulation that are being taken the management job the staggering diversity by the industry, itself. Fieldwork was done in and variety of marine life found in these 1998 during the course of a sabbatical. warm waters. The GBR is home to 400 dif-
ferent varieties of hard and soft corals, 1500 Keywords : Parks and Protected Areas, Man- species of fish, 4000 different mollusks, agement, Ecotourism thousands of different sponges and crusta- ceans plus countless other creatures.
Introduction For millennia this colossal ecosystem slum- bered on, undisturbed by any outside forces. The purpose of this paper will be to examine With European discovery of Australia came the management of tourism on Australia’s major changes whose pace has accelerated Great Barrier Reef (GBR). In doing so, we dramatically in the last quarter century. will look at the marine tourism industry, at Fearing that this vast resource might be in the Reef and at the public agencies that considerable danger from the effects of late oversee it. With regard to the work of these 20th Century life, the Australian Common- agencies, the paper will treat four different wealth Government sought to permanently subjects: (1) the planning and management protect it by creating The Great Barrier Reef tools currently being utilized, (2) the Marine Park in 1975. According to the law mechanisms of implementation, (3) the en- that set it up, the Park’s main purpose is couragement of self-regulation by the tour- conservation, and the pursuit of that pur- ism industry and (4) the generation of a re- pose was made the primary responsibility of search capability. Fieldwork for this paper its management agency, The Great Barrier was undertaken in 1998 as the focus of a Reef Marine Park Authority (GBRMPA). sabbatical. Data were gathered from inter- The 1975 law instructs the Authority to views with stakeholders in both the public regulate use of the Reef so that it will be pro- and private sectors plus standard archival tected but at the same time to allow for “rea- sources. sonable use” of it for various extractive activities such as commercial fishing. The 44 Parker same statute mandates that some areas be direction, then in 1985, most boats could left completely undisturbed and that others traverse twenty miles of ocean in that be made available for the appreciation and amount of time; by 1990 they could cover enjoyment of the public. It is this last ele- fifty miles in two hours and by 1998 new, ment that, of course, forms the connection high-speed, high-tech, catamarans could with tourism, but the great boost for that reach cays and islands 75 miles from port in particular use of the Reef came in 1981 when the same two hours. It is estimated that by it was listed as a World Heritage Site under the year 2001 they will have a one-way the international World Heritage Conven- range of 100 miles, enough to put almost the tion (Lucas, Webb, Valentine and Marsh, entire Reef within the reach of the day visi- 1997). tor. Such changes pose enormous chal- lenges for the Authority in regulating some Today GBRMPA follows a multiple-use components of the marine tourism industry. strategy that attempts to balance the values of conservation with those of four main user On The GBR this industry is composed of groups, or constituencies: the commercial eight major sectors: fishing industry, Queensland citizens who • Island transfer - boats that bring are recreational users, a sizeable Aboriginal visitors out to island resorts population and the commercial tourism in- • Day tour operators - taking visitors dustry. Each of these groups has different to reefs for a single day of activity needs and puts different types of demands • Live aboard dive boats – multi-day on both the Reef and the management tours, usually scuba agency, but it is tourism that is the Reef’s • Fishing charters major commercial use. Commercial fishing • Bareboat charters - boats rented to comes in second, but the economic value of visitors for their own use and pilot- tourism is four times greater. ing
• General charter
• Cruise ships Reef Tourism • Miscellaneous - operators of busi- nesses engaging in helicopter and Tourism in Australia generates enormous aircraft sightseeing, water sports ac- economic activity (Driml and Common, tivity such as jet skis, water skiing, 1995; Wearing, 1991), and to that the GBR etc. region leads the way, creating approx- imately 10% of the region’s economic acti- These eight sectors are composed of 660 dif- vity. In addition to being high, it has been ferent commercial operations in the Park, growing at a rapid rate in recent years. and together they use approximately 900 More than 3.5 million people visited the re- vessels. However, while the numbers are gion in 1995, and nearly half of them took large, the industry itself is highly concen- part in some type of reef-related activity. In trated with the five largest firms accounting 1997 more than 1.7 million visitor days were for more than one-third of the total visitor spent on the Reef. This figure was up from days per year. With such a far-flung con- approximately 900,000 in 1990. stituency the Authority’s management task is enormous, and thus we must examine the While many factors help to explain this devices on which it relies. phenomenal rate of growth, part of it is technology driven, with bigger and faster boats being able to deliver far larger num- Management Tools bers of passengers to what were once re- mote areas of the Reef. If acceptable travel The most comprehensive management tool time for the day visitor is two hours in each available to marine resource managers is Parker 45 zoning (Salm, 1982; 1985) and GBRMPA has As a management tool, zoning has been use- relied on it extensively (Orams, 1999). Most ful, but because the zones are so broad and people are familiar with how this device is the reef is so vast, this technique is only the utilized on land, grouping similar uses and first, and crudest, tool in the overall man- activities together. Similarly, in a marine agement plan for the Reef. Because tourism park, uses that are alike are kept together is now by far the most substantial economic (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). Thus, for exam- activity there, the Authority has moved be- ple, commercial fishing areas are separated yond zoning and developed a new man- from conservation zones, as in The Galapa- agement approach to deal with it: the Plan gos Islands (deGroot, 1983). Because the of Management or POM (Tourism Review GBR covers such an enormous area, the Au- Steering Committee, 1997). POMs have be- thority has first divided it into four geo- come essential because the main role of zon- graphic sections: The Far North Section, The ing has been just to delineate where extrac- Cairns Section, The Central Section and The tive activities like trawling can be pursued. Mackay / Capricorn Section. Each of these Tourism is not an activity that was ever spe- sections has, in turn, been divided into a cifically addressed in the zoning plans. Part number of different activity zones such as of the reason for this was simply that in the the: Park’s early days, tourism levels were ex- • Preservation Zone tremely low. In such a setting the Authority • Scientific Research Zone could regulate visitation through a permit • National Park Zone system where each proposed operation was • Buffer Zone examined in terms of its own requirements. Thus, as long as an operator could secure a • Conservation Park Zone permit, he could carry on tourism activities • Estuarine Conservation Zone in all zones except those set aside for Scien- • Habitat Protection Zone tific Research or Preservation, which to- • General Use Zone gether cover less than one percent of the
entire park. While not all of these zones will be found in all four sections, the basic idea on which In terms of tourism, the most heavily used they are all based is to set an increasing level part of the Park is the Cairns Section. Be- of limitation on human activity as one goes cause it is so intensively impacted - hosting up this list from the General Use Zone (least over 60% of the Reef’s annual visitors - we restrictive) to the Preservation Zone (where can focus on it here to illustrate how a POM no unauthorized entry of any sort is permit- is structured. The Authority applies a four- ted). Together these zones regulate a broad level hierarchy to management areas like range of activities like aviation, shipping, Cairns. Thus, an area is divided into sectors; trawling, recreational fishing, specimen col- sectors are divided into localities; localities lection and tourism (GBRMPA, 1992). While into locations and locations into sites. Cairns certain dangerous activities such as mining begins with six different geographic sectors. and oil exploration are completely prohib- Within each sector there are a number of ited through-out the entire Park, other localities. For example in the very popular highly destructive practices are permitted -- Ribbon Reefs Sector one of the localities is but not everywhere. For example nearly known as Cod Hole, a place seen in count- 1,000 trawlers dredge for sea scallops or less television documentaries with divers drag the sea bottom for prawns in the Ma- hand feeding the enormous cod that lurk rine Park, but not in all zones. Because the there. Each of these localities is, in turn, practice cannot be stopped, the idea of zon- composed of a set of locations, and within ing is to regulate it by limiting the areas each location are the individual sites. The where it can be undertaken. locations are the separate reefs, cays, etc. to
which a tourist might be taken, and the sites are the very specific geographic points on 46 Parker the reef where he might be allowed to dive In addition, there are stipulations regarding or where a mooring might be placed. To the placement and operation of large, float- appreciate how such an approach allows for ing platforms called pontoons. These are very finely tuned resource management and extensive, man-made structures perma- protection, consider the following scenario nently moored in one place, miles from involving two operators visiting the same shore. Many of the newer ones are floating, reef-location. The first is allowed to anchor two-story buildings, complete with small at a site 25 meters from the reef, above a theaters, underwater observatories, dining sandy sea-bottom. He is allowed no closer areas and catering for several hundred peo- because he uses an anchor and the reef’s ple. Some even come equipped with heli- delicate corals would be damaged by it. To copters that can land on the deck and then limit such impact, a mooring buoy has been take visitors out for a quick fun-flight. All of placed at an adjacent site and the other op- these amenities are in addition to the usual erator can stop there if he has the right to provisions for diving, snorkeling and use it; something stipulated by his permit. swimming. The two sites are side-by-side, but through the POM they are controlled in a way very Each day modern, high-speed ferry boats different from that which would be possible deposit hundreds of passengers on each one. under a simple zoning plan. That same evening they return them to the port from which they left in the morning, Utilizing this hierarchical and spatial sys- usually Cairns. Obviously this type of mass, tem, the Authority’s planners now rely on a or “industrial”, tourism needs to be care- combination of scientific studies and site- fully regulated and monitored if resource visitation data sets, to make assessments of damage is to be kept to a minimum (Pigram, the carrying capacities and vulnerabilities of 1990). Authorities therefore have a legiti- major sectors, localities, locations and sites mate interest in everything on a pontoon in the Cairns Area. The concept of carrying from visitor behavior that may directly capacity, of course, refers to a site’s ability to damage coral to the structural integrity of a absorb visitation without suffering degrada- facility’s waste-water holding tanks. tion (Clark, 1991). Each reef or island can accommodate only so many boaters or di- However, despite its best efforts at manage- vers per day before their pressure begins to rial innovation, it is doubtful that the Au- generate an unacceptable level of impact on thority can deal effectively with a tourism the resource. The maximum “load” that can industry that is growing at a rate of 11% an- be sustained is referred to as the carrying nually and using a geographic area larger capacity of the resource (Manning, 1996) than Britain. Part of the problem is that cer- and to manage it, GBRMPA planners gener- tain locations on of the Reef are so very ate numerous regulations, all of which vary heavily used. Not only do high-speed boats with location. There are maximum boat bring hundreds of tourists to individual sizes and there are caps on the numbers of pontoons, but there are particular islands visitors who may be brought to a site. A that are becoming almost urban in character. reservation and booking system regulates The largest of these is Hamilton Island, a the number of operators who can voyage to miniature city that attracts thousands of any one reef on any one day. For example, a visitors to its beaches, shops, restaurants, 20- certain popular location may have two pub- story hotel and high-rise apartment build- lic moorings, but because there are ten tour ings. Of course, even small cities produce operators who wish to go there on a particu- enormous amounts of waste and these di- lar weekend, they must call ahead and make rectly impact a resource like The Reef reservations. Otherwise they will not be (Green and Hunter, 1992; Pearce, 1985). allowed to bring divers there. Another heavily used site is Green Island where ferry boats can deposit more than 1,000 people daily on a single reef. In cases Parker 47 such as these, the term “enlightened marine able and unacceptable practices have been resource management” really means just spelled out for each location, the licensing minimizing the damage (Mieczkowski, process has been greatly streamlined. When 1995). the document is issued, the Authority needs only to list those places that the operator is Of course, not all GBR tourism is so inten- allowed to visit. Once there, the standards sive and thus each day scores of more mod- to which one must conform (boat size, num- est boats bring small numbers of divers, ber of passengers, etc.) are already in place. fishermen and others to more remote sites. In earlier days they might have just thrown Five years ago these various management an anchor overboard, upon arrival, but to- tools, along with a consideration of chal- day GBRMPA is eliminating this practice. lenges and goals, were brought together Not only does a thrown anchor explode when the Authority published its Twenty- onto fragile coral like a wrecking ball, but Five Year Strategic Plan (GBRMPA, 1994). the heavy chain attaching it to the boat de- The purpose of this document was to estab- structively rakes over other nearby coral for lish a general framework for both the con- hours as the craft swings back and forth servation and the ecologically sustain-able with the wind and tide. development of the Reef. To do this the Au- thority brought a wide range of stake- Today, in order to decrease such damage, holders into the planning process: tourism, GBRMPA is using the POMs to encourage fishing, conservation groups, Aboriginal tour operators to install permanent moor- interests, state and local governments, etc. ings instead of continuing to anchor. Moor- All participated in discussions of the Reef’s ings are far less environmentally destructive future and how to ensure it via responsible because they do not inflict multiple impacts. management. Because this document laid Instead, they rely on a one-time securing of out a long-range vision for the resource, it a line from a floating surface buoy to the has served for years as a standard against reef or sea bottom. With the buoy in place, which to judge day-to-day management de- the operator merely has to clip his boat to it cisions. each time he arrives at the site. Under the Cairns POM, the Authority has licensed the The Plan has also served as a lightning rod installation of more than 250 such devices for conflict, and its provisions frequently pit with 115 more still planned. tourism against other industries like fishing and shipping, a phenomenon that is ex- The connection between these individual tremely common in this field (Boo, 1990). In operators and the POMs is the regulatory addition, there is considerable conflict device known as the permit or license (Wal- within the tourism industry itself, with lace, 1993). Anyone who wishes to go into small, “life-style” operators frequently on the business of transporting or otherwise one side and the large pontoon and ferry assisting paying visitors out to the Reef boat operators on the other. They differ on must apply for a permit from GBRMPA. issues relating to taxation, conservation Currently some 850 individuals and firms practices and licensure, to mention just a hold such permits. Before the advent of the few. POM (1998), when the only tool that existed was zoning, a customized permit had to be written for each operator stating where he Enforcement and Implementation could go and what he could, and could not, do upon arrival. The process was widely We have seen that planning and rule mak- criticized as inefficient (Brown, 1997). Given ing are the primary responsibility of the size of the GBR, some permits could run GBRMPA, but we have not yet dealt with to dozens of pages in length and take a year the question of who enforces these rules. or more for approval. Now, since accept- 48 Parker
Implementation is one of the most impor- agency administered by the government of tant parts of the entire public policy process Queensland. The establishment of the fed- (Elliott, 1997), and on The Reef the discharge eral Marine Park in 1975 sparked consider- of this function rests with the Queensland able conflict and debate between these two Department of Environment (DOE). This is levels of government as to who would actu- the agency that operates the patrol boats ally be in charge, a problem that occurs and surveillance aircraft to ensure compli- quite frequently in tourism politics (Hall, ance. Its staff of 106 is also responsible for 1994; Innskeep, 1991). The result of this de- the development and maintenance of infra- bate was a document called “The Emerald structure projects, such as island camp- Agreement” which divided their activities grounds, public moorings and docks (DOE, into policy making, which was lodged at the 1997). Because it is the department with the national level, and administration, which personnel actually in the field, it is also in a was lodged at the state level. While easily unique position to observe problems and distinguishable in theory, the two functions make reports to other agencies. These re- have always overlapped in practice. No- ports, in turn, frequently result in efforts to where is this more true than in matters relat- change the ways in which things are done. ing to the DOE’s budget where each level For example, when existing rental-boat provides half of the approximately $(AUD)8 regulations allow for unforeseen crowding million that is spent each year. Since, under on certain islands in an area known as The terms of The Emerald Agreement, each level Whitsundays, the impetus for changing contributes fifty percent of the total, the na- these regulations is likely to come from the tional government has considerable leverage DOE because it is the agency dealing with in shaping exactly what types of manage- the problem on a day-to-day basis. ment practices are used by DOE. This af- fects everything from construction and Furthermore, DOE surveillance boats and maintenance priorities to personnel and ac- aircraft in The Whitsundays have filed nu- counting techniques. But the practice of merous reports on reef and island damage joint contribution also means that there is caused by inexperienced sailboat captains. considerable continuity in levels of funding. The “bareboat” industry rents boats to cus- Even when the political parties controlling tomers with neither crew nor captain (i.e., either government have changed, the aggre- the boat is bare), and the customer sails the gate budget has not been dramatically af- boat himself. Such individuals are likely to fected because the commitment of the other have never sailed in the area before and thus side has remained constant. Of course, there do not know all of the dangers -- both to is no guarantee that this pattern of coopera- themselves and to the Reef’s flora and tion and back-stopping will continue in the fauna. Coral is damaged; islands are left in future, and thus there are many who predict an unsanitary condition; nesting turtles and considerable management instability in the sea birds are disturbed. When patterns like future. If they are correct, this instability this appear, it is DOE that initiates action. will occur at the same time that the de- However, it must be remembered that there mands of tourism and all of its side-effects are a mere 106 employees to watch over the are continuing to grow. entire 1200 miles of reef. Inevitably, many impacts go unreported. Much of the money used by both DOE and GBRMPA is generated by a user fee known The careful reader has undoubtedly noticed as the EMC, Environmental Management that there are two different levels of gov- Charge (GBRMPA, 1998). A user fee is a ernment involved in Reef management payment collected either directly or indi- (Hall, 1995; Pearce, 1989). GBRMPA is a rectly from visitors (Lindberg and Huber, federal agency reporting to a minister in The 1993). Based on what is known as the “user Commonwealth Government in the national pays principle,” it provides for the funding capital, Canberra, while DOE is a state of a resource by those who benefit from it. Parker 49
First levied at the Reef in 1993, the EMC is Industry Self-Regulation now $(AUD)4.00 per visitor, per day with all proceeds earmarked for reef agencies and In spite of this extensive regulatory regimen, not for automatic return into the general private industry continues to be a vigorous fund of the federal government. In this force on the Reef, as it is at tourism venues way, monies generated by the resource can worldwide (Holdan, 1992). To illustrate this be used for its management and protection contention we may refer to the issue of (Cater, 1994). moorings, discussed above. Once licensed, a mooring is owned by the operator and, The fee itself is collected by the tour opera- having the right to use it 365 days per year, tors and this has been a source of consider- he has several choices. He can use it himself able friction between the Authority and the to take visitors to the site. He can rent it to industry. Businessmen have been fearful other operators for dates when he judges that the additional payment would serve as such a decision to be profitable. In the long a disincentive to travel, but when the $4 fee run, he may opt to sell the site and mooring is seen as a percentage of a visitor’s overall outright to another businessman. This travel budget, it is minuscule. No data exist course of action is open to him because the demonstrating that the existence of the licenses are fully transferable. This tradabil- charge has caused tourists to cancel their ity gives them financial value, and because trips. The main problem for the operators is of this fact current owners know that they really one of overhead. It is they and their will realize greater returns on investment if employees who collect the fees, do all of the the sites are kept in an ecologically healthy paperwork and ultimately make the pay- condition. In other words, part of the strat- ments to government. Such activities have egy behind self-regulation is to make the become an additional cost of doing business, pursuit of conservation profitable in the but a cost that helps to preserve the resource long run (Sherman and Dixon, 1991). Of on which firms like these depend (Dixon course, tradability does nothing to help with and Sherman, 1991). short-term situations in which a captain may decide to flush a bilge tank illegally or bring Beyond the question of budgets and fund- too many divers to a particular site. ing, the interplay of policy and administra- tion goes on daily (Barborak, 1995). A good While most moorings are owned by indi- example of its dynamic nature was apparent vidual operators, the Authority has recently in the early 1990’s when criteria had to be embarked on yet another approach to regu- set regarding the building of artificial reefs. lation that relies heavily on the free market Because such structures create additional and the private sector. Known as self- habitat, both the sportfishing and recrea- regulation, the system works as follows tional diving industries supported their con- (Wachenfeld, Oliver and Morrissey, 1998). struction. While it was GBRMPA that In each area of the Reef there are locally- would ultimately be responsible for grant- based marine tourism associations com- ing or withholding most licenses, it did this posed of businessmen whose boats have the jointly with DOE. The policy-level stan- same ports and visit the same geographic dards that would apply in making such de- areas each day. Instead of issuing the moor- cisions were adopted with DOE input. The ing licenses exclusively to the individual state agency provided data, made recom- businesses, the Authority now dispenses a mendations as to placement and submitted certain number of them to the associations. early drafts of criteria. DOE may be referred Once this is done, the site is listed as belong- to as a management agency, but it is not ing to the association, and only “members in without discretion. good standing” can use it. In his famous essay written more than a quarter of a cen- tury ago, Garrett Hardin (1968) argued that 50 Parker when a resource is owned by everyone, it is two agencies with input on problems and on as though it is owned by no one because all how regulations affect their lives and liveli- have an interest in overusing it. This prob- hood. lem is diminished when there are Codes of Practice and other types of ethical guidelines (Wight, 1993; McAvoy, 1990) requiring that Research members remain “in good standing.” Whether the regulations are public or pri- It has been in the self-interest of the associa- vate, the ultimate rationale behind the tions to develop Codes of Practice and to POMs is to protect the reefs by monitoring begin privately policing their own members. the cumulative effects of usage. Such a goal These Codes generally focus on matters requires the existence of a substantial scien- such as mooring and anchoring procedures, tific research capability and for this the Au- visitor education, safety and conservation thority usually turns to an organization practices. Boats operating in an ecologically called The Cooperative Research Center- harmful manner can be fined or even ex- Reef (CRC-Reef). A partnership founded in cluded from use of the moorings. All of this 1993 between industry (including marine is done by the operators themselves, not by tourism), James Cook University, the Com- “big government,” and it is done because monwealth Government and the Queen- such policing is in their mutual self-interest. sland Government, CRC-Reef has an annual An irresponsible operator is a threat to the budget of AUD$9.2 million, which it focuses group and the group now has the authority on off-shore research. The research agenda to punish. Of course, having this authority includes marine ecology and biology, fisher- is not the same thing as actually using it, ies engineering design, tourism and its im- and thus the effectiveness of The Code of pacts, hydrodynamic modeling and water Practice approach is far from certain. The quality analysis. program is new, and the Authority does not yet have sufficient information on the extent One of the most dramatic examples that to which these businessmen are actually might be cited of this organization’s impor- regulating one another. On this matter, only tance to the sustainability of the reef- time will tell. tourism environment did not deal directly with tourism at all. Instead, it dealt with Around the world, another popular vehicle shipping. Every year, through the mid- for bringing together the public and private 1990s, some 2500 large commercial ships, sectors is the protected area advisory coun- about 10% of which were oil tankers, navi- cil (Munro, 1995; Murphy, 1985; Eagles, gated the sometimes-elusive channel that 1984). In Australia, GBRMPA has done this runs between the Reef and the mainland; it through its Regional Marine Resource Advi- is actually a channel that runs between 2900 sory Committee (RMRAC) system. Ranging separate reefs and an ever-changing coast- along the 2,000 kilometers of the Reef’s line. More than 50 ships have run aground length are a dozen major towns or cities, or collided since 1979. In 1995 CRC-Reef and in each of them a RMRAC has been released a study entitled “Shipping Risk formed. Committee membership is com- Analysis for the Great Barrier Reef”. In it posed of a broad cross-section of stake- scientists focused on this commercial bulk holders. Aboriginal groups, tourism inter- shipping allowed in the interior waters of ests, commercial fishing, recreational boat- the Marine Park. In the wake of well-known ing and fishing interests, local governments accidents such as the one involving the and conservation organizations all partici- Exxon Valdez in Alaska, the fear was that a pate. Together their purpose is to advise large oil spill could have devastating conse- GBRMPA and DOE on a host of issues that quences for the Reef and thus CRC-Reef was affect them: development, planning, pollu- asked to do a risk assessment. As a direct tion, etc. In other words they provide the result of this study, federal shipping policy Parker 51 was altered to require that most bulk ship- rinas (Frankel, 1995; Bacon, 1994). A good ping routes be moved outside the Reef. Loss example of both the promise and the failure of this inner passage cost the maritime ship- of tourism management in the Marine Park ping industry both time and money, but the area is provided by the case of a planned study clearly demonstrated the old policy to resort development known as Port Hinchin- be too environmentally hazardous. It brook. During most of the 1990s, developers should be obvious that while this study did and conservation groups battled over this not deal directly with tourism, it was indi- proposed mega-resort. Port Hinchinbrook rectly of great value and relevance to it. was designed as an integrated tourism and residential facility with both shop- The Authority and CRC-Reef also monitor ping/business areas and a central recrea- numerous ecological impacts that are spe- tional core: an extensive marina pro-viding cific to tourism, and just a brief sampling of access to the GBR. While the developers these should alert the reader to the tremen- referred to their plan as being ecologically dous complexity of the task. Whether in friendly, environmental groups such as The Australia or elsewhere, the presence of tour- Marine Conservation Society and The Aus- ists on small islands may interfere with nest- tralian Conservation Foundation opposed it ing seabirds and turtles (Jacobson and Fi- as being far too destructive. Ultimately it gueroa-Lopez, 1994; Burger and Gochfeld, was the developers who won, even though 1993), but scientists and policy makers need the project required extensive dredging of data on both the extent and intensity of this mangrove and sea-grass areas. Although interference (Claridge, 1997). Once the data they opposed the project, neither GBRMPA are gathered and conclusions drawn, rec- nor DOE staffers were able to stop it because ommended changes can be worked into the their recommendations were subject to re- POMs. Furthermore, humpback whales mi- view by political officials at both the State grate annually from Antarctica to GBR wa- and Commonwealth levels. ters for calving, and marine creatures known as dugong frequent the shallow off- Going beyond tourism, CRC-Reef claims shore areas. Both species are involved in that terrestrial development, in general, is frequent collisions with boats, especially the single greatest threat to this delicate small, fast recreational craft. Data are being ocean environment. Development creates gathered on the dimensions of this problem change in land use and this change can as well. To make informed policy, the Au- bring massive siltation when it rains. When thority also needs hard data on coral dam- one adds to this fact the migration of fertil- age that is the unintended consequence of izer and pesticide residues from agribusi- island and resort development. When resort ness, it becomes clear that run-off creates access channels for boats are cut through enormous problems for reef sustainability. reefs, the result can be a draining of lagoons In addition, urban development brings with during low tide and the consequent death of it the discharge of wastewater that can poi- hundreds of acres of coral due to loss of sea- son inlets and nurture the growth of algae water coverage. Mitigation can be under- that cover and thereby kill coral. taken, but to be effective it must be based on good data. Conclusion Other threats to the reef have been more difficult to deal with. Coastal development It has been the purpose of this paper to dis- of infrastructure for tourism facilities such cuss the main types of challenge faced by as resorts and marinas can cause massive management agencies in charge of marine environmental problems: loss of habitat, tourism on the GBR. While one of their the dumping of dredge spoil, increased ef- primary goals is conservation, there are fluent discharge from resorts plus spilled ever-growing numbers of visitors from fuel and anti-fouling preparations from ma- 52 Parker around the world who want first-hand ex- Beatley, T. (1994). Habitat conservation perience of a World Heritage Site like this planning. University of Texas Press, one. In addition, since Australia is dedi- Austin, TX. cated to the principles of a free-market Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourism: The Potentials & economy, businessmen are allowed to oper- Pitfalls. World Wildlife Fund, Wash- ate in these waters. The commercial fishing ington, DC. industry along with cargo shipping firms Brown, R, (1997). Independent Review of the place demands on the Reef Region as do Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. tourism operators, Aboriginal groups and Ron Brown and Associates, Canberra. Queensland residents in search of recrea- Burger, J. and Gochfeld, M. (1993). Tourism tional opportunities close to home. Of and short-term behavioral responses of course, such a high level of utilization car- nesting masked, red-footed, and blue- ries with it the danger of over-use and the footed, boobies in the Galapagos. Envi- consequent danger of resource degradation. ronmental Conservation, 20(3): 255-259. Cater, E. (1994). Ecotourism in the third In such situations, interviewees agreed that world: Problems and prospects for sus- there is no alternative but informed man- tainability. In: Ecotourism: A sustainable agement. We have seen that on Australia’s option? E. Cater and G. Lowman (eds.), GBR, the lead agency in this endeavor, The pp. 69-86. John Wiley & Sons, New Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, York. has evolved a system that is both spatially Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996). Tourism, Ecot- and behaviorally structured (zoning and ourism and Protected Areas. The World POMs). It is assisted by the Queensland Conservation Union, Caracas, VZ. Department of Environment which is in Claridge, G. (1997). Guidelines for Managing charge of day-to-day management. These Visitation to Seabird Breeding Islands. two agencies have primary responsibility for GBRMPA, Townsville, Australia. zoning, planning and regulation, but they Clark, J. (1991). Carrying capacity and tour- share some of these functions with private ism in coastal and marine areas. Parks, industry. Tourism operators have been 2(3): 13-17. given a substantial stake in their own self- de Groot, R.S. (1983). Tourism and conser- regulation through the use of Codes of Prac- vation in the Galapagos Islands. Biologi- tice. While this public-private partnership is cal Conservation, 26: 291-300. a useful innovation, it also seems certain DOE, Queensland (1997). Great Barrier Reef that new problems and obstacles will con- Marine Park, Day to Day Management Re- tinue to surface as Reef tourism continues to port. DOE , Brisbane, Australia. grow and as technology delivers ever-faster Dixon, J. and Sherman, P. (1991). Economics and ever-bigger boats. of protected areas. Ambio, 20(2): 68-74. Driml, S. and Common, M. (1995). Eco- nomic and financial benefits of tourism References in major protected areas. Australian Journal of Environmental Management, 2: Bacon, P. (1994). Use of wetlands for tour- 19-29. March. ism in the insular Caribbean. Annals of Eagles, P. (1984). The Planning and Manage- Tourism Research, 21(2): 344-354. ment of Environmentally Sensitive Areas. Barborak, J. (1995). 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Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Miezkowski. (1995). Environmental Issues of (1992). Basis for Zoning: Cairns Section. Tourism and Recreation. University Press GBRMPA, Townsville. of America, New York. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Munro, D. (1995). New partners in conser- (1994). 25 Year Strategic Plan for the Great vation: How to expand public support Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. for protected areas. In: Expanding part- GBRMPA, Townsville, Australia. nerships in Conservation, J. McNeely (ed.), Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. pp.13-18. Island Press, Washington, DC. (1998). Great Barrier Reef Marine Park En- Murphy, P. E. (1985). Tourism: A Community vironmental Management Charge. Approach. Methuen, NY & London. GBRMPA, Townsville, Australia. Orams, M. (1999). Marine Tourism: Develop- Green, H. and Hunter, C. (1992). The envi- ment, Impacts and Management. ronmental impact assessment of tourism Routledge, London. development. In: Perspectives on Tourism Pearce, D. (1985). Tourism and Environ- Policy P. Johnson and B. Thomas. (eds.), mental Research: A review. The Inter- pp. 29-48. Mansell Publishing, London. national Journal of Environmental Studies, Hall, C. M. (1994). Tourism & Politics: Policy, 25: 247-255. power and place. John Wiley & Sons, Pearce, D. (1989). Tourist Development. New York. Longman, UK. Hall, C. M. (1995). Introduction to Tourism in Pigram, J. (1990). Sustainable tourism: Pol- Australia. Longman, Sydney. icy considerations. Journal of Tourism Hardin, G. (1968). The Tragedy of the Com- Studies, 1(2): 2-9. mons, Science. 162 December: 1243-48. Salm, R., Halim, M. and Abdullah, A. (1982). Proposed Pulau Seribu marine national Holdan, J. (1992). The Need for Public- park: Conservation and tourism. Parks, Private Sector Cooperation in Tourism, 7(2): 15-20. Tourism Management, June: 157-62. Salm, R. (1985). Integrating marine conser- Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism Planning: An in- vation and tourism. The International tegrated sustainable development approach. Journal of Environmental Studies 25: 229- an Nostrand Reinhold, NY. 238. Jacobson, S. and Figueroa-Lopez, A. (1994). Sherman, P.B. and Dixon, J. A. (1991). The Biological impacts of ecotourism: Tour- economics of nature tourism: Deter- ists and nesting turtles in Tortuguero mining if it pays. In: Nature tourism: National Park. Wildlife Society Bulletin, Managing for the environment, T. Whelan 11(3): 141-419. (ed.), pp. 89-131. Island Press, Washing- Lindberg, K. and Huber, R. (1993). Eco- ton, DC. nomic issues in ecotourism manage- Tourism Review Steering Committee (1997). ment. In: Ecotourism: A guide for planners Review of the Marine Tourism Industry in an manager, K. Lindberg and D. Haw- the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area. kins (eds.), pp. 82-115. North The Ecot- GBRMPA, Townsville, Australia. ourism Society, Bennington, VT. Wachenfeld, D. Oliver, J and Morrissey, J. Lucas, P. Webb, T. Valentine, P. and Marsh (1998). The State of the Great Barrier Reef H. (1997). The Outstanding Universal World Heritage Area. GBRMPA, Towns- Value of the Great Barrier Reef World Heri- ville, Australia. tage Area. GBRMPA, Townsville, Aus- Wallace, J. (1993). Visitor Management: Les- tralia. sons from Galapagos national park. In: Manning, E. (1996). Tourism: Where are the Ecotourism: A guide for planners and man- limits? Ecodecision, 35-39. Spring. agers, K. Lindberg and D. Hawkins McAvoy, L. (1990). An environmental ethic (eds.), pp. 44-81. The Ecotourism Soci- for parks and recreation. Parks and Rec- ety, North Bennington, VT. reation, 68-72. September. 54 Parker
Wearing, S. and Parsonson, R. (1991, Sep- tember). Rainforest tourism. Tourism Management, pp. 236-244. Wight, P. (1993). Sustainable ecotourism: Balancing economic, environmental and Social goals within an ethical frame- work. The Journal of Tourism Studies, 4(2): 54-66.
THE CHALLENGE OF ECOTOURISM IN THE NEXT MILLENIUM: OVERCOMING STRUCTURAL CONSTRAINTS WITH LOCAL POTENTIAL
Veronica Dujon Department of Sociology Portland State University (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Many countries in the Caribbean, Keywords: community development, ecotour- long invested in traditional tourism in which ism, integrated planning, social, economic, envi- sand, sea and sun are the major attractions, are ronmental impacts exploring ecotourism as a development strategy. The successful pursuit of ecotourism will be en- hanced if the logic of extraction of this natural Introduction resource is appropriately understood so that per- tinent policy and institutions can be devised to The global tourist industry is valued at ensure ecological and therefore economic sus- somewhere between USD$3 to $3.5 trillion tainability. In an effort to contribute to the im- and considered to be second only to perhaps plementation of appropriate policy this paper the oil industry. Many developing countries, examines the limitations imposed by the struc- have been, and are, disappointed with past ture of the global tourist industry and analyzes attempts to capture some of that value in the conditions in some Caribbean countries that might allow for the successful pursuit of an ecot- tourism and convert it into meaningful de- ourism strategy. The paper works on the theo- velopment. The advent of ecotourism and retical hunch that tourism, as traditionally man- the parallel decline in dominant agricultural aged, suffers from the same sorts of constraints sectors have encouraged struggling econo- of other export-led development strategies: sig- mies to pursue ecotourism strategies that nificant damage to the natural environment; promise to reverse that trend. Ecotourism substantial income leakages through expatriation has emerged as a new hope, which, with of profits; limited forward and backward linkages appropriate planning, and with significant and high vulnerability to global economic grassroots participation, is expected to over- changes. What is the likelihood that ecotourism come past pitfalls. But what is the likelihood can define an alternative logic that can sustain that ecotourism can deliver what it prom- local economies and environments? Recent ises? To what extent does the structure of planning efforts in some islands have conceptu- the global tourist industry, within which alized the new form of tourism as "community- ecotourism is considered to be a niche mar- based heritage tourism" to reflect a focus on sus- ket, affect the potential of domestic econo- tainable rural development. What are the pros- mies to capture the benefits that ecotourism pects for such a locally oriented model in the face promises? To be successful the logic of ex- of global economic constraints? This paper ar- traction of the natural resources associated gues that certain factors such the small geogra- with ecotourism which involve the ecologi- phy of the territories; type of tenure under which cal as well as socioeconomic environment, resources are held; the formal and informal insti- must be appropriately understood so that tutions under which they are managed; the na- pertinent policy and institutions can be de- ture of the extraction of the resources and the vised to ensure ecological and therefore potential beneficiaries (domestic and global) de- economic sustainability. fine the arena for potential success.
56 Dujon
The Caribbean territories are faced with and economic sustainability it is supposed some of the same basic economic problems to embody. In theory, the method of access- which plague other developing countries. ing the products offered can be designed to How do countries, in this case small island be simultaneously of low ecological impact states, which rely on the export of a few ag- and financially viable. Utilizing policies that ricultural and mineral products as the main range from controlling the method of con- income earning activity, generate growth sumption to the intensity of consumption, it and development in a global economy in is argued that ecological integrity and eco- which, on the one hand, free trade is advo- nomic viability can be sustained. Actual ex- cated and on the other, developed countries perience suggests that the ideal is more of- form protectionist economic associations ten than not compromised in the process of which impose quotas and other trade barri- implementation - investment and sustain- ers to restrict Caribbean imports? The search ability strategies are often at odds. for new exports to capture niche markets is a constant challenge. The ability of export- Even as the island territories are about to led models and policies of market liberaliza- embark on their ecotourism agendas, how- tion to encourage development in the Car- ever, the long admired Costa Rican model is ibbean region, however, are questionable facing some serious challenges. Costa Rica's (Deere et al. 1990). The successful applica- success with ecotourism was defined by an tion of these models generally relies on in- extensive system of conservation parks sup- jections of foreign capital lured by cheap ported by significant external funding and, labor, duty free zones and tax holidays. critically, a healthy economy. International Traditional tourism very much fits in this economic instability and the corresponding model. There is substantial leakage of the slump in the marketability of Costa Rican income generated, and little opportunity for exports have translated into increasing fi- states to accrue resources for investment in nancial difficulty for economic develop- domestic projects such as infrastructural ment. The sustainability of the parks have development, education and other services. been jeopardized as earnings from that sec- The employment generated tends to be for tor are moved to social and infrastructural low-paying, unskilled jobs with limited programs rather than reinvestment into con- multiplier effects in the economy. Yet few servation programs. A recent World Bank alternatives seemed available until the ad- Report consequently lamented Costa Rica's vent of ecotourism. failure to reinvest in the park system and its apparent "lack of political will" to pass laws The definition of ecotourism as a concept or to discourage deforestation outside of the as a development strategy is far from estab- parks (National Public Radio 'Morning Edi- lished. It is sometimes simply equated to tion', 1997). "nature tourism" or tourism targeted at travelers who seek to see or experience na- Is it only lack of such will or are there ture. In some of the literature ecotourism is deeper global and local constraints that con- understood to be tourist visits to protected tinue to undermine any meaningful attempt areas or parks which allows for a unique to successfully configure an extractive ex- experience and simultaneously generates port-led development strategy? Could it be income which, in part or whole, finances the that the investment and trade mechanisms preservation and/or conservation of these which dictate the conditions under which areas. Essentially ecotourism in such cases developing countries are integrated into the provides economic justification for conser- global economy continue to restrict the po- vation that might not otherwise be protected tential for developing countries to define (Boo, 1990). Although ecotourism is subject alternative paths to development? And if to multiple definitions, it is typically con- this is the case, what kinds of domestic trasted to traditional tourism. Its attraction and/or international circumstances, if any, is derived essentially from the ecological Dujon 57 may allow constrained states to overcome Essentially, this paper argues that the small some of these limitations? size of the island states, their social capital significantly defined by their history with To be successful, ecotourism conceptualized communal property resources and the asso- as an economic strategy cannot exist or be ciated informal institutions that manage managed as an enclave economy divorced them, and attraction as tourist destinations, from the wider economy. States in the de- delineate the grounds for making the theo- veloping world ultimately have a social re- retical argument for a carefully planned sponsibility to all their citizens. In the final community-based ecotourism agenda that analysis, the successful pursuit of this strat- mitigates some of the negative aspects of egy will be defined in part by two criteria: export-led development models. The very first, if lessons can be learned from the defi- nature of the product of ecotourism and its ciencies associated with comparable export- method of extraction coupled with the so- led strategies, and the errors committed cioeconomic conditions under which this avoided, and second, if the logic of extrac- extraction is to take place define the arena tion of this natural resource is appropriately for potential success. Indeed, if according to understood so that pertinent policy and in- Brandon (1996), the success of an ecotour- stitutions can be devised to ensure ecologi- ism strategy essentially depends on the cal, social and economic sustainability. De- planning process prior to ecotourism initia- veloping countries caught in a global eco- tives and the management controls and in- nomic system in which they are increasingly volvement of stakeholders once they begin less able to define their domestic develop- there is cause to be hopeful that some Car- ment agendas (Mittelman, 1997) will be ibbean states, among them St. Lucia, have forced to find innovative strategies for eco- some critical attributes that may facilitate nomic and ecological survival. success.
From that perspective, the island territories In this paper I briefly describe the nature of of the Caribbean region such as St. Lucia the global tourist trade and how it has present a unique set of conditions to explore shaped traditional tourism in the Caribbean. some innovative paths. Indeed, the fact that I then define ecotourism and attempt to de- islands cannot hope to compete in the arena lineate, in broad terms, how the theoretical of biodiversity with territories such as Costa conceptualization of this form of tourism Rica means they must continue to rely on may be contrasted to traditional tourism so the traditional attractions. They are chal- that the objectives of ecological and eco- lenged to reconceptualize a more intimate nomic sustainability assume critical signifi- relationship between rural communities that cance in the formulation of development have too often been by-passed by the tradi- objectives. This is followed by a theoretical tional tourism enclave economy. discussion of how ecotourism could be managed if it is to avoid the pitfalls associ- The recent establishment of the St. Lucia ated with previous export-led strategies. Heritage Tourism Programme is distin- Within that context the objectives of current guished by its emphasis on sustainable rural efforts to pursue rural development through development. This reconceptualization of heritage tourism will be briefly examined. tourism within the context of the particular An argument is made that the very nature of colonial history of the region and current the product of "ecotourism" and current pattern of integration into the global econ- communal patterns of ownership of primary omy raise some interesting issues about resources may be conducive to the defini- how the specific socioeconomic conditions tion of a different logic that is more appro- of territories may provide opportunities to priate to ecological sustainability and eco- define successful alternative development nomic development. agendas.
58 Dujon
The Caribbean and the Global product is like a primary agricultural prod- Tourist Industry uct in the sense that there is little processing or value added and the product is highly The global tourist industry upon which vulnerable to global economic fluctuation. ecotourism relies significantly for infrastruc- ture and marketing is commonly considered However, there are obvious and significant to be the second biggest in the world. differences in terms of identifying the prod- Largely controlled by multilateral corpora- uct and its mode of extraction, determining tions, the key sectors are airlines, tour op- sustainable levels of extraction and config- erators and hoteliers. In many cases these uring the institutions and avenues through sectors are vertically integrated under own- which benefits from the sector will be dis- ership of one corporation. The international tributed. The product removed is not tangi- hotel business is dominated by U.S. multi- ble, but over time and depending on the nationals that account for 13 of the top 20 intensity of extraction, there is an obvious operators (Nicholson-Lord, 1997). (visual and physical) depreciation or deple- tion of the resource directly linked to the In most of the Caribbean region traditional movement of consumers who return to their tourism typically ranks among the top three places of origin. Consumers, predominantly industries in generating foreign exchange in first world countries, select the products and although the Caribbean's share of num- from the shelves of travel agencies. They ber of tourists is less than two percent, it then travel to the product site and infra- ranked ninth in the world on the basis of its structure such as airports, harbors, lodg- tourism receipts in 1990 (Patrullo, 1996). Yet ing/hotels and access routes must be in in some states as much as 80 percent of place to facilitate extraction. This infrastruc- nominal inflows of foreign currency flow ture requires heavy capital investment and out again to the accounts of the tour opera- it is not always the case that the income tors, airlines and travel agents (Nicholson- generated actually covers this cost or makes Lord, 1997). It is widely accepted that al- its way back into the economy to fuel devel- though tourism does generate some em- opment (Deere et al., 1990). ployment and foreign exchange, its success as a development strategy has remained The path of least resistance of attracting in- elusive. Employment is largely restricted to vestment with excessive incentives and ex- seasonal, low-skilled jobs; there are substan- pecting linkages and multiplier effects to tial leakages of income out of the countries translate into growth and development can- through extended tax holidays and free re- not be repeated under ecotourism. Indeed, patriation of profits offered as incentives to successful implementation of ecotourism external investors and through the estab- entails in large part, efforts to correct the lishment of all-inclusive hotels in which va- damage and leakages occurring under tradi- cation packages which cover travel, lodging tional tourism and to chart out an environ- and food are pre-paid to travel agencies that mentally sustainable and economically co- are externally located. Linkages with the herent path to development. The critical agricultural sector through the provision of question which must be asked, however, is: food for the industry have never material- was the traditional strategy just a policy ized. failure, the inability to implement policy that would lead to different outcomes or From one set of perspectives, the logic of was it a problem in political economy in ecotourism as a development strategy is which planners were limited by internal and very much like that of other non-traditional external interest groups seeking to take ad- export-led strategies. Ecotourism may be vantage of a profit making venture? Theo- conceptualized as an extractive industry retically the obstacles lie in the latter expla- with an export product. In some ways this nation. The tourism industry is highly com- petitive in the Caribbean and in order to Dujon 59 attract investment, planners often compro- minica referring to that island, "Our percep- mise appropriate development policy. In- tion is that the Nature Island of the Carib- ternational investors essentially negotiate bean (Dominica) is not a national park in for extended tax holidays, prime beach front which we live. It has got to provide for the locations and the supply of a list of infra- people to enjoy a quality of life. Tourism has structural needs by threatening to move to got to be a tool for development” (Patrullo, competing islands with similar tourism po- 1996: 126). Similarly, following a seminar in tential and just as anxious for the invest- 1998, CANARI, the Regional Agency for ment. Tourism (Martinique) and the Ajoupa Bouil- lon Office of Tourism developed a definition What evidence is there that the structural for ecotourism that emphasizes economic space, appropriate institutions and re- improvement of communities as much as sources for planning, research, monitoring secure and appropriate management of and marketing for this new effort in ecot- natural and cultural resources (Geoghegan, ourism exist, or can be created, when they 1997: 4). have proven to be so elusive under tradi- tional tourism? Under such circumstances As an ideal concept in a development strat- the challenge is to identify some form of egy, ecotourism essentially derives its at- ecotourism which can provide some wiggle traction from a combination of the gains to room to overcome the pitfalls. It may well be made from marketing a product that ex- be that such flexibility will come from vari- ists in its natural state in specific geographic ous combinations of particular circum- locations and the potential to make such stances, for example: territories small trade ecologically, economically and socially enough that monitoring is effective; domes- sustainable. As a distinct form of tourism, tic planners skilled in identifying investors ecotourism is being considered in St. Lucia committed to socially responsible ecotour- as the new path to follow in revitalizing and ism; internal investors allied to traditional in stimulating a growth spurt within rural tourism but who can be persuaded not to communities, but not necessarily replacing, undermine the ecotourism project and the traditional tourist sector. communities already knowledgeable in the use of communal institutions to regulate The opportunity to experience a different resource use. culture is also typically described as ecot- ourism. Here the argument is made that in addition to generating income, residents are The Ecotourism Agenda encouraged to preserve their culture in a rapidly changing global environment that The Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism erodes local traditions. Of course, some as: critical and disturbing questions about the “the purposeful travel to natural areas nature and impact of commodification of to understand the culture and natural native cultures have also been raised, but history of the environment, taking care these discussions are outside of the scope of not to alter the integrity of the ecosys- this paper. Worthy of note in these defini- tem, producing economic opportunities tions is the fact that the attraction of the ex- that make the conservation of natural perience of nature and culture and an op- resources beneficial to local people” portunity to generate foreign exchange or (Ecotourism Society, 1991). income are prominent.
For countries considering ecotourism as part In a review of key issues in ecotourism, of a development strategy the primary ob- Brandon (1996: i), concludes that, “despite jectives are, understandably, somewhat dif- tremendous differences in size and man- ferent. According to the general manager of agement of protected areas, cultures, types the National Development Council in Do- of ecotourism enterprises and government 60 Dujon involvement, in most cases, ecotourism and of either management or benefactors, or nature-based tourism have not lived up to both, through employment related activities expectations." How can the new strategy be or as recipients of lump sums of income made more viable and sustainable and what (Boo, 1990). are the mechanics, policy and institutional arrangements that will lead to these targets? Several arguments can be made why com- The peculiar characteristics of some states munity orientation may prove to be more may allow them some space to overcome effective, efficient and equitable than, for the overwhelming odds and achieve signifi- example, a state-directed approach in which cant successes. communities may lose sight of the need to accept responsibility for regulating use. Ecotourism involves trade in a non-tangible Theoretical Considerations product. Unlike other export products, it is logically difficult to associate supply or pro- This optimism for the potential of the Car- duction of individuals, in any concrete or ibbean region to succeed with an ecotourism measurable way. This means that innovative agenda is founded on a number of contin- ways must be developed for assigning work gencies, socio-historical, political and geo- effort and distributing gains. Granted, indi- graphical. Admittedly, these may not be viduals may engage in different levels of replicable elsewhere, but nonetheless they service (tour guides etc.), or may access in- point to the peculiar circumstances that can come through subsidiary activity such as allow for flexibility and opportunity for provision of lodging or selling of crafts, but these territories to capture some of the bene- additional institutional mechanisms are re- fits of the booming global tourist trade in quired to link individual beneficiary out- spite of structural constraints they face. This comes to an interest in the conservation or section attempts to delineate how these con- sustainable ecological maintenance of the tingencies may define the potential for suc- resources. An effective instrument needs to cess. be developed to create stake-holders and caretakers out of beneficiaries. Community The major concerns in establishing a suc- institutions such as care-taking services on a cessful ecotourism strategy are anchored rotating basis, or by selected community around two sets of issues: first, balancing employees and producer fees to be invested income generation and maintaining the eco- in community projects (for example infra- logical sustainability of the natural re- structure) may be more effective at encour- sources and, second, the responsibility for aging responsible and sustainable develop- management/caretaking of natural re- ment than an alternative system in which sources and corresponding distribution of the responsibility associated with income the income generated. Successful ecotour- gain is not obvious. ism projects are critically dependent on the type of management controls adopted and The involvement of local communities in the involvement of stakeholders in defining resource management and access to income resource use and benefits distribution generated is emerging as pivotal in achiev- (Brandon, 1996; Magno unpub., 1997). Ecot- ing the primary goals of ecological sustain- ourism is expected to stimulate economic ability of the resources involved and some improvement at the local level and eventu- form of democratic distribution of benefits ally at the national level. In discussions of at the local level. Failing that kind of in- the creation or maintenance of protected volvement it is likely that interests external areas it is generally accepted that the indi- to the communities, national or global, may viduals or communities of people whose step in and bypass the needs of the local livelihoods are linked to these areas, or will economy. But not all communities are ap- be adversely affected, should be incorpo- propriately equipped with the institutional rated into the ecotourism projects at levels infrastructure to manage the resources Dujon 61 and/or distribute the benefits or have the In Caribbean societies with the legacy of appropriate background knowledge to de- plantation production, the existence of the fine their meaningful participation as stake- communal land variant, often referred to as holders. In such cases the expectation is that family land, is unlike more traditional forms some form of intervention either from gov- of communal land tenure in other develop- ernments or non-governmental organiza- ing regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and tions could supply the regulatory infrastruc- Latin America, which evolved prior to con- ture or facilitate a process that will eventu- tact with capitalist forms of production. The ally encourage the creation of such institu- evolution of communal land among small tions. The conceptual framework and prac- farmers in the Caribbean was within a con- tical recommendations developed by text of contestation following slave emanci- CANARI (1997) and the recent establish- pation as newly freed African laborers at- ment of St. Lucia Heritage Tourism Pro- tempted to become landed (Dujon, 1995). gramme to facilitate collaboration between the government, the communities and pri- Caribbean communal land evolved within vate sector bode well for future institutional the context of market forms of production infrastructure building. Both of these efforts and an export-led plantation growth model emphasize the participatory involvement of with essential linkages to an international communities; equitable access to established economy (Dujon, 1997). Nonetheless it op- channels for marketing and promotion; in- erates like other common property re- frastructural support in the form of credit sources in that there is a clearly identified facilities; and other incentives such as tax membership and there are rules to regulate holidays commonly used to lure large-scale the use of resources through the establish- foreign investment but which have tradi- ment of institutions which have endured in tionally not been available to local commu- a long term basis. There are clearly defined nities. rights and social obligations. Rule breakers are sanctioned through the installation of But perhaps as promising for local ecotour- effective monitoring and information sys- ism success is the prior existence of common tems. In addition, aside from the existence property resource regimes in which the in- of sanctions a major part of the reason why stitutional arrangements for inducing self- people cooperate is the presence of social governing cooperative strategies among capital which consists of social resources community members are already estab- embodied in norms of trust, reciprocity and lished. A major opportunity provided by the mutual aid (Dujon, 1997; Magno, 1997). tourism or ecotourism product is that as a collective good it creates room for public Doubts about the continued economic rele- participation in management, and as such vance of family land and common property transfers the advantages of a high premium resource regimes in at least one Caribbean product with local content to communities. territory, St. Lucia, which is currently con- Common property resource regimes can sidering ecotourism, were thwarted in the overcome many of the usual pitfalls associ- late 1980s when landowners, the majority ated with all collective goods. The institu- small, opted not to convert to private tenure tions under which they operate are founded during a USAID sponsored land registration on rules and conventions which are rou- program (Dujon, 1995). To the contrary, in- tinely activated to overcome collective ac- vestigation of the unexpected outcome re- tion problems, particularly the incentive for vealed that the communal land institution individual "free-riding" - the irresponsible continues to be vibrant and is critical to the exploitation of resources by individuals be- agricultural sector both in social and eco- cause they do not bear the costs (Olson, nomic terms (Dujon, 1995; 1997). 1965). The affirmation of institutional mechanisms for collective control of natural resources, 62 Dujon invites the speculation that such mecha- particularly the banana producing states nisms might be effectively incorpo- (Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada), rated/transferred into community based may stimulate this redirection of produc- ecotourism strategies. Although current ex- tion. perience with collective control has been within groups linked by kinship, the exis- With greater participation and control by tence of relevant frameworks and models local stakeholders in maintaining and deliv- for wider community application across ering the ecotourism product (currently es- such lines is cause to be optimistic. The criti- sentially open access public areas or pro- cal research question is, of course, what is tected areas under government manage- the likelihood that this approach might be ment), the expectation is that local commu- successfully applied across kinship lines. nities will be able to capture a greater share Field research scheduled for the near future of a high premium product and in the proc- will provide some interesting insights to ess staunch some of the income leakage. answer this question. As currently conceptualized in smaller Car- What other local conditions might enhance ibbean territories, ecotourism is being ex- success? Smallness of scale has been ac- plored not as a replacement to traditional knowledged as a significant factor in facili- mass-based tourism but as a complement to tating collective action. Smaller groups are it - an attempt to take advantage of a grow- better able to monitor behavior of members, ing niche in the wider global industry or in in the process increasing cooperative behav- more technical terms: to diversify the port- ior (Taylor, 1982). If this is the case small folio of tourism activities (Brandon, 1996). Caribbean communities certainly are at an To that effect, the excursions into nature by advantage. The relatively small geographic tourists would be in the form of "add-ons" - size of the islands and the fact that all major individuals who have already decided to natural resource sites - beaches, coastal visit a country for various reasons and are zones and watershed tropical rain forests - now motivated to visit natural sites or to as well as historic sites, are publicly owned, partake in indigenous culture. Such small are conducive to the design of a system of scale attempts at ecotourism have the ad- controlled extraction, monitoring and in- vantage of not incurring any additional come distribution, in which communities of overhead in terms of marketing, thereby individuals are stake-holders and assume creating new potential for income leakage the responsibility of gatekeepers in product and at the same time have the potential to delivery and conservation. Communities redefine how people in small communities themselves can assume responsibility for can be integrated into a larger pre-existing developing appropriate institutions and tourist economy. mechanisms for distributing gains.
In addition to the issues of sustainable man- Conclusion agement of resources and distribution of gains at the local level, massive income This paper suggests that developing states leakages that have usually resulted from in search of avenues for economic survival inadequate linkages to the local economy, in this current global economy may have to expatriation of profits and marketing con- look to the particular sets of conditions that trolled by multinational corporations under allow their economies some potential to de- traditional tourism are a major concern. The fine paths to success. Caribbean territories agricultural sector which has for decades like St. Lucia seem to be endowed with cer- focused on the export of cash crops must be tain assets in the form of small geographic redirected in part to supply food crops to size, well established common property re- the tourist sector. Indeed the rapid decline source institutions and natural resources of the agricultural sectors of some states, Dujon 63 which are ideally matched with the logic of Caribbean Natural Resources Institute extraction of the ecotourism product. (CANARI) (1996). Progress Report 1995 Vieux Fort Ecotourism presents a challenge and oppor- Deere, C. D. (1990). In the Shadows of the Sun: tunity to redefine the logic of traditional Caribbean Development Alternatives and tourism, and in so doing capture the gains U.S. Policy. Westview Press, Boulder, that have so far eluded it. This new concep- San Francisco. tualization of tourism which incorporates Dujon, V. (1997). Communal Property and sustainability and community participation Land Markets: Agricultural Develop- as central elements, is conducive to an alter- ment Policy in St. Lucia. World Develop- native theoretical framework of develop- ment, September 25(9): 1529-1540. ment in which the focus is on development ------(1995). unpub. Ph.D. National Actors from below rather than a trickle down per- Against World Market Pressures: Commu- spective. In the Caribbean where sun, sea nal Land, Privatization and Agricultural and sand (all nature products) have been Development in the Caribbean, University the major tourist attractions and continue to of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI. be, the conceptual difference between tradi- Esprit, S. (1994). Dominica: Managing the tional tourism and ecotourism is essentially Ecotourism Option: A view of the plan- one of product differentiation. In territories ning and management tasks required by with established traditional tourist sectors a National Tourism Policy. The Rural Ex- and looking for a way out of the persistent tension Bulletin #5. problems, certain conditions might make it Geoghegan, Tighe. (1997). Rural Development possible to recycle parts of the traditional Through Heritage Tourism: Guidelines for structure into new communally managed the Caribbean. CANARI Guidelines Se- sectors that integrate communities into the ries #2. CANARI, Vieux Fort. wider industry in ways that are more eco- Magno, Francisco A. (1997). unpub. Ph.D. nomically meaningful to them, and which Crafting Conservation: Forestry, Social allow for effective conservation of resources, Capital, and Tenurial Security in the natural and cultural. Northern Philippines. University of Ha- waii. James H. Mittelman (ed.), (1997). Globaliza- References tion: Critical Reflections, Lynne Reinner, Boulder, CO. Ascher, W. (1995). Communities and Sustain- National Public Radio. (1997). Costa Rica able Forestry in Developing Countries. In- Parks Part 1. Morning Edition Oct 27. stitute for Contemporary Studies. ICS Nicholson-Lord, David. (1997). The Politics Press, San Francisco, CA. of Travel: Is Tourism Just Colonialism in Berkes, Fikret. (ed.) (1989). Common Property Another Guise? The Nation Oct. pp. 11- Resources: Ecology and Community-Based 18. Sustainable Development. Belhaven Press, Olson, Mancur. (1965). The Logic of Collective London. Action: Public Goods and The Theory of Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourism: The Potentials and Groups. Harvard University Press, Pitfalls (Vol. 1). World Wildlife Fund, Cambridge, MA. Washington, D.C. Patrullo, Polly. (1996). Last Resorts: The Cost Brandon, Katrina. (1996). Ecotourism and of Tourism in the Caribbean. Cassell, Lon- Conservation: A Review of Key Issues. En- don. vironment Department Papers # 033. Taylor, Michael. (1982). Community, Anar- The World Bank, Washington, D.C. chy, and Liberty. Cambridge University Bromley, Daniel. (1992). The Commons, Press, Cambridge. Common Property and Environmental Wight, P. (1993). Ecotourism: Ethics or Eco- Policy" Environmental and Resource Sell? Journal of Travel Research 31(3): 3-9. Economics 2
A PROFILE OF VISITORS TO NATIONAL ESTUARINE RESEARCH RESERVES: IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETIVE PROGRAMS
William C. Norman Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management Clemson University (U.S.A.)
Tiffany J. McClinton Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management Clemson University (U.S.A.)
Bonnie Martin Offices of Fisheries Management South Carolina Department of Natural Resources (U.S.A.)
Abstract: The purpose of this project was to visitor monitoring system that collects standard- develop a profile of visitors to the National Es- ized information across the National Estuarine tuarine Research Reserve System which could be Research Reserve System be designed and im- used to assist National Oceanic and Atmospheric plemented. The monitoring system could be used Association (NOAA) and National Estuarine to track changes in the visitation patterns and Research Reserve System administrators and characteristics of NERR customers, visitor satis- education coordinators in meeting the educa- faction and measures of program outcomes. tional needs of visitors to National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR) sites. The National Keywords: ecotourism, education, recreation, Estuarine Research Reserve Visitor Study found management, education, marketing that the majority of the respondents were be- tween 40 and 59 years old, were married, had at least a four year college degree, and had a house- Introduction hold income of USD$40,000 or more in 1997. Just over a quarter of the respondents were Estuaries such as bays, sounds, marshes, somewhat or very familiar with the National swamps, inlets and sloughs are home to a Estuarine Research Reserve System. Respon- wide variety of mammals, birds, fish, rep- dents spent an average of 5.6 hours at the NERR tiles, shellfish, and unique plant life. Estuar- site they most recently visited, three-fourths ies also act as nature's water treatment facili- traveled 100 miles or less to their most recent NERR destination and 23.6% of the respondents ties, flood control areas, buffers against to a NERR site were on an overnight trip from storm damage and protection of shoreline home. Six out of ten respondents observed wild- erosion. Recognizing the natural values of life during their most recent visit to a NERR site estuaries as well as the human threats to and nearly two–thirds visited an interpretive or these unique areas, the United States Con- nature center. Respondents strongly agreed that gress created the National Estuarine Re- exploring and discovering new things was a rea- search Reserve System in 1972. The National son why they visit a NERR site. Potential topics Estuarine Research Reserve System is dedi- for environmental education programs included cated to fostering a system of estuary re- water pollution, endangered and threatened spe- serves that represent the wide range of cies and the natural history of the area. The re- coastal and estuarine habitats found in the sults of this study provide a baseline of visitor United States and its territories. Currently, information. However, it is recommended that a 425,000 acres in 18 states and Puerto Rico Norman, McClinton, and Martin 66 are protected by National Estuarine Re- Background search Reserve System. The National Estua- rine Research Reserve System is coordinated Information about visitors to the NERR sites by the Sanctuaries and Reserves Division of is limited, especially the general visitor who the National Oceanic and Atmospheric As- may not be a part of an organized group. sociation (NOAA) and works with federal Tilden (1977) recommends that develop- and state authorities to establish, manage ment of interpretive programming be based and maintain the reserves and to provide for on information about the user. Research of their long-term stewardship. visitors’ demographic profiles and their ex- pectations of interpretive programs and cen- The partnership between NOAA and state ters would provide this information. Tilden and local resource management agencies also advocated relating interpretation to the has resulted in a cooperative program of personality and experience of the visitor to stewardship, education and research. The avoid sterile interpretation. Kreag (1995) National Estuarine Research Reserve System recommends that: is intended to enhance informed manage- 1. Applied research efforts matching ment and scientific understanding of the visitor interests with valued re- nation’s estuarine and coastal habitats and sources will need to be under-taken. supports estuarine research, education, and 2. The understanding of a variety of resource protection. The program is dedi- current and potential new visitor cated to promoting healthy coasts by im- markets (i.e., nature-based tourists) proving awareness, understanding and ap- will become very important. preciation of estuarine and coastal resources 3. Interpretation will need to become by local residents and for the traveling pub- more than educational if it hopes to lic. As a result of the National Estuarine Re- attract tourists -- it may need to in- search Reserve System program, many Na- tegrate its messages with other visi- tional Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR) tor interests, include entertainment sites have developed visitor or interpretive elements, and come as a complete centers and interpretive programs. high quality packaged experience.
4. The general interest mass market
and small groups with specific in- Problem Statement terests. 5. Growing interest in heritage and Environmental education and interpretation culture will also offer many new has played an important role in the man- opportunities to create linkages be- agement of the National Estuarine Research tween interpretation and tourism. Reserve System. Successful education pro- grams include student curricula, field trip The purpose of this National Estuarine Re- programs, adult lectures, teacher work- search Reserve Visitor Study was to develop shops, volunteer programs and a wide vari- a profile of general visitors to the National ety of print media. However, little is known Estuarine Research Reserve System. Specifi- about the general visitors to NERR sites. If cally, the research objectives were to de- NERR managers and educators are to meet velop a socio-demographic profile of the their goal of the long-term stewardship of general visitor to the National Estuarine Re- these reserves, more information is needed search Reserve System, to assess general about the interests, attitudes and actions of visitor knowledge and experience with the these visitors to NERR sites. In addition, National Estuarine Research Reserve Sys- information is needed on the effectiveness of tem, to learn about general visitors' most NERR educational programs for general recent visit to a NERR site, to better under- visitors. stand the trip characteristics of NERR visi- tors (i.e., trip purpose, activities participated Norman, McClinton, and Martin 67 in), to assess the outcome of the visitors' ex- one-page questionnaire and a self-addressed perience, and to identify potential educa- return envelope was also conducted. The tional topics for future programming. By additional analysis did not reveal any sig- identifying the travel characteristics, inter- nificant demographic differences between ests, opinions and actions of visitors, this respondents and non-respondents. information can then be used by NOAA and NERR staff and educators to develop and better communicate their site, programs and Findings facilities to the general public. The results can also be used to determine if the National In order to develop an accurate profile of Estuarine Research Reserve System is meet- visitors to National Estuarine Research Re- ing its educational goals and objectives. serve sites, “socio-demographic” and “tri- pographic” information was collected from the respondents. This information describes Research Methods the visitors to NERR sites as well as charac- teristics of their most recent trip to a NERR. The National Estuarine Research Reserve The remainder of the study introduces in- Visitor Study was conducted in the fall of formation that can be used to develop edu- 1998. Twelve of the twenty-two NERR sites cational programs for independent visitors participated in this nationwide mail survey to NERR sites. of previous visitors. A total of 3,766 names and addresses of visitors to NERR sites in Sociodemographic Characteristics 1997 were submitted to the researchers. Of The respondents to the national NERR visi- those, 1,086 were legible and were included tor survey were predominately female (al- in the study and a systematic sample with a most 65%), most were white, married and random starting point was used to select the had an average age of 52 years. Almost 90% survey sample. A total of 886 individuals of the visitors were educated past high were sent an eight page questionnaire which school, 60% were employed full time and addressed: 1) visitor knowledge and experi- almost 70% had an income between $20,000 ence with the National Estuarine Research and $80,000. Reserve System, 2) information about re- spondent’s most recent visit to a NERR site, Trip Characteristics 3) ratings of potential educational opportu- Interestingly, seven out of ten (71.5%) of the nities at NERR sites, 4) questions on wildlife respondents indicated that they were not at and viewing wildlife, and 5) socio- all or were slightly familiar with the Na- demographic information (e.g., age, gender, tional Estuarine Research Reserve System. income). Most of the visits had occurred during
warmer months from April through Octo- A modified version of Dillman's (1977) “to- ber. Six out of ten (63.1%) of the respondents tal design method” was used to collect the reported visiting a NERR only once in the data. This consisted of an initial mailing of last twelve months. Only 47% of the re- the questionnaire with a cover letter and a spondents replied that the NERR site was postage paid return envelope, followed by a their primary destination. Over one–half postcard one week later. Three weeks after (57.3%) of the respondents reported staying the initial mailing, a second mailing with a two hours or less at the NERR site they most replacement questionnaire, cover letter and recently visited. Three out of four respon- a postage paid envelope was mailed. A total dents (76.5%) had traveled less than a hun- of 377 respondents returned a completed dred miles to the NERR site and therefore, questionnaire for an adjusted response rate did not stay overnight. Over three–fourths of 46.0% (66 questionnaires were undeliver- (76.4%) of the respondents indicated that able). A non-response test consisting of a their most recent visit to a NERR site was a Norman, McClinton, and Martin 68 day trip. For those individuals on an over- channels/water (32.0%), beaches and dunes night trip from home, the average length of (28.2%) and fresh marshes (27.9%). Other stay was 7.8 nights. However, the median habitats explored to a lesser extent were for- was five nights and the mode was only one ests, non–tidal marshes, mangroves or other night away from home. Prior to their visit, wetlands, meadows, and fields. one–third of the respondents acquired in- formation about the NERR from a friend or Wildlife Observation relative. Another third received information Four out of ten (44.2%) respondents re- about the NERR from printed material or ported that observing or photographing the media and another 17% got information wildlife was very or extremely important. directly from the NERR site. Respondents observed or photographed a variety of water birds (67.1%), waterfowl Over one–third (34.4%) of the respondents (58.3%), birds of prey (48.7%) and songbirds reported that the primary purpose for their (41.2%), as well as frogs, turtles and crabs most recent visit to a NERR site was to (65.2%) and small land mammals (42.8%). sightsee. Other important reasons included Only a few (3.9%) of the visitors reported the desire to be in a natural environment that their expectations for observing or pho- (18.0%), to observe or photograph wildlife tographing wildlife were not met on their (13.2%), to participate in an educational most recent visit to a NERR site. As a result, program (11.7%), and to learn about estuar- 56.6% of the respondents were very or ex- ies (11.0%). Respondents were asked to indi- tremely satisfied with their chance to ob- cate what activities they had participated in serve or photograph wildlife. Satisfaction on their visit to a NERR site. The three most with their wildlife experience also resulted frequently reported activities that respon- in the majority (57.5%) of the respondents dents were participants in were: 1) going to reporting that they were very or extremely a visitor center (63.7%), 2) observing wildlife likely to return to a NERR site in the next (59.9%), and 3) going for a walk (59.4%). two years to observe or photograph wildlife. Other activities participated in by about one–third of the visitors included photogra- Outcomes phy (36.1%), birding (30.0%), and pleasure Respondents reported many positive out- driving (29.3%). comes to their most recent visit to a NERR
site. These included an increased under- Respondents participated in a wide range of standing and appreciation of the National educational activities on their most recent Estuarine Research System (59.9%), learning visit to a NERR site. The two most fre- about estuaries from various perspectives quently reported educational activities were (48.8%), and becoming familiar with coastal a visit to an interpretive or nature center issues (36.3%). Other outcomes of their ex- (62.0 %) and taking a self–guided nature perience were exposure to the concept of walk or hike (55.3 %). Other popular educa- estuaries (36.3%) and the development of a tional activities included observing interpre- sense of stewardship (34.4%). Surprisingly, tive signs or exhibits (39.9%), speaking with 13.3% of the respondents reported that they a NERR employee (39.9%), walking along a were encouraged to participate in local, re- self–guided interpretive trail (31.4%) and gional, state and national associations re- utilizing publications provided by the lated to estuary and coastal issues after their NERR (25.0%). Most of the respondents most recent visit to a NERR. (93.6%) had not attended an off–site out- reach program sponsored by the NERR site Visitor Satisfaction which they most recently visited. Respondents explored many habitats during Visitors overwhelmingly felt that their ex- their most recent visit to a NERR. The most pectations had been met during their most predominant habitats visited were salt recent visit to the NERR site. Nearly nine marshes (40.7%), tidelands (37.9%), open out of ten (85.7%) of the respondents re- Norman, McClinton, and Martin 69 ported that their visit had met or exceeded ness of NERR sites. Like many outdoor rec- their expectations. That probably explains reation destinations, visitation to NERR sites why 83.0% of the respondents were very by general visitors fluctuated by seasons. It satisfied or extremely satisfied with their is recommended that NERR sites examine most recent visit. Only 4.3% of the respon- the potential for additional year-round pro- dents reported that they did not think it was gramming targeted to general visitors who likely they would return to any NERR site in have time available in the fall, winter and the next two years. spring. Because the majority of usage is from people within 100 miles, innovative Potential Educational Opportunities at programming is needed to build an ongoing NERR Sites “relationship” with local NERR visitors to In an effort to assist NERR Education Coor- encourage their involvement and commit- dinators with future educational program- ment to the individual site and to the sys- ming and exhibit development, respondents tem. In addition, NERR sites need to coordi- were asked why they visit NERR sites and nate with destination marketing organiza- to rate potential topic areas for future pro- tions in order to attract tourists from outside grams. On a seven item scale based on a the region. range of 1 = Strongly Disagree to 5 = Strongly Agree, the most important reason Based on the quantitative and qualitative for visiting a NERR site was to explore and data, the individuals appear to visit NERR discover new things (mean = 4.4), to have sites as individuals and with organized their interest captured (mean = 4.3), to have groups. Further work is needed to “cross– their curiosity aroused (mean = 4.2), to market” organized group participants to search for answers to questions (mean = 4.1) return as individual visitors. However, ad- and to feel involved in what is going on ditional product development is needed to (mean = 4.0). Respondents were then asked meet the needs of individual visitors. One of to rate 18 potential topics for educational the major recommendations that emerged programs or exhibits on a scale of 1 = Not at from open–ended comments is that NERR all Interested to 5 = Extremely Interested. sites have to do a much better job in com- The highest rated topics were endangered municating their facility and the entire sys- and threatened species (mean = 3.9), natural tem. Most visitors have a short planning history of the area (mean = 3.8), marsh and horizon on their decision to visit a NERR wetland habitat (mean = 3.8), water pollu- site. As a result, the individual NERR sites tion (mean = 3.7) and habitat restoration must continue to work with local media or (mean = 3.7), bird identification (mean = 3.7) through an “in–house” publication designed and animal identification (mean = 3.7). to communicate their upcoming programs and activities.
Discussion Visitor or nature centers are critical compo- nents of NERR experiences and should be Results of the National Estuarine Research designed and programmed with topics and Reserve Visitor Study revealed that respon- activities of interest to potential visitors. dents were familiar with the NERR site they This research provides detailed information visited, but very few were familiar with the on the type of experiences desired by NERR National Estuarine Research Reserve Sys- visitors. It is recommended that the NERR tem. Additional efforts are needed with lo- management take on a more “market orien- cal and state partners to clearly communi- tation.” The majority of NERR visitors are cate that these sites are part of a nationwide participating in passive recreation and na- system. In essence, NOAA needs to build a ture study. The general visitor is interested National Estuarine Research Reserve “brand in both the environment and recreation. image” in an effort to create greater aware- NERR educators and staff must develop products and services that capture both the Norman, McClinton, and Martin 70 leisure and educational components of the put in place that collects standardized in- experience. formation across the NERR system
While one on one attention is critical to a NERR visit, respondents to the study indi- References cated that they like to do things at their own pace, and on their own schedule. Once Clawson, Marion and Knetsch, Jack L. again, unique opportunities have to be de- (1966). Economics of Outdoor Recreation. veloped for independent visitors as well The John Hopkins University Press, those attending a group activity. As ex- Baltimore. pected, water–based habitats are the pre- Dillman, Donald A. (1978). Mail and Tele- ferred setting for NERR visitors. Observing phone Surveys: The total design method. and photographing all types of wildlife ap- John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. pears to be important, specifically, endan- Kreag, Glenn. (1995). Linking interpret- gered species. It is recommended that the ation/environmental education with NERR sites do not underestimate the lure of tourism. In: Proceedings of the Fourth In- viewing wildlife in reaching out to new visi- ternational Outdoor Recreation and Tour- tors. The majority of the respondents re- ism Trends Symposium and the 1995 Na- ported a greater understanding and appre- tional Recreation Resource Planning Con- ciation of the NERR systems and increased ference, J. L. Thompson, D. W. Lime, B. their knowledge of estuaries. However, it is Gartner, and W. M. Sames., (eds.). May recommended that the NERRS develop a 14–17, 1995, St Paul, MN. University of strategy and mechanism to encourage indi- Minnesota, College of Natural Re- viduals to participate in estuary and coastal sources and Minnesota Extension Ser- issues. vice, St. Paul, MN. Tilden, Freeman. (1977). Interpreting our heri- In conclusion, this research confirmed what tage. University of North Carolina Press, other nature–based tourism researchers are Chapel Hill, NC. discovering...that people interested in the environment are also interested in the his- tory of the region. Educators need to ad- dress the need to provide solid ecologi- cal/biological information with the history of the area and the role of man (both posi- tive and negative). Most visitors have a short planning horizon on their decision to visit a NERR site. As a result, the individual NERR sites must continue to work with lo- cal media or be designed to communicate their upcoming activities. This research pro- vides detailed information on the type of experiences desired by NERR visitors which can be used by NERR management and educators to take on a more “market orien- tation” in its interpretive program design and development. Finally, it is recom- mended that a visitor monitoring system be
THE GREEN HOST EFFECT: AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO SUSTAINABLE TOURISM AND RESORT DEVELOPMENT
Aaron G. Bruner Conservation International (U.S.A.)
James E.N. Sweeting Conservation International (U.S.A.)
Amy B. Rosenfeld Conservation International (U.S.A.)
Abstract: This paper offers recommendations waste into some of the world's most biologi- for responsible tourism and resort development cally and culturally diverse areas, often in the tropics, to both minimize the industry's causing adverse impacts on the environment negative environmental and social impacts and and local communities. In 1950, there were increase the overall positive contribution of tour- 25 million international tourist arrivals ism to conservation and local well-being. It de- worldwide (WTO, 1997). Today, that num- scribes a series of management practices and ber is nearly 25 times larger, with 613 mil- technologies that developers can use to increase lion international tourist arrivals in 1997 the environmental and social sustainability of (WTO, 1998). their developments, as well as a series of plan- ning and policy tools for governments to guide Tourism in natural areas in the tropics is the development of tourism in their countries. growing even more rapidly than the indus- Although these tools are principally for the pub- try as a whole (The Ecotourism Society, lic and private sector, they will also be useful to 1998), with growth focused primarily on groups such as non-governmental organizations, coastal areas. In the Caribbean, for example, development agencies and local communities the majority of tourism facilities are located seeking to become more informed participants in within 800 meters of the high water mark tourism development. (Jackson, 1984), and the majority of tourist
activity takes place in the area between the Keywords: land-use planning, tourism scale back bays and fronting reefs. Two-thirds of and facility development, conservation, comm.- identified environment-al impacts in the unity development, industry efforts, regulatory Caribbean occur in this same area (Potter, management 1996: 11).
In the tropics, the natural environments Background which hold the most appeal to tourists - in- cluding beaches, coastal zones, islands, pri- In the last 50 years, international tourism mary forests, savannas and mountainous has grown from an occasional pastime of the areas - are also some of the most environ- rich and adventurous to a central source of mentally significant and fragile. These eco- employment, foreign capital, and cultural systems are home to a highly complex and exchange for many countries around the rich diversity of species, many of which are world. However, the industry also brings found nowhere else on earth. For example, large numbers of people, increased resource coral reefs support the highest number of demand, land degradation, pollution and living organisms per area of any ecosystem 72 Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld in the world (Schoorl and Japp, 1991: x), environmental degradation or local discon- providing a home for more than one-quarter tent have reached serious proportions of all known marine fish species while oc- (Sorensen, 1990: 37-63). While reactive poli- cupying less than one quarter of one percent cies can be an effective and necessary step of the planet's total marine area (Bryant et toward reducing impacts, trying to change al., 1998: 7). The implications for poorly established patterns of behavior often causes planned and implemented development are conflicts and can be an expensive process thus particularly high. (Manning and Dougherty, 1994: 14-15). Fur- thermore, reactive control cannot affect sit- As tourism has grown, so has awareness ing decisions, which may allow inappropri- about the industry's potential to be either ate and damaging development to proceed the cause of serious environmental and so- in some of the most environmentally and cial damage, or a positive source of support culturally sensitive areas of a country or re- and resources for conservation and commu- gion. As governments become increasingly nity development. Although tourism devel- aware of the potential pitfalls of tourism and opment has degraded ecosystems around the practices necessary to avoid them, early the world, it also represents one of the best planning for tourism development has been opportunities to promote economic devel- increasingly recognized as a necessary and opment without serious negative impacts. If preferable option to trying to correct dam- tourism can be developed responsibly, with ages after the fact. Early planning can pro- careful planning and design, it can provide a mote long-term sustainability, minimize relatively non-destructive source of income social costs and conserve valuable natural and development, especially in comparison areas for future generations. to other large industries, such as oil, mining, timber, agriculture, or manufacturing. More generally, successful land-use plans will require a shift in the objectives of tour- Moving from ideals of sustainability to re- ism development away from the traditional sponsible practice will require a fundamen- “growth at all costs” approach. In many tal shift in the industry as a whole, in coor- cases, this will mean that tourism develop- dination with governments, local communi- ment must be limited and shaped by social ties, international development agencies, and environmental criteria. Land-use plans non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should specify where tourism can be devel- and international tourism organizations. oped and to what degree, ensuring that ap- Sustainable tourism development will re- propriate types of tourism development are quire an integrated approach, comprised of sited in appropriate places (Middleton, 1998: 1) participatory land-use planning, 2) pri- 95). This will allow developers to move be- vate sector practices which both mitigate yond simply mitigating impacts wherever negative impacts and actively support con- they choose to locate, toward siting in ap- servation and local benefit, and 3) the im- propriate areas and providing support for plementation of a range of public sector key conservation areas. policies to promote responsible develop- ment. The Importance of Participatory Planning Traditionally, tourism and other land-use plans have been designed by experts, with Promoting Responsible Tourism local participation limited to brief interviews Development Through that provide little substantive contribution Participatory Land-use Planning to the final design. As a result, local priori- ties often have not been represented, leading Although many nations are now beginning to conflicts and forcing governments to di- to implement impact management meas- vert limited financial resources toward en- ures, the majority have done so only after forcement or negotiation (Bonilla, 1997: 120). Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld 73
1Some land-use plans may simply become tected areas management, and cultural re- impossible to implement because of a lack of sources (Bonilla, 1997: 31). support from key stakeholder groups, in- cluding regional and national government Mapping and Ranking Areas by Priority agencies, the private sector, local communi- for Tourism, Conservation and Local ties, community and conservation NGOs, Interest and funding agencies (Bonilla, 1997: 6-8). The second major step in developing a tour- Thus, successful development and imple- ism land-use plan is the mapping and rank- mentation of a land-use plan will rely on ing of areas within the region in terms of active stakeholder involvement and consen- their priority for tourism, local communities sus-building among all participants. and conservation. There are many method- Involving all stakeholders in participatory ologies for priority setting (see, for example, or "bottom-up" planning allows people to Johnson, 1995). The most appropriate in set priorities for their area, which will in- each situation will depend on existing in- crease their stake in and support for the final formation, the amount of area to be covered, plan (Middleton, 1998: 82). Equally impor- technical capacity, and budgetary considera- tant, it allows plans to take advantage of the tions. Criteria for evaluating areas for tour- knowledge and skills of each group (Bonilla, ism priority should include the quality of 1997: 9). Active participation by local stake- natural environmental and cultural attrac- holders can often reveal key information tions, existing facilities and services, areas about potential tourist attractions, local in- that could be improved to support tourism terests, potential conflicts and important and accessibility (Dowling, 1993: 24-5). Pri- environmental areas (Ziffer et al., 1994). Be- orities for conservation should also be low, we present a three-step process for de- evaluated based on a range of criteria, in- veloping a national or regional tourism cluding endemism (species that occur only land-use plan. in a particular region and nowhere else on Earth), biodiversity, level of disturbance and Setting Objectives and Assigning Roles historical features. Social and economic pri- The first step in land-use planning for tour- orities can be determined based on informa- ism is to determine concrete objectives of tion such as local land ownership, land tourism development, and assign roles and claims, interest in or resistance to tourism, responsibilities among people in involved the presence of other industries, infrastruc- agencies. Objectives should be based on so- ture such as roads, and future development cial, environmental, political and economic concessions. conditions, problems and opportunities (Rader, 1998). Setting specific objectives can Synthesizing Priorities make final decisions more credible to com- After priority maps for tourism, conserva- munities, aid agencies and other concerned tion, and socioeconomic constraints and op- parties, and provide critical guidance for portunities are developed, they can be syn- designing and evaluating policies (Rader, thesized into a land-use plan. As with the 1998). As with each stage of the planning other steps in the land-use planning process, process, designing objectives that accurately synthesizing priorities into a land allocation reflect the needs, values and goals of all af- scheme that is acceptable to all stakeholders fected parties should be done in a participa- will require a participatory, consen- tory way, involving all stakeholders. At the sus-building approach, which may be diffi- same time that objectives are being set, the cult, but necessary to use. Planners and roles and responsibilities of the various gov- stakeholders should overlay tourism, envi- ernment agencies with jurisdiction over ronmental and socioeconomic priority tourism must be resolved. These can include maps, and, based on levels of priority and agencies in charge of tourism, environ- where priority areas are separate or over- mental regulation, economic planning, pro- lapping, they should work to allocate land 74 Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld areas to various levels of tourism develop- Practices promoting these concepts are pos- ment (Dowling, 1993). Although the details sible at all stages of development. During are beyond the scope of this paper, informa- infrastructure and facility development, tion should also be used to designate areas they will include site decisions, for a range of conservation importance. land-clearing, construction, and design and Land allocation should focus on finding ar- landscaping choices. During operations, eas where appropriate levels and types of they range from water and energy use, tourism can be compatible with environ- waste disposal and sewage treatment, to mental and social priorities (Dowling, 1993). recreation, transportation and interaction Many areas should not be used for any type with local people. of tourism, because of critical conservation importance, priority for local people or Conducting Early and Thorough other economic sectors, or a lack of tourism Environmental and Social Impact resources. Assessments Understanding the potential environmental and social impacts of a project before it is Private Sector Practices for begun will help developers determine how Mitigating Negative Impacts and best to mitigate these impacts. Evaluations Increasing Positive Benefits should be conducted as early as possible to allow the results to be used before much money has been invested. In some cases, the In the context of ensuring that different lev- project as it was originally conceived will els of development are located appropri- pose too big a threat to local environments ately, the practices of the private sector will or communities and will need to be re- obviously be critical. Moving towards re- worked or relocated. Early knowledge of sponsible tourism development requires a such a situation can save considerable time shift in thinking to include environmental and expense for a developer. and social parameters in all aspects of de- sign, construction and operations. Under- Choosing an Appropriate Site standing the long-term implications of re- source use and management decisions will The impact of a resort development on the help to ensure that tourism development is natural and cultural environment depends compatible with long-term sustainability significantly on where and how the resort is goals and can result in significant economic sited. In all cases, developers should build benefits for the developer. only where local people are in favor of de- velopment and in areas where the environ- Two broad changes are necessary to im- ment can support the proposed develop- prove the environmental and social per- ment. Developments should not be located formance of the tourism industry to a point in critically important ecosystems, such as where it can be considered sustainable in the national parks, or culturally sensitive sites. long term. First, individual developments Instead, developers should seek to under- need to focus on long-term strategies for stand ecosystem functioning and choose mitigating the negative environmental and their site to minimize disruption. Avoiding social impacts of their activities, based on building on steep slopes or too close to the improvements in siting choices and design, coast are basic ways to avoid damage. efficient use of resources, and the involve- ment of local communities. Second, the con- Minimizing Land-Clearing cept of good practices must be expanded Appropriate site choice will also allow de- beyond impact mitigation to include posi- velopers to minimize land-clearing, another tive and proactive contributions to the common cause of damage. Traditionally, well-being of surrounding communities and tourism developers have seen land for their local bio-diversity conservation efforts. developments as simply a plot that needs to Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld 75 be fully cleared prior to construction. How- kilograms per course per year (Chatterjee, ever, the development site is not only a plot 1993), equivalent to seven times the amount of land but an ecosystem that contains po- used per acre by large-scale agriculture in tentially valuable characteristics for devel- the United States (Chamberlain, 1998). These opers. It is not necessary - and in most cases chemicals can pollute surrounding areas it will be less cost effective - to completely through infiltration and runoff, especially clear the land prior to construction. Maho where sewage infrastructure is inadequate. Bay Camps, in St. John, US Virgin Islands, Chemicals used to maintain golf courses developed its property without clearing any have been associated with pollution of water land. Benefits from this approach include a resources, the death of wildlife, and in- cooler, more pleasant climate for guests, creased diseases, including cancer, among fewer insects, and beautiful surroundings humans (Chamberlain, 1998). (Selengut, 1998). Efficient and Responsible Resource Use Responsible Design and Facilities and Disposal Choices The resource demands of tourism develop- In design, an understanding of the natural ment in a tropical environment are usually processes of the ecosystem in which the many times greater than that of the existing tourism development is planned will allow local communities. Increased resource needs developers to avoid the need for costly eco- can mean additional stress on the environ- system modification, and to take advantage ment and greater damage from pollution of wind, shade, gravity, water sources and and waste disposal. All resources, from wa- vegetation. During the design phase, archi- ter to energy, should be utilized in the most tects should consider the local landscape efficient way possible, minimizing use and and take advantage of natural climate condi- promoting recycling and reuse. When it tions. For instance, shade and cross-breezes comes time to dispose of used resources, can contribute significantly to cooling. Due from solid waste to sewage, developments to design which uses shade from trees and should use the most effective technologies to cross ventilation from wind, the Coconut minimize their impact on their surround- Beach Resort in Queensland, Australia, does ings. not need any air conditioning in its luxury rooms. Guests appreciate the lack of noise Minimizing the Negative Impact of and closeness to nature fostered by the ar- Tourist Activity on Local Ecosystems and chitecture (Commonwealth of Australia Cultures 1995, 2: 5). The private sector can also have a significant effect on reducing negative impacts by Some facilities may not be appropriate in working with tourists. Depending on the many areas. For instance, golf courses can be activity, providing guidelines, for instance one of the most serious causes of damage in regarding what souvenirs are harmful to a resort. An average course uses between buy, requiring the use of guides, or requir- 800,000 (Asia Golf Tourism, 1997) and 1.3 ing tourists to receive instruction may all be (Chatterjee, 1993) million gallons of water useful in changing behavior. Developers per day. This same quantity of water is and operators should also consult with local enough to meet the daily needs of thou- people directly before developing facilities sands of local residents; for instance, 800,000 or tours. When the majority of people who gallons per day would meet the needs of live in or use an area do not want tourism approximately 5,000 rural families in Mex- development, developers should respect this ico. (Author's calculation from Robbins, choice. 1998). The quantity of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers necessary to maintain the grass on a golf course averages about 1,500 76 Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld
Making a Positive Contribution to Public Sector Policy Tools for Conservation Mitigating Negative Impacts and There are a range of ways in which the pri- Increasing Positive Benefits vate sector can provide critical support to conservation. One way to achieve this goal Responsible development will also depend is through buying and setting aside areas as centrally on the effective implementation by private reserves. The Lapa Rios resort in governments of appropriate policy tools and Costa Rica maintains a 1,000-acre private strategies to ensure that development is reserve, which, in addition to protecting im- compatible with long-term environmental portant habitat directly, also provides a and social goals. Effective policy will de- buffer to encroachment in the neighboring pend on the capacity, training and resources Corcovado National Park. The reserve also of government sectors responsible for regu- allows the resort to offer its guests a range of lating tourism, and increasing this capacity activities that depend on access to a beauti- should be a priority of any tourism policy ful and uncrowded natural area, such as strategy. Standards and guidelines should professionally guided rainforest tours, bird be formalized in specific legislation and then watching, hiking, horseback riding, fishing implemented through both traditional and and kayaking (The Ecotravel Center, 1998). innovative programs, including direct regu- Other stewardship activities include donat- lation, economic and financial tools that in- ing money and time, providing in-kind crease incentives for the private sector to support to people involved in conservation, improve its practices, and aware- working with local communities on conser- ness-building among all stakeholders. A vation projects, giving access to underuti- strong set of monitoring and enforcement lized resources, and working on education tools will be the final piece of an effective projects involving both tourists and local tourism policy strategy. In general, a broad communities. mix of policy tools will be necessary to achieve the stated objectives of responsible Partnering with and Employing Local development. Most broadly, these can in- People clude: Local people often receive little benefit from development that may cause serious im- Increasing Governmental Capacity pacts on their way of life. Developers can Implementing strategies to regulate and increase local benefit and the quality of their monitor the tourism industry will require a tourism product by working in partnership great deal of political knowledge, ability and with local groups and entrepreneurs, using will. Thus, before a broad-scale policy ap- locally provided services and hiring and proach is designed and implemented, it is training local people. They can also directly important to assess and improve the level of support locally beneficial projects. The capacity within the public sector agency or Punta Cana Beach Resort, in the Dominican agencies that will be managing the strategy. Republic, supports a program that teaches Although the most obvious way to increase fishermen new practices for improving sus- public sector capacity is to increase the skills tainability. The resort also has a cooperative and funding of government offices, capac- from which local women can sell handicrafts ity-building can also come through the co- to guests (The Ecotravel Center, 1998). ordination of actions among all relevant ac- tors, at the local, national, and international levels.
Awareness-Building among Stakeholders
Even with the required capacity and abili- ties, however, the public sector will have Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld 77 difficulty carrying out significant policy velopers to benefit local communities and strategies without the endorsement of the conservation without the conflicts which local population, the private sector and might arise from requiring the same behav- other stakeholders. Thus, it is equally im- ior. Performance bonds and trust funds can portant to increase awareness of and sup- help to ensure that money will be available port for environmental and social policies to mitigate any unexpected environmental through education and training. Although or social damages. Fiscal controls may also appropriate material will vary by situation, have the advantage of allowing the private campaigns might include information about sector to make its own choices of behavior, the roles and responsibilities of each group based on the new set of costs it faces, which in preserving a healthy environment, the may result in a more dynamic and adapt- interaction between people and the envi- able private sector and fewer illegal activi- ronment (McAlpine, 1998), and the reasons ties (Janssen, 1995: 76). for and importance of environmental and social policies (Schoorl and Visser, 1991: I). Positive Contributions to Responsible Tourism Development Direct Regulations and Controls In addition to the use of direct regulatory There are a range of policy tools designed to controls and financial incentives for guiding place limits on various aspects of develop- the development of the tourism sector, gov- ment, including location, size and type of ernments can implement a variety of proac- business, levels of tourism, and specific ac- tive policy strategies designed to offer sup- tivities and impacts. Direct controls over the port for and promote the growth of an envi- industry include contracts, regulations, li- ronmentally and socially responsible tour- censes and permits. While these tools are ism industry in their country. These actions not specific to the tourism industry and, in can include becoming more involved in the most cases, were developed for other indus- global marketing of a country's image as a tries or sectors, they can be effective forms destination, providing infrastructure for of control for a growing tourism industry. In development, supporting local employment order to minimize conflicts and disincen- and ownership, and instituting award and tives to private sector investment, direct certification programs recognizing good controls should be designed in a collabora- environmental and social practices. In all tive and sensitive way, with relevant stake- cases, proactive promotion of a responsible holder input (Jamieson ,1997: 128). industry will require coordination and con- sultation with the private sector and other Economic and Financial Tools stakeholders to determine where these gov- Economic and financial tools, including tra- ernment policies can have the greatest im- ditional strategies such as taxes, subsidies pact. and entrance fees, as well as more innova- tive approaches such as performance bonds, Enforcement and Monitoring and trust funds and offsets, can be an important Evaluation and effective supplement to direct regula- Regardless of which policy strategies a gov- tions. While direct controls allow govern- ernment chooses, it is important to include ments to focus on the specific scale and na- provisions for both enforcement and moni- ture of tourism, control through fiscal tools toring and evaluation (M&E) in any is based on creating positive or negative in- broad-scale tourism sector management centives via rewards or penalties. Financial plan. In many countries, poor enforcement mechanisms can also have important advan- has rendered even the most well-designed tages over direct regulation in certain cases. policies ineffective through lack of compli- Taxes, for instance, in addition to controlling ance (Jamieson, 1997: 121). In addition, impacts also raise revenue. Positive incen- monitoring and evaluation of policy effec- tives, on the other hand, can influence de- tiveness will allow the public sector to adapt 78 Bruner, Sweeting and Rosenfeld its policy strategies to changing information Chamberlain, Sara. (1998). Golf Endangers availability, conditions and needs within a Hawai'ian Ecology and Culture. Econet country's tourism industry. By using an website. URL: M&E system to evaluate whether or not
McAlpine, Peter. (1998). Environmental Ziffer, Karen, Sedaghatkish, Gina and Cor- Educators of the Public: A Role the bin, George. (1994). The Field Guide to travel and tourism industry cannot af- Ecotourism Venture Development and ford to refuse. Fax communication with Planning, draft. Conservation Interna- author, 17 April 1998. tional, Washington, D.C. Middleton, Victor T.C. (1998). Sustainable Tourism: A Marketing Perspective. But- terworth-Heinemann, Woburn, MA. Potter, Bruce. (1996). Tourism and Coastal Resources Degradation in the Wider Carib- bean. Island Resources Foundation, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Rader, Christopher. (1998). Monitoring and Evaluation, presentation by the Conser- vation International Monitoring and Evaluation Program. Robbins, Elaine. (1998). Golf War Syndrome. URL:
vember. Sorensen, Jans. (1990). An assessment of Costa Rica's coastal management pro- gram. Coastal Management, 18: 37-63. The Ecotourism Society. (1998). Ecotourism Statistical Fact Sheet. URL:
“BEST PRACTICE” & GUIDELINES: PLANNING TOOLS FOR SUSTAINABLE COASTAL TOURISM IN AUSTRALIA?
Lisa Testoni Department of Geographical Sciences & Planning The University of Queensland (Australia)
Abstract: Considering Australia's island documents specifically related to planning status, it is unsurprising that coastal and marine for sustainable tourism in coastal environ- environments play an important role in the na- ments. tion’s tourism industry. These environments are also vulnerable to impacts and changes as a re- Coastal environments provide the setting sult of tourism and recreational use. Sustainabil- for much of Australia's tourism and are in- ity in tourism requires a reconsideration of our creasingly recognized as the focus of envi- priorities, current planning systems and future ronmental pressure, in need of comprehen- visions. Various types of guidelines are increas- sive and innovative environmental man- ingly produced to promote effective planning in agement and planning. the coastal zone. These self -regulatory guide- lines can apply at different scales: to an individ- It has been found that there are increasing ual development, on a wider regional level and as numbers of self-regulatory guidelines being part of policy. It is suggested that guidelines produced on an international, national, state could provide a basis for fostering improvement, and local scale which have implications for particularly as planning increasingly moves the current planning framework for tourism towards performance-based approaches. Current development. This paper takes as a focus a best practice and other guidelines in relation to number of documents prepared to assist in sustainable coastal tourism in Australia will be planning for coastal and particularly coastal reviewed with an assessment of their effective- tourism development. ness as a planning tool. This forms part of a broader research project to determine the per- formance of land use planning in achieving sus- Reconsideration of Planning tainable tourism. Approaches in Coastal Environments The Globe 90 Conference on Environment Keywords: sustainable tourism, coastal and and Industry defined sustainable tourism as, marine environment, Australia, land use plan- "…the management of tourism resources in ning, self-regulatory guidelines such a way that fulfills economic, social and aesthetic needs while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, Introduction biological diversity and life support systems" (Inskeep, 1991: 31). “Best practice” is often used to refer to guidelines and codes of practice. Best prac- The rationale for pursuing sustainable tice has become somewhat of a buzz word tourism policy is convincing. It is recognised and is referred to by many other similar as being a desirable policy option due to the terms. Although it is doubtful that all “best uncertainty associated with environmental practice” documents represent the ultimate, impacts of tourism, the concept of it represents an important trend in opera- irreversibility and the fact that a large tions and planning. This paper will deal majority of previous tourism development with not only documents entitled best prac- decisions have been based on short-term, tice but the broader group of non-regulatory market driven criteria, rather than 82 Testoni considering and reflecting future costs and 118) defines best practice as, “…best practice benefits. is the best way of doing things relative to levels of performance in comparable firms There has been increasing interest in utilis- and operations”. Good practice, excellent ing planning to manage coastal environ- practice etc., are similar terms used in both ments sustainably. Many planners are in- similar and different contexts. creasingly using a diversity of approaches to achieve sustainable development of tourism, Best practice is a term that is increasingly one of which can be referred to as best prac- being applied to business activities as a tice or non-regulatory guidelines. "Coastal means of achieving quality management, programmes have become a melting pot for and tends to be viewed as, "…the way in various planning and management tech- which leading edge companies are able to niques which have crossed over from other manage and organize their operations - to disciplines" (Kay and Alder, 1999: 340). deliver world class standards of perform- ance…" (Department of Industrial Relations, It should be noted that what is considered 1992: 3; Davis, K., Knox, S. and Luckie, K. best practice planning is specific to location 1996: 6). and situation, and unless particularly broad, principles cannot always be transferred Best practice sets environmental perform- from one place to another. It can be argued ance targets as a result of regulation, grow- that there is no single “correct” format for ing community awareness and environ- either land use planning or environmental mental concern. "However, it also demon- assessment and caution should be taken in strates a proactive commitment to the envi- transferring systems developed in one place ronment which transcends regulatory re- to another, as any system needs to be sensi- quirements and permits" (Pigram 1997: 118). tive to particular political and administra- "This response translates and extends best tive structures. "This said, any management practice into 'best practice environmental tool should be amenable to positive change, management' as a means of achieving sus- incorporating aspects of best practice from tainable growth in a competitive world. Best elsewhere" (Hunter and Green, 1995: 177). practice environmental management calls for radically different organizational struc- Planning as a profession and as an activity is tures and attitudes designed to bring about constantly struggling to maintain a balance continuous improvement in a firm's envi- between regulation and flexible arrange- ronmental performance" (Pigram 1997: 118). ments. Performance based approaches are increasingly gaining favor and are presented These principles, guidelines and manuals as a stakeholder inclusive approach to can include information about strategic achieving sustainability. planning (in relation to regulatory require- ments and state/regional planning con- texts), design, community consultation, wa- Best Practice – What is It? ter use, energy efficiency and construction practices or a combination of all of these. It The term “best practice” originated in busi- appears that these sorts of documents deal ness organization theory with its strongest with many of the issues pertinent to any expression in manufacturing, however it is sustainable development on an individual also being promoted in the services sector and wider scale. Best practice also implies and in natural resources management. Most that some sort of monitoring and evaluation people involved in tourism would be famil- should occur to assess whether in fact best iar with the term, and many tourism indus- possible practice is being achieved, or what try associations and organizations develop is required to better their practice. Best prac- their own best practice policy. Pigram (1997: tice methodology involves establishing ap- propriate performance indicators to meas- Testoni 83 ure and set standards by which organiza- planning increasingly moves towards per- tions and authorities can look for quality formance-based approaches, best practice management. guidelines can play an integral role as they are more readily amended and adapted than Tourism has been particularly keen to adopt statutory planning schemes. They may also best practice and non-regulatory guidelines be perceived as more user-friendly and are as a business improvement strategy and as a typically written in lay-terms or plain Eng- pseudo planning and management measure. lish. Planning acts and regulations are per- ceived to be complicated and legalistic, de- spite recent efforts to use plain English lan- Self Regulation and Planning guage. Particularly in coastal settings, “Manuals are becoming increasingly impor- In terms of this paper, “planning” is land use tant in Australian coastal management ef- (or town and country) planning, forts … they are designed to describe clearly operationalised in legislation and carried out the range of approaches available to coastal primarily by local and state governments. managers, and to discuss their strengths and Planning helps us to define decision weaknesses. Manuals can also be designed situations and is quite distinct from what is to include case study materials, as well as often referred to as “tourism planning”. The technical appendices as required” (Kay and distinction between these is important to Alder 1999: 119). make clear: "…much of what is called planning in Guidelines and best practice principles may the tourism context is, in fact, marketing be seen as effective planning tools but they and promotion, … This has resulted in are not able to ensure that tourism operators much inappropriate development and in and industry adopt these principles when many cases overdevelopment of tourist they do not have a regulatory or legal basis. areas. Ignorance, politics and economics Apart from promotional and education type seem to work contrary to the attainment strategies it has been suggested that the of the goal of sustainable development as adoption and implementation of best prac- far as tourism is concerned" (Pearce tice guidelines by developers could be en- and Butler 1993: 136). couraged by fast tracking regulatory plan- ning requirements, those applications which Planning has the potential to play an meet best practice principles. This would important role in ensuring the long-term seem to be desirable for tourism interests success of tourism while minimising negative considering the continuing suggestions that impacts. Planning can articulate future the planning approvals process should be visions and assess individual projects with streamlined. In addition to reduced approv- approval given to those proposals consistent als/assessment time and expense, these sort with policies and plans. Gunn (1994: xvi) of measures are argued for on the basis of suggests that sound planning is the way that encouraging imaginative design. Innovative all of the multi-faceted elements of tourism and new design approaches would appear can be incorporated. Professional planners to be important in tourism development, can have an impact in their role of guiding particularly considering the environmen- future development of tourism and other tally sensitive and unique locations of many land use within regions. Without plans or operations. An Australian review of gov- planning systems, the development of ernment planning from a tourism develop- tourism is ad hoc without sufficient ment perspective suggested that, “Planning consideration given to its interaction with legislation at the Local Government level other sectors and its possible impacts. has a tendency to focus on compliance with development standards at the expense of Self-regulation and planning may seem to innovative, ecologically sustainable or high be at different poles on the spectrum, but as quality design. The move towards perform- 84 Testoni ance-based assessment could be embraced likelihood of media exposure for bad by State and Local Government” (Tourism practice developments indicate that self- Task Force 1997: 37). regulatory measures are likely to be the most effective approach to encourage best- If this sort of planning is to increase in the practice environmental planning and future then it is even more important to en- management for tourism development” sure ongoing monitoring and evaluation of (World Travel and Tourism Environmental tourism development. The adoption of best Research Centre, 1993). practice and other guidelines/manuals will not replace statutory planning but should be Despite the argument that voluntary complementary to minimum statutory proactive approaches may be more likely to planning requirements. promote a long-term commitment to ensuring environmental improvements, The challenge in encouraging adoption of there needs to be some enforcement of appropriate measures and aiming for im- sustainability due to the variable ethical provement of environmental performance is position of various interests. It is therefore “…to convince the disparate elements of the argued that a mixture of both regulatory tourism industry to move beyond the mini- and voluntary approaches are needed. mum of passive regulatory compliance” (Anderson, 1994; Pigram, 1995; Davis, K., Knox, S. and Luckie, K. 1996: 7). Despite the Current Use of Non-Regulatory aims of planning for sustainable develop- and Best Practice Approaches ment and maintenance of environmental quality, minimum planning requirements Since the Manila Declaration on World are sometimes grudgingly adhered to by Tourism in 1980, more than 60 international tourism interests. Anything beyond that is non-regulatory agreements that address the often seen as needless additional paperwork environmental practices of tourism and attempts at government control. developments have been produced (World Travel and Tourism Environmental “Consultation with the stakeholders in Research Centre, 1993). These agreements coastal tourism development has revealed differ on the basis of the aims of the that there are operational problems associ- promoting body (e.g., various operators, ated with legislative overlaps and the con- trade associations, governments, and NGOs) sequent lack of certainty, consistency and and the target audience, but they include inflexibility associated with regulatory ap- declarations, codes of practice and more proaches. These sorts of issues and the specific guidelines (Centre for Coastal growing awareness of environmental prob- Management 1996: 3). lems is encouraging many travel and tour- ism businesses to develop voluntary envi- The Australian tourism industry has ronmental policies and programs, or other developed its own codes of environmental self-regulatory measures that are deemed to practice. The Australian Tourist Com- be a preferable alternative to regulatory pro- mission & Tourism Council Australia 1998 cedures” (World Travel and Tourism Envi- has issued a “Code of Sustainable Practice” ronmental Research Centre, 1993) (Davis, K., and the Ecotourism Association of Australia Knox, S. and Luckie, K. 1996: 3). has a Code of Practice for Ecotourism Operators. They aren't entitled “best Further, “Other market forces, such as practice”, but sustainable practice could increased consumer resistance to degraded perhaps be seen on a par. Although these environments, evidence that sound are well intentioned they aren't specific to environmental practices have long-term particular tourism settings and do not economic benefits, financial incentives to improve environmental practices, and the Testoni 85 provide guidance in relation to particular Development (ESD) into decision making coastal development pressures and issues. about the use and development of coastal resources. The philosophy for coastal plan- International agreements and guidelines ning is well developed. However, current have been endorsed by the Australian processes do not always deliver a good Government, who have in turn undertaken product. This is partly because principles national inquiries to develop various policy embodied in the philosophy of ESD are not and strategy documents (e.g., The built into the decision making that occurs as Commonwealth Coastal Policy, 1995; part of the planning process” (Department National Tourism Strategy, 1992). The Office of the Environment 1998: ii). The material of National Tourism has produced a contained in these Best Practice Guidelines document entitled, “Best Practice Ecotourism: provide guidance only. The actual imple- A Guide to Energy and Waste Minimisation” mentation will depend on legislative and (1997). administrative arrangements in each State. There is a requirement for commitment The "Coastal Tourism - a manual for Sustain- from key players and decision makers in able Development" is the result of the revision coastal areas in order for the guidelines to and amalgamation of several documents. It assist achievement of better outcomes. aims to be a practical document providing a “stimulating tool to help tourism developers Coastal zone policy documents have also and operators, and those involved in the been developed by State government de- approval process for development applica- partments for state and regional application. tions, make future tourism developments Western Australia has been the most proac- environmentally, socially and economically tive and produced a number of environ- sustainable” (Commonwealth Coastal Ac- mental planning guidelines and eco-ethics tion Program 1997: v). It was intended to for tourism developments (Western Austra- serve as a demonstration model for the tour- lian Tourism Commission and Environ- ism industry, planners, decision makers and mental Protection Authority, 1989a; 1989b), the community (Davis, K., Knox, S. and and a guide to tourist destination and resort Luckie, K. 1996: 5). planning design and principles (Western Australian Tourism Commission, 1989) "Good Practice Guidelines for Integrated Coastal (Davis, Knox and Luckie 1996: 5). Planning" 1998, were developed as part of the capacity building component of the The NSW (then) Department of Planning Commonwealth's Coasts and Clean Seas has produced guidelines for various regions program. “They are intended to assist plan- – i.e., "North Coast Design Guidelines" ners to understand and put better coastal (1989) and then "Tourism Development planning techniques into practice. …The Along the NSW Coast - Guidelines" (1992), guidelines provide practical advice to plan- containing practical guidelines for devel- ners to help them reconcile competing de- opment design. mands and make decisions that enhance the level of ecological sustainability in the use At a local scale, increasingly, coastal tourism and development of coastal resources.” development pressure issues are being ad- These guidelines aren't specifically related dressed in local planning documents, both to tourism, but considering the concentra- regulatory and guideline based. However, tion of tourism development on the coast it lack of resources and expertise often limits is very relevant. They are also seen as a local government dealing with these issues. companion document to the Coastal Tour- ism Manual. On a more focused scale, codes and guide- lines are being adopted by some larger op- “The guidelines focus on the integration of erators, with emphasis on operations and the principles of Ecologically Sustainable procedures rather than as part of a 86 Testoni
International Australia State Local Operation International Both Tourism Some planning National & State Specific Codes of Non- Industry & Gov- has incorpo- guidelines Best Practice and Regulatory ernment created: rated tourism should be incor- Sustainable Practice Agreements Tourism Indus- issues in sus- porated in local documents. (>60). try: tainability con- planning activi- (e.g. Couran Cove E.g. Manila • ATC/TCA text. ties and strategic Resort on South Declaration on 1998 • WA - enviro documents. Stradbroke Is. Has World Tourism • EAA Code planning Due to recent various guidelines to 1989. guidelines; release of national minimise environ- Government: eco-ethics for guidelines it may mental impacts of the • Common- tourism; and be some time be- resort with reduced wealth guide to tour- fore there will be energy use, effective Coastal Pol- ist destina- any indication of interpretation/guest icy; tion and re- how or if local education). • National sort plan- government is Tourism ning. utilising guide- Strategy; NSW - various lines and best • Office of Na- regional design practice principles tional Tour- guidelines (North as planning re- ism ("Best Coast quirements. Practice Ecotour- ism"). • "Coastal Tourism - a manual for Sustainable Develop- ment" • "Good Prac- tice Guide- lines for In- tegrated Coastal Planning" Table 1. Different level of guidelines and planning for sustainable tourism wider context of tourism development and recognition of core principles contained in its impacts (Davis, Knox and Luckie 1996: most environmental codes of practice. 5-6). “However, it is important to note that it is unclear whether these documents have been widely distributed and if the guide- Effectiveness as a Planning Tool lines have been promoted by planning and decision making authorities, or adopted Tourism has been swamped by codes of by any tourism developers and operators” practice, best practice principles and (Davis, Knox and Luckie 1996: 5). guidelines containing much of the “sus- tainability” and “eco” rhetoric. Guide- As we strive towards the nirvana of sus- lines produced in Australia at the different tainability in all our activities, continual scales, outlined above, generally include improvement is desirable. There are no Testoni 87 magical solutions to sustainability, but lation should guide development with incremental and gradual improvement is a minimum requirements to ensure sustain- more realistic approach. This can be seen ability but at the same time should ideally in the growing development of best prac- provide scope for creative design and in- tice principles and guidelines, but it is novation. Many documents provide prac- suggested that best practice is a basis for tical design or other guidance. fostering improvement, in addition to minimum requirements of regulatory To transform tourism into a sustainable (in frameworks. every sense) industry will require con- certed action by all levels of government, The Coastal Tourism Manual contains host communities and the industry itself. some good information and advice and Whether this takes the form of voluntary, was distributed through the Local Gov- non-regulatory, action to translate princi- ernment Association to local government ples into practice, “command and control” offices. It involved lots of different stake- approaches, including land-use planning, holders, and although fairly general it and increasingly, economic instruments in covers a huge scope. But has it made any the form of incentives and deterrents, re- difference to the sustainability of coastal mains to be seen. tourism? “The task ahead is to put in place effective “A possible benchmark which could be procedures for introducing and monitor- used to monitor the effectiveness of the ing 'greener', more environment-ally com- dissemination and adoption of national patible forms of tourism development, guidelines and policies could be to record and so avoid the imposition of sanctions to the number of tourism operations which satisfy mandatory compliance measures” prepare their own guidelines and policies (Pigram, 1997, in Cooper and Wanhill: to encourage improved environmental 127). The pursuit of best practice in tour- performance in response to exposure to ism is an exercise in intelligent marketing. these broader coastal tourism develop- Tourism is a very visible industry with ment guidelines” (Davis, K. Knox, S. and international and domestic scrutiny. To Luckie, K. 1996: 10). There does appear to visibly be constantly trying to improve be a need now for some sort of evaluation practice would be beneficial to many op- of how these guidelines are being utilized, erations. if at all. Time and resources, though, will most probably prevent such an activity “Encouraging harmony between tourism from taking place. and the environment requires the devel- opers and operators of tourism develop- It is doubtful if the level of detail provided ments to evolve their own sets of ethics by many of these best practice guidelines about the use of the environment. How- is adequate to influence developments and ever, local and state government agencies it will be necessary to supplement it with have tended to avoid the development of more detailed guidance at a more local self-regulatory or voluntary approaches, level (Hunter and Green, 1995: 110). It ap- such as guidelines or codes of practice, pears that the detail of the Australian due to their lack of rigor and credibility coastal document has scope for further when exposed to legal scrutiny” (Davis, expansion according to local conditions. K., Knox, S. and Luckie, K. 1996: 3).
There is opportunity for guidance docu- Guidelines and examples of best practice ments to assist in guiding the general ap- can not only assist applicants or operators plicability of major tourism developments. of tourism ventures in letting them know Design guidance however is not necessar- what is expected, but it can also inform ily regulatory, and nor should it be. Regu- planning policy. National or international 88 Testoni guidelines, best practice principles etc., relationships reach out deeply into should guide and inform the development economies, environments and societies not of strategic plans on the local or regional only in the host region but in numerous scale. Best practice is about constantly far-flung regions and countries with dy- striving for improvement, and to do this namic linkages between its various parts. requires review and amendment of plans. So is best practice to be applied to an indi- While controls on tourism development vidual operation disregarding disparate may be imposed by state policies, local parts, to a region or to the complex tourist councils should be in a position to amend system?…” (Farrell, 1999:2). their specific planning instruments (Tour- ism Task Force, 1997: 58). Perhaps there Guidelines and best practice principles will be a need for a review of Australia's should not been seen as an end, but a coastal policy, in the short term, similar to minimum or beginning from which to the recent policy assessment process in the constantly improve and as starting points United States. for local focus and development. The “Commonwealth Coastal Tourism: a The concept of “best practice” has merit, Manual for Sustainable Development” indeed “…there are obvious advantages in provides guidelines which were devel- studying and applying examples of what oped by an array of stakeholders and is seems “excellent practice” (rather than general enough to necessitate filling in of “best”) from elsewhere. How does one the details to suit local conditions. The improve if not through emulation of a bet- document also avoids using the term best ter operation?” (Farrell, 1999:1). However, practice, perhaps in relation to some of the the adherence to best practice models misinterpretations, misgivings regarding should also be encouraged with caution, particularly prescriptive guidelines/'best as outlined by Farrell (1999) in correspon- practice' and underlying assumptions that dence. Best practice should not lull opera- can accompany this. tors into a false sense of security. Times and conditions change and continual adaption is required. There is also a di- Conclusion lemma with the interpretation of “best” which implies judgement within a particu- As planning adapts and changes to the lar philosophy. Which philosophy? Who new boundaries of sustainability and fo- judges what's best, whose values are used cuses on greater efficiency and perform- and where, geographically and culturally, ance, best practice examples and guide- does 'best' apply? Is it best for the people, lines are becoming a part of the planning the environment, or best say, for the inves- and management of tourism development. tor. It could be said that “…there appears So far much of the tourism industry's ef- the implicit aim of maximizing rewards fort in adopting sustainable best practice and usage within a limited range (narrow principles has been reactive, but as in- focus), a business operation or sector, creasing numbers of codes and manuals of rather than striving to optimize within a best practice emerge the industry will be whole system (wide range) approach…” forced to be more proactive in the self (Farrell, 1999: 2) regulation of its activities, considering economic efficiency of individual opera- The scale of application is also questioned. tors and the net social benefit for tourist “In business one can see the advantage of destinations. best practice, especially where individual plants or operations or the export sector The origins of best practice in the business are involved. …Compared to many other scene may prove an acceptable manage- businesses tourism's ramifications are ment tool to the tourism industry which wide, world wide, and its impacts and those responsible for planning in coastal Testoni 89 environments should utilize. Best practice Inskeep, E. (1991). Tourism Planning - An principles and guidelines are being pro- Integrated and Sustainable Development duced for Australian coastal environments Approach, VNR Tourism and and specifically for tourism development. Commercial Recreation Series. Van It now remains to be seen through further Nostrand Reinhold, New York. research and monitoring how effective Kay. R. and Alder, J. (1999). Coastal Plan- these documents are in planning for sus- ning & Management. E & FN Spon (an tainable coastal tourism. imprint of Routledge), London. Meppem, T. and Gill, R. (1998). Planning for sustainability as a learning con- References cept. The Journal of the International So- ciety for Ecological Economics, 26: 121- Centre for Coastal Management. (1996). 137. Environmental Guidelines for Tour- Overseas Study Mission. (1992). Interna- ism Planning and Management in the tional Best Practice - A joint Project of the Coastal Zone of Australia - Back- Department of Industrial Relations and ground Paper. Centre for Tourism, the Australian Manufacturing Council. Southern Cross University, Lismore. The Department of Industrial Rela- Department of the Environment. (1998). tions, Canberra. Good Practice Guidelines for Integrated Pearce, D.G. and Butler, R. (1993). Tourism Coastal Planning, Report Series 13. Pre- Research - Critiques and Challenges. pared for The Royal Australian Plan- Routledge, London and New York. ning Institute (part of Coasts & Clean Pigram, J. Best practice environmental Seas Program. Department of the En- management and the tourism indus- vironment, Canberra. try. In: 1997 Tourism Development: En- Department of the Environment. (un- vironmental & Community Issues. Coo- known). Integrated Environ-mental per, C. and Wanhill, S. (eds.) John Management - Best Practice Case Wiley & Sons Ltd, Chichester. Studies in Local Government (www The Scottish Tourism Research Unit. source). (1998). Assessing Impact & Performance Department of Planning. (1992). Tourism in Tourism, a study for the Government of Development Along the New South Coast Lower Austria.: University of Strath- - Guidelines. Department of Planning, clyde, Glasgow. Sydney. Tourism Council Australia and CRC Tour- Ecologically Sustainable Development ism. (1998). Being green keeps you out Working Groups (1991). Final Report - of the red. Tourism Council. Wool- Tourism . Australian Government Pub- loomooloo, Australia. lishing Service, Canberra. Tourism Task Force. (1997). Developing Environment Australia. (1997). Coastal Viable Regional Tourist Accommodation - Tourism: A manual for sustainable devel- Part 1 - the reform agenda for govern- opment. Commonwealth Coastal Ac- ments. A joint study conducted for the tion Program. Department of the En- Tourism Task Force by Arthur Ander- vironment, Sport & Territories, Can- son and Planning Workshop Austra- berra. lia. Tourism Task Force, Sydney. Farrell, B.H. (1999). Best Practice, com- World Travel and Tourism Council, World ments to TRINET, 11 Jan. Environ- Tourism Organization and Earth mental Studies, University of Califor- Council. (1995). Agenda 21 for the nia, CA, USA. Travel & Tourism Industry - Towards Hunter, C. and Green, H. (1995). Tourism Environmentally Sustainable Develop- and the Environment - A sustainable rela- ment. World Travel & Tourism Coun- tionship. Routledge, London. cil, London; World Tourism Organiza- 90 Testoni
tion, Madrid. Spain; Earth Council, San Jose, Costa Rica.
COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY OF TOURISM: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF HIKKADUWA, SRI LANKA AND GOA, INDIA
Gunatilake Tantrigama University of Sri Jayewardenepura (Sri Lanka)
Abstract: As worldwide tourist arrivals in- clear waters, exotic landscapes, coral reefs, crease, a significant share seek the pleasure of coral fish, and other wildlife which attract tropical beach holidaying particularly in the tourists particularly interested in beach Asia/Pacific Region. This leads to pressure on holidays (Smith, 1994). The governments coastal environmental resources resulting from recognize this potential and are continuing the attempts to accommodate increased arrivals. with their attempts to promote tourism as a Various studies carried out recently have noted means of generating foreign exchange and that unplanned and uncoordinated mass tourism employment opportunities, and for expand- in the Asia/Pacific Region have caused degrada- ing economic activities. This outward look- tion of coastal environmental resources which in ing policy will certainly attract more tour- turn threaten the sustainability of tourism in the ists, out of which a significant part will seek long run. Further expansion of tourism will in- beach holidays. However, most of the sites evitably lead to further degradation and down- that they have to offer are already faced turn of the benefits generated through tourism with problems resulting from ad hoc tour- activities in these sites. Therefore, the need for ism development and improper manage- management of coastal environmental resources ment of resources. Further pressure without to obtain the maximum benefits in the long run paying attention to the proper management with minimum harmful effects has become a key of resources, will only aggravate the existing issue to be addressed by planners, policy makers, problems and the result will be further deg- professionals, businessmen as well as academics. radation of natural environmental resources. This paper examines the implications of tourism in relation to Hikkaduwa in Sri Lanka and Ca- If the peacefulness and natural beauty is langute in the Goa State of India which are lost, tourism in such sites will not be sus- known to be two of the most popular coastal tainable and these countries will no longer tourism sites in Asia. These two sites also are the be able to promote their coastal sites for victims of unplanned and ad hoc development of beach holidays. This calls for more attention coastal tourism. The paper aims at identifying to be paid to the conservation aspects of the key management issues and proposes a strategy attractive sites while making attempts to for the development of coastal areas which are promote more tourist arrivals. subject to adverse ecological, environmental, physical, economic and socio-cultural implica- The present paper is an attempt to investi- tions of tourism. gate the problems existing particularly in Asian coastal tourism sites and identify is- Keywords: Tourism Carrying Capacity, Sus- sues relating to the proper management of tainable Coastal Tourism, Coastal Resource such sites to ensure sustainable tourism. The Management, Special Area Management degree and the permissible limits of tourism development have been examined using the “carrying capacity” concept. The paper fo- Introduction cuses on two coastal tourism sites as case studies - Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka and Ca- The Asian region is endowed with extensive langute, Goa, India. Hikkaduwa is the most coastal resources such as sandy beaches, popular coastal tourism site in Sri Lanka 92 Tantrigama and Calangute is popularly known as the there are a variety of other attractions to “Queen of Beaches”. These two sites have supplement the Marine Sanctuary. These undergone similar paces of tourism devel- are: warm sunny climate, clear blue sea, opment and become victims of mass- sandy beaches, shopping local handicrafts, tourism and ad hoc tourism development. opportunities for diving, surfing and snor- The peaceful environment and natural keling, interaction with friendly and helpful beauty have already been affected and people, indigenous cultural performances coastal resources are under threat by over etc. development of tourism infrastructure. The resident population looks at tourism with Hikkaduwa is visited by both foreign and suspicion as it has brought more disadvan- domestic tourists. German nationals are the tages than advantages to the local commu- most prominent foreign tourist category in nity. The two sites also have historical and Hikkaduwa. Foreign tourists usually come cultural links. The Western coastal belt of Sri for long beach holidays and the length of Lanka where Hikkaduwa is located had stay is approximately 20 days which is been under rule by the Portuguese in the greater than the national average which is 16th Century. The state of Goa in which Ca- approximately 10 days. The season starts for langute is located had been a Portuguese foreign tourists in November and ends in colony until the 1960s. While making a de- March which coincides with the winter sea- tailed analysis of problems of resource man- son of the Western countries. Domestic tour- agement in relation to the two sites, a com- ists are mainly day visitors to the Marine parative assessment is carried out to arrive Sanctuary. Because their stay in Hikkaduwa at more appropriate development strategies is limited to a few hours, their economic im- in relation to other similar coastal tourism pact is not as significant as in the case of for- sites in the region. eign tourists. The tourism business is com- prised of accommodation, restaurants, rec- The data for the study were collected from reation facilities and tourist shops. How- primary sources as well as from secondary ever, there are two types of establishments: sources. Primary data collection was based formal establishments and informal estab- on field investigations, personal interviews lishments (Tantrigama, 1994). The formal and questionnaire surveys. Four separate establishments are properly registered with questionnaires were adopted to survey: (i) the tourism and local authorities and mainly Foreign Tourists (ii) Domestic Tourists, (iii) comprise hotels which are located at the Business community, and (vi) Local resi- south end of Hikkaduwa Beach. The north dents. In order to make the comparative part of the coast is comprised of a large analysis possible, attempts have been made number of guest houses, restaurants and to adopt the same questionnaires in both shops which in most cases are run without sites. proper licenses and are therefore classified as informal establishments. Scale-wise also, informal establishments are small when Tourism in Hikkaduwa compared with formal establishments. However, these informal establishments Hikkaduwa is situated approximately 100 play a major role by providing meals and km from Colombo - the capital of Sri Lanka accommodation facilities, and other ameni- and about 150 km from the Katunayaka In- ties such as shopping, sports, recreation etc. ternational Airport. The total length of the at significantly lower prices than the formal beach is about four km. The Marine Sanctu- establishments. For this reason, these infor- ary which is endowed with beautiful coral mal establishments have been able to satisfy reefs and marine life is the focal point of the the needs of foreign tourists who seek tourist attraction of Hikkaduwa (CRMP, longer stays at a relatively lower cost (Tan- 1994). As revealed by questionnaire surveys, trigama and White, 1994).
Tantrigama 93
Implications of tourism in tourists have voiced negative feelings about Hikkaduwa traffic congestion and noise which disturbs the quiet environment and the peacefulness of the area. There are incidents of traffic The adverse implications caused by tourism accidents every year where in some cases in Hikkaduwa are summarized below: tourists have been knocked-down by
speeding vehicles. 1. Degradation of the coral reef.
This is caused by a number factors. The 4. Conflicts among different user groups. main contributory factor is the use of glass The recent survey does not support the hy- bottom boats to view the corals and coral pothesis of the existence of a conflict situa- fish by tourists. The over loaded boats touch tion between tourists and other groups and damage the top of the coral. In addition, such as the business sector and residents. to have a closer look at the corals some tour- However, conflicts among businessmen ists are inclined to jump out of the boats themselves and between residents and thus causing damage to the coral reef. There businessmen is evident. This is due to a are fishing boats anchored within the Sanc- number of reasons. Residents find tourism tuary which cross the coral reef every day. to be a "white elephant" of little or no bene- They usually clean the boat and throw gaso- fit to the local inhabitants. It has affected line and oil discharges in the sea which the social fabric and traditional lifestyle of cause harmful effects on the coral and ma- the local population. Although the people rine life in the Sanctuary. The demand cre- who are employed in tourism and related ated by tourists and other parties for corals activities appreciate the benefits of tourism, and beautiful fish found in the Sanctuary ordinary citizens have no positive opinion has resulted in the breaking of corals and about the way tourism is operated in their catching coral fish for illegal trade. area. Conflicts among tourism businesses
are mainly a result of competition among 2. Solid waste and sewerage disposal. them for business. There is no cooperation Due to the ad hoc development that took at all among them on pricing and other place in tourism business establishments business promotion policies. there is no proper systems of solid waste and sewerage disposal. These tourism estab- 5. Garbage dispersal and environmental lishments use their limited premises or the pollution. beach attached to them to discharge the Garbage dispersal and pollution of the en- solid waste and sewerage. As these tourism vironment are done by all parties concerned establishments are located very near to the in varied proportions. The tourists - both coastal water, such discharges to the ground foreign and domestic, the establishments, through septic tanks and pits contaminate the general public, are all responsible for the groundwater, thereby causing sea water littering items such as plastic bottles, paper pollution. Some establishments discharge bags and other wastes on the road and the sewerage through pipes extended to the beaches. In addition, the garbage collection sea by which the sea water is directly pol- system of the local authority is not efficient luted with effluents. enough to keep the roads and beaches free
from garbage. 3. Traffic congestion, noise and speeding
vehicles.
The highway between Colombo and Matara Analysis of Tourism Carrying (capital of the Southern Province) goes through the tourism area of Hikkaduwa. Capacity in Hikkaduwa This road is narrow and usually used by all types of vehicles and also pedestrians. The The concept of “carrying capacity” is used in a variety of subjects to assess the permis- 94 Tantrigama
sible limits of development. In the context Hikkaduwa while the present number of of tourism it refers to the level of visitor use arrivals is estimated to be approximately an area can accommodate with high levels 15,000 (1996). Therefore, there is a capacity of satisfaction for visitors and least impacts to further increase the number of arrivals to on resources (WTO, 1992). The present Hikkaduwa. analysis focuses on three aspects, namely: (i) ecological, (ii) physical and (iii) envi- ronmental carrying capacities (Tantrigama, Tourism in Calangute 1998). In the context of ecological carrying capacity of Hikkaduwa, what has been Calangute is located approximately 16 km taken into consideration is mainly the im- North of Panaji - capital of the state of Goa, pact of tourism on the coral reef and marine India. It is the most popular beach in India life. Physical carrying capacity refers to the and known to be one of the top ten bathing availability of infrastructure and space for beaches in the world. It is visited by both development. In assessing the environ- foreign and Indian (domestic) tourists. mental carrying capacity the use of the Unlike at Hikkaduwa, length of stay of do- beach by tourists and its implications were mestic tourists may not necessarily be lim- taken into consideration. ited to a few hours. There are Indians origi- nating from other states of India who come Ecological Carrying Capacity to spend their holidays in Goan beaches The assessment of ecological carrying capac- where a significant number select Calangute ity revealed that the maximum number of for their stay. British nationals are the most tourists allowed in glass bottom boats on the prominent among foreign tourists arriving basis of 4 boats at a time with 9 adults or 12 in Calangute. The season falls between 1st school children is approximately 38 adults October and 16th June while 20th December or 48 children. The maximum number of to 5th January is considered to be high sea- tourists to engage in snorkeling on the basis son (peak season). The off season is between of allowing one third of the area for snorkel- 16th June to 1st October. The tourism facili- ing is 86 persons at a time. Similarly the ties are spread in the countryside as well as maximum number of tourists to engage in along the coast. There is no further space sea bathing without damaging the coral or found in coastal area for providing accom- marine life is expected to be 104 persons at a modation and other facilities. time.
Physical Carrying Capacity Implications of Tourism in A detailed analysis of physical carrying ca- Calangute pacity is not required to assess the level of development as it is obvious that there are Calangute is adversely affected by a series of no adequate infrastructure or additional implications resulting from mass tourism space left to support further physical devel- and unplanned tourism development. The opment of the tourism facilities in the area. most visible implications are summarized below: (Wilson, 1997) Environmental Carrying Capacity With regard to environmental carrying ca- 1. Illegal constructions along the coast. pacity, it is estimated that the maximum There is a regulation to leave a minimum of number of tourists allowable on the beach is 200 meters from the high tide sea level expected to be 1,500 at any point of time. without any constructions. This regulation is usually violated. Sand dunes, which act as a The carrying capacity analysis revealed that natural protection against sea erosion are there is a potential for accommodating removed for development of tourism facili- 30,000 foreign tourists per peak season in ties such as hotels, resorts etc. This has al- Tantrigama 95 ready affected the natural coast as well as created by the increasing number of tourism the scenic beauty of the area. As the ho- establishments. The use of such basic ameni- tels/guest houses and other facilities are ties by residents has been severely affected constructed very close to the sea, they dis- by this. Unavailability of power supply dur- charge sewerage and other effluents to pits ing most of the peak hours is a common and septic tanks by which the underground phenomenon in Calangute. Tourism busi- water is contaminated. This again pollutes nessmen manage to obtain such services by the seawater as it leaks out to the coast. various means. Ordinary citizens are help- Over-development of tourism establish- less in this regard. ments along the coast has also limited the access to the beach by the resident popula- 5. Road traffic and congestion. tion. Attempts by property developers to This is a result of the large number of vehi- buy up the remaining coastal strip have cles found particularly during the peak sea- caused intimidation of villagers out of their son. This creates congestion along the roads homes. and has affected the peace and quiet of the environment. 2. Danger of exhausting the underground wa- ter through over-use. 6. Increasing prices of food-stuff and other The present public water supply is inade- basic items due to heavy demand created by quate to meet the demand created by the the tourism establishment. large number of tourism establishments in This is a frequent complaint of residents. the area. They have wells constructed on Not only items such as fish, vegetable and their premises and underground water is fruits, but land prices and rents have also used and discharged back to the ground. Re- increased excessively due to the excess de- use of contaminated water creates a lot of mand created by tourists and tourism estab- health hazards and other implications to the lishments. There is no compensatory reve- tourists and to the residents of the area. nue generation for the benefit of local resi- dents to increase their affordability. This has 3. Pollution by garbage and sewerage disposal. caused the standard of living of local resi- Tourism establishments are located in close dents to go down as their cost of living is proximity with the houses of villagers. going up with the development of tourism. There is no concern by tourism businessmen regarding the proper disposal of garbage 7. Socio-cultural effects. and sewerage. In most of the cases, sewer- This is a very crucial issue to be addressed age is diverted to the adjoining canals which as it has multiple impacts on the traditional flow along the village, polluting the entire socio-cultural life style of the resident popu- area. The problem of mosquitoes has now lation. From the survey carried out among become a serious threat to the health of the the resident population, a significant num- resident population (D'Souza, 1997). This ber of the youth population turns to drug practice is not acceptable at all and is a se- trade with foreign counterparts as a result vere injustice from the villagers' point of they themselves become addicted to drug view. There is no proper system of garbage use and other evil habits. The school-going disposal and items like plastic bottles and child population is affected as tourism es- food discharges are found strewn every tablishments, and liquor shops are situated where. near the schools. Partial nudism is prevalent in the area which also has adverse social 4. Inadequacy of public infrastructure due to implications in a country like India. overuse by tourism establishments. The infrastructure facilities such as water supply, electricity, and communication are not planned to cater to the large demand 96 Tantrigama
Analysis of Tourism Carrying Issues in Coastal Resource Capacity in Calangute Management
An attempt has been made to apply the It is evident that both Hikkaduwa and Ca- above three carrying capacity concepts i.e, langute have potential for further expanding ecological, physical and environmental, to tourism activities provided that care is taken tourism in Calangute too. But unlike in Hik- to make sure that resources are properly kaduwa, there are no ecological resources managed to minimize harmful effects. Al- such as coral or coral fish populations in though there are differences between the Calangute. Therefore, the carrying capacity tourism activities in Hikkaduwa and Ca- analysis is limited to physical and environ- langute, the following management issues mental aspects in the case of tourism in Ca- are common in both sites. langute. 1. Adverse impacts caused by tourism. Physical Carrying Capacity Because of the unplanned nature of tourism There are various occasions when the Goa development, a series of adverse ecological, tourism authorities have been subject to se- environmental, physical, economic and vere criticism for adopting a lenient policy socio-cultural impacts are found in these in granting permission for new hotel and sites. Physical carrying capacity limits have resort constructions in the Calangute area already been exceeded. (Ecoforum, 1993). There is no proper as- sessment of the requirement for new devel- 2. Conflicts among different user groups. opments which has led to overuse of the These coastal tourism sites are characterized existing infrastructure which are meant to by multiple resources and user groups. cater to a small population. There is no need These resources are interconnected and the of any quantitative analysis to confirm that use of one will have an impact on the other. the physical carrying capacity of Calangute This has inevitably led to conflicts among is exceeded. different user groups. For example, the
beach used by traditional fishers is now en- Environmental Carrying Capacity croached upon by hoteliers. This occasion- With reasonable assumptions regarding ally leads to conflicting situations. Tourism beach space per tourist, it has been esti- has to be considered as only one activity mated that the maximum allowable number among a variety of activities existing at of tourists at any given point of time in Ca- these sites. langute beach is approximately 9,600 tour- ists. 3. Low level of revenue generation from villag- ers' point of view. This leads to the conclusion that the total The tourist business sector is owned by ho- number of foreign tourist arrivals to be tel groups and individuals originating from 38,400 and domestic tourists arrivals to be outside the area. A significant part of the 460,800 per year. As the estimated number inputs of tourism establishments are pur- of current foreign tourists is approximately chased from outside the area. A very minor 21,340 and domestic tourists is 240,000 percentage of employees are hired from the (1996), there is still a potential for increasing local community. Because of these reasons, the number of both foreign and domestic the financial and other benefits emanating tourists arrivals to Calangute. from among the tourism business to the lo-
cal community are very low.
Tantrigama 97
4. Multiplicity of authorities and able development involves management of organizations. all resources in such a way that economic, Because of the variety of overlapping func- social and aesthetic needs are fulfilled while tions and elements at these sites, there are maintaining the cultural integrity, essential numerous different organizations with re- ecological processes, biological diversity and sponsibilities for managing and advising on life support systems. these functions. For example, at Hikkaduwa, the marine habitat is under the purview of That coastal tourism should be based on the the Department of Wildlife Conservation principle of sustainable development has while the adjoining beach is controlled by recently been recognized in the Bagio Reso- the Coast Conservation Department. Tour- lution on Coastal Resources Management ism establishments situated along the same (Wong, 1998). Efforts are being made world beach are controlled by the Ceylon Tourist wide to apply the concept of "Integrated Board. It has been found to be difficult Coastal Management" (ICM) to achieve the sometimes to reconcile different local, re- sustainability of development activities un- gional and national level organizations in an dertaken in coastal zones. Although ICM attempt to design and implement suitable can be defined in different perspectives, management policies; agreement exists among coastal manage- ment specialists that ICM efforts must fit 5. Four types of stakeholders. within a comprehensive framework which integrates the range of activities and consti- There are four groups of stakeholders with tutes sustainable development in coastal important roles to play. Those are: (a) the areas (White et al., 1997). local resident population, (b) Tourists, (c)
Tourism business sector and (d) the gov- The UN has prepared guidelines on envi- ernment, non-governmental and community ronmentally sound development of coastal based organizations. In an attempt to design tourism for ESCAP countries (ESCAP, 1995). and implement strategies for proper man- The report is based on case studies carried agement of resources one should not under- out in Fiji, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, estimate the important roles to played by Philippines and Thailand. The guidelines each party. are relating to EIA, technical guidelines for
environmental management, managing so- As such, coastal resource management has cial/cultural impact and policy recommen- become a complex issue particularly when dations. It gives general guidelines as well resources are being used for tourism in ad- as specific actions to be undertaken with dition to traditional economic activities ex- respect to certain aspects. But special care is isting in the coastal sites. necessary in the case of critical areas like
Hikkaduwa and Calangute which have al-
ready been subject to various types of eco- Proper Management of Coastal logical, environmental, physical, economic Resources and socio-cultural problems resulting from the existing nature of tourism development. The key issue of proper management of coastal resources is to allow sustainable use of resources. Sustainable use is also referred A Strategy for Sustainable Coastal to as “Sustainable Development” which has Tourism received much attention of development planners, policy makers, politicians, profes- The lessons learned from the two case study sionals, academics, and researchers in recent sites selected from Sri Lanka and India leads times. It provides a good conceptual us to think about the appropriate strategy framework for any kind of development for the development of tourism which takes activity. In the context of tourism, sustain- 98 Tantrigama into consideration the specific nature of 6. Draft management plan through problems that different sites are faced with. community involvement, determine Hikkaduwa was one of the sites for the im- indicators for monitoring and con- plementation of Coastal Resources Man- duct cost benefit analysis. agement Projects (CRMP) of USAID. The 7. Implement pilot projects while concept of Special Area Management planning continues. (SAM) approach was adopted and imple- mented as an integrative approach for The very specific nature of the SAM plan- coastal zone management. SAM approach ning process is that it differs from the con- provides a good conceptual framework for ventional planning process in which the or- developing appropriate development der of planning, implementation, monitor- strategies for specific geographical areas. ing and feedback is important. Under SAM, the implementation does not necessarily The basic premises for SAM process is that it follow a planning stage. The implementa- is possible to organize local communities to tion can begin at the planning stage which manage their natural resources and they allows planning to be continually revised. will continue to do so if they perceive that they derive tangible benefits from better The outcome of the SAM plan adopted in management. The planner, the planning Hikkaduwa (CRMP, 1996) brought mixed agency or the organization group play only results. This is a new planning concept ap- a catalytic role in organizing the local com- plied in the Asian region. The success of the munity. They can provide technical and fi- plan depends heavily on the active partici- nancial support for the management effort pation of all stakeholders who were in- which is formulated and implemented as a volved in planning process at implementa- local community and/or local government tion stages. The Hikkaduwa SAM plan re- effort. (Wickramaratna and White, 1992). ceived much attention at the planning Community participation is incorporated in stages. Once the project was over and the the planning stage of the SAM. This fre- coordinating office was removed, participa- quently is not possible in the case of macro tion of relevant parties was lacking. Certain level or broader area planning. However, actions recommended in the plan such as the success of SAM is based on the extent to construction of the fishing harbor are now which implementation and monitoring be- under way. But the implementation of most comes a local responsibility and gradual of the recommended actions were not satis- reduction of outside support in the long run. factorily undertaken. The lesson to be learnt The basic steps of SAM approach are: from the SAM project undertaken in Hik- 1. Agreement on need for SAM for a kaduwa is that planning as well as imple- particular site and identify national mentation should be institutionalized at the and local level participants. local authority level. Leaving it to be imple- 2. Compile Environmental Profile of mented voluntarily is not a good strategy to the area and determine the priority be adopted in a case of countries like Sri management issues. Lanka. The application of the SAM ap- 3. Enter the community with full-time proach to Hikkaduwa tourism area provides professional facilitators and com- indications for further refinement to be un- munity organizers to liase with dertaken in the next stages. community stakeholders, organize education programs and facilitate There is no such micro level attempt to plan the planning process. for tourism in Calangute. The Department 4. Conduct planning cum training of Town & Country Planning of Goa pre- workshops in the area. pared a Master Plan for Tourism Develop- 5. Organize resource management ment in 1987 covering the entire state of Goa core groups. (Deprtment of Town & Country Planning, Goa, 1987). That Plan was also not imple- Tantrigama 99 mented as it did not receive the required Town & Country Planning Department of public support because of the reason that Goa. (1987). Master Plan for Tourism De- public opinion had not been adequately velopment in Goa, Panaji, Goa. sought at the planning stage. In the begin- Wickramaratna, H.J.M., and White, Alan T., ning of 1999, the Goa Department of Tour- (1992). Concept Paper on Special Area ism started preparing the second Tourism Management for Sri Lankan Coasts, Work- Master Plan. Once the report is prepared it ing Paper No. 10/1992, Coastal Resources will be another macro plan for tourism in Management Project, Sri Lanka, Co- the state of Goa. Calangute is an area which lombo. has not been given any special focus in any White, Alan T., Barker, V., and Tantrigama, kind of planning. But it is clearly evident G. (1997). Using Integrated Coastal that Calangute requires special attention Management and Economics to Con- which cannot be given in regional/national serve Coastal Tourism Resources in Sri level planning. Lanka, AMBIO, Vol.XXVI, Number 6, Royal Swedish Academy of Science. Wilson, D. (1997). Strategies for sustainabil- References ity: Lessons from Goa and the Sey- chelles, In: Tourism and Sustainability: Ecoforum. (1993). Fish Curry and Rice, Other Principles to Practice, M.J. Stabler, (ed.) India Books, Mapusa, Goa. Cab International, Oxon. Economic and Social Commission for Asia Wong, P.P. (1998). Coastal tourism devel- and the Pacific (ESCAP). (1995). Guide- opment in Southeast Asia: Relevance lines on Environmentally Sound Develop- and lessons for coastal zone manage- ment of Coastal Tourism, United Nations. ment, Ocean and Coastal Management, Coastal Resources Management Project No.38, Elsevier. (CRMP). (1994). The Coastal Environ- WTO. (1992). Guidelines: Development of Na- mental Profile of Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka, tional Parks and Protected Areas for Tour- Colombo. ism, Madrid. D'Souza, J. (1997). Concrete Jungle Killing Ca- langute, Focus, Weekender, Goa. Smith, Russel A. (1994) Coastal tourism in the Asia Pacific: Environmental plan- ning needs, Coastal Management in Tropical Asia, March 1994. Tantrigama, G. (1994). Economic analysis and justification for coastal resources management in Hikkaduwa, Coastal Resources Management Project, Sri Lanka. Tantrigama, G. (1998). Carrying capacity of coastal tourism sites: A methodological approach, Paper presented at the First Annual Sessions of the Faculty of Graduate Studies, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, 27th March, 1998. Tantrigama, G. and White, Alan T. (1994). Coastal environment and tourism: Can Hikkaduwa, Sri Lanka, afford to clean up? Paper presented at the Annual Con- ference of Society for Ecological Eco- nomics, Costa Rica.
EMERGING COASTAL TOURISM POTENTIAL IN BRITISH COLUMBIA: THE FISHERIES TOURISM NETWORK AND THE GERMAN MARKET
Karl Fellenius Simon Fraser University (Canada)
Peter W. Williams Simon Fraser University (Canada)
Terry Hood Pacific Rim Institute of Tourism (Canada)
Abstract: Coastal tourism is on the rise in development need to be identified. These compo- Canada. The challenge is to develop products nents include the role of the Network in respond- based on market research that utilize the existing ing to training needs, the elements of training infrastructure and knowledge in coastal commu- and the specific instructional modules required nities. This paper therefore describes a new to deliver the necessary products. The underly- coastal fisheries tourism sector initiative de- ing rationale for training is to coordinate exist- signed to deliver specialized products that reflect ing industry and tourism knowledge and chan- the unique character of the fisheries industry. nel it towards the development of responsible and The need for this kind of tourism approach in viable coastal fisheries tourism products. As with fisheries has grown out of the decline of fishery other sectors, coastal fisheries tourism should stocks and the subsequent loss of fisheries-related develop according to the ecological, social and employment in recent years. While the majority economic dimensions of sustainability. But more of initiatives associated with coastal fisheries often than not, even best practices in tourism fall tourism will incorporate some notion of fisheries short of reconciling all three of these imperatives. in their product mix, others may concentrate on If the Network can stimulate a reduction of pres- cultural awareness of unique peoples, ecological sure on the fisheries resource while practicing education or heritage tourism without references ecological responsibility combined with success- to fisheries. The vehicle for the sector is planned ful economic and social transition of workers as land and water-based interpretive tours gen- from one sector into another, sustainable tourism erally combined with accommodation facilities in can become a reality in this sector. Eventually, communities along the coast. The paper presents an emblem similar to an eco-label will become the Fisheries Tourism Network, an ongoing ini- associated with responsible coastal fisheries tour- tiative modeled on a cooperative approach to ism in British Columbia. Standards will reflect support the development of new tourism busi- the diversity within the Network and marketing nesses that use the skills, experience and infra- efforts will result in the tourist seeking out those structure of the fishing community. For the operations displaying the emblem. Network to establish credibility and expand effec- tively, it needs practical experience and valuable This paper describes an approach for assessing insights into the intricacies of coastal fisheries international potential for coastal tourism and tourism planning and development. Four busi- describes the latent demand from Germany using nesses in different stages of management have segmentation techniques catered to the long-haul been incorporated as demonstration projects for pleasure travel market (Canadian Tourism this purpose. Commission et al., 1996). It is based on the work by Williams et al. (1999), which analyzed the To facilitate the transition from fisheries to tour- potential coastal market for long-haul travelers ism, key components of training support and from the United Kingdom, Germany and Canada and identified their top travel characteristics. 102 Fellenius, Williams and Hood
Segmentation is a method of market analysis reports are submitted by operators and random where data is compiled as independent character- observations are taken of the operation. This sets istics or variables and synthesized as demo- the stage for a gradual and unobtrusive switch to graphic, behavioral or attitudinal segments checklists of operational standards and spot in- (Fitzgibbon, 1994). From the approach taken in spections after full membership has been this analysis, the findings indicate that a travel awarded. With a focus on criteria such as these, affinity for coastal tourism products exists for standards for coastal fisheries tourism will de- approximately 59% of the surveyed long-haul velop with a systematic and practical approach. market in Germany. These potential coastal trav- elers felt that “visiting remote coastal attractions Keywords: fisheries tourism, community devel- like fishing villages or lighthouses” were often or opment, marketing research and management always important to them when choosing their long-haul destination. In general, potential coastal travelers tend to be married baby boomers Introduction with no children that believe in getting value for their holiday money. They prefer destinations Coastal tourism is on the rise in Canada. The with outstanding scenery where they can appre- west coast in particular is experiencing a ciate ecological features in a friendly local envi- ronment. An aggressive strategy which creates surge in the demand for products which scenic images of small towns and villages along cater to the potential coastal traveler. As the coast set in areas of rich biodiversity is traditionally resource-based communities needed to position the province as having the are confronted with the realities of a declin- environment and infrastructure necessary to ing staple economy, the prospect of a transi- support product development in this sector. With tion into tourism is often touted as the solu- singular focuses that can be marketed separately tion to their economic woes. This is becom- or as a package, British Columbia would be per- ing a growing trend in fishing communities ceived as a top coastal destination by having in British Columbia as more operators are unique features for each stretch of the coastline. attempting to position themselves for vari- Efforts should be focused on highlighting activi- ous types of ecotourism and adventure tour- ties preferred by the German coastal traveler ism opportunities. The challenge for coastal such as bird watching and other wildlife viewing tourism is to develop products based on opportunities as part of a product mix of learn- market research that utilize the existing in- ing about people, places and things. frastructure and knowledge in these com- munities. To meet this challenge, this paper In conjunction with marketing information for describes a new coastal fisheries tourism coastal fisheries tourism, attention needs to be sector initiative designed to deliver special- given to strategic actions in destination plan- ized products that reflect the unique charac- ning and product development, community in- ter of the fisheries industry. More specifi- volvement processes, and mechanisms of moni- cally, it presents the Fisheries Tourism Net- toring and assessment. While all coastal com- work, an ongoing initiative to develop sup- munities should have access to the eventual sup- port services for the responsible develop- port services of the Network, decisions need to be ment of fisheries tourism. This Network will made as to whether the immediate focus should be working with industry operators on be more on complementing existing tourism op- demonstration projects and coordinating the erations with displaced fishers or encouraging delivery of training programs. the start-up of new businesses. Both are required, but in different proportions for different places. While the market for coastal fisheries tour- The Network also needs to create an understand- ism needs further research, an analysis of ing with communities in which they operate that international travel databases indicate a sig- their commitment to sustainable tourism means nificant interest for the type of products this community control over expansion. Starting with the demonstration projects, the Network new sector is seeking to offer. The paper should organize a program where regular status describes an approach for assessing the de- mand from Germany in regards to the char- Fellenius, Williams and Hood 103 acteristics of the potential coastal traveler. In awareness of unique peoples, ecological conjunction with marketing information for education or heritage tourism without refer- coastal fisheries tourism, attention needs to ences to fisheries. Ideally, the mix would be given to strategic actions in destination allow for some combination of experiences planning and product development, com- in these areas with a focus on fisheries. The munity involvement processes, and mecha- retention of the fisheries terminology in the nisms of monitoring and assessment. With a sector name identifies it as its own niche, focus on criteria such as these, standards for similar in philosophy yet uniquely distinct coastal fisheries tourism will develop with a from mainstream ecotourism and heritage systematic and practical approach. tourism. The vehicle for the sector is planned as land and water-based interpre- tive tours generally combined with accom- Coastal Fisheries Tourism modation facilities in communities along the coast. Awareness of unique peoples is pri- This sector is expected to provide tourism marily directed at First Nations but may opportunities with a strong historical flavor include exposure to other cultures. While an of the fisheries industry in British Columbia. obvious topic for discussion is salmon, edu- Although the central focus surrounds the cational tours on coastal ecology can cover a commercial salmon fishery, coastal fisheries variety of species and their habitats pre- tourism encompasses all tourism products sented within an ecosystem approach. Heri- associated with the harvesting of species in tage tourism products will include a diver- tidal waters including the recreational and sity of historic vessels and attractions in aboriginal food fisheries. coastal communities and urban centers. Newer vessels and working harbors are ex- The need for this kind of tourism approach amples of modern heritage features that will in fisheries has grown out of the decline of be connected to this sector. fishery stocks and the subsequent loss of fisheries-related employment in recent years. Fisheries resources are under consid- Fisheries Tourism Network erable pressure to meet the needs of present and future generations of fishers and their The Community Fisheries Development communities. As a consequence, many Centre is a society committed to assisting communities are turning to tourism as an people from fisheries-related industries in instrument of economic transition. The fed- obtaining alternate or supplementary em- eral government has retired approximately ployment. Through their corporate arm, 1,500 gillnet, seine and troll fishing licenses Community Fisheries Development Enter- on the west coast since 1996, almost half of prises, the Society has the ability to develop which took place in March 1999. The current joint venture opportunities and manage commercial salmon fishing fleet holds 2,900 small businesses. The Fisheries Tourism licenses, most of which remain eligible for Network is a recent enterprise initiative the buyback program. Whether the resource modeled on a cooperative approach to sup- decline is due to too many boats chasing too port the development of new tourism busi- few fish, predation by other species or habi- nesses that use the skills, experience and tat degradation does not change the reality infrastructure of the fishing community. that an unprecedented number of people are Consistent with the Society’s mandate, the affected by the downturn in the industry. Network makes every effort to create em- ployment for fishers and others normally While the majority of initiatives associated making a living off fisheries. Eligible par- with coastal fisheries tourism will incorpo- ticipants are those individuals that have rate some notion of fisheries in their product been negatively affected by the current state mix, others may concentrate on cultural of the resource and the associated govern- 104 Fellenius, Williams and Hood ment and industry restructuring programs. comes this constraint to their tourism pro- The Network itself is being managed by gramming. This demonstration project con- persons knowledgeable in both the tourism tributes significant opportunities for the and fisheries industries. It is advised by a Network in learning about marketing initia- committee consisting of the Society and tives, administrative management and regu- tourism professionals from industry and latory requirements of chartering and vessel academia. While limited start-up funding conversion. for the initiative is being provided by Fisher- ies Renewal British Columbia and Human Working Harbour Tours Resources Development Canada, it is ex- Newly established under the Community pected that the Network and its associated Fisheries Development Enterprises pro- businesses will eventually be self-sustaining gram, this initiative will be used to develop through membership fees and direct tour- a template for land and water-based inter- ism revenues. pretive tours in working harbors. It will use the Port of Vancouver as a pilot. The oppor- The immediate objectives for the Fisheries tunity exists to develop several products of Tourism Network are: to determine the ca- industrial tourism that can be uniquely pacity-building needs of fishers making a packaged as part of the same tour. It will transition to tourism; establish mechanisms benefit from the experiences of existing op- to support the development and growth of erators providing various water-based tours tourism in this new sector; and analyze the while establishing opportunities for joint market potential for fisheries industry-based ventures with local attractions such as mu- historical, cultural and interpretive tourism. seums, fish canneries and processing plants, shipyards, restaurants and the Port Author- ity. Since many of these are working attrac- Demonstration Projects tions, the project will provide information on a host of safety and scheduling chal- For the Network to establish credibility and lenges in addition to a variety of unique expand effectively, it needs practical experi- partnership arrangements. While the initial ence and valuable insights into the intrica- focus will be on inner harbor tours, longer cies of coastal fisheries tourism planning cruises embarking from the harbor into ad- and development. Four businesses in differ- jacent areas would expand business oppor- ent stages of management have been incor- tunities and give insight into the differences porated as demonstration projects for this between vessel certification requirements purpose. for operations inside and outside the Port.
BC Fisherman’s Unique Tours Alert Bay Tribal Council This limited company was established in The Musgamagw Tsawataineuk First Nation 1996 by seven independent gillnet fishers to is in the conceptual stages of developing a provide day charters with their vessels on coastal fisheries tourism initiative which the Fraser River, Pitt Lake and in the Gulf will be planned and approved by all of its Islands. Although they have achieved only members. The Northern Vancouver Island limited success, the participants in this pro- community of Alert Bay is an ideal location gram have expanded their offering to in- for a tourism product centered around clude interpretive walking tours of New awareness of aboriginal culture. The project Westminster and its waterfront. Since most will enable the Network to learn about of the operators continue to fish in other proper protocol and authenticity issues that areas of the province during part of the peak need to be considered when developing and tourist season, there are additional chal- delivering culturally-specific tourism prod- lenges that need to be addressed in develop- ucts. ing a successful tourism business that over- Fellenius, Williams and Hood 105
Fraser River Heritage Tours Role of Network in Training While also recently established under The Fisheries Tourism Network will serve as Community Fisheries Development Enter- a coordinating agency for the development prises, this business will be run as a coop- of a training template. It will use existing erative in partnership with the Britannia and new training resources. Training may Heritage Shipyard in Steveston and BC be provided directly by the Network or con- Fisherman’s Unique Tours. Heritage tours tracted out to others. In any case, the Net- on the Fraser River will be provided on work will provide advice on capacity issues small wooden gillnet skiffs which have been and market itself as the lead authority on built to their original design of the 1880’s. training for this new tourism sector. The four skiffs can carry up to seven pas- sengers each and are powered by 4-stroke Elements of Training outboard motors. In addition, there are two Central to the training support services of slightly larger sail and oar-powered skiffs the Network is a “how to” Guide for Busi- that have also been reconstructed. River ness Development designed for existing and tours will be offered as a speciality program potential operators. It will include best prac- under the Britannia operation with more tices in coastal tourism, market research extensive package tours combining the heri- analyses and essential information on First tage skiffs with the larger gillnetters of BC Nations protocol, small business develop- Fisherman’s Unique Tours. Since the Net- ment and interpretation techniques. In addi- work is also planned as a cooperative it will tion, the Guide will outline regulations on benefit from learning about the structure of passenger vessel operations including con- this demonstration project, in particular the version and safety requirements. The plan differences in effective partnership devel- calls for the creation of a guidebook docu- opment compared to the other projects. ment that will be regularly updated and im- proved as resources develop. Trainers will As the demonstration projects gain experi- also need an instructional guide to assist in ence, their particular Network support delivering introductory workshops in needs will become more apparent. This will coastal communities as part of an orienta- provide useful information on which com- tion program. The provision of these sup- ponents of the training template should take port materials will be the first step towards priority. a variety of advisory services that the Net- work will develop based on effective needs assessment. Packaged together, these ele- Training Needs Assessment and ments will make up a training template de- Response signed as “performance support” as op- posed to traditional training. To facilitate the transition from fisheries to tourism, key components of training sup- Instructional Modules port and development need to be identified. The instructional components of the tem- These components include the role of the plate will be organized in four training Network in responding to training needs, modules offered through existing organiza- the elements of training and the specific in- tions and the Network. One module is small structional modules required to deliver the business management topics such as prod- necessary products. The underlying ration- uct and business plan development, includ- ale for training is to coordinate existing in- ing market research and marketing strate- dustry and tourism knowledge and channel gies. Another is customer service training in it towards the development of responsible SuperHost, First Host, Serving It Right and and viable coastal fisheries tourism prod- Food Safe, recognized courses in the tourism ucts. industry fundamental to responsible hospi- tality. Specific to delivering coastal fisheries 106 Fellenius, Williams and Hood tourism products is a particular historical eries industry. This is no easy task. As with knowledge of the fisheries industry within other sectors, coastal fisheries tourism an overall understanding of coastal ecology should develop according to the ecological, and heritage including First Nations proto- social and economic dimensions of sustain- cols. Therefore, a training module on spe- ability. But more often than not, even best cialty topics which teaches interpretive practices in tourism fall short of reconciling techniques for the coastal environment and all three of these imperatives. If the Network leads to effective linkages with First Nations can stimulate a reduction of pressure on the is integral to the training template. To em- fisheries resource while practicing ecological phasize the larger perspective, other spe- responsibility combined with a successful cialty topics on sustainable tourism plan- economic and social transition of workers ning for resource-based communities will be from one sector into another, sustainable provided. Finally, a module on marine tourism can become a reality in this sector. It regulations and safety will be developed to is a unique opportunity to channel existing include Transport Canada approved knowledge grounded in resource extraction courses, first aid and workplace safety train- into softer and more value-added consump- ing, environmental regulations and codes of tion. Fishers thereby maintain a connection practice and local bylaws. Such a module to their heritage and a sense of pride in re- will also include insurance guidelines, back laying the important role of the industry in country recreation policy and vessel conver- the historical development of British Co- sion guidelines for passenger transport spe- lumbia. cific to the sector. Since the product mix needs to be devel- The Community Fisheries Development oped and the operators trained in its deliv- Centre conducted workshops and a survey ery, the Network will initially need to gen- of fishers in ten coastal communities in Brit- erate revenue and credibility through its ish Columbia in the fall of 1998 to determine demonstration projects without the benefit the level of interest and viability for coastal of proven standards in place. While it is fisheries tourism. Although the focus was very much a learning process, it may be primarily to gather information from the some time before the sustainable vision is fishing community, these visits included realized. The association of the projects with discussions with local tourism professionals the Network does not guarantee them future and community leaders. One of the key membership. Similarly, the businesses coor- findings of the survey was that the respon- dinated through Working Harbour Tours dents consider training in market research, would also have to meet certain require- small business management, tourism hospi- ments to be members of that project which tality and safety important to successful in turn would apply to the Network. ventures in coastal fisheries tourism (Wil- Granted, the early participants within each liams et al., 1999a). As with other aspects of project and the projects themselves have the the Network, much of the impetus for the opportunity to significantly contribute to the planning of the training program was facili- development of standards, and are therefore tated through the information compiled in likely to be accredited. Even so, they must this consultation process. be prepared from the onset to adapt and evolve in accordance with the vision. It is expected that the criteria will be primarily Accreditation operational, reflective of a code of conduct or an appropriate sustainability assessment The vision for the Fisheries Tourism Net- framework consisting of qualitative and work is to coordinate the development and quantitative indicators. As the Network es- operation of a sustainable tourism niche tablishes further industry recognition by where coastal products are delivered by demonstrating its ability to provide support displaced workers associated with the fish- services to its members, other businesses Fellenius, Williams and Hood 107 and individuals will likely get involved and Williams et al. (1999b) analyzed the poten- contribute to the development of a coast- tial coastal market for long-haul travelers wide standard. from the United Kingdom, Germany and Canada and identified their top travel char- Eventually, an emblem similar to an eco- acteristics based on segmentation tech- label will become associated with responsi- niques. While this represents an important ble coastal fisheries tourism in British Co- part of the market for coastal fisheries tour- lumbia. The fisheries connection may be as ism, there is additional research to be car- explicit as coastal cruising on an old west ried out on travel from other countries as coast seiner or as remote as a former fish well as studies on the potential local market. processing plant employee interpreting Port This paper presents the German market in- of Vancouver operations from a modern formation to illustrate the application of the yacht. Standards will reflect the diversity methodology and to provide useful infor- within the Network and marketing efforts mation for preliminary marketing initia- will result in the tourist seeking out those tives. It is an example of one type of tourism operations displaying the emblem. market research that is being used by the Network as part of its strategy to assist fish- ers. Market Research
This section discusses a method for identify- Methods ing international potential for coastal tour- ism and describes the latent demand from An in-home survey of 1,200 potential long- Germany using segmentation techniques haul travelers was conducted in 1996 catered to the long-haul pleasure travel amongst adults who had either gone on a market (Canadian Tourism Commission et long-haul trip in the previous three years or al., 1996). Long-haul travel from Europe in- were planning to take one in the next two cludes trips of four nights or more taken by years. The distribution of the survey re- air to destinations outside of Europe, North spondents was initially weighted according Africa, the Mediterranean and the Middle to the incidence of long-haul travel to vari- East. Specifically, the work is based on a ous destinations gathered through an omni- joint effort by the national tourism organiza- bus survey in 1995. The allocation of travel- tions of Canada, the United States and Mex- ers within the database was then further ico as part of a series of studies on interna- updated for actual responses to reflect tional pleasure travel markets to North where they stayed the longest. By weighting America.
Approximate Adult Population (18 years or over) 65,498,0001 Incidence Of Adult Long-Haul Pleasure Travelers 27.6%1 Potential Adult Long-Haul Pleasure Travelers 18,077,000 Potential Coastal Tourism Travelers 59.1% Estimated Coastal Tourism Traveler Volume 10,683,507 Incidence of Coastal Tourism Traveler (Interest) In Canada -Next 5 Years 30.9% Estimated Coastal Tourism Traveler (Interest) Volume In Canada -Next 5 Years 3,301,204 Incidence of Coastal Tourism Traveler (Interest & Likelihood) Visiting Canada - Next 5 80.6% Years Estimated Coastal Tourism Traveler (Interest & Likelihood) Volume To Canada - Next 5 2,660,770 Years 1 Canadian Tourism Commission et al. (1996) Table 1. Potential German Coastal Travel Market 108 Fellenius, Williams and Hood the sample in this way, the survey is consid- Market Segments ered to have targeted a representative pro- portion of the German travel market to pro- Socio-Demographic Characteristics duce findings which can be directly trans- lated into a population estimate. Socio-demographic segmentation is often used in market research because of the ease Segmentation is a method of market analy- of identifying and measuring characteristics sis where data is compiled as independent and its association with a range of consumer characteristics or variables and synthesized products. In general, potential coastal trav- as demographic, behavioral or attitudinal elers tend to be married baby boomers with segments (Fitzgibbon, 1994). While data on no children and have few friends or rela- life cycle, income, product usage and fre- tives living in Canada. While the most fre- quency of use can combine to form a line of quent education level indicated was middle products each catering to the habits of dif- school, this market is made up of predomi- ferent users, attitudinal segments describing nantly white-collar workers with a profi- philosophies, motivations and perceptions ciency in English (Table 2). are required to understand the values and Travel Philosophy desires of consumers. For this analysis, data on the potential coastal traveler was carved Travel philosophies describe how people out of the overall sample and sorted using prefer to travel. The German market of po- SPSS to identify characteristics particular to tential coastal travelers believe in getting this travel segment. value for their holiday money. Generally, each trip is to a new destination for typically up to a couple of weeks. Although they feel Findings that travel arrangements should be made before departure, flexibility at the destina- Market Potential tion is important (Table 3).
From the approach taken in this analysis, General Travel Motivations the findings indicate that a travel affinity for coastal tourism products exists for approxi- General travel motivations depict what mately 59% of the surveyed long-haul mar- causes people to travel and choose one des- ket in Germany. These potential coastal tination or tourism product over another. travelers felt that “visiting remote coastal Potential German coastal travelers like to attractions like fishing villages or light- have the opportunity to increase their houses” were often or always important to knowledge about people, places and things them when choosing their long-haul desti- in an environment of outstanding scenery. It nation. Within this sample, 31% were either is also important that there are a variety of somewhat or very interested in visiting things to see and do as long as personal Canada in the next five years. Of these, safety is guaranteed (Table 4). about 80% stated that they were somewhat Perception of Specific Attribute in or very likely to make that trip. This repre- Canada sents approximately 2.6 million German visitors to Canada in the next five years who Traveler perceptions of specific attributes consider it important to visit remote coastal refers to the perceived competitive advan- attractions (Table 1). tages of Canada over other destinations. Potential German coastal travelers consider Canada to have outstanding scenery such as lakes, rivers and mountains where there are opportunities for appreciating natural eco logical features and experiencing wilderness adventures. National and provincial parks Fellenius, Williams and Hood 109
% of Respondents Socio-Demographic Characteristic Potential Total Coastal Travelers Sample No friends/relatives living in Canada 93.8 93.5 No friends/relatives living in US 78.8 78.4 No household members < 18 76.9 77.4 Two household members 18+ 57.4 55.8 Female 51.4 50.7 Married 49.2 46.3 35 - 44 years of age 20.0 17.4 Middle school education 29.7 28.4 White-collar worker 32.7 31.8 Living with spouse/partner with no children 29.6 27.1 Two household income contributors 50.7 49.4 Average monthly household income DM 4,501+ 40.1 38.0 English proficiency -read 61.2 61.2 write 49.1 49.2 speak 61.2 59.9 French proficiency -read 17.0 16.3 write 12.2 12.0 speak 15.9 14.9 Eurocard credit card 72.2 73.6 Table 2. Socio-Demographic Characteristics
Mean Response * Travel Philosophy Potential Total Coastal Travelers Sample Getting value for holiday money is very important to me 3.41 3.43 When traveling long-haul I usually take holidays of 14 days or less 3.21 3.14 1 like to go to a different place on each new holiday trip 3.21 3.06 I like to be flexible on my long-haul holiday going where and when it 3.16 3.05 suits me For me, money spent on long-haul travel is well spent 3.08 3.01 I like to have all my travel arrangements made before I start out on 2.98 2.97 holiday Inexpensive travel to the destination country is important to me 2.94 2.93 Once I get to my destination, I like to stay put 2.70 2.66 1 enjoy making my own arrangements for my holidays 2.68 2.63 1 prefer to take extended holidays in warm destinations to escape win- 2.35 2.30 ter Based on a scale where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = somewhat disagree, 3 = somewhat agree and 4 = strongly agree.3 Table 3. Travel Philosophy 110 Fellenius, Williams and Hood
Mean Response * Motivation Potential Total Coastal Travelers Sample Outstanding scenery 3.65 3.50 Personal safety, even when traveling alone 3.56 3.54 Opportunity to increase knowledge about places, people and things 3.56 3.38 Variety of things to see and do 3.52 3.34 Nice weather 3.49 3.47 Destination that provides value for my holiday money 3.46 3.41 Environmental quality of area 3.45 3.37 Interesting and friendly local people 3.43 3.31 Visiting remote coastal attractions e.g., fishing villages/lighthouses 3.42 2.78 Chances to see wildlife, birds and flowers not normally seen 3.38 3.13 Based on a scale where 1 = never important, 2 = sometimes important, 3 = often important and 4 = always important Table 4. General Travel Motivations
as well as remote coastal areas are perceived with outstanding scenery where they can favorably by this market (Table 5). appreciate ecological features in a friendly local environment. There should be a variety Activity Participation During Most Recent of things to see and do, especially wildlife Trip viewing in a coastal setting. German travelers engage in a variety of ac- tivities on their long-haul holidays. The top In the process of highlighting recurring activities in which coastal travelers partici- characteristics, philosophies and some of the pated in during their most recent trip was high ranking characteristics of the other photography or filming, trying local foods, traits discussed earlier are not restated. It shopping and getting to know local people. should be noted that while an analysis of Although not as popular, appreciating natu- this kind has the ability to strengthen the ral ecological sites and enjoying ethnic cul- significance of certain characteristics, it does ture and events was also undertaken signifi- not reduce the relevance of individual inves- cantly by this group (Table 6). tigation. As an example, the fact that the second most popular travel motivation in Recurring Characteristics table 4 is personal safety is a very important consideration even though it is not a recur- The data suggests that there are recurring ring characteristic. Understandably, the sur- characteristics of potential coastal travelers vey could not consistently incorporate the that are attribute perception and activity same characteristics across its behavioral participation traits. Table 7 lists the charac- and attitudinal segments. Therefore, a com- teristics that occur as two or more of these pletely relative comparison of recurring traits. For example, outstanding scenery characteristics is not possible. ranked as the first general travel motivation in table 4 and as the third attribute per- ceived as a Canadian advantage in table 5. The sum of these ranks puts it at the top of Marketing the list of recurring characteristics compared with the others. Based on this approach, The market research suggests that there is these travelers tend to favor destinations potential for increased coastal tourism in Fellenius, Williams and Hood 111
Mean Response * Attribute Potential Coastal Total Travelers Sample Lakes, rivers and mountainous areas 3.79 3.74 Visits to appreciate natural ecological sites like forests, wetlands, or animal reserves 3.73 3.65 Outstanding scenery 3.69 3.68 Wilderness adventures (e.g., a 4 day canoe trip) 3.69 3.63 National, state or provincial parks and forests 3.65 3.62 Chances to see wildlife, birds and flowers not normally seen 3.54 3.48 Hunting/fishing 3.50 3.42 Opportunities to experience the country's unique identity 3.44 3.42 Visiting remote coastal attractions e.g., fishing villages/lighthouses 3.38 3.24 Variety of things to see and do 3.35 3.33 Overall rating of Canada 3.20 3.11 * Based on a scale where 1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3 = very good and 4 = excellent present as motivation. Table 5. Perception of Specific Attribute in Canada
% of Respondents Activity Potential Coastal Total Travelers Sample Taking pictures or filming 88.3 80.3 Sampling local foods 87.4 85.9 Shopping 84.3 82.0 Getting to know local people 83.2 76.6 Informal or casual dining with table service 73.3 69.6 Visits to appreciate natural ecological sites like forests, wetlands or animal reserves 69.4 59.6 Swimming 67.0 66.3 Enjoying ethnic culture/events (e.g., festivals, music, neighborhoods, food) 66.4 61.4 Local crafts and handiwork 65.1 58.2 Visiting small towns and villages 61.2 50.6 Table 6. Activity Participation During Most Recent Trip
Characteristic General Attribute Activity Motivation Perception Participation Outstanding scenery 1st 3rd Visits to appreciate natural ecological sites 2nd 6th Interesting and friendly local people/getting to know 8th 4th Variety of things to see and do 4th 10th Chances to see wildlife, birds and flowers not normally seen 10th 6th Visiting remote coastal attractions e.g., fishing villages/lighthouses 9th 9th Table 7. Recurring Characteristics of Potential Coastal Travelers
112 Fellenius, Williams and Hood
Canada. While the German analysis did not this approach may also assist with repeat include particular attention to specific prod- visitation. ucts under coastal fisheries tourism, it was broad enough to encompass the diversity Product Marketing within this emerging tourism niche. German In marketing a product to the potential long-haul travelers are often considered an coastal traveler, its unique selling proposi- important international travel market be- tion must be clearly communicated. cause the population as a whole is relatively Whether the marketing medium is through well-traveled. As such, it is a representative brochures, video, specialty events or the component for marketing research. Success- internet, a concise description of the pro- ful marketing for coastal fisheries tourism in posed activity or attribute and why it is British Columbia will incorporate position- uniquely tailored for the targeted audience ing for the destination as well as the prod- is critical for product market match-up. uct. The sector needs to be marketed as pro- Product marketing has to emphasize the viding the best opportunities for experienc- safety of the particular operation and ex- ing the coast through a variety of easily ac- plain the meaning of any emblem that may cessible venues and activities. The message be displayed on promotional materials. should promote the unique ability of the Even references to ongoing development of sector to offer a diversity of authentic inter- codes of conduct in such materials can be a pretive experiences fundamental to the positive marketing technique. identity of the province. Efforts should be focused on highlighting Destination Marketing activities preferred by the German coastal Destinations that have a history, nature and traveler such as bird watching and other culture connected with the sea have the op- wildlife viewing opportunities as part of a portunity and the responsibility to link heri- product mix of learning about people, places tage tourism marketing efforts to coastal and things in the destinations described features. Such initiatives should portray im- above. For example, the world class reputa- ages of seaside communities that convey the tion for bird watching in the Strait of Geor- accessibility and comfort of accommodation gia can be uniquely marketed as a First Na- while emphasizing its unique or remote tions experience on the traditional interpre- character. An aggressive strategy which cre- tation of the behavior of marine birds in ates images of small towns and villages managing fisheries. along the coast set in areas of outstanding scenery and rich biodiversity is needed to Besides coordinating with the tourism mar- position the province as having the envi- keting organizations in the province to ac- ronment and infrastructure necessary to cess their distribution networks, arrange- support product development in this sector. ments with inbound tour operators catering to the European market should be estab- Distinctions should be made between areas lished. Specifically, cruise ship passengers of the province which are more associated could represent a significant market for with particular natural wildlife features or Working Harbour Tours if packages were to specific fisheries traditionally tied to certain include or promote excursions around the communities and cultures. With singular Port of Vancouver prior to departure. Other focuses that can be marketed separately or possibilities exist for combined ventures as a package, British Columbia would be with operators such as tour bus companies perceived as a top coastal destination by which already obtain a portion of their mar- having unique features for each stretch of ket share from German travelers. the coastline. Since German travelers prefer to be flexible in their choice of destination,
Fellenius, Williams and Hood 113
Management Implications sector may lead to some undesirable local effects. The Network needs to create an un- With the emerging interest in coastal fisher- derstanding with communities in which ies tourism in British Columbia, there is an they operate that their commitment to sus- opportunity to guide its development on tainable tourism means community control sustainable tourism principles. While a de- over expansion. The forum for such an un- tailed discussion on the sustainability impli- derstanding is developed through continual cations of the Fisheries Tourism Network is contact with municipal councils and by pro- warranted, the intent here is only to high- viding targeted updates to a variety of light the strategic actions which deserve par- community organizations. ticular attention as part of the formative stages of the Fisheries Tourism Network. Monitoring and Assessment
Destination Planning and Product Since the Network will eventually have Development standards in place which operators will have to meet to obtain accreditation, an ap-
propriate monitoring and assessment pro- The Network needs to identify existing op- gram will need to be established to ensure erators, their products and their ranges of compliance. In order for monitoring to be operation beyond the initial environmental favorably received by the accredited partici- scan commissioned through the Community pants, its impact on their operations has to Fisheries Development Centre (Williams et appear seamless. This will be significantly al., 1999a). While all coastal communities easier to accomplish if a less rigorous ver- should have access to the eventual support sion was initiated at an early stage. Starting services of the Network, decisions need to with the demonstration projects, the Net- be made whether the immediate focus work should organize a program where should be more on complementing existing regular status reports are submitted by op- tourism operations with displaced fishers or erators and random observations are taken encouraging the start-up of new businesses. of the operation. This sets the stage for a Both are required, but in different propor- gradual and unobtrusive switch to checklists tions for different places. Although existing of operational standards and spot inspec- operators will refine their products over tions after full membership has been time as they are further involved with the awarded. In addition, the early monitoring Network, their initial offerings must exceed and assessment is an effective means of co- the status quo. If new businesses are de- operative standards development. signed for coastal fisheries tourism, they are likely to deliver interpretive products more quickly, albeit with less experience. For this process to establish credibility, the Network Conclusion should adopt a policy of providing equal opportunity throughout the province for This paper has presented coastal fisheries any operators beyond the current demon- tourism as an emerging sector of coastal stration projects. tourism. It suggests that the newly formed Fisheries Tourism Network is a useful model for coordinating the development of this sector in British Columbia. A number of Community Involvement demonstration projects and training initia-
tives were outlined as part of a support While the heritage values associated with structure designed to assist operators get- coastal fisheries tourism are designed to en- ting involved with the Network. courage community interaction with a low impact approach, the potential growth of the 114 Fellenius, Williams and Hood
Segmentation analysis was used to assess ies Development Centre. Burnaby, the latent demand for coastal travel. This Canada. approach was presented along with details Williams, P.W., Dossa, K. and Davidson, C. on prominent travel characteristics for the (1999b). Potential Coastal Tourism Travel German segment of the potential coastal Markets. Unpublished report by the tourism market. The findings suggest that Centre for Tourism Policy and Re- there is a market for coastal tourism prod- search at Simon Fraser University and ucts that provide opportunities for a variety the Community Fisheries Development of unique cultural and ecological experi- Centre. Burnaby, Canada. ences. Destinations and products should be considered together to reflect the most ap- propriate combination of experiences under a common theme of fisheries-related tour- ism. Continued research on more specific product-market matches in addition to stra- tegic actions towards accreditation should enable the sector to develop sustainably. The Network, being the responsible coordi- nating body, is uniquely positioned in the industry to make this happen.
Data Set Pleasure Travel Markets to North America: Germany. (1996). N=1200. The Canadian Tourism Commission, US Tourism Indus- tries/International Trade Administration and the Secretaria de Turismo (Mexico).
References
Canadian Tourism Commission, US Tour- ism Industries/International Trade Administration and the Secretaria de Turismo (Mexico). (1996). Pleasure Travel Markets to North America: Ger- many Final Report. Canadian Tourism Commission, Ottawa, Canada. Fitzgibbon, J.R. (1994). Market segmentation research in tourism and travel, In: Travel, Tourism and Hospitality Research, A Handbook for Managers and Research- ers, second edition. J.R.B. Ritchie and C.R. Goeldner (eds.). John Wiley, To- ronto. pp. 489-496. Williams, P.W., Dossa, K. and Davidson, C. (1999a). Fisheries Tourism Initiative: Pre- liminary Environmental Scan. Unpub- lished report by the Centre for Tourism Policy and Research at Simon Fraser University and the Community Fisher- MARKET FEASIBILITY OF A WATER TRAIL
Laani Uunila School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and Tourism Lakehead University (Canada)
Russell Currie School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and Tourism Lakehead University (Canada)
Abstract: This feasibility study examines the determine the feasibility of establishing a implications of the creation of a water trail in water trail in Bruce Peninsula National Park Bruce Peninsula National Park and Fathom Five and Fathom Five National Marine Park, To- National Marine Park. Modern water trails have bermory, Ontario. To do this the water trail been increasing in popularity since the middle of trends, and present and future needs of the 1980s. Water trail associations were sur- paddlers were compared with Park zoning veyed to compile a database of their current and planning policies. Information was status, and predicted trends including: associa- gathered on current North American water tion growth, volunteer and association responsi- trails, through the use of a survey. Details bilities, proximity to population bases, land own- about development (land, access, policies ership, technology, maintenance and fees. and facilities), user fees, maintenance and types of users and growth were compiled. In terms of Bruce Peninsula National Park and From the information gathered, trends in the Fathom Five National Marine Park, developing a development and use of water trails in water trail is feasible, if several precautions are North America were established and ap- taken. Zoning and planning policies of the Parks plied to the Bruce Peninsula Parks. are compatible with the current number of pad- dlers in the region. Numbers of paddlers, how- ever, are increasing. Two important issues need to be addressed: activity classification and avail- Background able campsites. Paddling on water trails is a rec- reational activity which is expected to have sig- Water trails, like their counterpart hiking nificant annual growth. Natural resource man- trails, have trail heads, points of interest and agers should be prepared with a management can vary in length. Ford (1998) states that strategy which allows the greatest degree of re- water trails can help to promote steward- source protection, environmental education and ship of the environment because of the at- enjoyment possible. This study was made possi- tachment which paddlers develop towards ble by the provision of a research grant from the land. A recreational water trail has a Parks Canada. specific start and termination point, access roads, day and/or overnight sites, incorpo- Keywords: recreation, ecotourism, conservation, rates lakes, rivers, and/or oceans and is land use planning used by boaters (Getchell, 1992; 1998). The Washington Water Trails Association (1997) states that a water trail has: Introduction “a network of access points, resting places and attractions for users of hu- The purpose of this study was to examine man-powered and beachable wind- the trends in North American water trails to powered water craft on marine and 116 Uunila and Currie
inland waterways. Sites should be suffi- the Maine Island Trail is facing growing cient in numbers to allow you, the small conflict among stakeholders (i.e., members boater with limited range, to travel of MITA and local residents) (Cunningham, safely from one site to another in a sin- 1997). Increasing use of the trail has resulted gle day.” in some negative effects on the user experi- ence, the environment and wildlife (Cun- Several trails, such as those operated by the ningham, 1997). In some instances individu- Washington Water Trails Association, are als hasten the erosion of banks by climbing restricted to self-propelled boats, such as sea via non-designated routes (Stimpson, 1998). kayaks, canoes and sailboats (Getchell, 1998; Cunningham (1997: 3) further states that Huser, 1988). The majority of water trails “fortunately MITA is already well estab- emphasize minimal impact practices; how- lished and in a position to cope with the ris- ever, they differ in level of development and ing number of boaters . . . [The MITA is] facilities offered (Getchell, 1998). working to find creative solutions without restricting access to island and launching Modern water trails began to gain popular- sites”. ity in the middle of the 1980s (Miller, 1998). As a result of diminishing access to natural The creation of regulations and policies to water resources, numerous recreational wa- mitigate overuse needs to be part of the trail ter trails have been established and several development process. Many trails begin others are in the process of development with the support of a few dedicated pad- (Getchell, 1998; McGee, 1994; 1995). One dlers. As the trail building organization concern regarding water trails is the concen- grows, so do user numbers. Managers tration and attraction of paddlers to the area should note, as the experience of the Maine and their resulting impacts. However, the Island Trail demonstrates, water trails impacts of paddlers are less severe from site should not be extensively promoted until to site than those of backpackers who use there is a well-established trail authority trail networks. Where there is human use, which is responsible for making users aware there will be impact. It is up to park and of low impact policies. The Cascadia Marine land managers to establish regulations and Trail, situated on the coast of Washington, policies to help minimize the impact and recently won the British Airways “Tourism encourage responsible practices. Water trails, for Tomorrow Award” (Cunningham, 1997: at first glance, can appear to detract from the 3) because it is an “environmentally respon- natural environment experience. Water trail sible tourism project”. Role model projects creation, however, is fundamental in pro- are selected for this award based on several viding recreation opportunities for paddlers. criteria: sustainable development, leader- Cunningham (1997: 3) states: ship, conservation, environmental impact, “Water trails, may on the surface, seem visitor management, community relations to limit the freedom to wander the wide and education (British Airways, 1997). The open spaces, those wide open spaces free promotion resulting from the Tourism have been closing in as coastal areas for Tomorrow Award has created concern grow in population and the recreation about the potential of increased use of the areas get more heavily used. The trails Cascadia Marine Trail (Cunningham, 1997). will preserve access.” The Washington Water Trails Association can only wait to see if there is a detrimental The Maine Island Trail Association (MITA) or beneficial effect to their marine trail. established the Maine Island Trail in 1989; one of the first coastal recreational water In Canada, coastal areas are facing “envi- trails to be developed (Cunningham, 1997). ronmental degradation, habitat loss and MITA serves as a resource for new water growing conflicts among resource users” trail organizations, through their past ex- (Environment Canada Officials, 1994: 1) perience and current research. Currently, prompting, in part, the construction of the Uunila and Currie 117
British Columbia Marine Trail and the con- effective practices. The most significant limi- sideration of several other water trails, such tation which developed was a lack of accu- as one along the Newfoundland shore of the rate record keeping. Few water trail associa- Bay of Fundy (McGee, 1994; 1995; Miller, tions keep accurate records of user numbers 1998). or types. Some water trail associations sell seasonal passes and are unable to record actual user days. Methods Methods of data collection for kayaker needs included interviews with Park offi- This study was completed in two phases: cials, local businesses and paddlers. A ques- water trails history (Phase I) and kayaker tionnaire was distributed to kayakers in the needs/park policy review (Phase II). As a upper Bruce Peninsula region, to collect in- result different methods were used to collect formation on needs and previous paddling data. experience in the area. Cross tabulations were used to segment experience level by The water trail association survey was de- preferences and needs. Local businesses signed to compile information about the were canvassed to determine their interest present status of water trails, to identify and support of the emerging sea kayaking trends, and to provide information for the market. Input from management and staff of possible development of a water trail in the Parks was solicited to determine the im- Bruce Peninsula National Park and Fathom plications of the creation of a water trail Five National Marine Park. North American within the Parks. water trail associations were the population of this survey. The sample investigated was the water trail associations documented in Results/Discussion the first edition of the North American Wa- ter Trails, Inc. (NAWT) guidebook. In addi- Status and Trend 1 - Association Growth tion, two other organizations were added to There has been an increased awareness of the sample, one a Canadian National Park water trails throughout the continent. The and the other a water trail association estab- environmental movement and the desire to lished post-publication of the NAWT guide- protect recreation resources has contributed book. The total sample size was 30. to the proliferation of the number of trails, from 30 in 1995 to over 150 in 1999 (Getchell, The questionnaire consisted of four thematic 1998; Uunila and Currie, 1998). Increased sections: background information, site con- participation in outdoor recreation activities struction, management practices and users. such as kayaking and canoeing has created a Surveys were distributed via the postal ser- greater demand for recreation opportunities vice. Participants were provided with a re- (The Recreation Roundtable, 1996). There turn-addressed stamped envelope, in order has been a marked increase in the develop- to reduce the cost and minimize the effort of ment of both water trails and corridors, such the study participants. Ten returned ques- as the Heritage River System in Canada. tionnaires, plus the results from one phone Heritage Rivers are protected waterways, administered survey, made a total of 11 including a buffer zone of land alongside completed questionnaires. the protected river (Parks Canada, 1994). It is expected that the number of water trail The research data was analyzed through associations will continue to increase well descriptive methods. The responses were into the next millennium, creating a strong examined and general conclusions drawn lobbying group for the protection of natural about water trail organizations. In addition, resources and outdoor recreation opportuni- unique features (e.g., composting toilets) ties. were highlighted to provide examples of
118 Uunila and Currie
Status and Trend 2 - Volunteer and riety of landowners, such as private, corpo- Association Responsibilities rate and government. The multi- One of the challenges facing natural re- jurisdictional quality of water trails results source agencies is static or decreasing fund- in a variety of overnight opportunities rang- ing. Those agencies that want to develop ing from wilderness campsites with minimal new facilities, such as water trails, will have facilities to bed and breakfasts incorporated to look for alternative funding sources or into a single trail. Because of the differing new management strategies. There will be types of landowners the fees charged per an increase in the number of volunteer or- night and the maximum number of users ganizations which develop and operate wa- per site also varies. There will be an in- ter trails. In the future, due to the lack of creased cooperation between natural re- federal and local funding, volunteer associa- source, environmental, tourism and recrea- tions will be increasingly responsible for a tional agencies as water trail associations variety of jobs from the production of bro- bring these organizations together. chures to trail maintenance, even on feder- ally managed lands (Getchell, 1998). Water Status and Trend 5 - New Technology trail associations are responsible for either and Growth of User Base multiple trails or a single trail. Trail length New scientific developments have made ranges from a short 13 mile trail to 1566 recreation activities more accessible to the miles spanning 26 individual trails in Indi- general public. Developments such as GPS ana. The focus of the associations is almost units and lightweight equipment have equally divided between maintaining the opened up recreation activities which were current operating trails and the expansion formerly dominated by a small portion of and development of new trails. Nonetheless, the population (Ewert, 1989; 1995; Ewert those associations which offer multiple trails and Schreyer, 1990; Hollenhorst, 1995). will develop a greater user base, and politi- There is both an increase in the number of cal force because they will have a greater recreationists and the diversity of user numbers of users. groups (Ewert, 1995; Ewert and Schreyer, 1990; Hall, 1992). This increase in numbers is Status and Trend 3 - Propinquity expected to continue as long as scientific The location and length of a water trail de- developments are applied to recreation termine the user numbers. Water trails equipment. An increase in the number of which offer two to three-day trips, either by users has created an increased demand for paddling the entire length or a section of the facilities. As more of the general public be- route, are the most popular (Wiesner-Hanks, comes involved in water trails, there will be 1998). The rate of use of water trails in- an increased demand for more levels of fa- creases when the trail is located near a large cilities, for example running water and flush population base and has unique features. toilets. Table 1 indicates the current levels of Wiesner-Hanks (1998), Director of the Trade sanitation facilities on several water trails. Association of Paddlesports, further states These numbers will probably be skewed trails located near urban areas will continue towards higher levels of facilities in the near to see a greater increase in growth then future. “Hard-core” paddlers will seek less those trails in remote locations. To a lesser established sites, while the largest portion of degree, remote locations will also continue the paddling community will welcome these to grow. upgrades. The multi-jurisdictional nature of water trails often means that different facili- Status and Trend 4 - Land Ownership ties are offered within a water trail. For ex- Multi-jurisdictional trails are the most com- ample a water trail that incorporates pre- mon type of trail. It is a rare to have a water established sites on provincial, state, federal trail established using only public land. and private land could include a variety of Many water trails have to incorporate a va- facilities ranging from a private Uunila and Currie 119
Name of Trail Flush Outhouse Open- Latrine Carry- No Other Association Toilet air Out Facilities Toilet Policy
Allagash Wilder- • • ness Waterway
Lake Superior Wa- • • ter Trail Assoc.
Maine Island Trail • • Assoc.
Massachusetts Dept • of Environmental Mang’t
Potomac Water • • Trail Assoc. Inc.
Pukaskwa Nat’l • Park
Superior National • Forest
Washington Water • • • • Trails Assoc. Table 1. Sanitation trends. campground with showers to a national park wilderness tent site. Status and Trend 7 - Maintenance Policies Status and Trend 6 - Overnight Accom- The maintenance policy of water trails modations ranges from no determined maintenance The types of groups who can access camp- schedule to well-established stewardship sites vary on water trails. Many water trails programs (see Table 2). There will be a defi- have water and hiking, or water access only nite increase in the number of stewardship campsites. These sites see less use and are programs, especially for those trails which easier to maintain and regulate than a site are multi-jurisdictional. Over the next few also accessible by motorized land vehicles. years, associations need to expand the use of Those associations that wish to provide a recruiting volunteers to adopt an island or a wilderness experience and reduce the vari- section of the trail so that monitoring can be ety of users, such as people who are not us- done for the length of the water trail at a low ing the water trail and are merely car camp- cost. ing, will use more hiking and water access only sites. Water access only sites also re- The Maine Island Trail uses volunteer stew- duce the possibility of conflict among ards to monitor island usage, clean shore- groups, as the sites are restricted to boaters. lines, build erosion steps and bankings, and Unfortunately, conflict will still arise be- provide public education about sensitive tween self-propelled and motorized users. environments (Stimpson, 1998). One notable
120 Uunila and Currie
Name of Trail Association Frequency of Trail Maintenance
Allagash Wilderness Waterway weekly
Indiana Department of Natural Resources weekly, weather permitting
Lake Superior Water Trail Association ad-hoc
Maine Island Trail Association weekly, volunteers act as monitor stew- ards, operate 3 18' outboard boats most of the time
Massachusetts Department of Environmental weekly to ad-hoc Management
Pukaskwa National Park hazard assessment and maintenance of es- tablished sites once each spring
Superior National Forest varies by site
Washington Water Trails Association varies Table 2. Frequency of trail maintenance. program is Adopt-An-Island (MITA, 1998a). residents. Other water trails charge a mem- Island stewards are responsible for an island bership fee as in the case of the Maine Island that they adopt, in terms of monitoring use, Trail. The Washington Water Trail Associa- maintenance and reporting of conditions tion has a seasonal fee which is separate (MITA, 1998b). Volunteers select an island from the membership fee. The benefits pad- which they can visit a minimum of two dlers receive for their fees vary according to times a month in peak season (summer) and the trail system (Table 4). Benefits can range must provide their own transportation from camping permits to orientation ses- (MITA, 1998b). An island can have more sions. Because of the needs of water trail than one adopter (MITA, 1998b). Ellis, an associations regarding maintenance and island adopter states, “[i]t’s not an obliga- publication costs, there will most likely be a tion, it’s a responsibility to the environment continued gradual increase in the use of fees. and a way of thanking people for letting us visit their islands. Very few of us are fortu- nate enough to own an island in Maine. This Application to Bruce Peninsula gives us a way to enjoy them” (Stimpson, 1998). Developing a water trail is feasible for Bruce Peninsula National Park and Fathom Five Status and Trend 8 – Fees National Marine Park; however there are a The rate and type of fee charged for use number of issues that need to be addressed. vary by water trail (Table 3). Several water Kayaking is a relatively new activity in the trails charge a nightly fee, all of which are upper Bruce Peninsula region, and is ex- below $10USD per person. The nightly fee is pected to experience continued growth. If either charged per person or per site. Pu- promoted properly and the necessary facili- kaskwa National Park charges different ties are in place, paddling can be one of the rates depending if camping is done at an alternatives to help reduce the economic loss established or non-established site, while the from the decline in SCUBA diving. A water Allagash Wilderness Waterway distin- trail which provides two to three-day guishes between residents and non- Uunila and Currie 121
Name of Trail Association Night Other
$4 per resident Allagash Wilderness Waterway $5 per non-resident N/A
Indiana Dept of Natural Resource $0 N/A
Lake Superior Water Trail Association $7 per site no charge at some sites
Maine Island Trail Association $0 $40 for yearly membership
Massachusetts Dept of Management $0 N/A
CND$5 per established site CND$6 for group registration Pukaskwa National Park CND$3 per non-established site fee
Superior National Forest $0 $10 per person; $5 per youth
Washington Water Trails $20 for unlimited use Jan to Dec Association $7 per person $25 separate fee for membership Table 3. User fees. Note: All Prices in U.S. dollars unless otherwise noted.
Association Trail Camping Fire Pre-Trip Name of Trail Association Membership Maps Guide Permit Permit Orientation Other
Allagash Wilderness Waterway • • •
Lake Superior Water Trail Assoc. •
Maine Island Trail Association • • •
• Pukaskwa National Park • ***
Superior National Forest • • •
Washington Water Trails Assoc. • **** • • Table 4. Benefits from user fees.
*privileged use of 40 islands; **trail guide costs an additional $7; ***orientation lasts approximately 10 min- utes; ****paddlers only received these benefits if they make a minimum donation of $25
Note: The Indiana Dept. of Natural Resources and the Massachusetts Dept. of Environmental Management do not charge user fees. 122 Uunila and Currie paddles is the most attractive option for in the profile of water trails as a viable paddlers, in addition to day use opportuni- means of protecting and enhancing recrea- ties. Currently, three sites in the Parks pro- tion opportunities and resources. In turn as vide overnight accommodations to paddlers. this profile increases, so will user numbers. For the most part, facilities provided at these These users will demand a higher level of sites are in accordance with the preferences service. In a time of fiscal constraint water of paddlers. Notwithstanding, paddlers are trail associations will be given a greater seeking more overnight sites. These sites burden by natural resource agencies, as trail could include new wilderness sites, bed and associations attempt to bring together di- breakfasts, private and Ministry of Natural verse land owners and managers to form Resources campgrounds, and a hostel run multi-jurisdictional trails. But it is a process by the Friends of the Bruce District Parks on that is well rewarded, with the final out- Flowerpot Island. Guidebooks and maps are come of established and protected recrea- two educational products which many pad- tional resources and opportunities. dlers would like available. Acknowledgements Zoning and planning policies of Bruce Pen- This study was made possible by the provi- insula National Park and Fathom Five Na- sion of a research grant from Parks Canada. tional Marine Park are compatible with the current number of paddlers in the region.
Numbers of paddlers, however, are increas- ing. Two important issues need to be ad- References dressed: activity classification and campsites. The classification of kayaking as an inde- British Airways. (1997). Environmental tour- pendent activity, separate from backpackers ism awards. URL: and private boaters, would recognize the
SHIPWRECK MANAGEMENT: DEVELOPING STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING OF NEWLY DISCOVERED SHIPWRECKS IN A LIMITED RESOURCE ENVIRONMENT
Gail A. Vander Stoep Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources Michigan State University (U.S.A.)
Kenneth J. Vrana Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources Michigan State University (U.S.A.)
Hawk Tolson Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources Michigan State University (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Shipwrecks and other submerged cultural resources are receiving increasing popu- Introduction lar and legal attention. Debates rage as to whether they are public or private property; "When deep-sea treasure is found, who which of the many values and uses should take owns it?" priority; how wreck sites should be managed; -- Christian Science Monitor and who should make the decisions. In the mean- (July 10, 1997). time, shipwrecks (even deep ones now accessible through use of improved technology) are being “Shifting treasure? Investors hope ship damaged or lost by a combination of natural and rumors prove true" human causes, including storms and zebra mus- -- Flint Journal (1998). sel infestations, anchor and fishing net damage, legal salvage and illegal collecting of artifacts, "Ocean explorer finds treasures and inadvertent damage by uncontrolled or in- thought lost in the deep forever" appropriate recreational diver behavior. Salvag- -- Bay City Times (July 31, ers, historians, archaeologists, dive businesses, 1997). recreational divers, and tourists all have differ- ent opinions about how these resources should be "Pirates of the Whydah: Survivors used and managed . . . and whether they should swore the Whydah was packed with be found at all. Governments have limited hu- plunder . . .” man and financial resources to research and -- Webster (1999). manage them. This study, involving input from varied stakeholders, develops recommendations These are examples of recent news head- for managing Michigan shipwrecks using a vari- lines that tantalize and keep alive the mys- ety of partnership strategies that recognize mul- tiple values. tique of ships and shipwrecks, of plunder- ing pirates and chests of treasure, of high seas adventure and piles of gold and silver Keywords: integrated coastal management, ingots. The romance and sparkle of gold in stewardship, education, shipwrecks the eyes of the public are piqued with blockbuster movies such as Paramount Pic-
tures' Titanic, by best seller accounts of 126 Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson shipwreck finds such as Gary Kinder's Ship that, more often than not, the “treasures” of Gold in the Deep Blue Sea (1998), by Dis- are in the stories and history held in silent, covery Channel television specials and Na- watery storage. Nevertheless, the motives of tional Geographic articles such as Pirates of those who search for vessels often affect the the Whydah (Webster, 1999), complete with techniques used, the level of care taken in full-color glossy photos. Many Americans exploration and recovery, and opinions were sucked in by media hype in the early about what should be done with a vessel 1980s when, glued to their television screens and contents once found. Therein lies a di- for a special hosted by Geraldo Rivera, they lemma . . . a dilemma succinctly stated on watched as Andrea Doria's safe (interpreted the cover of a recent issue of Preservation as “treasure chest”) was opened for the first Magazine: “take it, or leave it?” (Goodheart, time during a live broadcast. Many expected 1999). Again, the dilemma is not new, it is the chest to spill a river of treasures. Even simply in the spotlight again as technologi- an occasional museum exhibit reinforces the cal advances enable searching into ever “treasure” images of shipwrecks. The faux deeper and more remote areas. The endeav- seaman's chest filled with faux jewels and ors are expensive. Long gone are the days coins, tucked in a corner of the “kids' exhibit when pipelines of government dollars area” at the Vancouver Maritime Museum, flowed to support such exploration and re- is one example. But the stories and fantasies search. Return on investment, at least at and dreams, the glitter and adventure are break-even and preferably at some profit, not exclusive to the late 1900s. There is sim- drives the efforts, motives, and outcomes to ply a resurgence of interest, perhaps more some extent. Is there a way to make the two universal as popularized by the media. Sto- “camps” compatible, or to devise win-win ries of treasures lost at sea - whether in solutions and outcomes? troves of pirate plunder or in lost shipments of the California Gold Rush - have always fascinated, and lured people to search for Context and Purpose of This Study both real and imagined treasure. Many of the “treasure ships” alluded to in Yet there are other “treasures” aboard those the introduction have been wrecked in salt lost ships: clues to the wreck events for ves- water, either on the high seas or in coastal sels lost at sea before marine radios pro- areas along major oceanic shipping lanes. In vided verbal clues; cargo and personal ob- the Great Lakes basin, in the cold “sweet” jects that help tell the stories of people and (fresh) water where the lakes typically have ways of life long ago; a record of techno- been used to transport more mundane car- logical developments and innovative vessel goes - lumber, iron ore, stone, agricultural modifications; remnants of strains of grain products, fish, immigrants and vacationers - and other crops now lost in a world of mass - the “treasure” usually is not gold or silver. produced, engineered crops. A caption in a Yet the allure remains; the search for ship- 1987 National Geographic article expresses wrecks continues. An estimated 10,000 this viewpoint: “From this oldest known shipwrecks exist within the Great Lakes, shipwreck may come secrets as precious as with between 1,100 and 1,400 on or embed- the pharaoh's” (Bass, 1987: 732). The motiva- ded in the bottomlands of Michigan waters. tions of those seeking to find the two differ- Michigan has legal responsibility for pro- ent kinds of “treasure” are divergent, often tecting and preserving, for the public inter- contradictory; yet the image conjured by the est, abandoned historic shipwrecks owned “treasure” label for most spectators, vicari- by the State. Other states/provinces border- ously joining the “hunt” from chairs in front ing the Great Lakes have responsibilities for of TVs or computer monitors, is one of gold shipwrecks in their waters. In most cases, coins, silver ingots, and jewels. Visions of several state and federal agencies share re- Atocha and Central America and Titanic sponsibilities; these agencies traditionally treasures float in their minds. The reality is “have functioned relatively independently
Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson 127 in developing law and management for Historic shipwrecks continue to be discov- [shipwrecks and other underwater cultural ered in the Great Lakes by avocational his- resources]” (Vrana and Mahoney, 1993: 5). torians and recreational divers. As in salt In Michigan, several state and federal laws water environments, technological advances have implications for ownership and man- (e.g., remotely operated vehicles, side scan agement of these resources. Federal legisla- sonar, mixed gas breathing systems, mini- tion includes the Federal Submerged Lands submarines) increase access to deeper and Act of 1953, the National Historic Preserva- deeper wrecks, which likely are more intact tion Act of 1966, the Coastal Zone Manage- than shallow wrecks exposed to storm ment Act of 1972, and the Abandoned waves, ice and dredging. No organized ap- Shipwreck Act of 1987. State legislation in- proach has been developed in the public or cludes Public Act No. 171 of 1899, Public private sector to assess or monitor these Act No. 306 of 1969, Public Act No. 451 of wrecks, so questions abound. What rights 1994, and more specifically, Parts 325 (Great do private individuals have to search for in Lakes Submerged Lands) and 761 (Aborigi- public waters and find submerged cultural nal Records and Antiquities and Aban- resources (e.g., shipwrecks) held in public doned Property). Additionally, in 1980, Pub- trust? What happens to wrecks once they lic Act 184 (revised in 1988 by Public Act have been discovered? Do the discoverers 452) first authorized designation of Michi- bear any responsibility for their “finds”, gan bottomlands preserves (Vrana, 1995; which are legally held in public trust by the Halsey, 1996). Currently, nine underwater State? What are their rights to intellectual preserves have been officially designated property gained during the research and and another two are under consideration. search? What are the State's responsibilities (and realistic abilities) to preserve, conserve As with most government entities these or manage those resources when minimal or days, the State of Michigan has limited fi- no State resources are available to do so? Do nancial and human resources to meet the individuals have rights to recover costs in- responsibility for managing underwater curred in the process of search and discov- cultural resources. To date, the State's Legis- ery? The questions and issues are numer- lature has not authorized any funding to ous; the implications are complex. Thus, the manage the underwater preserves. Conse- purpose of this study is to provide recom- quently, development and management ac- mendations to the State for the development tivities for the preserves are minimal and of an assessment and monitoring program uneven, and are conducted by volunteer for newly discovered shipwrecks that con- preserve committees. Preserves located ad- siders these and other questions, and con- jacent to other state or national parks (such siders input from shipwreck discoverers, as the Manitou Passage Underwater Pre- resource management agencies, and rele- serve near Sleeping Bear Dunes National vant research. Lakeshore and Alger Underwater Preserve near Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore) may receive some assistance from those Methods agencies. Some preserves receive support from nearby museums, often maritime mu- It was impossible to consider assessment seums (such as the Great Lakes Shipwreck and monitoring without the broader context Museum near the Whitefish Point Underwa- of the search and discovery process engaged ter Preserve and the Michigan Maritime in by avocational divers and historians; Museum near the proposed Southwest thus, the project's scope was broadened to Michigan Underwater Preserve). The other include discovery, documentation, assess- volunteers are a mix of avocational mari- ment, monitoring and stewardship devel- time historians, recreational SCUBA divers, opment. Definitions used throughout the and dive business operators. study were as follows.
128 Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson
• Shipwreck discovery process included tivities, recommendations for what to do historical research, search and sur- with newly discovered shipwrecks, and be- vey, discovery, exploration and liefs about the potential for identification, documentation, and state/avocationalist partnerships. The first assessment and monitoring. two workshops were used to gather more • Assessment was defined as judg- in-depth information (values, recommenda- ments about the condition and sig- tions and rationale) about the shipwreck nificance of historic shipwrecks. discovery/documentation/ as-sessment • Monitoring was defined as activities process and to allow for sharing of ideas used to determine the condition of a and debate among discoverers. The third resource over time. workshop, having a different purpose and structure, was designed to bring together To gather input from as many stakeholders representatives of various stake-holder as possible, the study involved five major groups interested in shipwrecks to learn components: from each other and to discuss results of the survey and first two workshops.
1. A review of relevant federal and state/provincial law, policy, and Survey practice associated with Great Lakes shipwrecks. A four-page survey instrument was devel- 2. A mail survey of shipwreck discov- oped to solicit: erers. 1. Descriptive information about 3. Two modified nominal group work- shipwreck discovery activity (past shops with shipwreck discov-erers. and current activity levels and loca- tions, procedures and equipment 4. A workshop on assessment and used, types of resources sought). monitoring, involving various 2. Opinions about shipwreck discov- stake-holder groups. ery activity (constraints; recom- 5. A telephone survey of Great Lakes mendations for search, assessment, shipwreck resource managers (U.S. monitoring and protection proce- and Ontario). dures; willingness to assist the Sate of Michigan in documenting, assess- In addition, two recent shipwreck discov- ing and monitoring shipwrecks). ery-related situations were used as case studies to illustrate other study results and The questionnaire included both closed and issues. Shipwreck managers (law enforce- open-ended questions. ment, environmental quality, and archae- ology) in the State of Michigan were in- The questionnaire was used to gather input volved throughout the process. The focus of from as many active avocational Michigan this paper is on results obtained through the Great Lakes shipwreck discoverers as possi- mail survey and the three workshops. ble (this excluded those involved in discov- The first stakeholder group we asked for ery as part of job responsibilities as public input about issues and procedures related to resource managers). Because the tradition newly discovered shipwrecks was avoca- and culture of shipwreck discovery incorpo- tional shipwreck discoverers. To assure both rate a code of secrecy, no “list” of such indi- depth and breadth in responses, three viduals existed. To develop a sampling methods were used to gather input: a writ- frame, a snowball technique was used. The ten survey, two full-day small group work- process began with a “seed list” of ship- shops, and one multi-stakeholder work- wreck discoverers known by the research- shop. The survey was used to gather infor- ers, and not involved in discovery as part of mation from shipwreck discoverers active in a job in public resource management. Each Michigan waters about their discovery ac- was contacted by phone and asked a series
Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson 129 of screening questions to determine if indi- in the second workshop. Eight individuals viduals 1) were currently active in ship- indicated willingness to participate in wreck discovery, and 2) were currently ac- Workshop I; however, a snowstorm reduced tive in Michigan Great Lakes waters. Each participation to seven. Of seven planning to was then asked to identify other Michigan- attend Workshop II, two had work conflicts active shipwreck discoverers who they be- that prohibited their participation. Thus, a lieved should be also contacted for input. total of 12 discoverers participated in the The seed list contained names of 39 indi- two workshops. viduals, each of whom was called at least six times or until contact was made. Of these, 34 The workshops were originally planned to individuals were successfully contacted. follow a modified nominal group process, using individual generation of responses to Fifty (50) primary referrals were identified guiding questions, small group discussion from the 34 seed list individuals contacted. of individual responses, individual prioriti- Fifteen were already on the seed list, result- zation of responses, then full group discus- ing in identification of an additional 35 peo- sion of responses. However, due to the low ple. Of these, 13 were contacted by phone number of participants at each workshop and asked the screening questions. The (less than 8), the format was modified so all other 22 were either unreachable or deter- participants interacted as one discussion mined ineligible. The 13 people contacted group. Some of the “individual response” during the second wave were also asked to worksheets were used, but participants identify other discoverers (secondary refer- seemed more interested and willing to talk rals). Most were already on the seed or pri- than write. So the majority of the input came mary referral list. The additional 18 people from full-group discussion, using focus were not contacted due to time and resource group procedures that assured input from constraints. Of those on the seed and pri- each participant. Because confidentiality mary referral lists, six were determined in- was promised for discoverer participation, eligible. Therefore, questionnaires were dis- no video or audio recorder was used. Only tributed to the remaining 41 individuals, written notes, by participants and research- either during one of the first two workshops ers, were used to record responses. or via mail. Individuals contacted by mail received reminder postcards and follow-up Each workshop was preceded with refresh- phone calls as needed. ments, informal discussion, and participant completion of the written survey and a Gift Workshops I and II Form. Three research associates served as a Two day-long workshops, conducted dur- workshop facilitator, assistant facilitator, ing the spring of 1998, were used to gather and technical expert for the structured por- input from discoverers. This enabled par- tion of the workshop. Individual participant ticipation by more individuals than those response sheets, coordinated with a set of able to attend the first workshop. First, a list guiding questions, covered the following of individuals to receive invitations to par- major topics: ticipate was developed. For each name on • Benefits of use of shipwrecks to dis- the list of eligible shipwreck discoverers coverers (multiple values). identified in the survey methods section, the • Descriptive information about their total number of peer referrals (excluding personal shipwreck discovery activ- initial listing by researchers) was tallied. All ity. individuals who received at least three peer • Aids and hindrances to their ship- referrals were invited to participate in the wreck discovery activity. first workshop. Those unable to attend that • Recommendations about what they workshop, plus all others on the list of eligi- believe should happen when new ble discoverers, were invited to participate shipwreck discoveries are made.
130 Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson
• Willingness to partner with the veats for other opinions and recommenda- State of Michigan to conduct ship- tions. Participants had difficulty expressing wreck documentation, assessment clear responses to the final section (recom- and monitoring, including condi- mendations for policy and practice to be tions under which they might assist. applied to shipwreck documentation, as- • Recommendations for policy and sessment and monitoring). This was proba- practice related to documentation, bly due to a combination of the following: assessment and monitoring. the limited time available for discussion, participant fatigue, and participant discom- Individual response sheets were used to fort with providing concrete recommenda- allow participants to generate their own tions without adequate time to think about ideas prior to discussion, during which they them. might be influenced by peers. Notes from discussions were taken on flip charts and a Near the end of each workshop, the techni- notepad; individual participants' written cal expert orally presented a summary and responses on worksheets enabled confirma- synthesis of group responses, based on writ- tion or clarification of discussion comments ten notes taken during the workshop. Par- and facilitated inclusion of responses that ticipants provided clarification or correc- might not have been discussed orally. How- tions as needed. After each workshop, ever, because all individuals participated comments were compiled. No attempt was actively in discussion and seemed reluctant made to summarize, synthesize or analyze to write their responses, only three of the comments; contradictory comments and twelve prepared worksheets, with the fol- opinions were all included. These results lowing questions, were used: were sent to participants, with an invitation • What are your recommendations for to review responses for accurate and com- dealing with newly-discovered plete representation of their comments. shipwrecks in ways that both meet Also, they could add comments they felt your needs and the State mission to had not been presented during the work- preserve and protect shipwrecks? shops. Only one set of written comments • With whom would you be willing was received. to work in activities related to Workshop III shipwreck identification, documen- tation, assessment and monitoring? The third workshop was designed to bring (If there are specific conditions re- together those involved with shipwreck dis- lated to your willingness, please in- covery or management, both avocationally dicate those conditions to the right and professionally. The goals of this work- of the “category”) shop were to: • In order for you to be willing to • Exchange information and experi- work as a “partner” in shipwreck ences on assessment and monitor- identification and documentation, ing of historic shipwrecks in Michi- assessment and monitoring, what gan Great Lakes waters. policies, procedures or resources do • Facilitate discussion on concepts you recommend be in place related and practices in assessment and to each of the elements or actions monitoring of public resources. identified below? (list followed) • Identify issues and opportunities re- lated to the development of pro- No deliberate process (e.g., voting) was grams and projects, including in used to determine group consensus; how- partnership, in Michigan for ship- ever, there was general agreement on some wreck assessment and monitoring. issues, varied opinions on others, and spe- cial conditions or contexts presented as ca-
Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson 131
Workshop III participants included those greatest number of years reported was 40. invited to participate in the first two work- Results, reinforced during workshop dis- shops, individuals known to have past cussion, indicated that most active discover- and/or present involvement in shipwreck ers had considerable experience, with few assessment and monitoring, and representa- “young” people becoming involved. tives of agencies having shipwreck man- Only three respondents indicated they were agement responsibilities. Among partici- not actively involved in shipwreck discov- pants were maritime museum staff, avoca- ery in Michigan Great Lakes waters. How- tional shipwreck discoverers, Michigan ever, those three, plus nine others, were ac- DNR Conservation Officers and State Ar- tive in non-Michigan Great Lakes waters. chaeologist, and academics. The workshop All 24 planned to stay active within the consisted of a variety of presentations (in- Great Lakes. Only one did not conduct his cluding presentation of results from the own archival research. Of those who did survey and first two workshops), discus- conduct archival research, all but one used sions, and field-based shipwreck documen- maps and charts, books and/or articles writ- tation demonstrations. Presenters provided ten by others. All but two used newspaper copies of presentation notes or handouts to articles, Coast Guard/U.S. Life Saving Ser- project coordinators. Formal notes were vice/U.S. Lighthouse Service records, and taken during a final “campfire discussion” leads from local fishermen. Less frequently about ideas for developing public/private used archival records were personal diaries stewardship-based partnerships for dealing (n=12; 50%) and insurance records (n=10; with newly discovered Michigan ship- 42%). Other sources, identified by one or wrecks. two respondents each, included personal interviews (unspecified), the Internet, histo- rians and other researchers, sea fables, pri- Results vate collections, court records, ships' logs, customs records, enrollments, Army Corps As stated in the methods section, a four- of Engineers records, and other shipwreck page questionnaire, containing 14 questions hunters. grouped in two sections (A: descriptive in- formation about their shipwreck discovery Twenty-three respondents (96%) were in- activity, and B: their opinions about what volved in the actual water-based shipwreck should happen with newly discovered search process. Nineteen (79%) used their shipwrecks), was developed. A total of 25 own boats as the primary search platform; questionnaires were returned, 12 from the others used someone else's boat. None workshop participants and 12 from other searched from shore or used aircraft. Of the shipwreck discoverers. The 25th question- 22 responding to the question about with naire was returned almost a year late, so whom they most often search, half (n=11) was not included in the analysis. Thus, the searched with an informal group of friends. overall usable response rate was 59%. For Six (25%) searched most often with an or- results presented below, unless otherwise ganized group, five (21%) searched alone. indicated, all 24 respondents provided some Traditional scuba and sidescan sonar were response on the closed questions. the types of search equipment used most often. All those actively involved in the Section A of the questionnaire dealt with search process (n=23) used scuba. Just over descriptive information about respondents' half of these (n=12; 52%) used mixed gas; shipwreck discovery activities. Of 20 re- only two (87%) had used a rebreather sys- spondents who identified the number of tem. A large majority (n=20; 87%) used side- years they had been involved in shipwreck scan or sector-scanning sonar. Other tech- discovery, six (30%) had been involved one nologies were used by fewer discoverers: to 10 years, seven (35%) for 11 to 20 years, magnetometer (n=6; 26%), sub-bottom pro- and seven (35%) for 21 years or more. The filer (n=5; 22%), surface-supplied air (n=3;
132 Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson
13%), and remotely operated vehicles spondents (21%) believed that the location (ROVs) to ground truth (n=3; 13%) or search should be reported to a managing authority (n=2; 9%). Other equipment included bot- or provided to a central database. tom finders, depth recorders, SHARPs, and a remotely towed ROV (n=1 for each). Respondents were most divided about how Just over half (13 of 24; 54%) of the discov- much to restrict or promote the discovery to erers searched for other cultural or natural the public, and what should occur before resources, including: lake bottom features and after documentation has been com- and other geologic formations (trenches, pleted. Seventy-one percent (n=17) sup- drop-offs, bottom profiles, cave systems, ported restricting all public knowledge of sink holes); old forests; remnants of light- wrecks until documentation is complete. houses, docks, and piers; prehistoric sites; The rest (29%; n=7) indicated that discovery bottles, tools, anchors, and other artifacts. of the wreck should be promoted, but the location should not be disclosed and public Section B dealt with respondents' opinions access should not be permitted. Five indi- about the shipwreck discovery process and cated that the discovery and location of activities. When asked if they believed there wrecks should be restricted to the discover- are conditions that unfairly restrict their dis- ers and their associates. When asked about covery activity, only three indicated “yes”. what should be done with valuable artifacts, Reasons given included natural and per- four supported removing them from the sonal conditions (inclement weather, limited wreck site for protection; three supported personal time to search, high cost of search- securing such artifacts to the wreck. ing), a proposed federal marine sanctuary (assumed to bring with it a host of regula- Several respondents wrote additional com- tions and restrictions), and the belief that the ments on the questionnaire. Some provided Coast Guard does not allow use of airplanes circumstances under which they would agree for search activity. An additional response to a certain action. One indicated that deci- stated that the “public belief that the discov- sions about what to do when a shipwreck is erer's knowledge is public property” nega- discovered should be left entirely to those tively impacted their search activity. One who had invested their time and resources respondent stated that, while for search and discovery. One believed that weather/time/cost were constraints, they valuable items could be removed from the were not “unfair”. The one specific recom- site, but it was important to first “work out mendation for reducing constraints was: [a] protection plan for valuable artifacts; even “Eliminate the ‘all wreck hunters are wreck if they include legal, organized removal for rapers’ attitude”. public display - this is the Huge Grey Area”. Another supported removal of artifacts, but Question 13 provided a list of 10 actions that only “IF [a] museum wants [the] items.” One could take place when a shipwreck is dis- respondent supported restriction of public covered or identified. Respondents were to knowledge about a wreck until documenta- indicate which, if any, they believed should tion is complete, but only “as long as docu- occur; they could add other actions. Unani- mentation is done in a timely manner” mously, respondents agreed that wrecks (“timely manner” is undefined). Another should NOT be promoted to and opened for stated that the choice of whether or not to access by the general public. All 24 respon- promote knowledge of a shipwreck discovery dents checked at least one of the options for before completing documentation "would what SHOULD occur. The most strongly depend upon the historical/archaeological supported actions (each supported by 21 of value of the site, and the assessed risk of loss 24 respondents, or 88%) were: 1) determin- by state authorities of that value". ing accurate coordinates for shipwreck loca- tions, 2) photo- and/or video-documenting When asked about their willingness to con- the wreck, and 3) mapping the site. Five re- tribute to State of Michigan efforts to docu-
Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson 133 ment, assess and/or monitor newly discov- cording basic vessel and cargo characteris- ered Great Lakes shipwrecks, the majority tics). Some develop site plans, artist per- (79%; n=19) said they would. Three did not spectives, or models. Some produce video or respond to the question; two said “no”. One slide productions (for sale or diver show- added the caveat that “As a contractor case showings); others produce books, arti- (PAID), whatever is required. To volunteer cles or CDs. Very little assessment (as to the my services without compensation, site condition and values) or formal, regular NOTHING”. Nine respondents indicated monitoring (inspection of the site over time) specific activities they would be willing to occurs, though informal returns to a site, do with or for the State, including archival occasionally incorporating photography that research, identifying wrecks, documenting, could used for condition comparisons, mapping, assessing, inventorying portable sometimes occur. Opinions about what artifacts, reporting missing artifacts (moni- should happen to loose, valuable artifacts toring), providing equipment and the exper- varied, ranging from authorized or unau- tise to operate it, and monitoring thorized removal, to vessel attachment, to diver/charter boat impacts on wrecks. Two hiding, to doing nothing. respondents, respectively, said: “[I'd w]elcome participation and share imagery Perceived constraints to private discovery with the State of Michigan” and “[I'd g]ive activities included personal factors (dis- any info that the state wants from us, do any tance, limited time and money), unpredict- work they would like us to do”. Two indi- able lake and weather conditions, freighter cated they already were or had been in- traffic, lack of nearby support services and volved with the State. Others provided ca- facilities, government restrictions and “bu- veats to their participation. reaucratic attitudes”, and the need for se- crecy (difficult to maintain). Their activities Overall, respondents provided few com- are facilitated by access to a variety of his- ments to the questionnaire's open-ended torical resources and helpful individuals questions. However, workshop discussions (e.g., fishermen), improving technology, provided insight into the rationale behind relatively few legal restrictions and the abil- survey responses, and provided insights ity to earn dollars for shipwreck products. into the factors, values, and varied opinions Individuals' attitudes, reflected in their per- related issues about the shipwreck discov- ceptions of barriers and aids to discovery, ery process. Summary workshop results are also influenced their opinions about what presented below. should and should not happen when ship- wrecks are newly discovered. Thus, opin- Motives for shipwreck discovery involve- ions varied about the most effective ways to ment (interest in history, shipping, machin- manage shipwrecks, and who should be ery, technology developments; interest in responsible. “unlocking the mysteries of the sinking” and clarify the historical record; adventure Everyone agreed that the State has limited and thrill of the “hunt”; joy of exploration staff and resources to allocate to shipwreck and discovery; to educate others; for eco- management, with most activities being re- nomic benefit) are varied and based on mul- active rather than strategic or proactive. tiple values and benefits. All must be con- Consequently, recreational divers have as- sidered in shipwreck management deci- sumed responsibility for most discovery sions. Discovery activities, conducted pri- activity in Michigan Great Lakes waters, marily by people with many years of ex- and they conduct varying degrees of docu- perience, include both historical research mentation and assessment. Discoverers, for and physical searching. Most engage in the most part, were protective of intellectual shipwreck identification efforts, varying property rights associated with their discov- levels of documentation (e.g., still and video ery activities. As a group, they recognized a photography, taking measurements, re- variety of natural and human factors that
134 Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson can damage wrecks, including intentional search and discovery in which they volun- and unintentional damage by recreational tarily engage? Does the answer depend on divers and boaters, and occasional theft of the discoverer's motivation? If the venture is artifacts by a small number of divers. Their engaged in with the express purpose of discovery activities are perceived as not in- earning a profit (as a business venture), is trusive or destructive. the expectation different than if engaged in out of personal passion during one's per- Typically, discoverers are passionate about sonal “leisure time”? When does that moti- their shipwreck activities; some were will- vation change? Only when someone (e.g., ing to share discoveries, benefits and re- government) wants a piece of it, regardless sponsibilities while others preferred to keep of the discoverer's initial motivation? their activities and discoveries secret. Some were very willing to partner with state On the other hand, the constraints and frus- agencies and universities while others were trations expressed by the state archaeologist not. Potential partners (stakeholders) identi- (Halsey 1996) -- the State's lack of sophisti- fied included avocational historians, mu- cated equipment, financial and human re- seum professionals, historical societies, gov- sources; by some divers' lack of a sense of ernment agencies, and recreational divers. responsibility for newly found wrecks; site Barriers to partnerships included misper- disturbance or incomplete documentation ceptions, misunderstanding and distrust by well-meaning divers; “demonization” of between shipwreck discoverers and re- resource managers -- all still exist. But per- source managers. Therefore, most believed haps the most important result of this study strongly that discoverer participation in any is the diversity of opinion expressed by type of shipwreck management partnership shipwreck discoverers. While the sample must be voluntary. A series of potential in- size was relatively small (by quantitative centives (e.g., tax incentives, provision of analysis standards), the representation of support facilities, formal recognition, pres- diverse divers and the qualitative study ervation of intellectual property rights) were components exposed a range of opinions identified as ways to encourage voluntary and values, often masked in the past by participation. Most discoverers believed that strong, sometimes inflammatory opinions, education and stewardship are important voiced by diver icons and opinion leaders. components of shipwreck management. Many expressed deep concern about the Additionally, some indicate that certain ar- multiple values of the shipwrecks, the need eas of relevant law and policy need clarifica- for their protection, the importance of edu- tion, especially in light of recent court deci- cation - and the economic realities of ship- sions about ownership and salvage rights. wreck discovery and management proc- These and other recommendations are dis- esses. Yes, relation-ships still must be built; cussed in more detail in the final section. respect must be earned and given. But the diversity of opinion and willingness of some to try public/private partnerships provides Recommendations and an opportunity to begin to build those rela- tionships, to design win-win strategies. Discussion Avocational divers -- with their passion, skills, and sometimes access to equipment - Discoverers voluntarily invest substantial can be invaluable partners. But volunteers, amounts of personal resources and time in in shipwreck management activities as in shipwreck discovery. However, some insist anything else, are not a panacea (Flanagan, the government owes them something (re- 1996); they have other responsibilities, pay- imbursement for investments) if it requests ing jobs, and limited time. And they are any information about the discoveries. Sev- more likely to choose, during their valuable eral questions arise. What are discoverers' leisure time, the most exciting activities rights to recover costs incurred during (e.g., diving vs. tedious data entry) and the
Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson 135 most exciting wrecks. They cannot be Recommendations under the “unlimited “dumped on” or simply “used”. Govern- resources” condition included: development ment partners must also bring something to of a framework for integrated resource man- the partnership table, even if in non- agement; development of a statewide traditional forms. management plan; completion of a profes- sional inventory of shipwrecks; develop- As this research project progressed, it be- ment of partnerships among recreational came clear that assessment and monitoring divers, avocational historians, state officials, could not be addressed without dealing professionals, and other stakeholders for with the broader discovery process (i.e., documenting, assessing and monitoring search, discovery, exploration, identification shipwrecks; and development of steward- and documentation) and addressing non- ship and education programs involving divers. The first of these issues must be ad- multiple stakeholder groups. Specific ideas dressed because each phase of the process include: has implications for the others, the second • Developing avocational archaeology because shipwrecks are held in the public and historic assessment training trust. Thus, they belong also, in some way, workshops. to the non-diving public (albeit the often • Instituting various incentives (e.g., unaware public) and their future depends financial incentives such as launch on the awareness, values attributed by, and and dockage fee waivers and tax actions of others. This includes non-diving deductions; formal recognition [e.g., Michigan residents and visitors (it's hard to attribution, publicity); development care about, vote for protection of, or finan- of a central database indicating ar- cially support something you don't even eas previously searched; archival know about); law enforcement officers who and database access, confidentiality have more serious criminals to apprehend of discoveries for a certain period of than stealers of rotting wood planks; judges time; and access to surplus and ob- who have more serious crimes to prosecute; solete government equipment) for fishermen who view wrecks as net tanglers. discoverer cooperation with State Therefore, the need for resource steward- activities. ship and education programs, targeted at • Clarifying discoverer responsibili- many different groups, is fundamental to ties which accompany their citizen long term success of other recommended rights and privileges. actions. • Developing educational programs for discoverers, tourists, judges, lo- Two sets of recommendations were devel- cal businesses, and other key stake- oped: one based on existing conditions and holders - about the history and val- resource constraints; the other based on an ues of such resources, their role in assumed condition of unlimited financial Michigan's development and cul- and human resources. Recommendations ture, their potential for economic based on existing conditions included: clari- contributions through use as tour- fication of recent court decisions and defini- ism attractions (for divers and non- tions embedded in the wording of some divers). laws; evaluation of the State's current man- • Discoverer development of a self- agement activities; enhancement of law en- policing system, to be supple- forcement efforts for priority shipwreck mented by official enforcement as management areas; and development (in needed. cooperation with shipwreck discoverers) of voluntary procedures and incentives for While the recommendations presented discoverers to cooperate with the State in above may sound straight forward, the chal- shipwreck discovery process and informa- lenges of implementation are great - due to tion exchange.
136 Vander Stoep, Vrana and Tolson the entrenched culture of private discovery Webster, Donovan. (1999). Pirates of the activities, mistrust between groups, gov- Whydah. National Geographic., 195(5): 64- ernment apprehension about having to 77. manage vast resources with limited funds, and previous verbal and legal battles. But the allure of shipwrecks will remain; the dream of sunken treasure will not die easily. The challenge is to develop appropriate, equitable management approaches that con- sider the diverse values of shipwrecks. This will be accomplished only through partici- pation of varied stakeholders. Development of partnerships leading to win-win solutions will require sincere desire (or at least open- ness) on the part of all groups, and a slow building of trust reinforced by behavior compatible with the decisions.
References
Bass, George. (1987). Oldest known ship- wreck reveals bronze age splendors. Na- tional Geographic, 172(6): 693-691. Flanagan, Joseph. (1996). The art of the pos- sible. Common Ground. 1(3/4): 34-39. Goodheart, Adam. (1999). Into the depths of history. Preservation: The Magazine of the National Trust for Historic Preservation, 51(1): 36-45. Halsey, John. (1996). 20 years on shipwreck preservation in Michigan. Common Ground, 1(3/4): 28-33. Kinder, Gary. (1998). Ship of Gold in the Deep Blue Sea. Grove/Atlantic, Inc., New York, NY. Vrana, Kenneth J. (ed.) (1995). Inventory of maritime and recreation resources of the Manitou Passage Underwater Preserve. Michigan State University, Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Re- sources, Center for Maritime and Un- derwater Resource Management, East Lansing, MI. Vrana, Kenneth J. and Mahoney, Edward. (eds.) (1993). Great Lakes Underwater Cul- tural Resources: Important Information for Shaping our Future. Michigan State Uni- versity, Department of Park, Recreation and Tourism Resources, East Lansing, MI.
MARINE ECOTOURISM: AN UPDATE ON PRIVATE SECTOR BEST PRACTICE AND GUIDELINE IMPLEMENTATION
Elizabeth Halpenny The International Ecotourism Society (Canada)
Abstract: In 1998 The International Ecotour- of best practice that small-scale, coast-based ism Society (TIES) received a grant from the tourism entrepreneurs can implement in foundation Ocean Fund to develop a set of ma- their own businesses and how we can sup- rine ecotourism guidelines for small-scale ma- port these efforts. rine-based tourism businesses.
This paper focuses on examples of best practice Best Practice Examples for Marine that small-scale, coast-based tourism entrepre- Tourism Companies neurs can implement in their own businesses and how we can support these efforts. Two examples of how marine-based tourism These efforts include increased stakeholder in- businesses have attempted to address issues volvement on coral reef monitoring and business of sustainability in daily operations and purchasing policies. Four areas of priority for business development are now discussed. supporting the efforts of marine tourism entre- The first area where much excitement has preneurs are 1) networking, 2) education, 3) been generated during the last three years or finance policy, and 4) documentation. so has been the increased involvement of citizens and businesses in the monitoring or Keywords: best practices, tourism sustainabil- coral reef health. The dive centers and ity, ecotourism guidelines many coastal hotels have been part of the increased efforts to 1) evaluate local reefs, and 2) monitor their health on an ongoing Introduction to the Marine basis. An example of this is TIES’ member hotel Kosrea Village Resort - which spear- Eco-tourism Guidelines Project headed efforts to develop a monitoring pro- gram for the reefs of the small Pacific island In 1998 The International Ecotourism Soci- of Kosrea. In the project’s initial stages the ety (TIES) received a grant from Ocean lodge owners had a great deal of difficulty Fund, a foundation established by Royal finding experts willing to guide them in Caribbean Cruises and Celebrity Cruise their efforts, however through perseverance Lines, to develop a set of marine ecotourism they have received expert advise from Aus- guidelines for small-scale marine-based tralian Authorities and now monitor 14 sites tourism businesses. In soliciting feedback on an ongoing basis with aid from visiting for this project and its usefulness at a scientists and resort guests. Similar efforts WTO/UNEP conference on Sustainable now go on throughout the Caribbean as Tourism for Small Island States in Lanzarote well, and the data being collected and tabu- last October, one main suggestion was that a lated and is available via the internet on focus on best practice, rather than just sites run by organizations such as Reef Re- guidelines or codes of practice be included lief and ICLARM. in the document. Best practice can be de- fined as using the best available tools and A second marine tourism industry best technologies known to the tourism and practice example can be illustrated the pur- coastal management sectors. Based on that chasing policies of tourism businesses. The feedback, this paper is focused on examples 138 Halpenny small and medium-sized tourism businesses nents of more sustainable tourism in coastal can play an important role in fish harvesting zones. The themes of planning, design, and practices locally through their policies on construction best practices for coast-based purchasing locally harvested fish products. tourism infrastructure are further elaborated Menus should be developed to deemphasize on in the Marine Ecotourism Guidelines: Im- scarce marine products such as Queen pacts Guidelines and Best Practices publication Conch and various species of turtle. Kitch- that TIES is producing (available January ens should be vigilant for undersized, im- 2001). mature catch brought to them by local har- vesters, and support the establishment of partnerships with local fisher communities Supporting Sustainable Practices that generate mutual benefits through two- among Marine-Based Tourism way communication about the status of local Entrepreneurs marine food commodities and how pricing affects the well-being of local people. There are at least four areas which are prior- Within the world of fisheries, the Marine ity areas for supporting the efforts of marine Stewardship Council is leading the way to tourism entrepreneurs. These are 1) net- develop a certification program for fishery working, 2) education, 3) finance policy, and products worldwide. However, much con- 4) documentation. cern has been expressed over the ability of developing country fishing communities to Networking is made possible through vari- adhere to the stringent measures suggested ous avenues including important events as certification criteria. In an effort to help such as CMT - thanks to the organizers. developing country communities work to- Other networking tools include the Internet wards this objective a pilot program has and printed newsletters. At The Interna- been initiated by the Marine Stewardship tional Ecotourism Society we have tried to Council (MSC) and WWF - more details are facilitate networking opportunities between readily available through personal commu- multi-stakeholder groups through such nication for the interested. In one proposed tools as a Business Forum on our website program case study, the Galapagos tour op- where members can talk to each other about erator company and long time TIES member ecotourism related issues, and through our Lindblad Special Expeditions has agreed to quarterly newsletter. The International support the MSC certification of local fish- Ecotourism Society, as a multi-stakeholder ery products through its purchasing policies networking organization, welcomes feed- in the Galapagos region. Lindblad Special back and comments on what direction it Expeditions will include as part of this cam- should take with its marine program via paign detailed interpretation of this issue on email or direct communication. all the boat menus as part of a tourist educa- tion program. Education is another obvious tool to achiev-
ing greater sustainability in tourism opera- There are many other examples of best prac- tions based in coastal areas. Aside from the tice that marine tourism businesses can im- marine ecotourism workshop that TIES has plement ranging from marketing policies, to offered, there are several very innovative staff training, to community interaction. marine tourism college and university based The importance of best practice in tourism programs available in Canada and Australia deserves much emphasis. to train tourism professionals.
There is no other more impacting activity Financial policies, particularly in developing created by tourism than the establishment of countries, is another area which should be marinas, hotels and other related infrastruc- focused on to promote greater sustainability ture along coastlines. This is the most im- in small and medium-sized coastal tourism portant challenge facing us here as propo-
Halpenny 139 businesses. TIES is currently conducting an duced by the Island Resource Foundation, international survey on eco- and nature- and magazines such as International Hotel based lodge financing (completed in 2000 Environment Initiative (IHEI) Green Hotelier and published in the book The Business of magazine, and many of the Australian gov- Ecolodges. Data from the project reinforces ernment’s efforts such as this publication the belief that funding for small-scale Coastal Tourism: A Manual for Sustainable De- lodges, like other ecotourism business, come velopment offer invaluable guidance to tour- mostly from family and friends and other ism entrepreneurs. non-traditional sources. This needs to change. One hopeful sign is the develop- Thank you again to the organizers of CMT ment of a micro-credit category within the ‘99 for this opportunity for all of us to get GEF (Global Environment Facility) and together to discuss these important matters. small loans being available from IFC (Inter- national Finance Corporation). Not a per- fect system, but it seems that global financial Notes: institutions are now moving in the right di- ______rection to support the development of small- Elizabeth Halpenny is the former Project scale businesses with sufficient capital to Director of the Ecotourism Society. implement best practices such as sufficient waste management programs for their The book The Business of Ecolodges has since properties. been published, and the publication Marine Ecotourism Guidelines: Impacts Guidelines and Finally, documentation is a fourth essen- Best Practices will be available from TIES in tially activity that we must undertake as October, 2002. advocates of sustainable tourism practices by marine tourism businesses. Through books, magazines and the Internet this is possible. Internet sites such as that pro-
LOW POWER RADIO: AN ANTIDOTE FOR COASTAL VISITORS LOOKING BUT NOT SEEING!
Erin Williams Oregon Sea Grant Program Oregon State University (U.S.A.)
Bruce DeYoung Oregon Sea Grant Program Oregon State University (U.S.A.)
Abstract: State parks in Oregon provide impor- from this study indicate that LPR broadcasts are tant sites for visitor recreation and natural re- a promising communication technology for pro- source education. With the increasing number viding park visitors with helpful information. of visitors to Oregon coastal parks, tide pools and beach areas, there is growing need for site- Keywords: low power radio, coastal tourism, specific marine education to enhance steward- Boiler Bay State Park ship, interpretation and safety knowledge. The Oregon Sea Grant Program and the Oregon Parks and Recreation Department collaborated Introduction in a demonstration project of low power radio (LPR) technology in 1998. An evaluative re- Warm sea salt mists, crashing ocean waves search project of this technology was conducted and driftwood laden sandy beaches sound at Boiler Bay State Park, Oregon during July alluring to many people. As visitation to through August 1998. This project evaluated coastal parks, tide pools and beach areas the effectiveness of a 100 milliwatt low power increases each year, park managers, busi- radio broadcast in providing coastal resource ness owners and communities face new interpretation to visitors parked at a scenic over- look. LPR is a limited broadcast range AM radio challenges in educating and informing station that park visitors can tune-in on their car coastal tourists of the natural resource ex- radio to hear pre-recorded messages. periences available in coastal areas. Visitors are often looking for, but not necessarily Several research parameters were investigated seeing, the resources that coastal areas offer. during the evaluative portion of the project: (1) Additionally, sustainable use and safety do signage numbers influence LPR listenership, practices must be communicated to guests and (2) does a relationship exist between specific to protect themselves and these unique demographic characteristics of visitors and lis- coastal ecosystems. tenership? Visitor surveys were conducted three days a week from July 1, 1998 to August 2, 1998 The coast is a powerful attractant that yields during 10:30 A.M. to 2:30 P.M. Occupants fun while generating large revenues. “The from 822 vehicles (i.e., cars, trucks, RV's or mo- nation’s coasts are both rich in their promise torcycles) were interviewed. for tomorrow and bountiful in their delivery of today’s ecological, recreational, aesthetic, Research results indicate that significantly more and commercial rewards. The vastness of visitors tuned-in when more signs were dis- the coasts and their resources is matched played. Demographics do not appear to be a sig- only by the dimensions of the challenges nificant factor in listenership. Ninety-seven society faces in preserving and nurturing percent of LPR listeners recommended that LPR those resources” (Coastal Challenges: A stations be placed in additional parks. Results Guide to Coastal and Marine Issues, 1998). 142 Williams and DeYoung
The travel and tourism industry is estimated several state agency jurisdictions. Inevita- to generate USD$502 billion annually, gen- bly gaps in coastal protection and sustain- erating over 7 million jobs, with tax reve- able use practices exist due to the multi- nues of $71 billion and a trade surplus of agency management of coastal areas. over $24 billion (EPA Sustainable Industry Teaching visitors to be better stewards of webpage). Recreation and tourism also the coastal environment could narrow this cause immense environmental impacts. gap. “The scope of these impacts creates the po- tential for significant benefits to the envi- With the degradation of many coastal re- ronment and the economy through im- sources, it would be advantageous to edu- proved performance by participants” (EPA cate visitors to be good stewards of these Sustainable Industry webpage). Visitor ex- resources. By the year 2010, it is estimated penditures generated an estimated $4.5 bil- that nearly 127 million Americans will live lion in 1996 in Oregon (Official Tourism within the coastal zone Website for the State of Oregon). Oregon's (http://www.nos.noaa.gov/News/estuarie coastal state parks provide important sites sday.html). In light of this predicted in- for resident and visitor recreation and ma- crease in coastal tourists and residential rine education. populations, coastal managers are worried about the continual availability of limited The Oregon Parks and Recreation Depart- coastal resources for future generations. To ment (OPRD) administer many coastal help secure these resources, wise use and parks overlooking the Pacific Ocean that are stewardship principles must be effectively used for camping, whale watching, and pic- communicated to coastal tourists. nics. These upland areas are also located adjacent to many valuable rocky intertidal Public parks provide an important doorway areas, thereby providing visitor access to for people to access coastal resources. In these resources. Additionally, this state 1996, over 40 million day visits were made agency manages dry and wet beach areas to Oregon's state parks (“About OPRD”). owned by the State of Oregon. Park manag- But state parks must have enough money to ers must balance the need to educate and maintain the park areas they manage and provide interpretative information to visi- keep these sites open to the public. One af- tors with the financial and other resources fordable and promising communication available to them. Few state parks have full technology for oceanshore visitor education or even part-time staff members present to is low power AM radio (LPR). answer visitor questions. Therefore, the need for affordable, accessible visitor infor- LPR is a limited broadcast range radio sta- mation with limited staff numbers must be tion that listeners can tune in on their vehi- met in new ways. Oregon State Parks are cle radio to hear prerecorded messages. just one agency along the coast that must There is a 100 milliwatt LPR system that manage coastal lands. broadcasts within a radius of 0.5 square miles from the station, or a 10 Watt system, Oregon’s coastal zone has several different which broadcasts in a radius of approxi- agencies responsible for managing coastal mately 15 square miles (DeYoung, 1992). lands and waters. Oregon’s coastal zone The Federal Communications Commission encompasses a wide variety of lands that (FCC) does not require licensing for the 100 are managed by many different cities, coun- milliwatt station and commercial adver- ties and state agencies. Oregon has a feder- tisement messages are allowed. Sponsor- ally approved Coastal Management Pro- ship by a governmental organization and gram, which combines state laws with fu- FCC licensing is required for a 10 Watt sys- ture land use goals for managing the coastal tem. While the 100 milliwatt system can lands and waters. Coastal areas accessible have commercial messages, music, or other to tourists and residents often fall under sound enhancements, the 10 Watt system
Williams and DeYoung 143 cannot. New messages can be uploaded survey also obtained demographic informa- manually, or from a remote location, and tion to see if any relationships between age, the broadcast runs continuously. gender or residence and tune in rates ex- isted. With an additional focus group sur- vey of selected populations, additional in- Background formation regarding message recall, broad- cast enjoyment and value was collected and LPR is most widely known for its applica- analyzed. Through the telephone survey tions in roadside travel information and air- Lamb found a total tune-in rate to the port updates using 10 Watt broadcast sys- broadcast of 8% (out of 278 surveys). Thirty tems. It is, however, finding increasing use percent of the sample saw the broadcast as a communication strategy for enhancing signs, with 28% of those people subse- stewardship, interpretation and safety quently tuning into the broadcast. Lamb knowledge in recreation areas. The Na- found no significant relationships between tional Park Service (NPS) has used LPR age, gender or urban versus rural residence broadcasts since the 1970's for interpretive and vehicles tuning into the broadcast. and educational information. The NPS has However, the focus group survey found that installed over 100 LPR units in national “urban respondents considered the program parks across the country (Weed, 1999). useful more consistently than rural dwell- Within Oregon there are several agencies ers” (Lamb, 1994). utilizing this technology to enhance recrea- tion opportunities. Beverly Beach State Park The Forest Talk program has expanded in Oregon used a “Talking House” LPR sys- broadcast sites since Lamb's 1994 evalua- tem from 1995 to 1998 to accelerate park tion. An additional roadside evaluation at registration and notify visitors of park three western Oregon broadcast sites amenities. Additionally, the Extension For- showed that 1.3% of passing vehicles tuned estry Service at Oregon State University into the Forest Talk station (Reed and Bondi, uses 10 Watt LPR stations along state high- 1995). Respondents indicated their listener- ways traversing forests. This project, called ship by flashing their headlights when they “Forest Talk” directs its broadcast to the saw survey personnel after hearing a special traveling visitor. radio message asking them to do so. Results from this survey also showed that 46% of The goal of the Forest Talk project is to edu- those asked did not see highway depart- cate the motoring public about Oregon’s ment signs alerting them to the radio broad- forests as motorists are driving past points cast (Reed and Bondi, 1995). of interest (Lamb, OSU Graduate Student, 1994). In 1993, Lamb evaluated the listener- ship and sign effectiveness of the Santiam Project Rationale and Objectives Pass Forest Talk LPR site. Lamb recorded license plate numbers from vehicles driving While the 10 Watt system has a larger over the Santiam Pass during July to August broadcast range, its use has several disad- 1993. She then contacted the registered vantages. This size system costs about owners of those vehicles for a telephone $10,000, requires government sponsorship survey. The telephone survey sought to and a FCC license to operate. Additionally, ascertain whether the vehicles had seen a the 10 Watt LPR sign advertising the broadcast and whether they tuned into Forest Talk. The telephone
144 Williams and DeYoung
LPR Attributes 100 milliwatt LPR 10 watt LPR
Purchase and installation about $3,500 about $10,000
Approximate broadcast range 0.5 square mile radius 10 square miles
Government sponsorship Not required Required
FCC licensing Not required Required
Music and sound effects Can include Cannot include
Ground plane antennae Optional Needed
Commercial ads/messages Allowed by FCC Not allowed by FCC
Signage Typically in parking areas Along public roadways with ODOT permission NOAA weather rebroadcast Optional Optional
Printed promotion materials Can be helpful Can be helpful
Equipment maintenance Typically minimal Typically minimal
Message updating Occasional Occasional
Message memory unit Same equipment Same equipment Table 1. A comparison table of LPR 100 milliwatt and 10 watts station attributes system is often used in mobile vehicle set- plications on high-speed roadways, this pro- tings, where a driver or passenger must see ject is the first known evaluation of static instructional signs and locate the broadcast listenership. frequency while traveling at high speeds. Conversely, a 100 milliwatt LPR system costs about $3,500, has few restrictions and Demonstration and Evaluative can broadcast messages in localized areas to Research Project Methodology more stationary visitors (see Table 1). Due to the affordability of this “parking lot” size This project was split into two sections: an system, it seems especially well suited and equipment test and initial demonstration of promising for outreach projects, especially the radio technology in late March 1998 and in Oregon’s state parks. the survey segment of the project, which occurred from July 1 to August 2, 1998. A To determine the efficacy of utilizing this 100 milliwatt radio unit with ten minutes of technology to meet the need of affordable, memory, remote telephone access and a Na- accessible visitor information despite lim- tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini- ited staff numbers, Oregon Parks and Rec- stration (NOAA) National Weather Service reation Department and Oregon Sea Grant radio was used for this project. (OSG) collaborated in a demonstration and applied research project at Boiler Bay State Park near Depoe Bay, Oregon. This project Demonstration and Equipment evaluated the effectiveness of a 100 milli- watt low power radio broadcast in provid- Test ing coastal resource interpretation to visitors parked at a scenic overlook. Though LPR The LPR technology equipment test oc- has been used in many public outreach ap- curred during OPRD's “Whale Watching
Williams and DeYoung 145
Week”, March 21-28, 1998. Six radio mes- Hypothesis 2: There is no relationship be- sages were created by OSG and OPRD and tween specific demographic characteristics uploaded for whale watching week. (i.e., city versus country residence, age, or Throughout this week, Boiler Bay State Park gender) of park visitors and their tuning visitors were asked for suggestions and into the low power radio broadcast. feedback regarding message content and length. Many visitor suggestions were in- Eight radio messages were broadcast during corporated into the message scripts, which the summer survey period. These included were subsequently modified or created for modified versions of the demonstration pe- the summer survey period. Additionally, we riod messages and new scripts created for were interested in visitor receptiveness to the evaluation period. the technology and interpretive opportunity it provided. Four signs were displayed dur- There was a message alerting visitors to the ing this time period: two at the park turn-ins survey being conducted and to the possibil- and one on each of the external bathroom ity of being asked to participate. Total mes- walls. The signs used for this period were sage length was approximately seven min- 18 by 24 inches with blue vinyl lettering on utes. In addition, the station broadcast two white corex board. The signs read “Whale and one-half minutes of National Weather Talk, Tune to 1610 AM.” Most visitors in- Service (NWS) information after the comple- formally questioned during this period did tion of each message cycle. not see any of the entrance or bathroom signs advertising the station. The “Whale Visitor surveys were conducted from July 1 Watching Spoken Here” volunteers had a to August 2, 1998 on Wednesdays, Satur- radio playing the broadcast for visitors. days and Sundays. The survey instrument When informally questioning visitors, most included questions about whether the visi- had positive reactions to the use of a radio tor tuned into the broadcast, message reten- broadcast to provide interpretive informa- tion, sign observation, and demographic tion. information. Surveys were collected from 10:30 A.M. to 2:30 P.M., the high visitation period, with some variation due to weather Evaluative Research conditions or visitor numbers. The signs Methodology advertising the broadcast were sky blue col- ored, reverse-printed with the phrase
“Coast Talk, Tune your radio to 1610 AM.” This collaborative research project between Oregon State Parks and Oregon Sea Grant OSG and OPRD assessed visitor reactions to logos were printed on the bottom of the LPR technology and 100 milliwatt broad- signs. The parking lot signs were temporar- casts heard while parked in their vehicles. ily staked in the ground and removed each Additionally, this project sought to deter- day. The entrance and bathroom signs were mine if there is a relationship between the permanently installed. Each of the five sur- number of signs presented and the number vey weeks (a Wednesday, Saturday, and of park visitors tuning into the radio broad- Sunday) had a different number of signs cast. We also wanted to investigate whether displayed to test the effect of sign numbers a relationship exists between specific demo- on visitor tune-ins (see Table 2). graphic characteristics (such as city or coun- try residence, age, or gender) of park visi- Week 1 was considered "normal" signage. tors and their tuning into the radio broad- “Normal” is the number of signs that OPRD cast. The project's hypotheses were: would display permanently without this
evaluation and consisted of displaying one Hypothesis 1: There is no relationship be- sign at each entrance and one sign on each tween the number of signs and park visitors bathroom wall for a total of four signs. Dur- tuning into the low power radio broadcast. ing the second week, maximum sign num-
146 Williams and DeYoung bers (48 total) were displayed to ensure that were assigned to a survey zone, with five all park visitors would see at least one sign. zones created, and zones were rotated after The following two weeks reduced this two hours. At the completion of the survey maximum number by approximately one- period, visitors were thanked for their par- half each week. Week 5 was considered the ticipation and given a brochure informing "optimal" signage week and utilized the them of a low power radio broadcast lo- previous four weeks research experience for cated at Seal Rock State Park at that time strategically placing signs throughout the and general information about LPR technol- park in the most highly noticed areas. ogy.
Signs displayed during Week 5 were in- stalled on signposts (instead of placed in the Results and Discussion ground like previous weeks) and the two large entrance turn-in signs were replaced During the five-week survey period, 822 with smaller size signs just inside the en- valid surveys were obtained from cars, trance. Visitors may be more likely to retain trucks, recreational vehicles (RV's) and mo- the frequency number when placed just in- torcycles. Analysis of the data shows that side the park entrance. Since motorists are there was a relationship between the num- turning into Boiler Bay from a high-speed ber of signs and the number of visitors tun- roadway, they may not have time to process ing into the LPR broadcast. One sign lo- the sign text and memorize the frequency cated at each park entrance alerting visitors number if signs are located at the entrances. to the broadcast was not as effective as addi- tional signs placed throughout the park. Survey respondents were approached when There was a significant difference in tune- visitors were observed preparing to depart ins between week 1 with four signs dis- the park (i.e., packing up picnic items or played (p<0.01, X2), and weeks 2, 3, 4, and 5 moving towards their vehicle). Surveyors (additional signs
Sign Locations Total number displayed Week 1 Park Entrances and bathrooms 4 (1 at each entrance + 1 on each exterior bathroom wall)
Week 2 Park Entrances, bathrooms, and parking areas 48 (4 Entrance & Bathroom signs + 44 park signs)
Week 3 Park Entrances, bathrooms, and parking areas 21 (4 Entrance & Bathroom signs + 17 park signs)
Week 4 Park Entrances, bathrooms, and parking areas 12 (4 Entrance & Bathroom signs + 8 park signs)
Week 5 Bathrooms and on sign posts 9 (2 Bathroom signs + 7 signs on posts and inside the en- trances) Table 2. General signage locations and numbers for the five week survey period at Boiler Bay State Park, July to August 1998
Table 3. Tune-in numbers for each survey week as well as the percentage of survey respondents that saw signs at the entrance, bath- rooms, or by parking space. (raw numbers are in parentheses).
Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Totals n=190 n=173 n=163 n=149 n=147 N=822
Tune-in numbers 10% (19) 36% (63) 23% (38) 16% (24) 16% (24) 20% (168)
% that saw sign 42% (79) 97% (168) 93% (152) 78% (116) 78% (114) 77% (629) total
% that saw en- 33% (63) 59% (102) 53% (87) 53% (79) 59% (87) 51% (418) trance sign
% that saw bath- 11% (20) 20% (34) 17% (27) 15% (23) 14% (20) 15% (124) room sign
% that saw sign by N/A 91% (157) 83% (136) 62% (92) 42% (62) 81% (447) parking space n=551
148 Williams and DeYoung displayed). Week 2 tune-ins were also sig- problems. If park fees or other funds were nificantly greater than weeks 3, 4, and 5 used to implement LPR systems, then most (p<0.05, X2). There were no significant of these people supported the installation of differences in the tune-ins between weeks 3, broadcasts in additional parks. 4, and 5 (see Table 3). The 100 milliwatt LPR system can have Different numbers of signs were displayed commercial or sponsor messages, so there each week in order to determine the optimal are several avenues available to fund the sign number which could most effectively purchase of additional LPR stations. One and efficiently advertise the broadcast. We option is to have a business, or several busi- conclude that week 1 signage was not effec- nesses, purchase the radio unit in exchange tive with four signs posted and only 42% of for broadcasting a sponsorship message the visitors seeing a sign. Week 2 had the recognizing their contribution toward the largest volume of signs but this is not an broadcast. Another option would be to appropriate number to display long-term, place sponsor logos on signs or brochures even though this week had the highest visi- promoting the broadcast and/or provide bility and tune-in rate by visitors. Weeks 4 recognition in the audio message itself. and 5 had about the same tune in rates, with three fewer signs displayed during week 5. Twenty-three percent of respondents did There was a significant tune-in difference not see any signs prior to the interview. between weeks 1 and 5 with only five addi- During week 1, 58% did not see any signs tional signs displayed during week 5. advertising the broadcast. Throughout the Therefore, the nine signs displayed during five weeks, an average of 51% of visitors week 5 are considered the "optimal" sign recalled seeing a sign at a park entrance and number for visitor detection at this Boiler 15% saw a bathroom sign. This lower bath- Bay State Park. room number is largely because many visi- tors indicated they did not utilize the bath- Only one significant correlation was ob- room facilities. Many visitors volunteered served between a demographic characteris- that they were pleased there were additional tic and broadcast listenership. During week signs in the park because they could not 2, significantly more women than men process the broadcast frequency quickly tuned into the broadcast (p<0.001, X2). It is enough as they were turning into the park. possible that more women were in a posi- tion, possibly the passenger seat, to see the Twenty percent of park visitors interviewed signs and turn on the broadcast. The Forest during the five week period tuned into the Talk evaluation showed no significant rela- broadcast that day or in a prior visit to the tionships between age, gender, residence, park (no repeat surveys were allowed). If and tune-ins. the broadcast continued throughout the year, this would translate into approxi- Nearly 97% of listening park visitors inter- mately 20,000 vehicles tuning in for inter- viewed during this study recommend that pretative and informational messages OPRD provide LPR broadcasts in more state (based on 100,000+ day visits, OPRD car parks. Respondents found the broadcast counter data). Week 1 had the lowest num- contained useful and interesting informa- ber of visitors tuning in that day or a previ- tion and felt it enhanced their state park ous day (10% total) and Week 2 had the visit. Funding concerns were the main rea- highest total number of visitors tuning in son given by the four visitors who did not (36%). By comparison, Forest Talk had an support the addition of these broadcasts in 8% total tune-in rate during one evaluation parks. These respondents were apprehen- period (Lamb, 1994) and a 1.3% tune-in rate sive that tax dollars would be used to sup- during another (Reed and Bondi, 1995). It is port this type of outreach while parks them- unknown how many signs were displayed selves fall into disrepair due to funding during their evaluation.
Williams and DeYoung 149
Ninety-seven percent of vehicles had a func- ment of signs along the highway. In addi- tioning AM radio and 74% of people sur- tion, several respondents indicated they veyed listened to their radio "most of the thought the signs and "Coast Talk" referred time" or "some of the time" when traveling. to a commercial broadcast or “talk radio More than 40% of interviewed park visitors show” and did not tune in for this reason. not initially tuning into the Coast Talk Increasing the size of the OPRD and OSG broadcast said they intended to listen to the logos on the signs or an alternate name for messages before leaving the park. Most of the broadcast may have decreased the con- these people indicated that they noticed fusion. Many respondents suggested using Coast Talk signs while walking around the the phrase “Park Info, Tune to 1610 AM” to park, but were interviewed prior to reenter- notify visitors of the legitimacy of the broad- ing their vehicles and turning on the radio cast. broadcast. Several visitors tried to tune into the broad- Place of residence did not predict listener- cast but did have trouble receiving the sig- ship. There was no significant difference in nal. While many of these problems were Oregon residents tuning into the broadcast attributed to faulty radio or antenna equip- compared to out-of-state or international ment, some reception difficulties remained. visitors. Forty-eight percent of respondents Often one visitor would have trouble hear- had an Oregon zip code, 45% lived out of ing the broadcast while an adjacent visitor state and six percent lived in foreign coun- was listening to the broadcast. This prob- tries (one percent refused to give their zip lem may be attributed to differences in ra- code). Almost 70% of park visitors inter- dios or antenna strengths. viewed on-site during this study indicated having an urban or metropolitan domicile. The Portland area was the most common Conclusions and Implications for residence of respondents from urban areas. the Future
Many park visitors interviewed during this Fazio and Gilbert (1982) discuss some study found the broadcasts were a great tool drawbacks of utilizing conventional com- for enhancing their state park visit. Most mercial radio technology to communicate listening visitors could recall the major interpretive or educational information. theme(s) of the message(s) they heard and Radio is an immediate medium where the found the message length appropriate. Ad- message effectiveness depends on a “one- ditionally, many visitors who had not tuned shot” effort at visitor contact and into the broadcast prior to the survey ex- understanding and it is a more passive form pressed positive opinions about the unique of communication. Contact through the opportunities offered by this technology radio message does not necessarily mean and indicated they would tune into the communication. However there are several broadcast at the completion of the survey. advantages from utilizing radio to communicate to visitors. Radio is a timely Increased listenership may have been ob- medium; it can be easily updated and it is tained by putting a sign on the highway relatively accessible. And it is relatively low (i.e., which the Oregon Department of in cost considering the large number of Transportation would not have allowed for people who can be reached. LPR differs this project). While the short range of the from conventional commercial stations in 100 milliwatt station would not extend out that messages are rebroadcast automatically along the highway, a highway sign could every 10-15 minutes, 24 hours a day, seven inform motorists of the broadcast opportu- days a week. Messages can be listened as nity available in the park and motorists many times as desired by visitors leading to could choose to visit the park to listen to the increased retention of information. broadcast. Many visitors suggested place-
150 Williams and DeYoung
Most survey respondents, regardless of played so visitors have the opportunity to whether they heard the broadcast, were en- tune in to the broadcast. thusiastic about this communication tool. But funds for purchasing the radio equip- Whether the OPRD interest level increases ment for Boiler Bay State Park have not yet enough to widen the LPR broadcast applica- been procured. It is hoped that as OPRD tion in coastal parks remains to be seen. The managers learn of the outreach potential of Boiler Bay project results intrigued the Port LPR broadcasts, funds will be secured for of Newport and Hatfield Marine Science purchasing this equipment. Visitor educa- Visitor Center. Both locations now have a tion is vital to conservation of marine and 100 milliwatt LPR station. Results from this coastal resources. study indicate that LPR broadcasts are a promising communication technology for Low power radio broadcasts are a viable providing park visitors with helpful infor- option for state park coastal managers to mation. State parks in Oregon offer impor- “do more with less.” LPR broadcasts could tant opportunities for visitor recreation and become a trademark of Oregon’s coastal natural resource education. With increasing parks. The state park system is already visitation to the nation's coastal parks, there highly valued by residents and visitors. As is growing need for marine education to we look ahead to increasing coastal resi- enhance stewardship, interpretation, and dents and visitors, this outreach tool could safety knowledge. This research indicates help stimulate and renew interest in our that parks should consider LPR technology marine environment and natural resources. as an affordable communication strategy for One future study could investigate whether reaching these visitors. a Coast Talk broadcast encourages visitors to be more responsible stewards in the Acknowledgements coastal environment. The assistance of these organizational col-
laborators in this research and demonstra- There are several advantages of using 100 tion project is gratefully acknowledged: milliwatt LPR units in coastal parks instead of a 10 Watt transmitter placed along the • Mike Rivers, Oregon Parks and Rec- highway. Signs notifying visitors of a 10 reation Department Watt system must be viewed while motor- • Joe Cone, Assistant Director for ists are traveling at high speeds along road- Communications, Oregon Sea Grant ways. Attention to the message content of Program these size stations may be minimal while • Pat Kight, Science Communications motorists are navigating through traffic, Specialist, Oregon Sea Grant Pro- perhaps studying maps, or distracted in gram other ways inside the moving vehicle. Use • Kevin Strandberg, Oregon Parks of 100 milliwatt broadcasts in parking areas and Recreation Department provides greater opportunity for visitors • Claude Crocker, Oregon Parks and seeing signs, attention to message content, Recreation Department and likely leads to greater retention of the broadcast information. Tune-in rates during With additional thanks to: the 10 Watt Forest Talk evaluations ranged • Janice Adams, Amanda Caruso, from 1.3% to 8%. While the Boiler Bay pro- Jennifer DeYoung, Lyudmila Kirill- ject had a tune-in rate of 10% during the first ova, Kevin Bruce, and James Tin- week with only four signs visible, it jumped gey, Surveyors to 16% during Weeks 4 and 5, a rate which • Amanda Caruso and Lyudmila is double the highest Forest Talk listener- Kirillova, for post survey assistance ship. The 100 milliwatt LPR stations must have an adequate number of signs dis-
Williams and DeYoung 151
References IUFRO XX World Congress Extension Working Party, Tampere, Finland. Oregon Parks and Recreation Department. Weed, Frank. (1999). Personal Commu- (1999). “About OPRD.” URL: nication in August, 1999. Weed is the
23, 1999. Visited on October 10, 1999. Lamb, Melany. (1994). Forestry Extension & Low Power Radio: An Evaluation of the Santiam Broadcast Site. Oregon State University, College of Forestry Master's Degree Thesis. 74 pp. State of Oregon. (1999). Official Tourism Website. General profile page under Tourism Research under Information
section. URL:
THEMATIC ITINERARIES: AN APPROACH TO TOURISM PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Raymond S. Tabata Sea Grant Extension Service University of Hawaii at Manoa (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Throughout the U.S., scenic byways, could determine the selection of the destina- heritage corridors, and similar concepts are being tion itself. Also, suggested itineraries can be developed to: (1) preserve and interpret natural very helpful for independent travelers once and cultural resources unique to an area; (2) they arrive at their destination. Tradition- coordinate the efforts of private, public, and non- ally, self-guiding pamphlets and guides profit organizations; and (3) market the new serve this purpose. Itinerary development product to targeted audiences. Growing interest can be a powerful tool in organizing infor- in nature and culture travel provides an oppor- mation about an area’s attractions and pre- tunity to integrate interpretation with tourism senting that information to visitors in an product development and marketing. Examples appealing manner. In tourism, this could be will be discussed, including: Scenic Byways in called “tourism product development.” In the Great Lakes Region, the Western North our profession, we could call this “interpre- Carolina Heritage Craft Trail, California's the- tation,” perhaps at a regional level, as op- matic itinerary program for San Francisco, Los posed to at the site level. How do we marry Angeles, and San Diego; and in Hawaii, the Hilo these two worlds having such common in- Hamakua Heritage Coast and South Maui Heri- terests? tage Corridor. This paper discusses how inter- pretive planning can contribute to visitor itiner- Recent Trends in Travel and Destination ary and destination area development. Area Development
Keywords: interpretation, tourism develop- There are increasing numbers of travelers ment, destination areas, visitor itineraries, visi- seeking high-quality, authentic experiences tor information systems relating to nature, history, and culture. Ecotourism and heritage tourism are con- sidered among the fastest growing segments of travel throughout the world. Another Introduction trend is that more travelers are on their own -- FITs or free and independent travelers. In the world of real estate, it is well estab- They generally seek out their own activities lished that the three most important factors and develop their own customized itinerar- that determine property value are, “location, ies, largely determined by special interests. location, and location.” Similarly, in the From birding to spelunking, and archeologi- world of travel, location – or knowing where cal digs to scuba diving, travelers are moti- to find points of interest – is critical. De- vated more than ever in finding opportuni- pending on a traveler’s particular interests, ties to learn while on vacation, to seek new he will seek information on local attractions experiences, and to find inspiration. and activities that meet his needs. The word “itinerary,” means, “the route of a journey In many communities throughout the U.S., or tour, or the proposed outline of one.” scenic byways, heritage corridors, and simi- Anyone who has planned a trip would ap- lar concepts are being planned to meet sev- preciate the importance of having some idea eral community goals: (1) identify natural of what they plan to see and do at their des- and cultural resources unique to an area; (2) tination. In fact, that kind of knowledge integrate and coordinate efforts of private, 154 Tabata public, and NGO sectors in preserving and World don’t have this problem. We’re, how- enhancing identified resources; and (3) de- ever, more concerned about rural communi- veloping and marketing new products. ties and small towns without million dollar While such approaches are not entirely budgets and marketing departments who novel, the growing interest in nature and need help with creating more attractive des- culture travel provides an excellent oppor- tination areas based on the natural and cul- tunity to integrate community based tour- tural resources. Interpretive planning can be ism development with enhanced interpreta- a powerful tool in helping such communi- tion and visitor information services. These ties identify what’s truly unique about their types of product development approaches area and would distinguish them from a are valuable in organizing visitor experi- thousand other similar communities. ences, enhancing interpretive services, and organizing the communities themselves. Theme Development As in interpretation, theme development is often viewed as identifying subjects or top- Interpretation and Itinerary ics. As such, topics such as birds or geology Development are not particularly appealing to visitors. However, if communities worked at theme Interpretive planning is perfectly suited for development, as good interpretation should, developing visitor itineraries. Interpretation they might come up with themes such as, contributes to itinerary development in sev- “Glaciers transformed raw mountains into eral important ways: (1) focuses attention on today’s scenic landscapes.” In an area such the “whole” destination area, however de- as Anchorage, the works of glaciers are fined, rather than the individual sites and plainly evident. Interpretation, applied to attractions; (2) develops themes that appeal tourism development and marketing, would to potential visitors; (3) provides a “way- capitalize on this kind of grand theme that finding” function for visitors; (4) increases ties together visitor experiences such as the holding power an area by provoking the driving along Turnagain Arm, touring the interest of visitors and providing memora- Matanuska-Sisitna Valley, or visiting the ble visitor experiences; (5) and supports Portage Glacier Visitor Center. other local industries and businesses such as unique souvenirs and foods. Wayfinding David Bucy, a consultant from Oregon and Focus on the Whole fellow NAI member, is a proponent of visi- At the most basic level, interpretation fo- tor communication systems that systemati- cuses attention on the whole, and not the cally provides information and interpreta- pieces. One of Freeman Tilden’s principles tion to visitors. This system would be useful was, “Interpretation should aim to present a in helping visitors find they way through a whole rather than a part, and must address destination area when they are planning a itself to the whole man rather than any trip, when they arrive, and as they tour the phase..” John Burnet is similarly quoted by area. What distinguishes this system from Tilden: “Wisdom is not a knowledge of the typical printed guides available in most many things, but the perception of the un- destination areas is that visitors would gain derlying unity of seemingly unrelated facts. a sense of the area’s unique natural and cul- Most destination areas fail to present a tural history – as opposed to pages and “whole” message. Instead, they tend to pages of running text with bold-faced points overwhelm visitors with information on of interest which have paid advertisements “pieces” – individual activities and attrac- in a commercial pamphlet. tions – but no over-arching sense of what’s unique about their area. Of course, mega- Holding Power destinations such as Las Vegas or Disney Interpretation in various forms – from way- Tabata 155 side exhibits and self-guiding trails to bro- communities and their residents to revitalize chures and personal guides – provides the their local economies by capitalizing on visitor with a reason to stay longer and stop their unique heritage arts and crafts – every- at more places in the destination area. Scenic thing from glassmaking to basketry. One of byways, for example, can provide more op- their tangible products was the publication portunities for periodic stops to appreciate of a four-color printed guide to the region interesting views, historic sites, or natural which beautifully illustrates its diversity areas. Interpretation at key points can en- and provides ample information on way- hance the entire experience and encourage finding, food, lodging, and history. visitors to make more stops along the way on side roads and in little towns -- rather In 1998, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and San than zip through the region on the Interstate Diego initiated a thematic itinerary program highway. in California that coordinates culture and arts experiences in these three metropolitan Support Other Industries and Businesses areas. “California: Culture’s Edge”, at Interpretation can also be used to tie in local
tural centers - Los Angeles, San Diego
and San Francisco.” Examples of Thematic Approaches New York State has a similar thematic itin- erary approach. Its Web site at While there are many examples of thematic
ism grant program resulted in directional “Eleanor Roosevelt's Heritage signs and a self-guiding brochure. Other community projects include the restoration Experience women's history in New of the Laupahoehoe railroad station master’s York's Hudson Valley, at Val_Kill home and murals in Honokaa, a former (914/229-9115) in Hyde Park, the home cowboy town. of Eleanor Roosevelt, "First Lady of the World". Visit the cottage where John F. Elsewhere, many examples abound of how Kennedy, Winston Churchill, and other various destination areas are using thematic world leaders discussed humanitarian itineraries to develop new tourism products issues and United Nation's business. and enhance the visitor experience. National scenic byways, such as the North Shore Na- Eleanor Roosevelt was appointed a dele- tional Scenic Byway on the shores of Lake gate in 1945 to the United Nations Superior in Minnesota, offer visitors out- (212/963-7713) in New York City, standing landscapes for driving itineraries. where she lobbied for the Universal The Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Declaration of Human Rights. This Area offers two excellent visitor centers, year, the United Nations will celebrate tours of hydroelectric plants, sturgeon its 50th anniversary with commemora- hatchery, salmon ladders, and splendid wa- tive sessions in New York City on Oc- terfalls, as well as a historic driving route tober 22 and other events throughout that parallels the Lewis & Clark expedition. the year. A system of National Heritage Areas, such
as the Silos and Smokestacks NHA in Iowa, For information about the area, contact provide new opportunities for travelers who Dutchess County Tourism 800/445- want to experience the rich natural and cul- 3131 or 914/463-4000.” tural heritage of the United States. More
recently, new programs such as National These examples of visitor itineraries from Heritage Rivers (http://www.epa.gov California and New York illustrate that /rivers), Millennium Trails (see tourism offices are actively developing the- http://www.millenniumtrails.org), and matic itineraries that appeal to particular Lewis & Clark Bicentennial (project of the audiences. Interpretation adds to the overall National Council of the Lewis & Clark Bi- marketing message by effectively enhancing centennial, see http://www.lewisand the product. clark200.org) bring focus to efforts to iden-
tify unifying itinerary themes for targeted In Hawaii, local efforts include the Hilo- groups of travelers. Interpreters can play a Hamakua Heritage Coast and South Maui key role in helping to identify such themes Heritage Corridor projects. The Hilo- and develop interpretive products and ser- Hamakua Heritage Coast began as a re- vices that will help visitors better appreciate gional community effort to revitalize the the natural, historic and cultural resources northeast windward coast of the Big Island in these newly defined destination areas. of Hawaii, an area that lost its traditional sugar cane industry. Throughout the region that stretches for about 30 miles, tourists zip by on a coastal highway, bypassing rem- Conclusion nants of small plantation towns which are struggling to survive in modern times. The Interpreters offer special approach and in- Heritage Coast project involved community sights that would be invaluable in tourism groups from the entire region in identifying product development – particularly with their heritage and what they would like to regard to developing opportunities for in- highlight for visitors. An initial pilot project dependent nature and culture travel. With partly funded by the state’s Cultural Tour- the growing interest in ecotourism and heri- Tabata 157 tage/culture tourism, the professional inter- preter can provide a unique sensitivity to focusing on the “whole” or unifying themes that will create a “brand image” for a desti- nation to distinguish it from a thousand other competing destinations. The inter- preter will also use interpretation as a man- agement tool in protecting natural and cul- tural resources from inappropriate visitor use. The interpreter can also enhance the visitor experience throughout the destina- tion area by developing effective interpreta- tion programs at major points of interest. Professional interpreters need to be active partners in community tourism develop- ment efforts because they are as important as traditional participants – hotels, restau- rants, transportation, and attractions. The interpreters in resource agencies, parks, and museums – as well as the private sector – can all play a key role in producing high- quality tourism destination areas.
MARKETING CULTURAL HERITAGE ON WATER TRAILS
Peter Labor North American Water Trails, Inc. (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Water trails are recreational routes With a long history of water based transpor- that connect people and places through links to tation and settlement in North America, and both the natural environment and cultural as- a continent connected by a myriad of natu- pects of places. Marketing the cultural heritage is ral waterways, cultural links are bound to desirable to help achieve the economic benefits, be important parts of water trails, and often conservation goals, and recreational accessibility are the seed of water trail development. that is possible with water trails. Where tourism and economic development are seen as a product of the water trail, then, Keywords: water trails, cultural heritage, tour- marketing the cultural heritage attributes of ism marketing the water trail is a natural desire.
The following outline summarizes a few Introduction thoughts, learned “in the field”, which might help in considering the marketing of Water Trails are recreational routes that join cultural heritage on water trails. places and people along rivers, lakes and seashores. They provide opportunities for The Challenge protecting natural environments, increasing economic benefits to communities and busi- A. Demonstrating respect - avoiding nesses, and allowing healthy and accessible the tendency to market only the recreation. more “desirable” aspects of the “But water trails are more than a geo- story or resource. graphical phenomenon; they are alive. B. Telling a whole story - remembering They are animated by the pursuits of that while your water trail has may their builders and their users. Water seem to have one clear story (e.g., trails connect people with places and “the fur trade”), it is likely only a simultaneously enrich and protect both. part of a much longer and richer By identifying and interpreting places, history, which began with the for- both natural and constructed, the water mation of the waterway, and which trail brings the user into contact with continues to present day. the whole ecology of the corridor. The C. Making a link to action - marketing interpretation and preservation of our is for selling, whether it is an ex- cultural heritage is no less important perience or a product, so the mar- than the protection and conservation of keting message must make a clear the earth, the sky, and the plants and appeal to users, based on their de- animals with which they are inter- sires and experience. twined. In the process, the user learns
and grows physically, mentally and
emotionally, while the community grows in spirit, in economic health and Restraints for Most Watertrail in vitality.” (From North American Organizations Water Trails - Vision Statement) A. Too much information - too much of a good thing can be hazardous, es- 160 Labor
pecially when the core group is vol- Tell the Whole Story (or at least make unteer based with limited resources room for it to be understood) (see restraint “b”) Even though your theme is the thread that B. Too little time, money and volun- binds your marketing message, leave room teers - enough said… for other aspects of the story, and be pre- C. Lack of coordinated planning - often pared to integrate them in appropriate re- there is too much to do on a day-to- gional or cultural contexts. day basis, so the important long- term vision and planning is lost in Encourage Imagination and the shuffle. When it finally comes Participation time to get down to marketing, it I Water trails are “hands-on” resources, so get tempting to promote the easy stuff, people involved. Boating regattas, paddle and in the process the really inter- days, expeditions, and community celebra- esting details are often missed. tions are all great marketing tools which
D. “It's a Big World” - i.e., what is often self-perpetuate and carry your mes- monumentally important and unbe- sage forward. lievably fascinating to you may mean very little to “the masses”. Work Together E. The “world view” dilemma - no matter what you do, and how well Find and develop creative partnerships be- you do it, sometimes people will tween communities, organizations, govern- adhere to their own version of the ment departments and citizens. Meet people past so all the marketing in the where they live and work, and be flexible world will make little difference. enough to integrate other thoughts into your plans.
Use “The System” The Need Take advantage of existing institutions and In spite of the above, marketing cultural resources, such as various media outlets, heritage is still worth doing because; schools, events, festivals, and tailor them, or your message to meet your vision. A. It works - understanding, appreciat-
ing and participating in cultural ex- Monitor the Results (and be prepared to periences is a growing motivation change course) for travel B. It is important - often, cultural mar- Marketing cultural heritage can be a tricky keting is the message about the past thing, given the strong ties that people have that is remembered, so we better do to their past. Water trails can make this it right or the true heart and soul of process particularly difficult, as their linear regions and water trails may be lost nature often means that they cross many or confused. cultural, social and political boundaries. Keep an ear to the ground, listen to locals and be prepared to steer your marketing Some Keys to Success message in such a way that it is well re- ceived by water trails residents, and attrac-
tive to water trail users. Build on a “Real” Theme, and Keep it
Real For more information on water trails, con- Understand your water trail from a variety tact North American Water Trail by going to of points of view, but don't try to sell the
Brijesh Thapa Department of Recreation, Parks and Tourism University of Florida (U.S.A.)
Vinod Sasidharan Department of Recreation, Parks, and Tourism San Diego State University (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Debt-for-nature swap involves a subjugated to major environmental impacts mechanism of exchange in which a certain (degradation), as an overwhelming majority amount of the debtor's foreign debt is cancelled of the population inhabits the region. Some or forgiven, in return for local currency from the of the known direct impacts attributed to debtor government to be invested in domestic humans are overfishing, ocean dumping, environmental projects, notably designation and poisoning of marine organisms, wetlands management of protected areas. Swaps’ objec- removal, coastal deforestation, dynamiting tives are to reduce the debt burden, protect the of coral reefs, harvesting of endangered spe- environment, and aid in sustainable develop- cies, and habitat alteration through the con- ment programs to generate local jobs and in- struction of breakwaters, seal walls, dykes, come, which in turn can be facilitated by pro- etc. (Agardy, 1990). Based upon these im- tected area tourism in coastal and marine envi- pacts, and also due to the dire need to sus- ronments. However, each swap should have site- tain the present resources, developing coun- specific agreements, monitoring/enforcement tries (coastal and insular) have adopted the programs, and most importantly, should involve western model of resource protection via the locals/community in decision-making. creation of parks, protected areas and ma- rine sanctuaries. The protected area concept Keywords: Debt-for-nature swap, environ- has gained widespread acceptance and par- mental protection, sustainable development pro- ticipation within the last 25 years (Mitchell grams and Barborak, 1991), and with the growing public consensus on environmentalism, creation of more protected areas can be ex- Introduction pected. However, creation of protected ar- eas is an expensive ordeal for developing Developing countries that are coastal and countries as they lack the financial resources insular in nature largely depend on marine to effectively monitor and enforce regula- environments for food and income (fisheries tions of the protected areas. Also, creation resources), as well as generation of foreign of sanctuaries and protected areas come at a exchange (coastal and marine tourism) to price as the extractive properties of coastal supplement and/or assist with the balance and marine environments are heavily util- of trade payments and foreign debt. Al- ized for export commodities to generate for- though the consumptive dependency is evi- eign currency to assist with the payments of dent, however, the resources are not man- insurmountable foreign debts which is esti- aged in an efficient manner to allow for sus- mated to be USD$ 2.2 trillion (Human De- tainability. The coastal zones have been velopment Report, 1999). Additionally, two 162 Thapa and Sasidharan critical elements (key ingredients to achieve tected areas, national parks and biospheres; success in meeting the objectives of the pro- financially assisted (over USD$100 million) tected area), community-based decision- in strengthening the capacities of under- making and permitting multiple uses are funded local environmental conservation usually lacking (Gilman, 1997). organizations in promoting sustainable management of natural resources; and a Concomitantly, in an effort to combat the sense of awareness about environmental debt and environmental crisis in developing protection has been instilled (Thapa, 1998). countries, Lovejoy introduced the debt-for- The purpose of this paper is to outline the nature swap concept (Lovejoy, 1984). This debt-for-nature swap process and it’s posi- stepwise process involves a mechanism of tive relationship with protected area tour- exchange in which a certain amount of the ism in developing nations. Additionally, debtor's foreign debt is cancelled or for- the applicability to marine and coastal envi- given, in return for local currency from the ronments will be discussed. debtor government to be invested in domes- tic environmental projects. The projects may include conservation and natural re- Debt-for-Nature Swap: An source management, designation and man- Overview of the Process agement of protected areas, increase in funds for National Parks, park personnel Certain procedures are to be followed dur- training, and environmental education pro- ing a debt-for-nature swap process. The grams and activities (Thapa, 1998). Swaps initial step is for the sponsoring INGO (most can be bilateral (between two governments), active in swaps - Conservational Interna- or in most cases trilateral (aided by an tional, The World Wildlife Fund for Nature INGO-International Non-Governmental Or- & Conservation, and the Nature Conser- ganization). Also, the INGO must have a vancy) is to establish a dialogue with the local contact with a domestic non- debtor country, and eventually gain ap- governmental environmental organization proval from the principal players of the in the debtor country to be responsible for debtor country (government, central bank the administration and operational facilita- and a domestic NGO). Once approval is tion of the project (Environment Bulletin, met, negotiations occur and eventually mu- 1996). tual agreements are reached in terms of funding potential projects and the mecha- The first swap (1987) between Conservation nism of funding. In such situations, the International (US-INGO) and Bolivia in- debtor country usually indicates what areas volved cancellation of $650,000 Bolivian for- for swap intentions should be considered, eign debt in exchange for $100,000 worth of and can also regulate the amount of the local currency that was to be marshaled to- swap investments. The sponsoring agency wards protection of the Beni Biosphere. (INGO) normally locates a potential donor, Since then, it is reported that in excess of which may include governments, banks, $1.5 billion in transactions has been in- organizations and private foundations volved among 19+ countries and is expected (Greener, 1991; Sadler, 1990). The interna- to increase. The participants have been tional secondary debt markets for second- Costa Rica, Philippines, Madagascar and hand debts are also investigated for dis- Poland, however countries in Central and count levels. The secondary market for bad South America have benefited the most debt originated in 1982 as a resort for lend- (Deacon and Murphy, 1997). Although, na- ing agencies to salvage or minimize their ture swaps do not provide a major dent in losses. Debt could be bought for deep dis- developing countries’ foreign debt, how- counts; for example, a USD$10 million debt ever, various achievements have been could be bought for USD$5 million (Ma- accomplished. For example, debt-for-nature hony, 1992). However, when a match is swaps have aided in the creation of pro- Thapa and Sasidharan 163 met, the sponsoring agency will buy the dis- remote regions via protected area tourism counted debt, or receive it as a donation (Moran, 1992; Wagner, 1990). The majority from banks and governments, or receive of the protected areas created through money from foundations to buy the dis- swaps have incorporated nature-based tour- counted debt in exchange for investment of ism/ecotourism and other forms of envi- local currency by the debtor country in the ronmental and culturally based tourism. stated environmental project. Local funding Nature based tourism has experienced a can also be issued by the debtor country in 10% to 30% increase per year, which is the form of issuing currency or bonds, in about two to five times faster than the which the interests from the bonds is used growth rate for tourism in general (Wight, for daily operations. As indicated earlier, 1996). Also, “environmental awareness” is the coordination and daily operations of the becoming the collective consensus among project are normally undertaken by a do- the general populace in developed coun- mestic NGO and/or institutions mutually tries; so, protected areas in developing agreed to by both parties (Dogse and von countries can anticipate an influx of nature- Droste, 1990; Greener, 1991; Sadler, 1990). based tourists or ecotourists. Costa Rica has benefited environmentally and economi- cally, as it is one of the world’s most coveted Swaps and Protected Area ecotourism destinations with the majority of Tourism their visitors visiting protected areas.
Debt-for-nature swaps have been responsi- Debt-for-nature swaps is a potential plausi- ble for the creation and/or addition of pro- ble strategy for developing countries who tected areas in countries where swaps have are proactive in environmental issues, and been undertaken. For example, Costa Rica can achieve some degree of success, like has been actively involved in swap practices Costa Rica's tourism earnings from National to protect its natural environment. It is a Parks and Reserves. Brown (1998: 76) re- leading country, in terms of conservation, marks that swaps are likely to activate in- and 12% of its total land mass is designated vestment in international tourism via “park as national parks or protected biological restoration, sustainable wildlife preserva- reserves. The country has been proactive tion and forest protection”. Moreover, in and has been able to get US & European the context of the African continent, Brown INGOs, and private foundations to aid in (1998) further states that swaps that help reforestation and/or park projects via swap create protected areas/parks would increase practices. Between 1988 and 1990, USD$ 10 the influx of tourists, thereby simultane- million was generated in donations to help ously increasing foreign exchange earnings. retire the face value of USD$ 69 million of However, involvement and creation of local the country’s foreign debt (Page, 1990). Si- jobs should be major components of each multaneously, this has enabled Costa Rica to swap as local commitments and trust is raise USD$ 33 million in local currency mandatory to ensure success in meeting the bonds, which support projects such as parks objectives of the swaps. For example, in the and protected areas, reforestation, etc. Al- Ghana swap, Conservation International is though this represented a retirement of looking at alternative income producing about 5% or more to the overall debt bur- opportunities such as local guides and lo- den, it was still a positive experience in cally operated camping lodges for village terms of both debt reduction and environ- residents who reside within the vicinity of mental protection (Page, 1990). the park as a way to prevent poaching (Brown, 1998). These positive economic Along with the promotion of sustainable use measures can lead to increased support for of natural resources, swaps have the inher- the protected areas with which they are as- ent possibility of creating jobs and income in sociated.
164 Thapa and Sasidharan
Swaps and Protected Area grams while identifying sustainable ways of Tourism in Coastal and Marine utilizing their marine and coastal resources.
Environments Despite stringent controls, trained guides
and reef etiquette postings, marine parks The position of marine and coastal regions particularly suffering from heavy traffic at the interface of land and sea increases the (and escalating demand levels) in the Carib- susceptibility and vulnerability of the natu- bean are experiencing cumulative degrada- ral resources to development activities, es- tion through mounting damage to coral pecially tourism development activities in from divers, snorkelers and careless anchor islands and coastal destinations. It should dragging (Albuquerque and McElroy, 1995: be understood that environmental impacts 27). In the case of the Molokini Marine Life in islands and coastal regions are not lim- Conservation District in the Pacific, a com- ited to tourism development (including wa- bination of nearly a complete lack of man- ter-based recreational activities) alone, but agement, over-zealous marketing of the des- extends to overall economic development tination, and increased tourist activity in (development of coastal cities and harbors, general, has contributed to the desecration agriculture, fishing, coastal ‘protection’). of the pristine marine environment and eco- Since economic development has been de- system despite the establishment of regula- pendent on the tourism sector, the roots of tions to conserve and protect the unique environmental problems faced by marine marine resource at Molokini Shoals (Gaff- and coastal regions can often be traced to ney, 1990: 180). Although unsatisfactory their respective expanding tourism indus- experiences from alternative tourism pro- tries. Considering the fact that the natural jects are widespread, some regions (e.g., the environment of the marine and coastal Galapagos Islands and the Lesser Antilles) zones is the principal attraction, policies, have successfully integrated tourism into enactments and administrative fabric re- their marine and coastal protection, preser- lated to tourism planning in these regions vation and conservation strategies (Agardy, often prioritize the amelioration of tourism’s 1990). direct negative (environmental) impacts on the islands’ natural resource base. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are emerg-
ing and have been established all over the In some islands of the Caribbean, Pacific world, notably in the Caribbean (Pendleton, and Mediterranean regions (for example, 1993; Widfeldt, 1993) and the Pacific Fiji and the Lesser Antilles), natural re- (Holthus and Thomas, 1990; Pearsall, 1993) source managers, planners, and policymak- with the objective of promoting alternative ers advocate the integration of tourism nature tourism and demonstrating co- within the framework of macro-scale com- existence between conservation and devel- prehensive and pro-active multiple use opment, and to avoid the dangers of main- planning (and zoning) for accommodating stream tourism. During the last twenty all resource users and, thereby avoiding re- years, governments of the Pacific Islands source conflicts in areas where coastal popu- have attempted to establish protected areas, lations are on the rise (Agardy, 1990; in response to the dwindling natural re- Thorsell and Wells, 1990). Furthermore, the sources from overuse and misuse of coastal national governments of some islands desti- systems and in recognition of the limits of nations, for example, Jamaica (Pattullo, growth on islands, and the negative impacts 1996) and Mykonos (Stott, 1993), have at- to the coastal zones from anthropogenic (in- tempted to integrate traditional and com- cluding tourism) activities (Gilman, 1997: munity-based coastal and marine resource 59). Similarly, in 1987, the Turks and Caicos management methods into contemporary government identified 32 marine and terres- multi-agency tourism management pro- trial sites for future designation as national
parks, nature reserves, sanctuaries, and his- Thapa and Sasidharan 165 torical sites for the protection of habitats pertain to conservation and natural re- (pristine reef complexes, large tidal flats, sources management with emphasis on des- and nesting seabird colonies) and endan- ignation, enforcement and management of gered species (green turtle, humpback protected areas. In addition, programs that whale, and Kirtland’s warbler) from the promote environmental awareness are also threats of tourism boom and land develop- supported. The funds generated by debt for ment (Mitchell and Barborak, 1991: 113). nature swaps usually do not substitute gov- However, the challenges faced by govern- ernment funding for environmental projects ment officials in their attempts to develop a but are utilized for environmental projects new National Park system, included “de- that have been identified by the debtor gov- pendence of economy on foreign aids and ernment as requiring addressing but is un- funds, lack of trained personnel, inadequate able to provide the respective funding infrastructure, relative locational inaccessi- (Greener, 1991; Thapa, 1998). Since debt- bility and remoteness of many sites, accu- for-nature swaps have largely been em- mulating stress on specific sites (especially ployed for terrestrial projects, it is impera- popular coral reef dive sites), small-scale tive that marine and coastal regions should supply of public utilities, and a lack of envi- subscribe to this process. For example, a ronmental awareness in the islands” debt-for-nature swap program funded by (Mitchell and Barborak, 1991: 113). the WWF helped to organize a community based marine resource management plan in Overall, integrated approaches to tourism San Salvador Island, Philippines (Christie, resource planning and policy-making incor- White and Buhat, 1994). porate elements of environment-oriented coastal management and conservation strategies, zoning schemes (including ma- Conclusion rine protected area/sanctuary/park desig- nation), carrying capacity (limits of accept- Swaps are beneficial tools for developing able change) determination, multiple use countries that want to protect their coastal planning, multi-agency (including commu- and marine environments, as well as pro- nity) involvement and tourist-oriented envi- vide a source of income and employment ronmentally-compatible marina planning. (protected area tourism) to locals living in These approaches echo the growing aware- the interior or within the vicinity of the pro- ness regarding the need for multi-level posed protected area. Protected area tour- coastal and marine resource management ism is a viable route to rejuvenate or jump- and tourism development strategies among start a local economy. However, each swap planners, developers and policy makers of should have site-specific agreements, moni- countries that are coastal and insular. Also, toring/enforcement programs, and most local involvement via community based importantly, should involve lo- planning is vital for the success of potential cals/community in decision-making. Also, Marine Protected Areas. Moreover, site depending upon the coastal and marine re- specific standard monitoring and enforce- source being protected, multiple uses ment programs are essential to meet the ob- should be encouraged (system of zones and jectives of the Marine Protected Areas. buffer zones), as locals need to have alterna- tives if their livelihoods are at stake. There However, the complex mixture of ap- is a positive relationship between debt-for- proaches needed to effectively plan and nature swaps and protected area tourism, in manage the marine and coastal resources which swaps are employed as a sustainable requires human and financial resources, development tool facilitated by protected which is inherently lacking in almost every area tourism. Swaps’ objectives are to re- developing country that are coastal and in- duce the debt burden, protect the environ- sular. Most debt-for-nature swaps tend to ment, and aid in sustainable development target funding environmental projects that 166 Thapa and Sasidharan programs to generate local jobs and income, Environment Bulletin (1996). Bulgarian- which in turn can be facilitated by protected Swiss debt for environment swap. Vol. area tourism. Tourism and Marine Pro- 7(4). URL: tected Areas have a beneficial symbiosis, in
cos Islands. Coastal Management, 19: 113- tional Environmental Affairs, 2(2): 160- 134. 166. Page, Diana. (1990). Debt-for-Nature Swaps: Widfelt, A. (1993). Alternative Development Experience gained, lessons learned. In- Strategies and Tourism in Caribbean ternational Environmental Affairs, 1(4): Microstates. In: Sustainable Tourism in Is- 275-288. lands and Small States: Case Studies. L. Pattullo, P. (1996). Last Resorts: The cost of Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari and G. tourism in the Caribbean. Cassell, London. Wall (eds.). Pinter (Cassell imprint). Pearsall, S. (1993). Terrestrial coastal envi- London. pp. 147-161. ronments and tourism in Western Sa- Wight, P. (1996). North American Eco- moa. In: Tourism vs. Environment: The tourists: Market profile and trip charact Case for Coastal Areas. P. P. Wong (ed.) ristics. Journal of Travel Research, 24(4): 2-10. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Nether- lands. pp. 33-53. Pendleton, L. (1994). Environmental quality and recreation demand in a Caribbean coral reef. Coastal Management, 22: 399- 404. Sadler, Robert M. (1990). Debt-for-Nature Swaps: Assessing the future. Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy, 6: 319-341. Stott, M. (1993). Tourism development and the need for community action in Myk- onos, Greece. In: Sustainable Tourism in Islands and Small States: Issues and Poli- cies. L. Briguglio, B. Archer, J. Jafari and G. Wall (eds). Pinter (Cassell imprint), London. pp. 281-305. Thapa, B. (1998). Debt-for-nature swaps: An overview. International Journal of Sus- tainable Development & World Ecology, 5(1998): 249-262. Thorsell, J., and Wells, S. (1990). A global overview of tourism activities in coastal and marine parks. In: Proceedings of the 1990 Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism. Miller, M.L. and Auyong, J. (eds.), National Coastal Resources Re- search and Development Institute, Newport, OR. pp. 221-224. Wagner, Rodney B. (1990). Doing more with Debt-for-Nature Swaps. Interna-
OPTIMISING THE OUTCOMES OF TOURISM IN CO-MANAGED PROTECTED HERITAGE AREAS: THE CASES OF AULAVIK NATIONAL PARK AND GWAII HAANAS NATIONAL PARK RESERVE/HAIDA HERITAGE SITE
David McVetty Parks Canada – Western Canada Service Centre (Canada)
Michele Deakin Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/Haida Heritage Site (Canada)
Abstract: Traditional tourism planning ap- to focus on managing that system to achieve a proaches tend to reflect the perspective of the shared set of desired outcomes. author or plan sponsor, but the long-term utility of these plans may be limited if they are inconsis- Carried to its next level – as in Kangaroo Island, tent with the perspectives of key partners. Such South Australia – the integrated approach uses plans fail to address the complete tourism system performance indicators to guide management and so cannot help tourism make its full contri- actions. The parks here have yet to do this, but bution to the quality of life, the economy, and the discussions have begun to incorporate visitor environment of the host area. Instead, plans outcomes into their ecological monitoring pro- need to be sensitive to the full range of potential grammes. tourism impacts, positive and negative, and to the components of the system that influences the Keywords: integration, parks and protected tourism phenomenon. In addition, the legislative areas, ecotourism, community coordination, and policy environment has a profound effect on marketing concepts the success or failure of tourism plans, yet re- ceives meagre coverage in traditional tourism planning. Introduction
This paper discusses the need for an integrated Traditional tourism planning approaches planning perspective and presents a model that tend to reflect the perspective of the author may satisfy that need. Two examples of the early or plan sponsor, but the long-term utility of stages of integrated planning are presented from Aulavik National Park on Banks Island, NWT, these plans may be limited if they are incon- and Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/Haida sistent with the perspectives of key partners. Heritage Site off the coast of British Columbia. Such plans fail to address the complete tour- They have helped a government agency and co- ism system and so cannot help tourism operative management partners work together to make its full contribution to the quality of secure tourism benefits in ways that support the life, the economy, and the environment of quality of life in host communities and the integ- the host area. Instead, plans need to be sen- rity of their natural and cultural resources. sitive to the full range of potential tourism impacts, positive and negative, and to the An integrated approach in both areas has proven components of the system that influences useful in bringing stakeholders with different the tourism phenomenon. perspectives together and enabled all to develop a clearer understanding of the tourism system and Nearly twenty years ago, Mathieson and Wall (1982) pointed out the need “to inte-
170 McVetty and Deakin
grate the analyses of social, economic and Both cases are in their initial stages: Aulavik environmental effects of tourist develop- National Park on Banks Island, NWT, and ment to derive an overall assessment of the Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/Haida desirability” of tourism development. A Heritage Site off the coast of British Colum- few years later Getz (1987) called for a bia. The methodology was adapted in each “process, based on research and evaluation, case, but both had the goal of developing a which seeks to optimise the potential contri- clearer understanding of the tourism system bution of tourism to human welfare and in the area so that stakeholders with differ- environmental quality.” He called that ent perspectives could focus on managing process integrated planning, an idea with- that system to achieve a shared set of de- out a model, but one that could respond to sired outcomes. the need for a broader perspective. The Need for an Integrated Tourism This paper discusses the need for an inte- Planning Model grated planning perspective and presents a Traditional planning perspectives devel- model that may satisfy that need. It then oped as different disciplines addressed the presents two examples of the early stages of issue (see Table 1). With the exception of integrated planning that have helped a gov- “Boosterism,” which Getz calls “irrational ernment agency and co-operative manage- and unplanned,” these traditions represent ment partners work together to secure tour- single-perspective tourism planning (1987). ism benefits in ways that support the quality of life in host communities and the integrity Unless all parties in the system share the of their natural and cultural resources. same perspective, it is difficult to determine
McVetty and Deakin 171 the priorities for tourism or to agree upon holds considerable promise for the planning how its success or failure will be measured. and management of Canada’s protected heritage areas. The Tourism Optimisation Management Model (TOMM) In Australia, dissatisfaction with existing An Integrated Planning Process tourism planning perspectives led to the for Aulavik National Park creation of an integrated approach called the Tourism Optimisation Management Model Aulavik National Park was established on (TOMM) (McArthur, 1997). TOMM Banks Island in 1992 after negotiations be- evolved from the Limits of Acceptable tween the Government of Canada, the Gov- Change model (an environmental perspec- ernment of the Northwest Territories, and tive) when parties to the tourism planning the island’s Inuvialuit residents. As part of for Kangaroo Island, South Australia, felt Canada's system of national parks, it was that their different perspectives, while valid, established to: were not being accommodated. LAC, de- “protect for all time a representative veloped by resource managers to minimise natural area of Canadian significance in visitor impacts, could not accommodate the the Western Arctic Lowlands Natural perspective of those who sought an overall Region, and to encourage public under- quality of life in the community. standing, appreciation, and enjoyment of the area so as to leave it unimpaired TOMM is a management tool to help main- for future generations while permitting tain a sustainable tourism industry that de- subsistence usage and trapping by Inu- livers optimal returns to its stakeholders, vialuit” not only prevent tourism damage, nor to blindly seek its benefits. It addresses the Banks Island’s 140 residents are principally broad set of tourism impacts based on Western Arctic Inuvialuit, whose forebears community values, tourism assets, and real- moved to the island early this century to istic market opportunities in ways that are hunt white fox. Today, they reside in Sachs consistent with the principles of integrated Harbour, about 250 km from the southern planning. park boundary (two hours by plane and two or more days by land or water – see Figure TOMM begins with realistic tourism scenar- 1). The Inuvialuit were key players in the ios, based on a shared understanding of the establishment of Aulavik National Park. components and interrelationships of the They retain their rights to traditional subsis- local tourism system. Using this as a base, tence activities within park boundaries so the community develops a vision, or set of that the park’s establishment will not inter- benefits that it seeks from tourism and visi- fere with their traditional way of life. tor use, and the dis-benefits they are willing to accept in that pursuit. The park’s establishment agreement di- rected that services and facilities would be A set of indicators is monitored to measure developed in response to market demand. progress toward the shared outcomes. Indi- During the management planning process, cators that deviate from progress toward the Parks Canada recognised that demand for desired conditions trigger a management Aulavik was dynamic. The park’s estab- response. When unforeseen issues or events lishment affected demand, as would the arise, the model revisits its monitoring sys- character of any facilities or services devel- tem and management actions. oped, the nature and level of marketing and packaging for those facilities and services, The integrated planning perspective, and its and the manner in which the entire destina- operationalisation in the TOMM model, tion is brought to market. 172 McVetty and Deakin
Figure 1. Regional Setting, Aulavik National Park
Parks Canada could not determine the po- • Community and stakeholder con- tential demand for Aulavik services and sultations. facilities with these variables undefined. • Interviews with Parks Canada staff Recognising this conundrum, Parks Canada to clarify the agency’s requirements. commissioned a Visitor Market Analysis, • A review of relevant commercial using an integrated tourism planning ap- trends (including a survey of the proach, to help managers and stakeholders travel trade). understand the influences and impacts of • A review of the legislative and pol- park-related tourism – in all its dimensions - icy environment. and to develop a system to achieve those objectives. It then proposed a shared vision (or set of desired outcomes) for tourism and visitor Summary of the Approach use that could be supported by the commu- The first phase of the analysis was a situa- nity, stakeholders, tourism industry, and tion analysis that included: Parks Canada.
• A review of available information. McVetty and Deakin 173
The final phase was to develop alternative tion that “outside” operators would take visitor use scenarios based on the area’s opportunities to develop packages and out- commercial realities and regulatory envi- fitting from locals. They also expressed con- ronment. cern about Parks Canada’s policies and the associated difficulties in getting permits. The analysis found significant park-related Without access to Parks Canada staff, they tourism potential for the Aulavik and Banks felt that Aulavik’s National Park designa- Island area, but the network of legislation, tion added little value to an area tour. agreements and administrative bodies was, in some cases, creating barriers to the very They felt there was a market for Banks Is- outcomes they were put in place to support. land/Aulavik packages that offer: access to wildlife; knowledgeable, entertaining, reli- Current Situation able guides; natural/ecological interpreta- Fewer than 100 visitors per year travel to tion; historical/cultural interpretation; low- Banks Island. There are equal numbers of medium impact activity; and feature clean, sports hunters and ecotourists, but a more comfortable couples accommodation. relevant way to segment visitors may be by those who visit the park and those who The Legislative Environment don’t. The licensing process is a significant road- block for prospective outfitters. For exam- The park currently attracts about 65 canoe- ple, the Park Establishment Agreement ists, hikers and wilderness seekers per year states that half of the park’s business quotas who fly from Inuvik and spend their time in (if and when developed) will be awarded to the park. They may stop briefly to refuel at Inuvialuit businesses. But if no Inuvialuit Sachs Harbour, but use no local outfitting or businesses apply, then the likelihood of out- guiding services and spend little or no fitted park packages is remote. Local Inuvi- money. The visitors have some strategic aluit have not been interested in outfitting to value to Parks Canada but little or none to the park because of the cost and time of get- the community. Likewise, cruise ships stop ting to there, relative to serving the sports at the park in years when conditions allow hunting market. (with 100 visitors per ship). There is also wide agreement that the Hamlet visitors, primarily sports hunters, NWT’s Travel and Tourism Act, and its ap- don’t go to the park but spend money on proval process for Outfitters and Tourist accommodation, guiding and souvenirs in Establishments, prevents operators from Sachs Harbour. They use local guides to developing new products. The length of the travel to nearby hunting grounds. Residents process (often over a year) – and the percep- are aware that sports hunters spend more in tion of partisan decisions – makes it difficult the local community than ecotourists, and for applicants both within local communi- feel that park-related tourism offers little ties and from outside. benefits. The trade is willing to hire local residents, or Travel Trade Survey to work with the community, but there is Personal interview with eleven key opera- little opportunity to proceed. The require- tors yielded the fact that the trade is inter- ment for 50% Inuvialuit licenses means that ested in Banks Island as a destination, but all non-Inuvialuit applications are rejected. has concerns about ground operations sup- The status of applications from partnerships port: the quality of guides and services; the between Inuvialuit and non-Inuvialuit part- reliability of local operators; and their ability ners is not clear. Thus, there are no out- to serve customers in a fashion appropriate fitters presently licensed to operate in the to the company. They reported a percep- park, so the local community is denied guid- 174 McVetty and Deakin ing opportunities and the other possible oversees treaty administration), in- benefits of park-based tourism. cluding response times for all co- management parties. From the market perspective, the intent of • develop the hamlet’s visitor infor- the legislation and policies is attractive: a mation centre further to tell more of visit to Banks Island and/or to Aulavik Na- the community story, display and tional Park would likely be enhanced by the sell arts and crafts, and document presence of a local guide or outfitter. And the oral history of the area. unguided visitors have the greatest potential • work toward community participa- to damage resources (perhaps unknow- tion and consultation (terms that are ingly). But the intent matters little if the net not synonymous). outcome of policies is no outfitting licenses issued for the park. Potential visitors must Overall, the shared vision for tourism was plan an independent trip into the park, with summarised as a: little interaction with Inuvialuit, or, more “sustainable tourism industry based on likely, will not come at all. This undermines renewable resources and on cultural ex- the goal of the park management plan to periences, which is compatible with tra- facilitate tourism, increase community bene- ditional values and activities, and where fits, and to increase public use of the park. the community is enabled to participate optimally.” Desired Outcomes for Park-related Tourism Scenarios for Optimising Tourism The set of desired outcomes shared by Outcomes community residents, regional stakeholders, The study concluded by forecasting demand and Parks Canada was remarkably similar. for park experiences by visit type, using Generally, they favored tourism growth that three scenarios: would generate employment and income, and, to a lesser degree, cultural sharing and 1. No substantial change – the status quo. local promotion. 2. Enable outside operators – which would see new outfitters bring visitors There was a common desire to attract cul- to the area with clear guidelines for ap- turally and ecologically sensitive, non- provals, local employment, and partner- consumptive ecotourists and researchers. ships with Inuvialuit partners. There was a shared concern over irresponsi- 3. Partnership to optimise tourism out- ble operators and visitors who do not re- comes – where outside operators are li- spect the land, local history or culture, or censed as above, but under the terms of those who are critical of the local way of life. a pragmatic partnership and clear strat- All stakeholders contributed suggestions egy, endorsed by Parks Canada, the toward enhancing tourism on the island and community councils and private sector. increasing benefits from park-related tour- ism. Some of the key suggestions were to: Each scenario forecasted a modest growth of • develop partnerships with outside park-related tourism. The first scenario operators to facilitate local employ- predicts slow growth, and only for private ment, develop opportunities to in- charter parties using the river. The second crease the duration of plane stop- predicts growth from other market seg- overs, training, and other business ments with outside outfitters marketing the opportunities. opportunities. The third predicts a slightly • re-examine park outfitting policies, higher increase to park tourism. develop a memorandum of under- standing on outfitting with the Inu- In each case, growth would to take a few vialuit Regional Corporation (that years to develop, and then to plateau, due to the small potential market and the price. McVetty and Deakin 175
Results could be achieved with a careful researched, realistic, and shared set of de- review of policies and a programme to sired outcomes. monitor the outcomes. Park managers have started planning the Conclusion next phase in the integrated planning proc- A main obstacle preventing Banks Island ess – the development of an integrated suite from realising its optimal tourism outcomes of indicators for its monitoring and man- is that key stakeholders failed to recognise agement programme that bring together the that the separate initiatives to promote expertise of several disciplines. growth and mitigate damage had produced minimal visitor use with few negative im- Further effort and commitment from all par- pacts but even fewer benefits. ties will determine whether mutual benefits can be realised from park tourism. Without The early stages of integrated planning have this integration into existing plans and poli- helped Parks Canada and its stakeholders to cies, the efficacy of a single partner’s efforts address this quandary. It has identified the will be limited. situation and proposed realistic scenarios to change the area’s tourism system in ways that support the shared objectives of the The Gwaii Haanas Application: A park and its stakeholders. Testimonial
In this case, an effective strategy for tourism Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/Haida and visitor use must be based on a sound Heritage Site is a rugged and remote wil- and shared understanding of: derness area located on the Queen Charlotte • a realistic vision for the outcomes of Islands/Haida Gwaii off the northern coast tourism. of British Columbia. It is 640 km from Van- • the present state of tourism in the couver and 130 km from the mainland (see area, including its impacts and in- Figure 2). There are no roads to or in the fluences. protected area, and few services or facilities. • the practical steps needed to inte- Access is by boat or chartered aircraft only. grate tourism plans and policies – and the expertise of a number of Gwaii Haanas is cooperatively managed by fields – in ways that support the es- Parks Canada and the Council of the Haida tablished vision. Nation. As was indicated earlier, co- man- agement can add to the complexities of In Aulavik National Park, as across its sys- managing a protected area. In Gwaii Haanas tem, Parks Canada wishes to support its co-management is described as: mandate (to protect the park’s resources and Setting aside the question of land present their significance to the public) in ownership in order to pursue the ways that contribute to the economic, envi- common goals of protecting the ronmental, and social well being of the area. natural and cultural feature for fu- The visitor facilities and services offered (or ture generations. sanctioned) by Aulavik National Park will • Maintaining the continuity of Haida have a profound impact on the effects of culture. Banks Island tourism. While early in the • Decision-making by a consensus process, integrated tourism planning shows board. This board consists of repre- potential to bring Parks Canada and its local sentatives from both Parks Canada stakeholders together to manage their activi- and the Council of the Haida Na- ties in ways that will support a well- tion. Consensus must be reached on all aspects of planning, management and operations. 176 McVetty and Deakin
Figure 2. Regional Setting, Gwaii Haanas National Park McVetty and Deakin 177
The National Park Reserve/Haida Heritage proach of evaluating one priority item per Site offers a marine-based experience, with a survey, this integrated approach has the complementary land-based experience. It is potential to move us years ahead with one much more than the "hotspots" that have survey report. been created by media exposure. These hot- spots include: In this case the cooperative management • SGaang Gwaii – formerly known as team preferred to conduct more research Ninstints – the World Heritage Site before embarking on a consultation pro- • Windy Bay, the scene of the stand- gramme. The research included: off between loggers and the Haida • A review of existing information and their supporters, which led to about resident attitudes and visitor the creation of Gwaii Haanas. It is surveys. also the location of a large spruce, or • A survey of summer visitors to the “mother tree”. Queen Charlotte Islands/Haida • Hotspring Island – natural hot Gwaii. springs. • A series of follow-up focus groups • Burnaby Narrows – incredible inter- with respondents from Vancouver tidal life. and Calgary (two prime geographic • Tanu and Skedans – both Haida vil- markets for the area). lage sites, each with their own ap- • A review of the regional and global peal. context, looking especially at abo- riginal and cultural tourism. Gwaii Haanas is a cultural landscape. The experience of Gwaii Haanas is of a "whole", Outcomes a blend of nature and culture at many levels. For an Islands community such as that on It is a place where Haida culture is not in- Haida Gwaii the integrated approach was terpreted but rather witnessed and felt. It is useful to gather and present much needed a place where one is very aware that the information in a manner that addressed Haida people have been there for more than many of the local issues. Ten years ago a 10,000 years and will be there for an addi- tourism planning effort was unsuccessful tional 10,000 as a living and dynamic cul- due to many reasons. Some of these were ture. division among communities, a strong re- source extraction industry paying very high The Gwaii Haanas Approach wages, and little overall interest in the po- At Gwaii Haanas, we have been working for tentials and opportunities of a sustainable several years with the tourism industry, try- tourism industry. Also there was a strong, ing to develop new approaches to tourism positive drive to pull the future of the Is- marketing and promotion in order to protect lands together as Islanders and not have the experience of Gwaii Haanas, protect the direction set by off-islanders. Islands lifestyle, and yet have a sustainable tourism industry. The integrated approach collected informa- tion in a manner that addressed many of It was this work that led us to work with these issues and others. David McVetty to modify the integrated tourism planning approach to conduct our The objectivity of the methodology was latest exit survey. This survey has resulted valuable. Though funded by Gwaii Haanas in information that will be useful to Gwaii and its management board, the project man- Haanas, but also to local people wanting to agers and consultant were very aware that understand more about their tourism indus- this market analysis could not be perceived try. Rather than the more traditional ap- as propaganda. The different sources of 178 McVetty and Deakin information are so varied that when it is put shows that it is a market with potential, and together in a broad context it is impossible little need for Islanders to change what we to predict the outcomes. Much of the report have. The report also indicates who is does look at Gwaii Haanas, but the pro- spending more and where, and indicates tected area is set within its Island commu- some ways to increase the economic benefits nity context and the regional and global of people currently coming. tourism context. The Islands experience is reviewed from the visitors’ point of view. Gwaii Haanas Challenges Addressed The result is a clear message that we all have As a world-renowned protected area, in- work to do, and we all have to work to- separable from a culture known and studied gether. around the globe, we have to manage our demand in order to protect the ecological The integrated approach provides solutions. integrity of the area, but also the very ex- With the loss of the logging and fishing in- perience the visitor is coming for. As area dustry, the economy of the Islands is dete- managers we can develop and put in place riorating. We need solutions to build on many visitor management systems such as what we have now, with little cost of infra- reservation and registration systems, zon- structure, and yet keep what’s authentic and ing, etc. unique. Some Islanders still have a stereo- typical view of ecotourists, and some can't One area however that is a challenge for all see the relationship of national and provin- protected areas, and especially for one such cial studies to the islands. This market as Gwaii Haanas, is the impacts on demand analysis was clearly about the Islands. It created by the marketing or promotion of clearly lays out potential markets and poten- the area by others. These promoters could tial product development, relates it all to our be any kind of media, or the usual players in current reality, and views of those currently the tourism industry – DMOs, provincial in the industry. It is clear in the report – we tourism agencies, the Canadian Tourism all have work to do and we all have to work Commission, travel articles in magazines together, and its not as simple as promoting and newspapers, etc. ourselves and hoping the rest will take care of itself. With limited budgets and staff time, we were very interested in trying to quantify The approach is integrated enough how- impacts of images used by others on creat- ever, that the message becomes more de- ing demands for Gwaii Haanas. We wanted tailed. We are provided with the “so what”. to know what images created a demand in We are provided with reasons we need to our visitors, if they were creating unrealistic work together on what areas, and some demands, perhaps attracting the wrong goals and objectives the Islands community markets, etc. We wanted to understand the may wish to pursue. dynamics of images and demand so that we could provide the media and tourism indus- The report identifies for the Islands commu- try better information to help shape their nities shared values, shared concerns, op- activities to something more in keeping with portunities and gaps in service. It identifies the management goals of the archipelago. patterns of visitor spending of both time and dollars. In the focus group portion of the study, we confirmed staff hunches that demand for We now have four mini-business plans to Gwaii Haanas is often created by non- discuss the implementation of. One of these, traditional sources of information – sources for example, describes how to market to a like coffee table books, research articles, mu- niche based on the current lifestyles of Is- seum exhibits, documentaries and news landers. Another completely changes the broadcasts. Tourism information goes to- view of the sea kayaking market and clearly McVetty and Deakin 179 wards trip planning, rather than creating accessible in reality. They feel they have demand. seen nothing of the Islands if they have not seen this image. These images essentially We have also found over the years that the drive the Islands tourism industry. industry prefers to focus on “hotspots”. This practice of focusing on a few specific sites is And what will we do when they are gone? contrary to the management goals and the The poles are returning to the earth and in visitor experience of Gwaii Haanas. Gwaii approximately 10 years the experience will Haanas is meant to be experienced as a ran- change. We will be faced with the challenge dom wilderness experience - no route, no of altering the world's idea of SGaang agenda, other than what nature, weather, Gwaii. We will literally have to create a new and tides will allow. image of the place and why it is significant. We have started working closely with the Focusing on the hotspots creates a demand media and our tourism partners to change and set of expectations that are quite rigid, this focus - to create the shift away from the expectations that can change the visitor ex- hotspots and especially away from the perience. Even some of the licensed guiding World Heritage Site. We are trying to create and transport companies are also impacted. an awareness of the impacts of image selec- They are tied to the hotspots even though tion, and encourage alternate image use, they don't want to be. These companies tell more in keeping with the realities of the ex- us that they could provide a higher quality perience, and also those images of interest to of the type of experience that people are the markets we are pursuing. coming for elsewhere in Gwaii Haanas. The clients however are so tied to the images The information from this survey has al- they've seen they must get to the hotspots, ready had impacts in how we deal with even though the knowledgeable guide offers provincial and regional media relations them better options. people, and the types of media that we, and they, are willing to support. This survey will So, IMAGE creates PERCEPTION, which continue to be a useful tool in creating this affects DEMAND. awareness in others about the impacts of the images they choose. National Parks are often created because they contain some of the world’s best exam- And what are the images attractive to the ples of natural and cultural features. Gwaii markets we wish to pursue? The focus Haanas is no exception, containing incredi- groups indicated that perhaps the visitor to ble intertidal areas, rainforest, a variety of Gwaii Haanas doesn't respond to the typical species of marine mammals, plants and promotional images (i.e., those showing birds unique to the archipelago, and of people doing things). Perhaps the ecotour- course, the Haida past, present and future. ists who don't want to see others in their experience, and also don't want to see them These unique sights create demands by their in promotional material. This is an area images alone. At Gwaii Haanas we've found worth pursuing with further research to that working with the global trademark of quantify properly, and perhaps change how World Heritage Site compounds these is- we promote to certain niches within the sues. The images of SGaang Gwaii – those ecotourism market. powerful shots of mortuary poles lining the beach – evoke high expectations in visitors. For a protected area such as Gwaii Haanas, Visitors literally arrive to the Islands expect- the quantity of visitor is not as important to ing to see totem poles everywhere. The inte- us as the type or quality of visitor. This grated study quantified this for us. Many makes it awkward when communicating people are disappointed to find that these with the local/regional tourism industry. images so accessible in the media are so in- Often the provincial people are supportive 180 McVetty and Deakin of this approach, but the local and regional Conclusion industry people are a very hard sell on this. In an era of limited budgets and staff to ac- The integrated approach has given us in- complish management goals, partnership formation to let us share a vision of the visi- has become the word of the day. In such a tors who are coming now and who could work environment, socio-economic studies come - a shared place to start from. Here must also change to provide results that re- again, it is important that all players were flect the integrated approaches now occur- examined and recommendations made ring regularly throughout the tourism in- about all of our performances including dustry. those of Gwaii Haanas management, in or- der to maintain this shared place concept. New studies need to highlight new issues and put them into an integrated framework As a tourism manager, I have found it chal- for the managers to see and understand lenging to work with various partners at- quickly. Park mangers are now faced with tending travel trade shows. The challenge balancing all their longstanding manage- has been how to describe our market readi- ment objectives but also understanding and ness and in what category we should be managing for economic viability of commu- placed or promoted. The product or experi- nities and businesses. Tourism marketing ence in Gwaii Haanas is not typical aborigi- professionals are now faced with under- nal tourism, or natural, or cultural tourism standing the same issues that park managers products: we are an amalgamation of these face daily - balancing use with maintaining and more. Cultural Landscape was a term the integrity of natural and cultural values, coined in planning years ago to try and cap- to ensure a sustainable tourism industry; ture this concept. balancing demand with supply and the needs or limits of both. The idea of the cultural landscape as a mar- keting concept is a key place for us to start The integrated approach is a good place to to create appropriate demand for a new start to understand our visitors and the dy- product: to create a new category and cele- namic of their visit. We can look at the de- brate it and sell it to the world. Cultural mand side, the supply side, and the poten- landscape has been confirmed in this study tials for the future in an integrated and pro- as a possible brand for Gwaii Haanas. A active approach. Integration lets us put the brand that would help us meet the needs of big picture all together in a relatively many players due to its uniqueness - the painless and affordable manner. Management Board, the local community, the natural and cultural features of the ar- chipelago, the Council of the Haida Nation, Conclusion the tourism partners whose mandate re- quires they show that they are promoting The integrated approach aims to develop the region. effective, sustainable tourism plans that re-
flect the shared perspectives of the stake- In keeping with our partnership in all as- holders in the tourism system, the full range pects of managing Gwaii Haanas, we will be of potential tourism impacts, and the reali- working first with the Management Board ties of the marketplace. It has proven useful to define what this means on Haida Gwaii, in bringing these views together in ways and especially in Gwaii Haanas. We will that can help tourism to make its full contri- also be working with Parks Canada to de- bution to the quality of life, the economy, velop the concept to be used at international and the environment of the host area. travel trade shows and in other promotional efforts as a marketing idea. This paper discussed the early stages of in-
tegrated planning in two cooperatively
McVetty and Deakin 181 managed heritage areas. Each adapted the ism, University of Otago, December 3-6, approach to their own situation, but both 1996, Dunedin, New Zealand. were able to develop a clearer under- McVetty, D. (1997). Segmenting Heritage standing of the tourism system and its out- Tourism Party-Visits on Dunedin’s Otago comes. Peninsula: A Strategic Approach. Thesis submitted for degree of Master of Tour- Carried to its next level – as in Kangaroo ism at the University of Otago, Dune- Island, South Australia – the integrated ap- din, New Zealand. proach uses performance indicators to guide Office of National Tourism, Australia (1998). management actions. Few other models TOMM: A new super model. From the include a feedback mechanism to monitor Department of Industry, Science and plan effectiveness or can be modified to suit Tourism website, URL: a changing environment. The parks here
Finally, the legislative and policy environ- ment has a profound effect on the success or failure of tourism plans, yet receives meagre coverage in traditional tourism planning models. If for no other reason, an inte- grated planning model may warrant consid- eration in any planning situation.
References
Getz, D. (1987). Tourism planning and re- search: Traditions, models, and futures. In: Proceedings of the Australian Travel Re- search Workshop, hosted by the Western Australia Tourism Commission, No- vember 5-6, 1987, Bunbury, Western Australia, Australia. Mathieson, A., and Wall, G. (1982). Tourism: Economic, Physical, and Social Impacts. Longman Group Limited, UK. McArthur, S. (1996). Beyond the limits of acceptable change – developing a model to monitor and manage tourism in re- mote areas. In: Proceedings of Towards a More Sustainable Tourism: Tourism Down Under 2, hosted by the Centre for Tour-
ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY OF TROPICAL REEF SYSTEMS: ESTABLISHING SUSTAINABLE TOURISM IN THE EXUMA CAYS, BAHAMAS
Aimee M. Lowe The Nature Conservancy (U.S.A.)
Kathleen Sullivan Sealey The Nature Conservancy (U.S.A.)
Abstract: The Bahamas is a physically unique In order to gain accurate data on visitation pat- country quite unlike any other in the Caribbean; terns in the Exuma Cays and formulate recom- the archipelago is made up of hundreds of islands mendations for regional tourism monitoring and stretching over 1000 kilometers, with over 30 management, a visitor survey was conducted in inhabited islands. The country is subdivided into Nassau, New Providence and throughout the island groups, but the most populated island and Exuma island chain. Two methods were utilized location of the capital, Nassau, is in New Provi- to conduct the survey: 1) in-person interviews dence. The Bahamas represents one of the most and 2) mail-out questionnaires. A total of 124 popular tourist destination in the wider Carib- in-person and 560 mail-out questionnaires were bean and entertains two tourism markets: 1) completed over a one year period. cruise ship and resort (overnight) tourism fo- cused on the cities of Nassau and Freeport, and The survey questionnaire was divided into three 2) out-island tourism that focuses on yachting, sections in order to 1) characterize who visits the beach-going or fishing on the more remote is- Exumas, 2) understand why they come, and 3) lands. The Exuma Cays are located southeast of define what they are seeking. The data collected Nassau in the central Bahamas and are adver- was then used to determine the impacts of tour- tised as the “Sailing Capital of The Bahamas”. ism on the Park. For example, it was found that Cruising yachts can pass through the Exumas over half of Exuma tourists are first time visi- en route to the wider Caribbean. This archipel- tors. Park management is faced with the task of ago of low-lying islands is one of the most pris- educating these visitors as to the fishing restric- tine and beautiful areas in the Bahamian island tions and other regulations such as anchoring chain. The region offers numerous protected har- and garbage disposal. This requires time and bors and anchorages as well as one of the first staff support from a marine park that lacks spe- marine fisheries reserves, the Exuma Cays Land cific plans and adequate financial backing. It is and Sea Park. The very success of the Park as a now important for the Park to create a clear “no-take” zone has attracted an increasing num- management plan, a strategy for financing park ber of visiting yachtsmen to the Exumas. This activities in the future and new regulations to yearly increase in visitor numbers has stimu- preserve the natural resources upon which both lated local businesses to provide services and fishing stocks and visitation are dependent. build infrastructure according to expediency rather than a concern for long-term environ- Keywords: parks and protected areas, recrea- mental impacts. Now that symptoms of ecologi- tion, ecotourism, conservation, environ-mental cal degradation and tourism impacts are becom- impacts, management planning ing visible within the developed areas of The Bahamas, there is a tremendous need to direct Exuma tourism to that which will sustain rather Introduction than destroy the environment, the very product marketed and sought. The prominence of tourism as the world’s
largest industry constitutes both a challenge and an opportunity, as it can either destroy 184 Lowe and Sullivan Sealey precious ecosystems and natural resources geology of tropical island systems also or contribute to their conservation and eco- poses a problem for proper solid waste nomic growth. Tourism facilities and ser- management and fresh water supplies. The vices consume large quantities of land, wa- Bahamian archipelago, for instance, is made ter and energy as well as produce significant up of a relatively young carbonate bank sys- volumes of waste and effluent. The envi- tem dominated by lithogenic and biogenic ronmental impacts of tourism, especially production of calcium carbonate sediments. mass tourism, are no longer local, but also Because limestone dissolves in rainwater directly contribute to global marine pollu- and leaves very little residue, the soils tion, climate change, ozone depletion, and throughout The Bahamas are extremely thin loss of biodiversity. and patchy (Sealey, 1990). The inability of the thin soil to hold water and the highly In tropical island systems such as the Carib- porous nature of the underlying limestone bean, tourism is essentially a coastal indus- bedrock result in a lack of surface fresh wa- try. The majority of tourism facilities are ter and a limited amount of ground water. sited within 800 meters of the high-water mark, in a zone that can be both unstable and vulnerable to geological and oceano- Sustainable Tourism: The graphic phenomena. As a result, very little Bahamas’ Position disturbance is required to destabilize such environments and lead to significant eco- The Bahamas is ahead of many countries in logical degradation both above and below the wider Caribbean in its planning for sus- the water. Unmanaged tourism growth can tainable development. The Ministry of Tour- destroy pristine terrestrial and marine re- ism has taken a leadership role and estab- sources, contaminate water supplies, place lished a Sustainable Tourism/ Eco-tourism stress on waste treatment and disposal sys- unit which has been given the mandate to tems, and render areas unprotected from drive the sustainable tourism effort for the storms and ocean surges, thereby disrupting industry. The Ministry of Tourism has also the unique features of islands that appeal to commissioned a comprehensive Sustainable tourists. Tourism Policy and Guidelines for the Out Islands of The Bahamas, the first of its kind At the same time the threats and poor status in the region. of tropical marine resources are being docu- mented, there is a call for integrated coastal These policies have been initiated out of a zone management from island nations and recognition that the natural resources of The environmental organizations. Integrated Bahamas are facing severe threats. Because coastal zone management aims to develop of the archipelagic nature of the islands, de- plans for sustainable use of coastal velopment and the environment are both resources. The concepts of “sustainable de- inter-related and interdependent; coastlines velopment” and “sustainable resource use” are fragile, and enforcement is extremely embrace the notion that one can develop a difficult. Over the past two decades, the way to use resources in ways that do not tourism market of The Bahamas has under- restrict the options of future generations to gone a dramatic period of expansion and use the same resources. change. Traditionally a destination that at- tracted a selected visitor base seeking seren- Developing sustainable tourism in the trop- ity, the country was ill-prepared for the ics is especially difficult due to the fragile changing markets of the 1980’s. This boom nature of island systems. Tourist numbers was spurred by a tremendous expansion in have increased faster than the infrastructure mass tourism vehicles, especially the cruise and technology have been put in place to industry and the all-inclusive resort phe- treat pollutants, maintain energy supplies nomenon. and provide adequate transportation. The Lowe and Sullivan Sealey 185
Today, The Bahamas leads the Caribbean hamian government first planted the seeds region in both number of tourists and tour- of an ambitious program of promoting is- ism revenues. In 1995, The Bahamas re- land visitation, it did not truly flourish until ceived 3,238,255 visitors, and visitor expen- the end of World War II. Before the 1900’s, diture accounted for a total of USD$1.346 less than 500 tourists visited Nassau each billion (Bahamas Ministry of Tourism, 1995). winter. In 1914, the Bahamian government Visitor nights totaled 9,031,455. Tourism created a Development Board to increase provides approximately 50% of The Baha- tourism to the islands, but the outbreak of mas GDP and employs directly or indirectly World War I and the prohibition era that 40% of the work force (50,000 persons). Be- followed greatly slowed the growth of the cause of the island geography of the coun- Bahamian tourism industry. try, The Bahamas can protect and promote two tourism markets: the mass tourism Following the Second World War, Baha- market for resorts and cruise ships such as mian tourism began to increase tremen- has been developed in Nassau, and the eco- dously. This was primarily due to the im- tourism market in the Out Islands (Sullivan provement in air service, as a growing Sealey, 1999). The “two market” phenomena number of daily flights into Nassau brought in The Bahamas requires two types of infra- waves of visitors from both Florida and structure planning and development. Pro- Cuba. The Bahamas’ old world charm, tecting the out-island experience and high cheap goods, warm waters and comfortable environmental quality of the more remote climate were no less important when it came island groups has been a priority for the to attracting tourists to the islands. By the Ministry of Tourism as well as local com- mid-1960’s, Nassau was receiving 7,500 visi- munities. tors a day and the Out Islands up to 4,000 (Pavlidis, 1997). The motivation for this new Coastal degradation in a relatively small tourism movement came from the promo- area, such as New Providence, can provide tional advertising undertaken by the Devel- “lessons learned” for the rest of the country, opment Board, which was to become The and particularly the Exumas Cays. To pro- Bahamas Ministry of Tourism in January of vide better planning and management for 1964. the fragile tourism markets of the Out Is- lands, the following questions were ad- As The Bahamas became known as a year- dressed via a socio-economic survey of visi- round tourist destination, money poured tors to the Central Bahamas: into the country only to be invested as fast • What is the nature of tourism in the as it arrived. Both wealthy Bahamians and Exumas? foreigners alike purchased property • How is tourism influenced by the throughout the Out Islands to build perma- presence of a marine protected area nent residences or vacation retreats. Even such as the Exuma Cays Land and the Exumas began to receive a trickle of Sea Park? tourists, as a few scant yachts arrived in the • What issues need to be considered cays. Then on July 10, 1973, The Bahamas for sustainable tourism develop- became independent after 300 years as a ment? British colony. Independence furthered The Bahamas growing connection to the outside world, and tourism continued to rapidly The History of Bahamian Tourism expand in Nassau as well as in the Out Is- lands.
Although the birth of tourism to The Baha- mas occurred as early as 1851 when the Ba- 186 Lowe and Sullivan Sealey
Today, visitation to the Out Islands makes privately owned islands. Visitation to the up approximately 16 percent of all Baha- Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park has in- mian tourism (Bahamas Ministry of Tour- creased tremendously since the early 1960’s, ism, 1997). Although the Exumas are cur- when less than 25 yachts passed through the rently one of the least visited Out Islands in Park in a single winter season. By the late The Bahamas (4.5% of Out Island stop- 1970’s, the number of boats within the Park overs), this may soon change (Bahamas had increased to 50 a day. The local Baha- Ministry of Tourism, 1995). The Exumas’ mians also began using the Park more, par- natural beauty and proximity to Nassau ticularly during the summer months. Arti- makes these islands an increasingly attrac- cles in yachting magazines and cruising tive tourist destination, especially for cruis- guides helped to increase the awareness of ing U.S. yachtsmen. With the Cays’ crystal the Park, and by 1994, an estimated three clear waters, isolated anchorages, land- thousand foreign yachts cruised to the Park locked harbors, and 365 cays to navigate annually. Records show that the number of and explore, it is no surprise that the Exu- boats and the length of stay continue to in- mas have recently become known by crease each year (Figure 1). yachtsmen as the “Sailing Capital of The Bahamas”. 12000 10000
The Exuma Cays Land and Sea 8000
Park 6000
4000 The most pristine and possibly the most 2000 beautiful area in the Exumas is located Nights Boat Estimated 0 within the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 (ECLSP). The Park, a designated fisheries Years reserve, is located in the northern extent of the Exuma island chain, 80 km south-east of Figure 1. Yearly anchorage in the Exuma Nassau. Although the Park covers a 56,410 Cays Land and Sea Park (estimated totals ha area, only 1,460 ha (2.5%) is land (Sluka based on available Park records) et al., 1996). When the Government of The
Bahamas established the Park in 1958, the Visitors provide a significant source of in- by-laws allowed for a daily catch quota per come to the Park through user fees and boat. In the 1970’s, commercial fishing by donations. This revenue is important as the Bahamians began to escalate within the Park strives to become financially self- Exuma region and the Park. Many of these sufficient and continue to fund enforcement, fishermen utilized chlorine bleach when education, and conservation program de- spearfishing for spiny lobster, Panulirus ar- velopment. Al though Park management gus (Campbell, 1977). By the 1980’s, fishing would like tourism to generate revenue and pressure within the ECLSP had increased so support, the Park does not want to sacrifice dramatically that in 1986, The Bahamas Na- its protection of critical habitats and preser- tional Trust enacted new by-laws making vation of replenishment areas for commer- the entire area a “no-take zone”. The new cially important species (Lowe et al., in re- designation made the Exuma Cays Land view). The long-term sustainability of the and Sea Park one of the first and largest ma- Park and of its natural resources will de- rine fisheries reserves in the wider Carib- pend not only on the Park management but bean. The very success of the Park as a “no- also on a regional plan for sustainable tour- take” zone has attracted an increased num- ism in the Exumas. ber of visiting yachtsmen to the Exumas, coupled with heightened development of Lowe and Sullivan Sealey 187
Nassau Sampson/ Sta- Warderick George Mail-out Total niel Cay Wells Town Survey Total Days 6 8 6 3 - 23 Weekdays 4 3 5 3 - 15 Weekend days 2 1 1 0 - 4 Holidays 0 4 0 0 - 4 Total # 34 21 36 33 560 684 Questionnaires Table 1. Summary of tourism survey sampling effort
Materials and Methods Two methods were utilized to conduct the The survey methods were developed as a visitor survey: 1) in-person interviews, and pilot project to outline basic information 2) mail-out questionnaires. The in-person that can be used to develop management interviews were conducted over a one-year strategies for sustainable tourism within the period Exuma Cays region. The survey can be used (July 1997 to May 1998) using the formal in the future to make temporal comparisons questionnaire in Nassau, New Providence as to the impact of management actions or and three locations within the Exuma Island lack thereof. Chain (Table 1). Surveys were conducted on weekdays, weekends and holidays through- In order to match tourism marketing to the out the year. For implementation of the product and at the same time protect the mail-out surveys, mailing lists were ob- Exuma Cays experience, specific informa- tained from the ECLSP Support Fleet as well tion was needed from the consumers (the as from several charter boats that visit the visitors). A formal questionnaire was de- Exuma Cays. One questionnaire was sent to signed that targeted visitors to the Exuma every individual/ household on the lists, Cays and to the Park. The questionnaire totaling 1,852 questionnaires. consisted of 33 questions that were divided into four sections; each section was organ- In addition to the tourism survey, a sum- ized to gather a specific type of information: mary of the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park • The first section characterized the Visitors’ Log was compiled that included type of tourist who visits the Exuma visitors’ date of entry to the Park, country of Cays. origin, number of persons on board, length • The second section focused on the of stay, number of prior visits, and activities reasons why tourists choose to visit of interest. Log entries were taken from the Exumas. January 1, 1996 to February 2, 1998. • The third section contained ques- tions about their visit to the Park. Results The final section requested the visitors to provide any additional comments and rec- Summary of Survey Effort ommendations they might have for improv- • Total number of in-person inter- ing the Park and the Exuma Cays experi- views completed was 124. ence. • Total number of mail-out question- naires returned was 560. The questions developed were primarily • There was a 30% rate of return for closed-ended with unordered responses mail-out questionnaires. except for four open-ended questions that • Total number of questionnaires required the respondent to provide lists or completed was 684. additional comments. 188 Lowe and Sullivan Sealay
ported annual household income of the visi- % of tors surveyed was primarily greater than Characteristics Sample $80,000 (43.3%) or between $40,000 and $80,000 (32.2%). In order for the Park to re- SEX tain support and build stakeholder value, Male 54.7 management must consider the expectations Female 26.3 of this group of visitors. Recommendations Couple 7.8 for tourism management within the Park No Response 11.2 can be developed based on this visitor pro- file. AGE under 20 0.5
20-29 2.0 Visitor Status Unknown 30-39 6.8 7% 40-49 19.3
50-59 39.2 Repeat Visitors 33% 60 + 32.2 First Time Visitors 60% HOUSEHOLD INCOME < 20 5.4 20-40 18.9 40-80 32.4 Figure 2. Comparison of first time verses 80 + 43.3 repeat visitors to the Exuma Cays Land and Table 2. Demographic profiles of total Sea Park in 1997 visitor sample
• There are more first time visitors than • Total number of Visitor Log entries repeat visitors to the Exuma Cays Land taken was 871. and Sea Park.
The survey results established several key According the ECLSP Visitor’s Log, over issues that need to be addressed within the half of Park tourists are first time visitors Exuma Cays. Each of these issues will be (Figure 2). Park management is faced with addressed and presented in the form of spe- the task of educating these visitors as to the cific recommendations for regional tourism fishing restrictions and other regulations monitoring and management. such as anchoring and garbage disposal. This requires time and staff support from a • Exuma visitors tend to fit into a narrow marine park that lacks specific management demographic profile, indicating that plans and adequate financial backing. In the Exumas currently attracts a very addition, many repeat Exuma visitors do specific visitor type. not stop in the Park. There is also less incen- tive for repeat Exuma visitors to re-visit the It is only possible to enter the Park by boat, Park, as much of the Exumas is perceived to and there are very few charter operations in be of similar environmental quality, and no the area. Thus, it is not surprising that the fees are charged for mooring or resource use majority of visitors surveyed were yachts- outside of the protected area. This should be men with privately owned boats (96%). a critical management issue for both visitor Over 80% of these visitors were from the education and appropriate assessment of United States, primarily from the state of resource use by visitors throughout the re- Florida. Most visitors were in their fifties or gion. above (Table 2). Only 9.3% of the study population was under forty years old. Re- Lowe and Sullivan Sealay 189
500 Area 1 = the northern Exumas 450 Area 2 = Highbourne Cay to Norman’s Cay Area 3 = Norman’s Cay to the N. Park boundary
s 400 Area 4 = the northern Park 350 Area 5 = Warderick Wells 300 Area 6 = the southern Park 250 Area 7 = Chicken Cay to Pipe Creek 200 Area 8 = Sampson Cay to Harvey Cay 150 Area 9 = Bitter Guana Cay to Bock Cay Number ofNumber visitor 100 Area 10 = Leaf Cay to Soldier Cay 50 Area 11 = Great Exuma area 0 Area 12 = Elizabeth Island to the S. end of the Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Area 4 Area 5 Area 6 Area 7 Area 8 Area 9 Area Area Area Exumas 10 11 12 Area categories
Figure 3. Distribution of areas visited by yachtsmen in the Exumas (from north to south)
• Most yachtsmen do not target the tors do not want tourism infrastructure such Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park as a as hotels, bars, restaurants and water craft single tourist destination or motivation rentals in the Park. Instead, Exuma visitors for visiting the Exumas. want to experience nature through SCUBA diving, snorkeling, boating or hiking (Figure Although the Park, Staniel Cay and George 5). Town are tourist “hot spots”, most visitors do not have one particular destination. In- • The new user fees initiated in Novem- stead, the yachtsmen “cruise” the Exuma ber, 1997 and the recent development island chain while over-nighting in many within the Park is weakening stake- areas throughout the region (Figure 3). Al- holder support. though yachtsmen briefly visit many Exuma islands, the visitors surveyed spent the ma- Ninety-eight percent of the visitors sur- jority of their time in Nassau (38%) and the veyed knew about the Exuma Cays Land George Town, Exuma area (36%). The aver- and Sea Park, and most of these visitors age length of stay of the respondents was as were aware of the fishing restrictions and high as 28 nights in George Town and 23 other regulations. Thus, the Park seems to nights in Nassau. The visitors averaged 7 be highly publicized within the Exumas. nights in the Exuma Park. This again pro- Most visitors reported that they knew about vides insight to the visitors’ perception of the Park from publications such as The “wilderness” environments and their lack of Exuma Guide (40%) and from “word of appreciation for any differences in envi- mouth” by previous visitors, teachers or ronmental quality inside versus outside the friends (33%). There is an extremely high Park. level of communication among yachtsmen in the Exumas, but there is limited commu- • The Exumas islands represent a natural nication and outreach from Park manage- or “wilderness” experience for most ment itself. This has lead to conflicting per- visitors, and they do not want tourism ceptions of the mission of the Park among infrastructure or services located visitors, Exuma residents and The Bahamas within the Park. National Trust. Visitors feel that the new user fees are being used for private gain, Most visitors ranked the “natural beauty” of and residents see the Park being cleared for the area as their primary reason for visiting the development of private homes for for- the Exuma Cays region as well as the Park. eign investors. At this point, it is important Low priority is given to services or activities that a management plan is developed that as motivations for tourism (Figure 4). Visi- clearly outlines the Park’s mission as well as 190 Lowe and Sullivan Sealay goals and strategies that provide support local stakeholders and scientists to build an and rationale for the vision. understanding of the expectations and con- dition of ecological systems.
Discussion The Exumas Cays provide an excellent study site for the issues and strategies for Tourism development in tropical island sys- sustainable tourism development. There is tems produces five measurable and avoid- already a highly valued and desired prod- able threats to the environment (Pattullo, uct, a high-income tourist market, and suffi- 1996): cient ecological data on the area to assess degradation and potential recovery. Several • Water quality threats include con- key recommendations can be made from the tamination of ground water, land- survey of Exuma visitors: based sources of pollution to near-
shore marine environments and de- 1. Understand the market. pletion of fresh water resources. As in many tourism markets, the history of Many water quality threats are as- Exuma tourism is dynamic and marked sociated with water use patterns with boom and bust cycles. Once a haven (e.g., sustaining a golf course) and for pirates and drug runners, the Exumas wastewater treatment. Cays evolved into a prime destination for • Solid waste threats are particularly active charter boat operations and island difficult on a carbonate island as resorts. Poor marketing strategies, the con- solid wastes dumped in landfills ac- tinued presence of drug trafficking activi- cumulate and create a more difficult ties, and the revocation of the charter boats’ problem with time. duty free status eventually lead to the col- • Transportation threats include the lapse of what was once a prosperous indus- physical impacts on land and sea to try. Today, there are very few charter opera- create airports, roads, marinas, and tions remaining in the Exumas, and many of navigation channels as well as asso- the larger hotels have been deserted, leaving ciated problems with fuel storage. unsightly remains and no economic bene- • Energy threats include the fits. infrastructure needed to meet the
energy needs of tourism, including Yachtsmen with privately owned boats now power generation, tank farms, dominate the Exuma tourism market; this communications infrastructure and market continues to be highly volatile and power delivery. linked to global economic conditions.
Exuma tourists are concerned about the user Harvesting threats include the removal or fees and development within the Land and depletion of species such as reef fishes for Sea Park, the future of Elizabeth Harbour in sport or consumption by tourists. George Town, and the increased develop-
ment throughout the island chain. Yachts- The provision of tourism services on remote men visit the Exumas to enjoy the undevel- islands is expensive and problematic. Often, oped state of the environment, not for the practices used in a low-density setting have presence of resorts, shopping malls, or jet only a minimal impact on the environment skis. It is important that the Ministry of (the solution to pollution is dilution). Sus- Tourism, as well as foreign and domestic tainable tourism planning requires a vision businesses, understand the current tourism as to the density or level of visitation that market to both conserve the product and can be tolerated by the available infrastruc- value it appropriately. ture and the local environment. This plan- ning requires a partnership of managers, Lowe and Sullivan Sealay 191
450
400
350
300 Ranked #1 250 Ranked #2 200 Ranked #3 150
100 Number of respondents 50
0 Boating Proximity In transit Fishing Natural Low # of SCUBA Wildlife Services Activities beauty visitors Motivations
Figure 4. Tourist motivations for visiting the Exuma Cays
700
600
500
400 Yes No 300
200 Number of respondents
100
0 SCUBA tours Nature hikes Hotel services Boat tours Visitor center Education Jet ski rental Boat rental Information Bars/ Souvenir Camping areas Grocery store Fuel, water, ice center booklets Restaurants shopping supply Services/ Activities
Figure 5. Services and activities visitors would allow in the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park 192 Lowe and Sullivan Sealay
2. Promote inter-agency and region-wide 4. Implement and integrate resource man- cooperation for planning infrastructure agement planning on a region-wide ba- development and marketing on a re- sis. gional level. The Park is one protected area within a lar- The Ministry of Tourism, The Bahamas Na- ger ecological and economically linked re- tional Trust, the Exuma Cays Land and Sea gion. Within this region, the goals and ob- Park management, the local government of jectives of resource management need to be George Town, foreign and domestic tourism clearly articulated. Management pro-grams operators, and local residents maintain a within areas such as the Park or Elizabeth vested interest in the Exuma Cays tourism Harbour need to address specific ecological industry. Unfortunately, no one agency is measures of success. For instance, a strategy responsible for coordinating a common to designate anchorages or provide mooring tourism message. Visitors to the region do buoys would include specific objectives to not distinguish between jurisdictional protect corals, seagrass beds or other seabed boundaries, and the success of any one en- communities. The cost of management for tity, whether it be the Park or particular set- specific ecological goals needs to be ad- tlement, depends on regional cooperation dressed through a financial plan - how for collective visitor manage-ment. Pres- much money is required to protect the ecol- ently, the Park has initiated programs to ogy of the area and provide a unique tour- protect the seabed (e.g., installing mooring ism experience? buoys in sensitive or heavily used areas); however, programs such as these are needed in other areas of the island chain. A Final Note regional planning, management and regula- tory structure needs to be developed for the This pilot study served as an effective tool Exumas that includes the Park as one com- for gathering initial information to develop ponent for the protection of the larger eco- tourism management strategies, however, logical system. because the tourism market is dynamic, information on the current visitor structure 3. Increase stakeholder value by providing is reliable for only a specific amount of time. an outreach and education program for A procedure for monitoring visitors should both visitors and residents. be developed to keep tourism information Residents and tourists alike place a high updated. In-person questionnaires are rela- value on the Exuma Cays experience and tively inexpensive for local agencies or feel that they have a “stake”, or investment, businesses to conduct, and a simple data- in the region. These stakeholders should be base can be used to store and analyze sur- provided with information and insight into vey data. the decision-making process. It is vital to implement an outreach and education pro- In the Exumas, the Exumas Education Re- gram that emphasizes the unique environ- source Center or the Ministry of Tourism mental quality of the Exumas and the asso- should be responsible for monitoring tour- ciated costs of maintaining this coastal sys- ism trends. The agency should develop a tem. Stakeholders, particularly visitors, questionnaire that can be distributed every 2 need to be informed on how the Park, the to 3 years to survey visitors to the region. local government and the central govern- Currently, at least 200 questionnaires should ment are meeting their needs (limiting visi- be completed; however, this number should tors, addressing the threats from tourism change respective to visitor levels. Surveys development, practicing responsible re- should be conducted in areas such as Staniel source management) in order to maintain Cay, the Park and George Town. Once the support for the region and the industry. information is collected, the agency in charge should be responsible for analyzing Lowe and Sullivan Sealay 193 the data, disseminating the results, and up- Sullivan Sealey, K.M. (ed.) (1999). Water dating sustainable tourism strategies. quality and coral reefs: temporal and spatial comparisons of changes with coastal development. The Nature Con- References servancy, Marine Conservation Science Center, Miami, FL. Bahamas Ministry of Tourism. (1997). The Islands of the Bahamas Exit Study Report: Stopover Customer Evaluation Main Find- ings. Nassau, NP, Bahamas. Bahamas Ministry of Tourism. (1995). Tour- ism in the Islands of The Bahamas: 1995 in review. Nassau, NP, Bahamas. Campbell, D.G. (1997). Bahamian chlorine bleach fishing: A survey. In: Proc. 3rd Int. Coral Reef Symposium. Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park. (1995). Park Records. Lowe, A. and Sullivan Sealey, K.M. (In re- view). Tools and Methods for marine park management: a case study of the Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park, Baha- mas. Pavlidis, S.J. (1997). The Exuma Guide: A Cruising Guide to the Exuma Cays. 2nd ed. Seaworthy Publications, Port Wash- ington, WI. Pattullo, P. (1996). The Cost of Tourism in the Caribbean. Cassell, London. Sealey, N.E. (1990). The Bahamas Today: An Introduction to the Human and Economic Geography of The Bahamas. MacMillan Education Ltd., London. Sluka, R., M. Chiappone, Sullivan, K.M. and Wright, R. (1996). Habitat and life in the Exuma Cays, the Bahamas: the status of groupers and coral reefs in the northern cays. Media Publishing, Nassau, Baha- mas.
PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN CUBA
Reinaldo Estrada Estrada National Center of Protected Areas (Cuba)
Antonio Perera Puga National Center of Protected Areas (Cuba)
Abstract: The status of planning and manage- Therefore, the main works that have been ment of marine protected areas in Cuba is less accomplished can be grouped into man- developed when compared with terrestrial pro- agement (basically protection) of marine tected areas. Moreover, when we talk about segments of protected areas, mainly terres- works on marine ecosystems we are referring trial ones. This is the case of Desembarco del mainly to the case of marine segments of pro- Granma National Park, a pioneer in works tected areas that are mostly terrestrial. of this kind, where two shallow-water areas with formations of reef crests and seagrasses Among the main planning works carried out up (Thallacea testudinum) were included within to the level of management guidelines, we have the park in order to protect colonies of those relating to the Sabana-Camagüey Archi- queen conch (Strombus gigas), manatees pelago -- the largest insular group in Cuba. (Trichechus manatus manatus) and reef crests. Those works have been supported through a GEF and UNDP project. Another outstanding action Another approach to the sea environment is the beginning of the implementation of Punta has been the protection of species such as Francés Marine National Park, the first of its the flamingo and the manatee, two threat- kind in Cuba, which already has administration ened species that stand out for the size of offices, a visitor center, management guidelines their populations in certain sites. Examples for public uses and a monitoring system. of these areas are the Fauna Refuges at
Máximo River and Lanzanillo Pajonal Key. Keywords: Land planning, Parks and Pro- tected Areas, Referred In 1996, Punta Francés was proposed as a
National Park, and its implementation
started that year too through basic protec- Introduction tion and the creation of a visitor center. That was the first time an area was chosen on the Only recently has the design of marine pro- basis of classic criteria on marine coastal tected areas in Cuba been addressed thor- protected areas because this zone has high oughly and comprehensively in our country. development of coral formations and other This situation results from different reasons related ecosystems, with traditional public such as poor knowledge of marine zones, use of diving. The beginning of tourist and existence of a more rooted tradition in cruises to that area for sun-and-beach en- carrying out works on the above-sea part of joyment contributed to the establishment of the territory, either as studies or manage- the area because, in order to allow this in- ment of areas. The latter has been influenced tensification in the use of the area, a previ- by the fact that it is costly to address man- ous requisite was established: the need to agement of marine territories requiring at protect the area through its declaration as least boats and safe communications, not to such, the establishment of permanent per- say specialized personnel. 196 Estrada and Puga sonnel, monitoring and mounting of infra- area, in addition to traditional fishery val- structure for environmental interpretation. ues, a wide plan for tourism development (mainly sun and sand tourism) is envisaged. This plan is intended to assimilate natural Planning of Marine Coastal territories (keys) with rich biodiversity and Subsystems within the National naturalness that must be preserved. In order to do so, Cuba, with the collaboration of the System of Protected Areas Global Environmental Fund (GEF) and the
United Nations Development Program Two complementary levels are carried out (UNDP), is implementing a project on sus- nowadays. The former level is referred to as tainable development and conservation. The the national level, where an analysis is made first phase of this project included aspects about coverage and representativeness of dealing with planning and design of pro- marine ecosystems and main values and tected areas as one of the most important potentialities of the sea shelf regarded both measures to be undertaken. The first phase from the fishing viewpoint and from the has provided the main experiences and specialized public use (mainly diving) guidelines that drive the current actions on standpoint. The latter level is supported by planning of protected areas in Cuba. They specialized tour operators (diving, life are also the foundation of the second phase aboard) interested in protecting their sites of of this project. operation, which in many cases coincide with the proposed protected areas. Such approaches are regarded a positive step to- wards the conservation of these territories, Experiences on Planning and given the “softness” of these modalities of Management in the Sabana- public use and lack of resources to protect Camagüey Archipelago and implement them effectively. The first definition in the strategic approach Concerning fisheries, the steering ministry for that region is conceiving the Sabana- for this activity intends to set a program of Camagüey area (keys and sea shelf) and the protection of zones through Fishery Re- swampy areas in the main island as a special serves, a conception very similar to pro- unit ranking first in the Cuban National Sys- tected area categories such as Fauna Ref- tem of Protected Areas, the Sabana- uges. Camagüey Special Region for Sustainable Development. This unit represents a new In order to accomplish the process aimed at Multiple-Use Protected Area that would be refining this subsystem and its implementa- added to the 5 existing ones set up by the tion, a compatibility process (valid for both Decree-Law 197/95. The remaining Sabana- sea and land) has been designed through the Camagüey Ecosystem is conceived as the Decree-Law on Protected Areas that has al- buffer zone of this Special Region for Sus- ready been approved, is under implementa- tainable Development due to the high de- tion by the national bodies and is in the gree of functional connection between the process of being officially issued by the SRSD and the other units (main island and Council of Ministers. deep waters) as well as the difference both in natural and socioeconomic characteristics A second level bearing links with the former (very high degree of anthropicality, pre- one is that carried out in a very important dominance of agrarian and livestock activ- region for our country both from the con- ity, etc.) and in knowledge (deep waters are servation and the economic standpoints, the practically unknown) existing among these Sabana-Camagüey Archipelago, our largest units, which implies different approaches to system of keys and our second relevant eco- conservation, administration and manage- nomic zone in the Cuban sea shelf. In this Estrada and Puga 197 ment of the region both as a whole and cluding partial results) obtained from this within its constituent parts. project that sets up ecologically sensitive areas were taken into account. On the Corresponding to Category VI of the Inter- grounds of the definition stating that the national Union for the Conservation of Na- whole region of the SCA and the swamps ture (IUCN), this Multiple-Use Protected build up an ecologically sensitive area, they Area or Special Region for Sustainable De- are proposed as a singlewide unit (SRSD). velopment (SRSD) has been proposed as the The criterion of ecological sensitivity was framework of a protected area system with also used to ratify, create and/or re-delimit categories including National Parks, Eco- units of protected areas of stricter categories logical Reserves, Outstanding Natural Ele- (higher ecological sensitivities) and to zone ments, Managed Flora Reserves, Fauna Ref- the remaining territory of the SRSD up to uges, Protected Natural Landscapes and the level of zones of intensive infrastructure Protected Areas of Managed Resources, all development (minor ecological sensitivities), of them totaling 29 protected areas included on the basis of the magnitude and degree of in the SRSD. clustering of the areas.
The management approach implied in the Besides the previous elements that were aforementioned conception prioritizes the used as a starting point, others were also conservation goals in close connection with taken into account to redefine the system: and as factors to increase and diversify both criteria on management, administration and the tourist activity and fundamental and system design, and limits of protected areas applied scientific-technical research carried (representativeness, repeatability, unity, out by natural sciences within the frame- relative feasible minimal sizes, border ef- work of the concepts on sustainable and di- fects, flyways, active management, land-sea versified economic development. In other links, etc.) that could provide an answer to words, this is the way protection highly in- conservation elements. tegrated to the process of sustainable eco- nomic development in the SCA is conceived. Such an approach allows us to set up an ac- tion gradation for the whole area of keys. As Previous to the beginning of the GEF pro- a standard, the focuses of conservation val- ject, in 1993, 8% of the territory of the SRSD ues become protected areas of strict catego- was covered by proposed protected areas. ries (21.7% of the keys); mangrove forests As a result of this project, over 11% of the and littoral zones (sand dunes, beaches, la- territory has been covered by proposed pro- goons, etc.) not included in previous pro- tected areas. This figure stands for nearly tected areas as well as remaining terrestrial twice the national average and a substantial or submarine sites of high or very high eco- improvement in quantity and quality result- logical sensitivity which are regarded as ing mainly from the integration of the ma- different conservation zones (over 70% of rine area and more development in the cate- the keys); coastal sites are protected by other gories of National Park and Ecological Re- mechanisms (law on coast, environmental serve (Category II of IUCN). impact assessments). The zones of minor ecological sensitivities are then proposed in another gamut of areas ranging from buffer Proposed Protected Areas zones, natural sites and recreational sites in nature, different development degrees of To establish the new proposed system of activities and infrastructure to zones of in- protected areas in the SCA, the previous tensive infrastructure development (less studies (Muñíz Gutiérrez, 1974; Local Gov- than 8% of the keys). ernment, 1984; Martínez Hernández, 1989; ICGC, 1991; CNAP, 1995) and results (in- The main changes the new proposal intro- duces are the following: 198 Estrada and Puga
¾ Conception of the Sabana-Camagüey ¾ Regrouping of pre-existing protected Archipelago and the swamps in the areas and redefinition of their manage- main island as a whole in a Special Re- ment category, with a trend towards gion of Sustainable Development where higher categories and more ecotourism actions are coordinately and compre- use. hensively planned and implemented to ¾ Decrease of the extension of protected achieve sustainable development and areas in the keys (from 27.4% to 21.77%) conservation. due to the trend, in some cases (Cayo ¾ Consideration of the remaining Sabana- Fragoso, Cayo Sabinal), to concentrate Camagüey Ecosystem as the buffer zone the more restricted areas towards the of this SRSD. zones where the most important re- ¾ Inclusion of the marine part in the sys- sources to be protected were located. tem of protected areas of the region ¾ More consideration of the conservation (from 1.56% to 8.34%). This comple- criteria when delimiting protected areas, ments and enriches this system, mainly mostly in those keys with high pressure if we take into account that the areas in- for the development of tourism infra- cluded here are, for the most part, the structure (Santa María, Guillermo, Cruz, most important and best preserved coral Coco). ecosystems. ¾ Slight diminution of the number of ar- ¾ Increase of the degree of significance, eas (as a result of the trend to group extension and management category of them), but considerable increase of their several areas, in many cases due to the total extension due to the inclusion of inclusion of marine elements. marine areas. ¾ Creation of two new protected areas of ¾ Few changes (enlargement in Caguanes managed resources that comprise two National Park) in protected areas lo- sectors of the group of keys that are cated in the main island, and non- most important to biodiversity. One of inclusion of deep waters as they are the these sectors has a great potentiality to goals of later phases. be declared Biosphere Reserve while the ¾ Reaffirmation and precision (re- other is the largest of all Cuban keys delimitation in some cases) of pre- and has high potentialities for interna- existing protected areas. tional declarations, too. Likewise, we consider that at least three of the areas Other characteristics of the currently pro- can be assessed in order to propose posed system are the following: them later as RAMSAR sites (Caguanes ¾ Since the SCA is an SRSD, the represen- National Park, Río Máximo-Laguna Sa- tativeness analyses indicate percentages binal Flora Reserve and Cayo Romano of coverage and indexes of repeatability Protected Area of Managed Resources). higher than the average in the National ¾ Creation of two national parks and two System of Protected Areas (Box 5-2 and ecological reserves that together inte- Table 5-3), with over three repetitions of grate the most important ecosystems in individual strict protected areas per eco- the SCA. system (ideal theoretical percentage of ¾ Creation of six new protected areas coverage in main ecosystems and spe- (Cruz del Padre-Galindo Fauna Refuge, cies, WWF, 19954). In the coverage Bahía de Cádiz Outstanding Natural analyses for the SRSD, strict protected Element, Northern Esquivel-Cayo del areas occupy a total percentage of Cristo Fauna Refuge, Eastern Cayo Cruz 11.50%, which is slightly higher than the Fauna Refuge, Punta Maternillo-Estero one recommended by international bod- Tortuguilla Ecological Reserve and La- ies (10%) and more than twice the na- guna Larga de Sabinal Managed Flora tional average (6.6%). In other words, Reserve). strict protected areas in the SRSD cover 21.77% of the keys (which is logical, as Estrada and Puga 199
the keys are basically natural areas and ¾ Exceptionally, ecotourist lodging sites part of the SRSD) and 8.34% of the sea will be created only in protected areas shelf, a figure that we consider rela- with the category of National Park and tively low and whose area percentage Ecological Reserve, and these lodging (the sea shelf is almost three times larger facilities will be located in the buffer than the extension of keys) considerably zones, the administration area or the reduces the percentage of total coverage public use area. of protected areas in the SRSD (11.50%). ¾ The primary indicators that will be used ¾ Predominance in extension (but not in to establish the capacity and modality of number) of National Parks and Ecologi- ecotourist lodging and infrastructure cal Reserves (Category II - IUCN) as an within those protected areas admitting example of their importance and selec- this type of facilities are: tivity. They are followed by Fauna Ref- • Only one lodging site per area uges and Managed Flora Reserves and/or sector (the case of Santa (Category IV - IUCN), whose numbers María-Guillermo National Park) in predominate in the SCA and the main public-use zones and sites already island as an example of the differentia- selected. tion in values existing between both • An indicator of 4 beds x km2 of the ecosystems. public-use area. ¾ No use of the Category Natural Reserve • An estimate of 10% of the terrestrial due to its inclusion in zoning (intangible and marine protected area may be zones) within areas of the remaining of public use. categories. ¾ The establishment of the ecotourist facil- ¾ Coverage of the main and best pre- ity will be made according to at least the served coral ecosystems through the following requirements: categories of National Parks and Eco- logical Reserves. • Detailed location and construction license. • Environmental license. Guidelines for the Management • Minimal space to be occupied, only of Strict Protected Areas one-story-building integrated to the landscape and minimally affecting
The guidelines presented below will be the species of the site. No heavy valid until the Management Plan for each equipment, such as bulldozers or protected area is made. The guidelines refer excavators, will be used for land- specifically to National Parks, Ecological clearing or land dragging. • Reserves, Fauna Refuges and Managed Services (gastronomic, information Flora Reserve of the keys concerned. services, etc.) will be established only in the proper tourist facility. ¾ The Management Plan and the estab- • Road systems in protected areas will lishment of administration infra- average 3.50 m wide, without structure and personnel are the two pri- pavement or, in exceptional cases, ority actions to be undertaken concern- with permeable pavements. ing these areas. To substitute for man- • When necessary, paths will be 1.50 agement plans, operational plans can be m wide at most while electricity made. networks and plumbing will be un- ¾ Buffer zones will be established outside der them. protected areas, with sizes ranging from • The systems of electricity, water and 100 and 500 meters wide in their pe- waste treatment will be specialized, rimeter, according to the case, depend- particularly: ing on the intensity of impacts. 200 Estrada and Puga
• Electricity: Regional electricity net- lished only according to the trails and work will be underground or solar natural options prepared by the admini- cell systems, eolian energy or an- stration of the area. Provisionally, a other form of alternative energy will maximum of two groups of 10 visitors a be used. Artificial illumination day per trail or natural option will be should be subtle and minimal at considered, without the figure exceed- night. ing 80 visitors a day per protected area • Water: Regional piping network or and/or sector (case of Guillermo Santa systems that make use of rain, con- María National Park). In all cases, the densation or desalini-zation. Water maximum group size will be 10 people. reuse, recycling and saving by dif- ¾ The total daily carrying capacity of the ferent ways. protected area will be provisionally es- • Wastes: Appropriate and effi-cient tablished as the relative sum of the lodg- sewage treatment. Systems to treat ing facilities, the beach, and the trails and extract excrement. In no case and other natural options prepared by will superficial dumping take place the administration, the parts of this sum with or without treatment. will be negative when the activities co- • Litter: Litter will be collected in spe- exist in time and space (natural resource cial recipients and taken out of pro- to be used). tected areas into the areas so estab- ¾ The envisaged disturbances caused by lished by the sanitary authorities. pressures of public use will be mitigated ¾ Trails, routes or other natural options by the administration of the area and will be made by personnel specialized in reviewed, and the indicators used will coordination with the administration of be made adequate. the area and will require an Environ- ¾ No infrastructure or action type alien to mental License. They will have direct the interest of protecting nature will be link with the administration area – visi- allowed in the areas, especially facilities tor center. Provisionally, two interpre- for support, wastes, etc. in the tourist tive trails and/or routes per area and/or areas. sector (case of Guillermo-Santa María ¾ The signaling and information system National Park) will be considered as will be established according to com- maximum for National Parks and Eco- mon criteria that will be issued by the logical Reserves, and only one for Fauna National Center of Protected Areas. Refuges and Managed Flora Reserves. ¾ As a standard, ecological stations and No options consisting of exhibitions of other research centers will have links captive and/or desiccated animals will with the administrations of areas and be created. vice versa. ¾ Beaches will be kept in their natural ¾ Rehabilitation and reforestation actions state (without facilities), and litter and will be implemented with species other wastes will be collected through proper of the site, so the creation of manual means. nurseries must be taken into account. ¾ Access to beaches in the sectors of pub- ¾ Fees on use of the protected area will be lic use will be limited to the carrying ca- established according to the infrastruc- pacity of the beach and the neighboring tures, services, and tourists’ access. ecosystems. The carrying capacity for ¾ Technical measures allowing gradual daily visits will be provisionally calcu- recovery of deforested areas and fragile lated in a minimum of 100 m2 per ecosystems such as beaches, sand dunes, bather, according to recent experiences mangrove forests, etc. will be estab- with cruisers traveling to similar ecosys- lished. tems. ¾ The carrying capacity of visitors per day for the remaining territory will be estab- Estrada and Puga 201
Conclusion Centro de Biodiversidad. (1995). Estudio de País de la Diversidad Biológica de la ¾ The quest of economic support through República de Cuba, La Habana. different ways (international projects, Martínez Hernández, M.C. (1989). Areas para economic entities using the resources) is la protección de la naturaleza y su vital for the establishment of marine evaluación como biocentros. En: NANC. coastal protected areas. Instituto Geográfico de España, Instituto ¾ Fishery Reserves can be an adequate de Geodesia y Cartografía e Instituto de starting point or argument for the crea- Geografía. Madrid. tion of protected areas of such catego- Nuevo Atlas Nacional de Cuba. (Instituto de ries as Fauna Refuges, National Parks Geografía de la Academia de Ciencias and Ecological Reserves. de Cuba e Instituto de Geodesia y ¾ Use bioregional approaches to turn Cartografía). RHEA e Instituto strict protected areas into more flexible Geográfico Nacional (1989). Texto categories such as Biosphere Reserves, Sección Flora y Vegetación, Madrid, pp. Protected Areas of Managed Resources, X.1.1 and Special Regions for Sustainable De- Oficina de Atención a los Organos Locales del velopment. Poder Popular. (1984). Medida 435 ¾ One of the main issues to be dealt with (Control de las disposiciones sobre las when implementing marine coastal ar- áreas protegidas), Resultado de trabajo de eas is tourist use in them, especially the comisión nacional . La Habana. correct determination of carrying ca- Perera Puga, Antonio. (1986). Las Areas pacities that the areas can endure. Protegidas de Cuba. Libro en prensa. La ¾ The main guidelines to set up strict ar- Habana. eas, as far as the marine part is con- Proyecto GEF-PNUD Desarrollo Sustentable cerned, have been the existence of well- del Archipiélago de Sabana – preserved coral formations, followed by Camagüey. (1996). Capítulos 5 (Plan the presence of significant populations estratégico y oportunidades de of important species from the conserva- inversiones) y Capítulo 6 (Prioridades de tion viewpoint. acción), Inédito, La Habana. ¾ The inclusion of pre-existing marine sectors or terrestrial areas can lead to an increase of the degree of significance of the area and its management category, thus generating better possibilities for conservation. Sometimes, this can even imply a reduction in the number of ar- eas to be protected. ¾ Use of guidelines in emergent and pro- visional phases as general rules for planning and management actions to address high-pressure situations on the use of resources.
References
Centro Nacional de Areas Protegidas. (1995). Informe del II Taller Nacional de áreas protegidas. Sierra del Rosario. Pinar del Río.
MARINA OPERATORS’ PERSPECTIVES ON THE COASTAL ZONE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA
Colin J. B. Wood Department of Geography University of Victoria (Canada)
Margo Stoilen Department of Geography University of Victoria (Canada)
Abstract: Marina owner/operators in British both the tourism industry specifically and Columbia can be considered key stakeholders in the management of the coastal zone gener- both the tourism industry specifically and the ally. They provide an important service to management of the coastal zone generally. They the thousands of boaters who enjoy the provide important services to thousands of boat- spectacular resources of the region. ers in the region, and must balance financial viability with maintaining environmental qual- By the nature of what they provide, where ity. Successful management relies on pertinent they offer it and how they manage it, opera- legislation and policy implementation, coopera- tors have to balance the needs of financial tion and coordination between stakeholders and viability with the requirements of maintain- appropriate articulation of all viewpoints. ing the quality of the surrounding environ- ment. If the latter requirement is not met, Some of the main findings of a recent survey of there is the possibility of eventual deteriora- marina operators reveal the importance of eco- tion of the main attraction of the region - as nomic issues and an almost equal importance the resource base is depleted, so financial attributed to the need to maintain the quality of problems may eventually ensue from the the marine environment. A majority favor regu- reduced quality of recreation and tourism lations that maintain the quality of the resource experience. base, though there is also concern about poten- tially inhibiting and complicated policies. This There are, of course, several other groups complex situation required an effective consulta- and many individuals who have both com- tion process and coordination, both of which are currently lacking. Funding poses a similar situa- mercial and non-commercial interests in the tion at the moment, and formulating an effective coastal zone. The successful management of working relationship remains a challenge for the the multifaceted, natural and ambient re- tourism industry. sources on the region, especially for tourism, relies on pertinent legislation and policy Keywords: marinas, British Columbia, coastal implementation, cooperation and coordina- zone management, coastal tourism, tourism tion between stakeholders and appropriate articulation of their viewpoints. This paper briefly reviews the context of management Introduction decision making for marina operators in British Columbia (BC) and then focuses on
marina operators’ attitudes to various man- Marinas play an important role in the agement issues of the coastal zone. It is coastal marine tourism industry in British based on a survey of marina operators con- Columbia. Their owners/operators can be ducted during the summer of 1997. It is considered as one of the key stakeholders in hoped that it will provide some useful input Wood and Stoilen 204 into the evolving marine tourism industry stakeholder group in the tourism industry and effective coordinated management of or the coastal zone management process. the coastal zone. Before we describe and discuss the findings of the survey, a brief overview of the man- ager’s decision-making context in BC is nec- Marinas essary.
Marinas are places that provide secure mooring for yachts and smaller boats and a The BC Coastal Zone: Tourism and range of other facilities and services. The Management Italian origin of the word denotes its asso- ciation with the growth of pleasure boating The coastline of BC is approximately 850 in its modern form in the Mediterranean kilometers from north to south or 41,000 region and its emergence in other coastal kilometers in length, if the shore of every regions of the developed world. In BC, ma- inlet and island is included. The rich, coastal rinas evolved rapidly from the 1940's on- fauna and flora together with the diverse wards as the general population of the re- and attractive physical environment provide gion grew, together with the general expan- an important set of natural and ambient re- sion of recreation and coastal tourism asso- sources (Wood and Sadler, 1992). There is ciated with both pleasure boating and sport- also a diverse and attractive human envi- fishing. As an important component of the ronment from traditional native cultures to service sector and the tourism industry, the Old World charm of Victoria, the pro- perhaps surprisingly, marinas generally vincial capital, and the energy and interna- have not received significant study other tional chic of Vancouver, the major city. The than where - in certain localized situations, attractions of the region have resulted in a there has been a degree of controversy. Cer- multitude of activities - from large cruise tain aspects of user or customer satisfaction ships to kayaking, from sportfishing to pho- have been identified by some authors. Na- tography, diving and whale watching. ranjo (1988) for example, identifies a useful checklist of criteria for customer/user satis- In response, a multi-faceted coastal tourism faction that clearly would be important for a industry has emerged that continues to marina’s economic success: evolve as customer and operating environ- • Cost ments change. Its growth in BC reflects both • Aesthetic issues private and public sector initiatives. The • Security concerns former is a response by entrepreneurs to the • Shoreside facilities perceived opportunities - the latter a recog- • Social atmosphere nition that coordination, effective manage- • Appropriateness of moorings ment through quality control and sophisti- • Protection from elements cated marketing are necessary in today’s • Quality of infrastructure competitive world. The initiative to accom- • Privacy and other issues plish this in the Canadian context shows clearly a greater influence of government In order to manage their resources effec- than in other jurisdictions which represents tively and provide a quality experience in a perhaps an industry that is still in an evolv- competitive environment, marina operators ing state of development and the sheer size ought to be familiar with these criteria. and competitive ability of our neighbors. However, there is little information on what marina operators in BC think about the gen- The governments of Canada and British eral problems that face them as entrepre- Columbia are instrumental forces for eco- neurs and their industry. Indeed, there are nomic development both through specific no relevant studies of marina operators as a policies and indirect activities directed at the Wood and Stoilen 205 tourism sector. Individual local jurisdictions, reasons, is facing severe stock problems re- such as Vancouver, are also actively in- quiring strict conservation policies. Even volved. For example, the (federal) signing of though the dollar value to the economy of the Canada-U.S. Bilateral Agreement (1995) sportfishing is substantially higher than the -Open Skies- added 1.4 million new airline commercial fisheries per fish, sportfishers seats to Vancouver from U.S. cities having and hence marinas are significantly affected significant implications for the cruise indus- by the conservation regulations. This set of try. The provincial government’s tourism problems is complex and is far from resolu- strategy includes host training, marketing, tion; although the Canadian and U.S. gov- regional and sector coordination, and at- ernments are, currently at least, engaged in tracting capital investment for infrastructure negotiations. At the same time, the provin- development. This interest reflects the reve- cial government is undertaking fish habitat nues generated by the industry (close to $9 restoration measures. billion) with an average growth rate of 7% per year that in turn, has strong employ- There are also unresolved territorial and ment and multiplier benefits. resource access issues between the First Na- tions and the two senior levels of govern- However, brief reference must also be made ment. These relate to both the terrestrial and to some of the issues that need attention if marine environments. growth and quality of tourist experience are to be maintained. In particular, what are the Recent agreements suggest that these out- main issues that confront the marina sector standing disputes may at last be on the road of the tourism industry in the coastal region to resolution. Although successive govern- of BC and where are they positioned in rela- ments of BC have gradually formulated a tion to coastal zone management generally? viable set of regulations and procedures for land use planning, the coastal zone still The coasts of the “inland sea” between Van- lacks comprehensive regulations and a couver Island and the Lower Mainland are management strategy. This hiatus partly experiencing considerable growth pressures stems from the jurisdictional disputes be- as migrants continue to move to the region tween the different levels of government. so that existing towns and cities expand as For example, there is no legislation compa- new subdivisions are built. Indeed, this rable to the U.S. Coastal Zone Management phenomenon is characteristic of the Van- Act. There has been some recent progress as couver-Victoria-Seattle triangle as a whole. the Federal Government develops its Na- Industrial growth also requires operating tional Oceans Strategy (Canada Oceans Act, space, especially flat areas. Consequently, 1996). Similarly, the government of BC re- development pressures and controversial cently issued a well reasoned position paper proposals are particularly apparent in the on the coastal zone, recognizing the inherent estuaries; zones which also have prime eco- dangers of the existing form of resource de- logical significance. While the marinas may pletion and the need for strategies for long benefit from the general population growth, term sustainability (Government of BC, there are the disadvantages of crowding, 1998). Furthermore, the impetus to identify increased costs of shoreline properties and a and designate Marine Protected Areas, a gradual increase in background pollution form of ecological reserve, is well under which may detract from a marina’s appeal. way. At the regional level, significant pro- gress has been made in the coordination of A major feature of the coastal tourism in- management of the Lower Fraser River. dustry is the sportfishing component - but it Also on the positive side, environmental is one where there is stiff competition be- impact analysis is mandatory for any large tween commercial, recreational and tradi- project involving the publicly managed do- tional (native) fishing. Unfortunately, the main. While the abatement of pulp mill pol- prime sportfish, the salmon, for a variety of lution, one of the most contentious coastal Wood and Stoilen 206 environmental issues, continues, the prob- • response to recent trends in the op- lem of old growth logging and its impact on erating environment the coastal zone remains problematic. • response to environmental quality • specific issues (e.g., cost of fishing While the issues which impinge on the licenses) coastal tourism industry generally and the • preferences for management alter- marina sector specifically are undoubtedly natives complex, there is clearly an intention to do • comments something about them. However, there is still no agency that deals exclusively with In the formative stage of the study, visits to the coastal zone in a comprehensive and marinas and informal discussions conducted coordinated manner (Day and Gamble, with operators, as a form of informal pilot 1990). survey, helped frame the suitability of the kinds of issues and questions raised in the Given this set of issues that relate to the actual survey. Government-owned docks, coastal zone and the potential effects on the which perform some marina functions were tourism industry and the emerging re- excluded from the study because of their sponses by different governments to de- substantially different economic basis to the velop comprehensive strategies, what then private sector marinas. While having a are the general attitudes held by marina op- strongly applied focus, the intention was erators? also to throw some light on the geographic nature and hence theory of service providers in leisure sector location. Survey of Marina Operators and Owners: Coastal BC The number of marinas along the BC coast grew rapidly in the last 30 years and now There have been several studies of the lei- totals about 200, providing close to 30,000 sure and recreation/tourism activities and berths. This growth came partly as a re- facilities in the region (Pfister, 1979; Benton, sponse by the business sector to the expan- 1984). Understandably, they focus almost sion of recreation and tourism demand and exclusively on the demand or customer side also due to the Federal Government provid- of the equation and pay little attention to the ing financial assistance (mid 1960's) to ex- tourism/recreation service providers such pand private sector moorage because gov- as marina facilities. In order to remedy this ernment docks were seriously overcrowded vacuum of information about one of the key (Eby, 1979). Indeed, in some inlets, the stakeholders of the coastal tourism industry, shortage was so acute, that boating tourists we undertook a mail-out survey of own- (transients) had to moor on to log rafts. Ma- ers/operators of marinas located along the rinas vary considerably in size, from the coast of BC. Accompanying the question- large operations in and adjacent to Vancou- naire was an explanatory letter outlining our ver and Victoria which individually may interest in the marina operators’ concerns provide 300-500 berths and a range of facili- about certain management issues known to ties mainly for local residents’ use to the be facing the industry and encouraging smaller, more remote destination, resort ma- them to respond - partly in the light of rinas with less than 100 berths and more statements by both levels of government limited facilities. “Marinas” that are simply that some form of comprehensive strategy a dock or could not be clearly identified as a was forthcoming. The survey was subdi- marina operation in the normal sense, were vided into six sections: not contacted. This resulted in a mail-out of 145 questionnaires, with a representative • background information on the type subgrouping by major geographic region. of marina The response rate of usable returns was very Wood and Stoilen 207 close to 40%, which is high compared with The remote sportfishing marinas have the most surveys, considering no telephone problem of declining access to fish while the prepping or follow-up were undertaken. It older marinas in the Vancouver/Victoria also probably reflects the level of concern area need to rebuild docks to accommodate that marina operators have, not only in their larger vessels. To stay in business, some re- own operation but for the industry as a sort to providing moorage for floating whole. homes. The problem is that the remedy is not simply one of passing on the increased costs to the marina users, since increased Results license fees, holding tank requirements and general operating costs are squeezing the The detailed responses provided a range of boat owners. interesting information on the marina sector. In this section, given the limitations of The second most important general issue, space, the focus here is on some of the more 70% rated it very highly, concerns the envi- important findings. ronment, that is, the protection of the ecol- ogy of the coastal zone. The majority (83%) The majority operate on a year-round basis would support legislation that protects the (81%); are primarily oriented to boating and environment: that is, fisheries management, boat storage (75%) but provide transient water pollution control, shoreline protec- moorage for tourists. The remote marinas - tion, wildlife protection (e.g., seabirds and away from the Victoria/Vancouver region whales). On the specific issue of sewage con- tend to be open seasonally, smaller (less trol, the majority (85%) supported the re- than 100 berths) and cater almost exclu- quirement for (sewage) holding tanks in sively for tourists and sportfishing. Most pleasure craft. Interestingly, the operators in have experienced an increase in both the the remote areas were significantly (statisti- numbers of boats requiring moorage (57%) cally) more in favor of this measure than and size of vessel (64%) in the last five years. those in the Vancouver/Victoria region.
For the most part, while acknowledging that Detailed Concerns user volumes are increasing and more com- While the operators’ management decisions petition for space is occurring, half the re- are clearly dominated by the imperative of spondents feel that the quality of the recrea- economic survival, for the majority, the par- tion experience is not as yet deteriorating. ticular issues of note, aside from satisfying There is general agreement that as user rates customers, are the impacts of marine and have increased, it is becoming increasingly tourism traffic growth - with implications necessary to have some seasonal quota ar- for matters such as boater safety; managing rangements, to avoid overcrowding in the associated crowding problems and the prime tourist areas and also to have some environmental consequences. These features policing of boater behavior to protect user are all part of the dynamics which have in- safety. creased overall management complexity and operating costs. Major General Concerns The survey attempted to elicit the direction Coastal Zone Management and strength of response to major concerns. While a significant majority of operators are The overwhelming and consistent response strongly in favor of legislation that protects is that economic viability is the key issue the quality of the coastal environment, it is (85%), for all types of marina. Operating clearly difficult and probably pointless to costs have increased substantially, while query respondents on detailed hypothetical more government regulations and taxes ap- arrangements for managing the coastal zone pear to require time, attention and money. or whether they are very familiar with, for Wood and Stoilen 208 example, the coastal zone legislation in the influencing marina operations - 77% versus U.S.A. as a suitable model. Consequently, 53%. the question of coastal zone management was posed in more general and hopefully understandable terms. Overview
The key responses are: This paper reviews some of the main find- 61% are in favor of some form gov- ings of a recent survey of marina operators ernment regulation of the coastal with businesses located along the coast of zone to protect the resource base British Columbia, a group who provides an and environmental quality important contribution to the tourism indus- try of the province as a whole and the the same percentage support a coastal region in particular. The dominance coastal zone agency, with stake- of economic issues and staying in business is holder representation and input on not a surprising finding. What is revealing is managerial decisions the almost equal importance that operators attribute to the need to maintain the quality 91% are opposed to an agency that of the environment. Understandably, they simply regulates with no stake- are perplexed at facing a range of regula- holder input tions from all levels of government that ap- pear to them to inhibit their business viabil- the majority prefer an agency that is ity. At the same time, a majority also favor representative of all the main stake- regulations that maintain the quality of the holder groups in the coastal zone resource base and the management of the coastal zone. Clearly, a complicated situa- Organization of the Marina Subsector tion of this type, a veritable conundrum, Tourism is successful where the resource requires an effective consultation process base is sustained so that the quality of the and a coordination of views. These are both tourist experience continues - together with lacking at the current time. A second and a manageable volume of customer demand related issue is the dilemma of funding. Any without significant adverse impacts, that comprehensive regulation, management and provides viable levels of profit for service enforcement concerning the coastal zone and providers. To achieve these basic objectives, the resource base on which the industry de- it is clear that in a regional and sector con- pends - requires funding; yet there is a text, greater coordination between stake- strong antipathy to increasing user fees in holder groups is necessary. This in turn re- any form. Again, a significant majority are quires the various groups to be organized strongly opposed to an unregulated free-for- and able to articulate an agreed strategy, all but are concerned about any license or whether on the tourism industry, coastal fee increase. zone management or any form of govern- ment intervention. Unfortunately, the ma- The challenge facing the tourism industry of rina industry appears to be deficient in these the coastal zone is formulating an effective characteristics. The majority of respondents working arrangement between stakeholder do not belong to a marina association (68%), groups and governments in developing ini- clearly a major obstacle in developing a co- tiatives that address these fundamental is- ordinated viewpoint, thereby likely unable sues. to influence the government or the tourism industry as a whole. This perspective is rein- The authors wish to thank all those marina op- forced by the significant difference between erators who took the time and trouble to respond association members and non-members over to the survey and the Sara Spencer Foundation, University of Victoria, which helped fund the the importance of the political process in project. Wood and Stoilen 209
References
Benton, D. (1984). Recreational Moorage. Small Craft Harbours Branch, Depart- ment of Fisheries and Oceans, Pacific Region, Government of Canada. Van- couver. ______, (1998). Coastal Zone Position Pa- per, Inter-Agency Coastal Working Group, Government of British Colum-
bia. Victoria.
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Management in British Columbia,
Coastal Zone Management, 18: 115-141.
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Small Craft Harbours Branch, Depart- ment of Fisheries and Oceans, Pacific Region, Government of Canada. Van- couver. Naranjo, R. (1988). Boatyards and Marinas: A Boat Owner’s Guide to Smart Shopping International Marine Publishing, Cam- den, Maine. Pfister, R. (1979). Pleasure Boating in British Columbia. Ministry of Parks, Govern- ment of British Columbia. Victoria. Wood, C. and Sadler, B. (1992). Islands in the streams of consciousness. In: Trans- actions of the International Association for People-Environment Studies. 12(4): 49-56.
CHARTING A NEW COURSE?: SPORTFISHING LODGES AND TOURISM IN COASTAL BRITISH COLUMBIA
John Shultis Resource Recreation and Tourism Program University of Northern British Columbia (Canada)
Abstract: At the dawn of the twenty-first cen- the most critical factors affecting the sport- tury, the future of the sportfishing industry in fishing industry - which includes the coastal Pacific Northwest seems as unpre- lodges/resorts, charters and recreational dictable as the return of the salmon stocks on anglers - has been the use of technology in which it primarily depends. Fish stocks are in the fishing industry. A seemingly ever- decline, and the various levels of governments increasing burst of technological innova- have responded with increasingly strict regula- tions continue to reverberate through the tory actions (e.g., specific fishery closures, en- commercial and sport sectors of the fishing dangered/threatened species status). As a result industry (Cone and Ridlington, 1996). The of this regulatory uncertainty, sportfishing op- use of synthetic fabrics such as plastic, nylon erators have become increasing nervous about and polypropylene, composite materials their ability to survive in this fluctuating mar- including fiberglass, aluminum, and graph- ket. Many operators and government officials ite, and advances in fish-finding technology look towards the diversification of the sportfish- such as radar, global positioning systems ing industry as a means of adapting to changing (GPS) and “fishfinders” has forever changed biological and social conditions. The utility of the fishing industry. resource-based tourism (e.g., ecotourism, adven- ture tourism and indigenous tourism) activities It is becoming increasingly evident that is receiving particular attention. This paper dis- modern technology has provided a double- cusses the rise of this so-called “alternative” edged sword. For example, there is no doubt form of tourism and the characteristics of the that technological innovations have made industry and participants, and identifies the changes required in traditional sportfishing op- fishing safer (e.g., survival suits and cell- erations in order to adapt to this new market. It phones), easier (e.g., fishfinders and down- is critical that sportfishing operators “walk the riggers) and more efficient (trawlers and walk” as well as “talk the talk” that is, both a cannery ships) for sport and commercial philosophical and an operational refit to the tra- anglers. But they have also given fishers an ditional sportfishing operation is required for increasing ability to significantly affect fish their diversification into resource-based tourism populations and distribution and even alter activities. While many challenges exist, diversifi- the natural ecological rhythms of the oceans cation may prove to be a useful tool for sportfish- themselves (MacLeod, 1997; Berrill, 1997). ing operations to chart a new course in these As a result, at the dawn of the twenty-first difficult times. century, the future of fishing in the Pacific Northwest seems as unpredictable as the Keywords: recreational fisheries, commercial annual return of the salmon stocks. recreation, ecotourism By now, most Pacific Northwest residents are well aware of the dire impacts of such Introduction factors as habitat destruction, overfishing, aquaculture, pollution and global warming Like the sea on which it depends, the sport- on fish stocks, particularly salmon. Ac- fishing industry is in constant flux. One of knowledgement of the critical impact of cli- matic patterns on salmon numbers is also 212 Shultis becoming increasingly widespread (Beam- ing operators in coastal BC. A tourism ish, Neville and Cass 1997; Beamish, 1999). model is proposed to elucidate the range of Indeed, the list of dangers to the Pacific options and the blurring of the “old” and salmon fishery is so extensive, it sometimes “new” tourism markets. Finally, this paper seems that the salmon have saved us from identifies changes that must be made to ex- our own greed and ignorance through their isting fishing lodges to adapt to declining extraordinary will to live and spawn. fish stocks, increasing regulations and changing tourism patterns. Where then does this leave the owners and operators of approximately 125 sportfishing lodges and 1,000 charter operators along the Tourism: The “Old” and the “New” coast of British Columbia (B.C.) (Hume, Wave 1998; GSGislason and Associates, 1998)? Fish stocks are obviously declining, and re- In 1841, at the height of the temperance strictions on fishing are just as obviously movement, a young wood turner named increasing. For example, a partial ban was Thomas Cook organized a railway excursion placed on the chinook salmon fishery in for 2000 children in Leicester, England, to 1996, and on the coho fishery in 1998. Ac- attend a nearby anti-drinking demonstra- cording to a report commissioned by the tion. Emboldened by his early success, Provincial Job Commissioner of B.C., the Thomas Cook went on to arrange a growing 1996 cutbacks to the chinook salmon fishery number of “tours” for an ever-increasing caused a net loss of $190 million in revenues number of middle class families (Cross, and approximately 2000 jobs in the recrea- 1990). tional fishing sector (ARA Consulting Groups, 1996); the economic and social costs Ever since the railroad opened up previ- of the 1998 coho ban may exceed these fig- ously inaccessible tourist attractions to the ures. It appears likely that even more restric- middle classes, traditional mass tourism has tive regulations may be introduced allowed middle and, eventually, working throughout the Pacific Northwest in the not class families (after the development of the too distant future. For example, in early automobile and jet travel) to travel at a rela- 1999, nine species of salmon were placed on tively low cost to resorts created specifically the endangered or threatened species list in for them. Mass tourism is primarily de- the United States. Not surprisingly, many signed to entertain people trying to escape fishing lodge and charter operators are ex- from the stresses of everyday, “normal” life. tremely worried about their ability to con- It has developed into a critical sector of the tinue in the sportfishing industry, largely global tourist industry, which in the 1990s due to this regulatory uncertainty (ARA has become the largest industry and em- Consulting Group, 1996; Peckford, 1998). ployer in the world: approximately 10% of the global GNP is now derived from tour- One of a number of possible answers for ism, and 204 million workers (approxi- sportfishing lodges can be gleaned from tak- mately 10% of the world’s workforce) are ing a closer look at the contemporary tourist directly and indirectly employed in tourism- industry. A new breed of traveler has re- related jobs (World Travel and Tourism cently emerged, and fishing lodges may be Council, 1996). well positioned to respond to this new, rap- idly expanding tourism market. The pur- However, beginning in the late 1970s, a pose of this article is to identify this ‘new’ growing number of tourists began to search form of tourism and describe its principles for a new type of holiday. Instead of being and characteristics. Next, three case studies shielded from the natural environment and of recently established or announced local people by the vast amount of built at- ecolodges/resorts are provided to illustrate tractions and infrastructure required in tra- the range of options available to sports fish- Shultis 213 ditional tourist areas, some people began to 1996a; 1996b), resource-based tourism may look for places where the spirit of the land now account for between 10-20% of the con- had not yet been commercialized and where temporary global tourism market. contact with local residents would still be possible. This “new” tourist was not looking As demand for this form of tourism in- so much for entertainment but for a chance creased, terms for these “new” types of tour- to learn about the natural and cultural his- ists were created. So-called “alter-native”, tory of the area they chose to visit. More- “nature”, “green”, “sustainable” or “re- over, they were familiar with and suppor- source-based” tourism (hereafter termed tive of the environmental movement that resource-based tourism, as these forms of had begun in the 1960s. As a result, they tourism are based largely on the aesthetic were critical of the environmental and social and educational appeal of natural and cul- impacts of mass tourism, desiring more tural resources) can be categorized into natural, undisturbed settings for their holi- three distinct types of tourism. Each may be days. The new tourist tended to be from the found separately in the marketplace or, in- middle and upper classes, well educated, creasingly, in a combined package. Ecotour- professional, with higher than average in- ism usually refers to environmentally sus- come levels (Ballantine and Eagles, 1994; tainable forms of tourism that specifically Eagles and Cascagnette, 1995; Fennell and rely upon natural features in a relatively Molloy, 1995; Weiler and Richins, 1995; undisturbed natural environment (e.g., hik- Salah and Karwak, 1996; Wight, 1996a). ing or wildlife viewing). Adventure tourism is More recently, consumer demand for re- comprised of recreational activities based in source-based tourism is spreading through- the natural environment which involve risk out most segments of the population, from or danger (e.g., rafting or mountain climb- students to retired persons, from profes- ing). Finally, in cultural or indigenous tourism, sionals to unskilled workers (Wight, 1996b; learning about and interacting with indige- O’Leary and Weis, 1999). nous peoples is the essence of the tourism experience (Ewert and Shultis, 1997). This widening and escalating demand for resource-based tourism is exemplified by Although the use of these terms (particu- the results of a recent survey of middle to larly ecotourism) is now so widespread that upper income residents in seven major cities they may have become meaningless “buzz- in North America. Approximately 77% of words” (Wheeller, 1994), each of these three this sample had previously participated in a forms of tourism should share several char- trip that involved nature, outdoor adventure acteristics if they remain true to their foun- or cultural tourism in a natural setting. In dational principles (see Table 1). First, re- addition, the remaining 23% indicated that source-based tourism is dependent upon a they were interested in taking such a trip in relatively undisturbed natural environment, the near future (HLA Consultants and ARA while traditional tourism is largely based Consulting Group, 1995). upon built attractions like theme parks and hotels normally located in urban areas. Most Recent growth rates for global tourism aver- importantly, resource-based tourism age 2-3 percent annually (World Tourism stresses environmental and social sustain- Organization, 1997), while the specialized ability; its primary guiding principle is that resource-based tourism sector may have an these forms of tourism should not degrade annual growth rate of 15-25% (Wild, 1994). the environment or the local communities As activities associated with resource-based that host tourists. Indeed, some champion a tourism (e.g., outdoor recreation, wildlife form of resource-based tourism that actively viewing) are increasingly incorporated into seeks to improve the environmental and mainstream tourism packages (Wight,
214 Shultis
Attribute Resource-Based Tourism Mass Tourism
Dependancy on the Natural Environment high low
Level of Development low to medium medium to high
Standard of Development basic to standard facilities standard to deluxe facilities
Local Population involvement in planning, no involvement in planning, management and operations management or operations
Tourist Operators usually local or regional usually national or international
Tourist Experience emphasis on learning about the emphasis on entertainment natural and cultural environment
Rationale conservation, community profit maximization development, education
Economic Impact minimal leakage, small profits high leakage, large profits to to local communities non-local communities
Social Impact low to medium medium to extreme
Environmental Impact low to medium medium to extreme Table 1. Global Attributes of Resource-Based Tourism and Mass Tourism Source: Ewert and Shultis (1997) social quality of the surrounding region How Do Fishing Lodges and (Orams, 1995). Resorts in Coastal British Columbia Fit In? In mass tourism, environmental degradation and social disturbance are the norm. Simi- Long considered the “poor cousin” of the larly, the secondary rationale for resource- commercial fishing industry, the sportfish- based tourism is significantly different from ing sector has recently drawn an increasing that of traditional tourism. The former em- amount of attention by bureaucrats and phasizes learning about and conserving politicians (e.g., May, 1996; Fisheries and natural and cultural regions with the active, Oceans Canada, 1998a). This increased in- meaningful involvement of local terest has largely been due to the increased communities, while mass tourism has al- recognition of the economic impact of sport- ways focused on entertainment and, ulti- fishing. While recreational and sporting an- mately, maximizing profit. Mass tourism is glers take between 2-4% of the total salmon also normally directed by non-local mega- catch - including approximately 18-20% of corporations that typically exclude local coho and chinook salmon, the most impor- communities from involvement in the deci- tant sport fishing species - their economic sion-making process (Ryal and Grasse, impact exceeds that of the commercial fleet 1991). (Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 1998b;
GSGislason and Associates, 1998). Revenues
from sport-fishing licenses average 7 million per year compared to 11 million per year Shultis 215 from commercial licenses; however, the suggests that the aim of both mass and re- sport salmon industry was estimated to source-based tourism should be sustainabil- bring in $600 million in 1994, while the ity; it is hypothesized that the principles and commercial fishing fleet brought in $400 operating policies of both forms of tourism million (Steele, 1997). As of 1997, approxi- will converge in the future (Clarke, 1997). mately 7,050 British Columbians were em- ployed in the sportfishing industry com- One option in coastal B.C. - located toward pared to 10,940 in the commercial sector the middle of the model - is to combine the (GSGislason and Associates, 1998). lure of the relatively undisturbed natural environment of the Pacific coast with an ex- Despite the documented problems with clusive, wealthy clientele in a small resort dwindling fish stocks and increasing regula- atmosphere. An excellent example of this tions in the region, many existing fishing approach is provided by a recently con- lodges will successfully continue to cater to structed property located near Tofino on the a relatively small, select group of fishing west coast of Vancouver Island. This small enthusiasts. It is also likely, however, that a hotel, perched on a rocky headland beside a significant number of fishing lodges will be long, nearly deserted beach, has quickly es- so affected by the downturn in fishing activ- tablished itself as a world class resort. Estab- ity that they will be forced to close or recon- lished in 1996, its almost immediate accep- figure their operations. The Canadian gov- tance into the highly prestigious Relais & ernment supports the diversification of the Château hotel association helped create an BC sportfishing industry: in 1998, a fund of immediate presence in the global tourism $400,000 CAN was established to help sport- market. While fishing charters are available fishing companies respond to the downturn to guests, they do not form the central pur- in sportfishing opportunities (see also pose of this property. As opposed to the vast GSGislason and Associates, 1998). The majority of other lodges and resorts in the Sports Fishing Institute of B.C. also seems to area, the many sightseeing and scenic view- agree that diversification is likely; their ad- ing opportunities, coupled with the hotel’s vertisements emphasize the ecotourism and natural setting, luxurious accommodations, cultural tourism opportunities available to high quality service, and haute cuisine are fishers in B.C. (Sports Fishing Institute, the primary draws. 1999). After undertaking a market survey, the A number of options are available in the Coast Hotel chain (based in Western Can- sports fishing industry and emerging trends ada) has also identified opportunities that are already evident in coastal B.C. These exist to integrate the traditional hotel with options span the whole range of possibilities the growing resource-based tourism market. on a tourism model (Figure 1). The three Their market research suggested that, while variables on both axes are cumulative. Thus, the average tourist trip length has de- while the upper left and bottom right sector creased, tourists are increasingly looking for of this model are exemplified by mass tour- educational, “soft” adventure (i.e., relatively ism and resource-based tourism respec- low risk) activities in a natural setting and tively, it acknowledges that some forms of are interested in environmentally sustain- traditional mass tourism operations (e.g. able tourist experiences while experiencing hotels) can move within and between sec- high quality accommodation and food ser- tors if they follow the guiding principles of vice (Graham Ben, VP Business Develop- resource-based tourism (i.e., the three vari- ment, Coast Hotels, personal communica- ables located along bottom axis). Similarly, tion, Dec 4, 1998). Responding to these resource-based tourism operations may trends, Coast Hotels has recently announced move towards the mass tourism endpoint if plans to create, in association with the they do not uphold the principles inherent Roots® clothing company, a large re- in resource-based tourism. The circled area sort/ecolodge on the west coast of Vancou- 216 Shultis ver Island in B.C. Similar to the first exam- happier hiking, kayaking or whale watch- ple, this proposed facility falls primarily in ing. In this way, the fishing lodge of the past the mass tourism sector of the tourism becomes the wilderness or adventure lodge model, but also edges towards the right of the future. Providing a wider range of hand (i.e., resource-based tourism) sector. activities may also extend the guests’ length This facility again demonstrates the blurring of stay, thereby increasing profits to the of- boundaries between the mass tourism and ten cash-strapped lodges. Further, many of resource-based tourism market found in these resource-based activities are often not coastal B.C. as seasonal in nature as fishing: hiking, kay- aking, sightseeing, and wildlife viewing can The third potential direction for existing be scheduled year round in many regions of fishing lodges is located in the resource- coastal B.C. For example, one resort on the based tourism sector (i.e., bottom right hand west coast of Vancouver Island has success- sector) of the tourism model. This option, fully promoted a winter “storm-watching” which normally takes far less capital to ac- package to create an extremely popular off- complish, attempts to match the spectacular season attraction. scenery of the Pacific Northwest - a primary draw for both fishers and resource-based While all forms of tourism have environ- tourists - with the growing demand for re- mental, social and economic impacts, both source-based tourism. One recently estab- positive and negative (McKercher, 1993; lished “Wilderness Resort” (as opposed to Andereck, 1995), these ‘new’ activities de- fishing lodge), located in Clayoquot Sound sired by resource-based tourists can be far on the northwest coast of Vancouver Island, more sustainable than sport fishing. More- is an example of a new operation (est. 1998) over, with the probable exception of whale that has taken this direction. The very name watching, these activities are far less likely of the resort suggests that its owners were to have restrictive regulations placed upon familiar with the new resource-based tour- them than sport fishing. Also, as the tradi- ism market: while sportfishing is an impor- tional resource sector (i.e., forestry and fish- tant part of their operations, for many ing) continues to downsize its workforce guests the magnificent wilderness of the throughout the Pacific Northwest, some of Clayoquot Sound area is the primary attrac- these displaced workers may choose to be- tion. “Soft” adventure activities such as come employed in the new resource-based whale watching, hiking, visits to nearby hot tourism field (ARA Consulting Group, springs, kayaking and horseback riding are 1996), although the attraction of the re- proving to be extremely popular at this re- source-based tourism industry for down- sort, even more popular than recreational sized extractive workers is extremely vari- fishing. able and remains unclear.
This strategy allows fishing lodges to not only diversify the activities provided to The Sticking Point: What is guests, but also to expand their market as Required For the Transition From well. Traditionally, fishing lodge clients Fishing to Ecotourism Lodge? have been relatively small groups (normally from 2-6 people) of middle aged males hop- It is critical to note that the simple addition ing to catch some fish (primarily salmon) of a few non-extractive activities at a tradi- while socializing with a group of friends in tional fishing lodge will not meet the re- an attractive natural environment setting quirements of this new breed of tourist. As (DPA Group Inc. and McLaren Plansearch previously noted, the primary component of Corp., 1988). Marketing re-source-based resource-based tourism is the concept of tourists allows lodges to accommodate fami- environmentally and socially responsible lies or even groups of families, some of tourism: a conservation ethic must pervade whom will fish, but many of whom will be Shultis 217 218 Shultis therefore, that lodge operators who wish to guests to take back a deep appreciation for target resource-based tourists “walk the the area as well as an understanding of the walk” as well as “talk the talk”. This in- need for sustainable tourism development. volves embracing management practices Again, hiring members of the local commu- and philosophies that truly demonstrate nity is often the best way to accomplish this: sustainability. While many existing re- they often have a great knowledge of the source-based tourism operations in B.C. natural and cultural history of their home- tend to believe they are operating in an en- lands. vironmentally sensitive manner, the reality is often very different. One study found that The “sticking point” of ecotourism has al- only five of 22 nature-based tourism ven- ways been ensuring that these establish- tures in B.C. could be classified as being re- ments are truly different (i.e., more sustain- sponsible ecotourism operations (Bottrill able) than traditional mass tourism attrac- and Pearce, 1995). tions. That is, while it is easy to market an operation as embodying ecotourism princi- A number of actions must be taken to en- ples and practices, there is as yet no organi- sure a sustainable lodge/resort operation. zation that monitors or regulates these Basically, all potential environmental, eco- claims. There are several ways to deal with nomic or social impacts should be identified this problem. Many different organizations and all mitigating actions clearly communi- have developed codes of ethics which helps cated to the visitor. For example, hiking par- the operator implement the underlying ties should be kept small to minimize their principles of ecotourism (Hawkes and Wil- impact; local materials and residents should liams, 1993). For example, the National be used whenever possible, even if it in- Audubon Society has created an influential volves specialized training; local communi- “travel ethic for environ-mentally responsi- ties - First Nations and otherwise - should ble tourism” for their independent tour op- be involved in the planning and manage- erators (Table 2). This travel ethic, like the ment of tourism activities; self-imposed many others that have been created, focuses guidelines for wildlife viewing (including on minimizing the environmental and social whale watching) should be developed and impacts of resource-based tourism. The monitored; water conservation and sewage creation of a specific code of ethics for eco- treatment plans should be implemented; lodges in coastal BC may assuage consumer and strict pollution controls activated. If rec- concerns over the sustainability of their op- reational fishing is allowed, it may be neces- erations, resulting in a larger client base and sary to establish and enforce a catch and a recognizable and marketable set of prac- release policy or at the very least a reduced tices. fish limit. Blangy and Wood (1993) provide an extended list of potential issues and ethi- For ethical codes to be effective, however, cal guidelines to consider before the creation practical methods to rigorously enforce of an ecotourism lodge/resort (see also Bee- these criteria, report compliant and non- ton, 1998). compliant operators and discipline non- compliant operators must be created (Ding It should be reiterated that resource-based and Pigram, 1995; United Nations Environ- tourists do not simply want to be enter- ment Programme, 1995). Such a system has tained: they are well educated, well traveled proven difficult to establish or maintain. people who want to learn about the area, preferably by undertaking adventurous Environmental audits may prove to be one (though comfortable, safe, and not overly method of ensuring environmentally re- strenuous) recreational activities. Hiring sponsible operations. Environmental audit- naturalists/interpreters who can communi- ing provides interested tourism firms with a cate the genius loci of the area and the natu- potentially powerful tool to assess their en- ral and cultural history of the region allow vironmental performance, and to mitigate Shultis 219
1. Wildlife and their habitats must not be disturbed. 2. Audubon tourism to natural areas will be sustainable. 3. Waste disposal must have neither environmental nor aesthetic impacts. 4. The experience a tourist gains in travelling with Audubon must enrich his or her appre- ciation of nature, conservation, and the environment. 5. Audubon tours must strengthen the conservation effort and enhance the natural integ- rity of places visited. 6. Traffic in products that threaten wildlife and plant populations must not occur. 7. The sensibilities of other cultures must be respected.
Table 2 : National Audubon Society’s Code of Ethics any environmental or social damage caused resource-based tourism has not yet been by their organizations (Goddall, 1995). The matched by a parallel growth in the creation environmental auditing process involves of educational programs dealing with the three main steps: 1) assessment, the deter- specific needs and challenges of resource- mination of existing natural and social con- based tourism. Im-proving the educational ditions; 2) testing, a comparison of the actual training and creating accredited educational impacts with predetermined criteria or lim- programs in resource-based tourism will its of acceptable change; and 3) attesting, or help ensure that graduates will be prepared certification of the results of the above com- to identify and react to the idiosyncratic im- parison (Buckley, 1991). Enforcing periodic pacts of resource-based tourism operations. reviews of resource-based tourism opera- tions and their impact on the natural and The creation of the Bachelor of Arts degree social environment would provide a num- in Resource-Based Tourism in the Resource ber of benefits to environmentally responsi- Recreation and Tourism (RRT) Program at ble organizations. Audits could be used to the University of Northern British Colombia identify the limits of acceptable change for is one of the few examples of a tourism cur- tourism operations, assess the effectiveness riculum focusing on resource-based tourism. of regulations and the techniques used to This interdisciplinary degree, established in mitigate impacts to meet these require- 1995, contains courses in both the natural ments, and achieve a “best practice” certifi- and social sciences, and emphases the iden- cation in the resource-based tourism indus- tification and mitigation of environmental, try (Ding and Pigram, 1995). It will also al- socio-economic and cultural impacts of re- low operators to market their companies to source-based tourism and the necessity of environmentally aware clients, improve socially and environmentally sustainable their corporate image, and even decrease tourism operations. While the vast majority costs through a more efficient use of re- of existing tourism programs are housed sources. Again, the creation of a standard- within business schools, the RRT Program is ized, effective and efficient system of as- located in the Faculty of Natural Resources sessment and enforcement of environ- and Environmental Studies; this relationship mental audits is required for this concept to helps emphasize the critical link between be useful. the natural environment and resource-based tourism. Moreover, it typifies the need for It has also been suggested that efforts to in- tourism operators based in and dependant crease the professionalization and accredita- on the natural environment to have an un- tion of operators would also serve to de- derstanding of the abiotic, biotic and cul- crease the environmental and social impacts tural components of the tourism realm in of resource-based tourism operations (Wear- addition to the traditional business skills ing, 1995). The extremely rapid growth of required in this competitive market. 220 Shultis
Conclusion Ballantine, J.L. and Eagles, P.F.J. (1994). De- fining Canadian ecotourists. Journal of As the fishing industry undergoes dramatic Sustainable Tourism, 2(1): 1-6. changes, the sportfishing industry must Beamish, R.J., Neville, C-E.M., and Cass, A.J. adapt to those changes or fall by the way- (1997). Production of Fraser River sock- side. One possible method of adapting to eye salmon (Orcorhynchus nerka) in rela- changes in the fishing industry is to incor- tion to decadal-scale changes in the cli- porate parallel changes occurring in the mate and ocean. Canadian Journal of Fish- tourism industry to create a completely new eries and Aquatic Sciences, 54(3): 543-554. market. The three facilities outlined in this Beamish, R.J. (1999). Shifting regimes in paper suggest that the merging of the tradi- fisheries science and salmon manage- tional and resource-based tourism opera- ment. International Journal of Salmon Con- tions may help facilitate the diversification servation, 1(3): 12-16. of the sportfishing industry in B.C. Beeton, S. (1998). Ecotourism: A practical guide for rural communities. Landlinks, Indeed, as outfits such as the new “Wilder- Collingwood. ness Resort” on the west coast of Vancouver Berrill, M. (1997). The Plundered Seas: Can the Island demonstrate, this change is already world’s fish be saved? Douglas & McIn- taking place: owners and operators of sport- tyre, Vancouver. fishing lodges are making the change from Blangy, S. and Wood, M.E. (1993). Develop- fishing lodge to wilderness or “eco-lodge”. ing and implementing eco-tourism This change involves not only an opera- guidelines for wildlands and neighbour- tional refit, but a philosophical reorientation ing communities. In: Ecotourism: A guide as well, to that of environ-mentally sensitive for planners and managers. K. Lindberg resort based on a solid environmental ethic. and D.E. Hawkins (eds.). The Ecotour- Once methods are set in place to assure the ism Society, North Bennington, VT. sustainability of these operations - for ex- Bottrill, C.G. and Pearce, D.G. (1995). Ecot- ample through the use of codes of ethics, ourism: Towards a key elements ap- environmental audits and specialized terti- proach to operationalising the concept. ary education programs - diversification Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 3(1): 45-54. may prove to be a useful tool in charting a Buckley, R. (1991). Perspectives in Environ- new course through the increasingly turbu- mental Management. Springer-Verlag, lent waters of the sportfishing industry. New York. Clarke, J. (1997). A framework of ap- proaches to sustainable tourism. Journal References of Sustainable Tourism, 5(3): 224-234. Cone, J. and Riglington, S. (1996). The Andereck, K.E. (1995). Environmental con- Northwest Salmon Crisis: A documentary sequences of tourism: A review of recent history. Oregon State University Press, literature. In: Linking Tourism, the Envi- Corvallis. ronment and Sustainability, S.F. McCool Cross, G. (1990). A Social History of Leisure and A.E. Watson (comps.), pp. 77-81. Since 1600. Venture, State College, PA. General Technical Report INT-GTR-323, Ding, P. and Pigram, J. (1995). Environ- USDA Forest Service, Intermountain mental audits: An emerging concept in Research Station, Ogden, UT. sustainable tourism develop-ment. Jour- ARA Consulting Group. (1996). Fishing for nal of Tourism Studies, 6(2): 2-10. Answers: Coastal Communities and the BC DPA Group Inc. and McLaren Plansearch Salmon Fishery. Report prepared for Corp. (1988). Fishing Lodges and Resorts the BC Job Protection Commissioner. in British Columbia: Marketing and de- Job Protection Commissioner, Victoria, velopment initiatives. Final Report. Minis- BC. try of Tourism, Recreation and Culture, Victoria. Shultis 221
Eagles, P.F.J. and Cascagnette, J.W. (1995). pacts. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1(1): Canadian ecotourists: Who are they? 6-16. Tourism Recreation Research, 20(1): 22-28. O’Leary, J.T. and Weis, S.M. (1999). Interna- Ewert, A. and Shultis, J.D. (1997). Resource- tional tourism: Current trends and mar- based tourism: an emerging trend in ket research with implications for man- tourism experiences. Parks and Recrea- aging public attractions. In: Ecosystem tion, 32(9): 94-104. management: Adaptive Strategies for Natu- Fennell, D.A. and Molloy, D.C. (1995). Ethics ral Resource Organizations in the 21st Cen- and ecotourism: A comprehensive ethi- tury. Aley, J., Burch, W.R., Conover, B., cal model. Journal of Applied Recreation and Field, D. (eds.) Taylor and Francis, Research, 20(3): 163-183. Philadelphia. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. (1998a). A Orams, M. (1995). Towards a more desirable New Direction for Canada’s Pacific Salmon form of ecotourism. Tourism Manage- Fisheries. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, ment, 16: 3-8. Ottowa. Ryal, R. and Grasse, T. (1991). Marketing Fisheries and Oceans Canada. (1998b). An ecotourism: Attracting the elusive ecot- Allocation Framework for Pacific Salmon ourist. In: Nature Tourism: Managing for 1999-2005: A new direction. Fisheries and the environment. Whelan, T. (ed.), (pp. Oceans Canada, Ottowa. 164-186). Island Press, Washington, DC GSGislason and Associates. (1998). Fishing and Covelo, CA. For Money: Challenges and opportunities in Saleh, F. and Karwacki, J. (1996). Revisiting the BC salmon fishery. Final Report. Re- the ecotourist: The case of Grasslands port prepared for the BC Job Protection National Park. Journal of Sustainable Commissioner. BC Job Protection Tourism, 4(2): 61-80. Commissioner, Victoria. Sports Fishing Institute of British Columbia. Hawkes, S. and Williams, P. (1993). The (1999). BC Sport Fishing: An Open Invi- Greening of Tourism: From principles to tation. January 20, 1999. URL: practice. Centre for Tourism Policy
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POWER AND COASTAL TOURISM: THE SEATTLE WATERFRONT
So-Min Cheong Department of Geography University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Marc L. Miller School of Marine Affairs University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Tourism on the Seattle Waterfront is actors and their power relationships using discussed through two frameworks, that of Fou- the BLT (Broker-Local-Tourist) model of the caldian power and the Broker-Local-Tourist tourism system. The third section describes (BLT) model of tourism dynamics. Power ac- three sets of relationships: 1) tourist – bro- cording to Foucault is omnipresent, and is not ker, 2) broker – local, and 3) tourist – local. tied to a particular individual or group. It is in- extricably tied to knowledge, so that one cannot Power according to Foucault is omnipresent, be analytically considered without the other. which means that all situations contain power relations. In addition, power does In the application of both concepts to tourism in not tie to a particular individual or group. Seattle, Cheong and Miller (2000) argue that Instead it exists in a set of specific relation- tourists are placed in an insecure position in ships, and individuals and groups are posi- tourism networks. Brokers wield power as they tioned within this network of power rela- produce knowledge with respect to travel, and tions (Foucault, 1978). In this web of power control the tourist operation. Unlike the popular relationships, Foucault focuses on the exer- perception of locals as the victimized group in cise of power. The exercise of power per- this network, they are seldom completely power- petually creates knowledge, and conversely, less and brokers, especially developers, take heed knowledge induces effects of power. This is of local reactions to tourism development because based on his claim that power is inextricably of the need for local goodwill. wedded to knowledge, that one cannot be
analytically considered without the other. The case of tourism in the central waterfront of Seattle can be seen in light of these concepts, and Thus, power does not merely constrain the they are applied to the diverse business and tour- target, but expands through the establish- ism zone of today. ment of new discourse, rules, and disci- plines (Foucault, 1980).
Keywords: tourism networks, Foucault, BLT The BLT (Broker-Local-Tourist) model is model, marine and coastal tourism, power advanced by Miller and Auyong (1991). In this model, brokers make a living by par- ticipating in tourism production. Hotel Introduction owners and employees, vendors, and guides who provide tourists with goods and ser- This paper discusses power relationships vices exemplify private-sector brokers. Pub- amongst brokers, locals, and tourists apply- lic-sector brokers include city planners and ing the concept of Foucault’s power to the politicians, those who work in government- Seattle Waterfront. The first part of the pa- operated visitor information centers, and per briefly defines power in Foucauldian police and guards at tourist sites. Other bro- sense. The second section identifies major ker variants include social movement bro- 224 Cheong and Miller kers, academic brokers, travel media bro- fore, brokers such as travel agents and tour kers, and consulting brokers (Miller and guides step in to guide the tourist. Even Auyong, 1998). Locals are those who live in independent tourists are also limited by or near the tourist attraction but do not ob- what the guidebook or the recognizable tain income from tourism activities. Tour- signpost directs. ists are non-locals that make a visit to a tour- ist attraction for recreational purposes. Because of these travel constraints, tourists adapt to new behaviors and gestures gener- In the application of the Foucauldian notion ated by a body of knowledge and instruc- of power to tourism, Cheong and Miller tion from brokers. The responsibility falls in (2000) argue that tourists are placed in an the hands of brokers as they imagine and insecure position in tourism networks. reconstruct the place, and furthermore, de- Though tourists make the decision to travel, termine the values and norms that are suit- brokers and locals oftentimes exert more able for, for example, sustainable tourism power in the tourism system (refer to the practices. table in Cheong and Miller 2000). Brokers wield power as they produce knowledge with respect to travel and control the tourist The Seattle Waterfront operation. They oftentimes dictate the way travel should take place, educate, instruct, Seattle, Washington is situated on a narrow advice, supervise, and interpret for tourists. strip of land separating two substantial wa- Thus, brokers are not mere intermediaries ter bodies - Lake Washington to the east and and providers of tourism-related services. Puget Sound to the west - that are linked by Instead, they participate in tourism services a waterway. In 1998, the population of the with an incentive to profit or maintain pub- City of Seattle was estimated to be 539,700 lic services. persons, representing a growth of 4.5% over the 1990 figure. The population of Greater Unlike the popular understanding of locals Seattle (composed of King, Snohomish and as the victimized group in the tourism sys- Island Counties) was estimated in 1990 to be tem, locals are seldom completely power- 2.33 million persons. The population density less. As locals by definition do not derive for Seattle - ranked as the 21st largest city in their income from tourism businesses, their the U.S. - is 6, 039 persons per square mile interest level is low. This means that locals (Greater Seattle Chamber of Commerce, are hardly motivated to get actively in- 1999.) volved in tourism unless they perceive it as negative (Cheong and Miller, 2000). In cases Founded in 1872 on Elliott Bay, the settle- where a negative perception of tourism pre- ment that was to become Seattle was first vails, locals tend to place blame and show called Duwamps after the river (the Du- their dissatisfaction on the tourist who is far wamish) and the Indians of the vicinity. Ac- more visible than the brokers working be- cording to Sale (1976: 8), the name was soon hind the scene. Because tourism needs the changed: good will of the local community for their “During the summer the name was hospitality and a distinct sense of place, changed to Seattle at the suggestion of brokers, especially developers, take heed of Dr. David Maynard, who arrived dur- local reactions to tourism development. ing the spring and made friends with the Indian leader, Sealth. Maynard real- Tourists exert relatively less control than ized that it was too hard for whites to brokers. Placed in unfamiliar political and pronounce Sealth’s name as the Indians cultural places, the position of the tourist is did and felt that ‘Seattle’, being more insecure. While traveling, they leave behind euphonious that ‘Sealth’ or ‘Duwamps’, familial ties, protective institutions, and would be more likely to attract other norms and expectations from home. There- settlers.” Cheong and Miller 225
Over the last 125 years, the economy of Seat- agement Act and the city’s Shoreline Master tle has evolved from one dependent on Program which was approved by the state natural resources (e.g., salmon, halibut and in 1977 and refined in 1982. As Gordon other fish; timber) and shipping to one that (1999: 42) reports: has diversified to house leaders in the aero- “Seattle’s people-friendly Shoreline space and computer industries (e.g., The Master Program specifies that each pier Boeing Company, Microsoft). Today, Seattle must offer some form of perimeter is also known as an international tourism moorage, even in cases where piers have node and destination. lost their original industrial charac- ter.…. The SMP includes provisions for The central waterfront district of Seattle balancing tourism with the needs of faces the Olympic Peninsula to the west marine transportation and trade. As a across Puget Sound. In the last century, the result, there’s a healthy diversity of ac- waterfront was the hub of marine transpor- tivities.” tation and other marine industry activities. Today and with the advent of containerized This assessment and that of Goodwin, has intermodal shipping technologies, terminals been echoed by former Port of Seattle are found in the Harbor Island region of Commissioner and present Seattle Mayor Elliott Bay, south of the Kingdome, the train Paul Schell: station, and a new major league baseball “Those early efforts have allowed us to stadium under construction. maintain an essentially honest water- front--a place that’s interesting to visit The waterfront stretches in a Northwest di- and live next to, and that has kept its rection from historic Pioneer Square near the integrity” (quoted in Gordon, 1999: Kingdome to the Space Needle in Seattle 43) Center. Shops, restaurants, and a wide range of tourism amenities and services are lo- cated along Alaskan Way. Power Relationships Linking Tourists to Brokers In the late 1960s, waterfront commerce along with other businesses in Seattle suf- The relationship between the tourist and the fered economically. From that period for- broker can be described as buyer and sup- ward, however, revitalization efforts have plier, the serviced and the server, and the dramatically succeeded. In reference to the pupil and the teacher. As suppliers, brokers harbor front, the observations of Robert contribute to shaping the decisions of tour- Goodwin, a coastal resources specialist with ists in purchasing commodities and services. the Washington Sea Grant Program and an They even go as far as teaching tourists how adjunct professor in the School of Marine to appreciate amenities and other features of Affairs at the University of Washington, the touristic destination. They also serve have been summarized as follows: tourists by facilitating the movement of the “Today, [the central waterfront] is en- tourist and the communication of language, joying a renaissance. From the bustling cultural manners, and mores. In this proc- ferry terminal at Colman Dock (Pier ess, they tell what tourists can and cannot 52) to 20 blocks north at the upscale do, where tourists can and cannot go, and Bell Street Pier project (Pier 66) almost what tourists should select and reject. every square foot of Seattle’s waterfront promenade has been renovated, rebuilt, Brokers in the Seattle Waterfront include or reinvented…” (Gordon, 1999: 41). Argosy, Spirit of Puget Sound, Victoria Clipper, Tillicum Village, Port of Seattle, This rehabilitation has occurred as planners and Seattle and King County Convention and development entrepreneurs have abided by the state’s 1971 Shoreline Man- 226 Cheong and Miller
Bureau. They contribute in the following interpersonal exchange involving areas: nonverbal communication and de- • Through promotion and marketing, liberately friendly conversation. brokers, especially public brokers • Locals distinguish themselves from like the Seattle Convention Bureau tourists by dress, territorial behavior and the Port of Seattle attract tour- (selection of seating), an overtly ists, and make them adhere to cer- confident use of time (for example, tain tourist routes. knowing when to move to cars and • Brokers also construct knowledge of when to start engines), and by not the Seattle Waterfront. For example, exuding over touristic sights as Tillicum Village tour of Salmon and tourists might. Native Americans introduce the tradition by building a house on the Private Sector Brokers (Waterfront island with Native American arti- Restaurant Employees) and Locals: facts, carving, and food. In this in- • Restaurant employees provide ser- teraction, tourists gain knowledge vices to both tourists and locals (of offered by the broker and interpret course, some “tourist restaurants” the historic sites and traditions ac- are avoided by locals). cordingly. • Locals who are regulars develop so- cial ties with employees. • Employees sustain their relationship Power Relationships Linking with regulars be providing person- Brokers to Locals alized service. • Regulars sustain their relationship Power linking brokers and locals in the BLT with employees via conversation model flows in both directions depending and also by tipping. on the situation at hand. At times, brokers influence the activities and thinking of lo- Unless common themes/issues surface in- cals. At other times, the reverse is the case. volving both the broker and the local, no The Foucauldian interpretation, however, explicit relationship exists. When they con- emphasizes the ways in which brokers and flict or cooperate, a relationship blossoms. locals shape the behavior of tourists. In this Soaring housing price, construction noise, joint use of power, the broker-local relation- tax dollars going to tourism development, ship is put at some risk. In particular, the and so forth are issues locals can take with local strives not to be treated as a tourist. brokers. In the case of the Seattle Water- front, the problem of public access creates a Several examples illustrate these power dy- relationship. In an interview with a man- namics at Seattle waterfront: ager of the Waterfront, Port of Seattle, the manager says that waterfront development Public Sector Brokers (Ferry Service is “a public outreach. The public was nega- Employees) and Locals: tive at first. The port wanted to make the highest and best use with hotels, offices, and • Ferry workers direct tourists and lo- condominiums. The public wanted more cals (including commuters) where to traditional working waterfront type. So park and how to proceed onto the now we have mixed use – cruise ships, fac- ferry. tory trawler, navy, aircraft base, fish plant, • Locals develop the role of “regu- etc.” lars” via the maintenance of social ties with ferry workers. Though the public access to the Seattle Wa- • Regulars are practiced in ferry rou- terfront has increased in recent years, there tines and signal their competence to is a concern that it is being increasingly workers who acknowledge this in Cheong and Miller 227 regulated (Frenkel and Walton, 1999). For In conclusion, we reiterate several points: example, when the pier is rented out for • Power is everywhere evident in private events, such as weeding, they are coastal and marine tourism. closed off to the public. The marina is only • Power connects people in the bro- accessible with a key from the shipmaster ker-local-tourist system at the indi- (Frenkel and Walton, 1999). In addition, vidual or face-to-face level. homeless have been relocated to the fringes • While power flows in all directions, of the Central Waterfront. the power of brokers (and to a lesser degree, that of locals) over tourists is substantial. Power Relationships Linking • Power can be - depending on the Tourists to Locals situation - productive (for example, educational) or constraining. As discussed, the Foucauldian interpretation of power in tourism emphasizes the influ- Touristic outcomes such as infrastructure ence of locals over tourists rather than the developed on the Seattle waterfront as well reverse. On the Seattle waterfront, locals - as the memories people have of BLT interac- especially those who are regulars (that is, tions there can be in large part attributed to who are known as individuals by brokers on the professional work of private and public the scene) - control tourists in many ways. sector brokers. When people (whether these • Locals provide (or refrain from pro- are tourists, locals, or other brokers) find viding) directions, explanations of fault with tourism outcomes, brokers must sights: admit responsibility. When people endorse “What are those mountains?” (the tourism outcomes, brokers can take credit Olympic Peninsula) “How are those salmon caught?” (trolling, seining, etc.) References • Locals assist (or refrain from assis- ting) tourists by becoming ambas- Cheong, So-Min and Miller, Marc L. (2000). sadors or “hosts”: Power and Tourism: A Foucauldian Ob- “What should we see on Bainbridge servation. Annals of Tourism Research, Island?” 27(2): 371-390. “Where can we purchase Northwest Frenkel, Steve and Walton, Judy. (1999). "Se- Indian art?” attle's New ‘World-Class’ Water-front." • Locals stay away from crowded Paper presented at the Annual Associa- tourist destinations or are pushed tion of Geographers Meeting, Hawaii. away from their favorite places be- Foucault, Michel. (1978). The History of cause of tourism development. Sexuality: Volume I: An Introduction. Vin- tage Books, New York. Foucault, Michel. (1980). “Truth and Conclusion Power,” Interview by A. Fontana and P. Pasquino. In: Power/Knowledge: Selected In this paper, we have employed a Fou- Interview and Other writings 1972-1977. cauldian framework to consider a case of C. Gordon, (ed.), Pantheon Books, New marine tourism. Although our illustra-tions York. pp.109-133. have concerned the Seattle central water- Gordon, David George. (1999). “On the Wa- front, we would expect similar power dy- terfront: Seattle’s Urban Harborfront is namics elsewhere where coastal and marine Booming, with Restaurants, Tourism, tourism is found. Transportation, and More,” Seattle (March), pp. 40-43.
228 Cheong and Miller
Greater Seattle Chamber of Commerce. (1999). “Demographics,” URL:
Robert Preston-Whyte Life and Environmental Science University of Natal (South Africa)
Abstract: Seaside leisure space is defined here as take advantage of a year-round tourist sea- a production of the material environment that is son to recreate in spaces created for specific used and recognized for leisure activities via leisure activities. These are the spaces used cultural and symbolic images of that environment. for boating, board surfing, bathing, fishing, However the definition fails to address an im- promenading, sunbathing, picnicking, portant aspect of leisure space, namely the extent shopping/eating, flying, under-water diving to which it is contested and/or regulated. Leisure and living. Boundaries between the spaces spaces become contested when users are excluded sometimes overlap. Spaces are also formed because of group domination arising out of scar- intermittently by special interest groups. city, economic access or political policy. The re- International surfing competitions tempo- sulting tension is either exacerbated or moderated rally transform a section of the seaside into a by the extent to which the regulation of the leisure theme park. Religious groups temporally spaces by the appropriate authorities succeeds in utilize bathing spaces to perform cleansing allocating space amongst competing users, en- and baptizing ceremonies. Given the domi- sures their safety and, where possible, facilitates nance of sun, sand and surf, the leisure in- access to all users. Using Durban as a case study, dustry and local government planning and 13 spaces are subjectively defined on the basis of development institutions tend to regard the their leisure activities. The nature of the contested material seaside environment as the causal and regulated features of the spaces is summa- background to the leisure activities in these rized. It appears that contest over leisure space is spaces. Leisure space is seen as a production related to the cultural or economic group domi- of the material environment that is used for nation of scarce leisure spaces. Sensitivity to- wards the requirements of social transformation, the purpose of leisure activities and recog- awareness of the economic benefits that derive nized by the users through the cultural im- from this major tourist destination and the pro- ages of a material space that has symbolic vision of order and safety characterize the regu- meaning. lation of contested spaces by various authorities. The study shows that the concept of contested and The concept of leisure space as material en- regulated space reinforces conceptions of how vironment contributes towards the identifi- leisure space is represented and contributes to the cation of these spaces, but fails to contribute overall notion of leisure spatiality. insights into the social and political dimen- sions of the seaside and what this means for Keywords: Leisure space, spatial partitioning, the leisure industry and regulating institu- contested space, regulated space tions. The implications of this for Durban are addressed in three parts. The first part links notions of space as material environment Introduction and space as social spatiality. This deepens our understanding of how seaside leisure
spaces are continually re-invented by new Socially, culturally and politically the con- groups on one hand or by the visions of temporary seaside at Durban is a very dif- planners and developers on the other. It also ferent place than that which existed only a allows the process of the socialization of decade ago. The visitors are multicultural space to be interpreted using the concepts of and multiracial, international and national, contested and regulated space. Contested rich and poor, educated and illiterate. They 230 Preston-Whyte space is the product of domination and ap- for leisure activities such as boating, surfing, propriation that emerge from social practices. diving, bathing, walking, fishing, shopping Spatial domination inevitably is challenged and living. These leisure spaces are also in a continually evolving social domain. recognized through the social and cultural When this takes place the boundaries be- images of a material space that has symbolic tween public and private space becomes meaning for the users. Many of the leisure porous and ill-defined, conceptions of mate- spaces are inherently different as evidenced rial and metaphorical space become fluid by the different activities that occur on the while changes occur in spaces that are con- sand beach, breaker and deep water zones. structed, ordered and controlled. Regulated The activities reflect different recreational space on the other hand is the result of the objectives, they require different skills and continuing dialectic between the daily ex- levels of environmental knowledge, they perience and practices of seaside users, the recognize boundaries that are both material material environment and social, institu- and metaphysical and the scale of these tional and political systems. Regulation can bounded spaces may operate at levels that be through personal, social or institutional range from the local to the global. They also intervention with the objective of imposing focus attention on the symbolic and existen- order on the spaces. The effect is to reinforce tial in giving meaning to subjective notions conceptions of how these spaces are repre- of a sense of place. sented. The perception of leisure spaces raises the The interpretation of contemporary leisure question of how these spaces are understood spaces at Durban cannot be undertaken and partitioned. The epistemological ques- without an appreciation of the changing tion of how knowledge about space is ob- social processes that give shape and form to tained has been approached from a variety the material and social spaces. The second of philosophical positions. The position fa- part of the paper outlines the nature of lei- vored here is constructivism, which is out- sure spaces as they have developed since the lined by Moore (1979), and Gale and Gol- racial desegregation of beaches in 1989. lidge (1982). Building on the work of Kant Leisure spaces are identified, the social and (1966), Gale and Gollidge (1982) divide cultural processes that identify and sustain knowledge into two main elements. The first them are discussed and it is suggested that is matter that is derived from knowledge the conceptualization of these spaces is en- obtained by the senses. The second is form forced by the extent to which they are con- which gives order to the content thus ob- tested and regulated. While recognizing the tained. By synthesizing the extremes of em- conceptual dangers inherent in over-reliance piricism and rationalism, this epistemologi- on typologies, attention is directed towards cal position holds that “the matter of why each of the spaces is different and how knowledge is given experientially while the and by whom they are conceived, symbol- form of knowledge is given a priori. Thus ized and used. The evolving spectacle of knowledge is built or constructed through leisure spaces is thus conceptualized in the the integration of sensory experiences and context of social transformation. the intuitive forms of space and time” (Gale and Gollidge 1982).
The Concept of Seaside Leisure By this reasoning, individuals capable of Space sensory perception each form their own constructions of space. While these con- The seaside is attractive to leisure-seekers structions are likely to differ between indi- because of the number and variety of over- viduals it is assumed that there is sufficient lapping spaces that are a production of the congruence to provide a structure for the material environment and which are used subjective partitioning of spaces (Gollidge, 1978; 1981). In the case of the seaside, Preston-Whyte 231 place-specific characteristics of the envi- an idea, an ideal, a contested concept” ronment help to define leisure spaces. At a (Mitchell, 1996: 128) through its discovery by crude level, the land-sea divide would be new groups on one hand and the visions of identified. Thereafter, spaces are subdivided planners and developers on the other. on the basis of the activities that characterize the land use (Lynch, 1960; Appleyard, 1970). In societies where groups cluster on the basis Spaces assume a hierarchy of importance of culture, class or race, and where the governed by the desire and/or opportunity process of social change is accelerated, con- to use them. Thus sunbathers, board surfers, tests over space provide important insights bathers, fishermen, promenaders and into the nature of social change and the yachtsmen are likely to use constructivist manner in which this is accommodated by principles to partition spaces subjectively on the leisure industry. This is pertinent when the basis of their level of familiarity and in- groups that previously were excluded be- teraction with the environment. Thus deci- cause of poverty, prejudice or perverted sions relating to the choice of space, periods legislation discover leisure spaces. of use, and necessary preparations would employ constructivist thought that draws on Seaside leisure space may be contested for a knowledge of weather and wave conditions, number of reasons. Scarcity of leisure space sunburn avoidance and suitable clothing as is an important motive. This property of well as the idealist and romanticized a priori space may be due to an absolute scarcity, knowledge that informs the subjective per- such as sheltered bathing or a remnant coral ceptions of space. This conceptualization of reef, or a relative scarcity caused, for exam- space incorporates the space of leisure ac- ple, by distance from the space and accom- tivities in the material environment, pro- panying transport costs. When such spaces vides measures of difference between leisure are perceived to have value, efforts to secure spaces and integrates the symbolic values control over them take a number of forms. socially and culturally attached to these Legislation that excludes groups from spe- spaces. cific leisure spaces is an extreme example of social control. The apartheid legislation in The notion that space as social process and South Africa designed to segregate space on social practice determines social spatiality is the basis of race is a typical example. Other relevant here. Many writers (for example, forms of seaside space domination occur Giddens, 1984; Harvey, 1989; Soja, 1989; Le- through the acquisition of territorial occupa- febvre, 1991; Shields, 1991; Gregory, 1994; tion of spaces that require specific skills. Massey, 1994) have discussed the presenta- Surfboarding, yachting and scuba diving fall tion of space as a dimension of social life. into this category. Individuals and groups This raises issues that are pertinent to sea- may be excluded from such spaces through side leisure spaces. They include issues of lack of incentive or the means to participate. management, planning, governance and In addition leisure space may be contested wider notions of sustainability. For these to when the boundaries between different be resolved the concept of space must in- spaces overlap. Thus board surfers may be in clude the space of politics in the wider public conflict with pier fishermen, jet ski riders space of the seaside. It is also relevant to with bathers or promenaders with motor question how such spaces may contribute vehicles. Within bounded spaces territorial towards the construction of a public sphere occupation by groups entrenches percep- (Mitchell, 1996). Inherent in such questions is tions of spatial possession. the nature and existence of boundaries be- tween public and private spaces and be- The production of space implies its conquest tween those that are socially and culturally (Harvey, 1989). Leisure spaces are perceived, identified, constructed, controlled and con- legitimized and regulated by institutions and tested. Within these parameters the seaside organizations thereby guaranteeing access to is continually being re-invented “as a place, those members of society who wish to par- 232 Preston-Whyte ticipate in the defined activities. This sets in by board surfers and bathers. A number of motion a process that either may exacerbate piers constructed along the central beaches or moderate the tensions produced over enable visitors to view the beachfront from a contested leisure space. This is apparent vantage beyond the surf and for fishermen when the politics of space is ideologically to cast into deep water. Adjacent and paral- inspired, as was the case with apartheid lel to the beach a 3-km long paved prome- legislation that restricted access to leisure nade accommodates those who wish to walk, space by race. More commonly regulation is run, cycle or rollerblade. The promenade is sanctioned through the discretion granted to backed by a recreation space that is land- democratically appointed authorities. The scaped with lawns, paddling pools, garden function of these authorities is to establish playgrounds, fast food outlets and restau- appropriate rules to order and direct leisure rants and beach clothing shops. High-rise spaces. For example, locations for safe surf apartment blocks and hotels are lined paral- bathing are authorized, spaces are allocated lel to these spaces. These buildings back onto for board surfers, fishermen are permitted the nearby central business district and pro- the use of specific piers, crime is controlled vide an outlet for the cultural and shopping by adequate policing, lifeguards are accred- desires of visitors and residents. ited and informal pavement vendors are restricted to allocated spaces. The effect is to Leisure spaces are perceived and partitioned define and tacitly to recognize the legitimacy on the basis of the principal activities that of those recreating in these territorially occur therein. Their boundaries vary in de- bounded spaces. Within these spaces, indi- grees of rigidity and porosity and may viduals and organizations tend to practice overlap. The leisure spaces defined in Figure levels of self-regulation commensurate with 1 and Table 1 should, therefore, be regarded their skills and authority. Thus bathers tend as schematic and subjective. remain inshore if they cannot swim and clubs emphasis safety regulations for their The nature of contested and regulated fea- members. tures of the seaside leisure spaces can be summarized as follows:
The Contested/Regulated Nature Space 1: Uncontested - the leisure value oc- of Seaside Leisure Space curs in the form of spectator interest pro- vided by the wide variety of moored ships A wide selection of leisure spaces is avail- and the constant traffic in and out of the able to the Durban seaside visitor. A sandy harbor. beach extends northwards from the harbor Regulated by safety considerations relating entrance (Figure 1). The offshore environ- to the depth of water for safe anchoring and ment allows fishing, surfsking, boardsailing the safe distance between ships and yachting. Near the harbor entrance the surf is moderated by the headland in the Space 2: Largely uncontested given adequate southeast, known as the Bluff. This provides space. Regulated by harbor authorities in ideal conditions for the launching of small case of fishing boats and by club and self- fishing boats and yachts and facilitates regulation in case of paddle and surfski us- boardsailing and surfsking. An abandoned, ers. now submarine pier called Vetch’s Pier, north of the harbor entrance moderates the Space 3: Occasional contests over space with surf in this space and provides a safe envi- those engaged in fishing. Regulation occurs ronment for snorkel and scuba divers intent through “insider” knowledge and vocabu- on collecting tropical fish. North of this lary and by space restrictions preventing sheltered marine environment the surf in- overlap with bathers. creases in size to produce conditions desired
Preston-Whyte 233
Figure 1. Seaside activity spaces at Durban
234 Preston-Whyte
Space Location Activity 1 Outer anchorage Ship mooring prior to harbor entrance 2. Between outer anchorage Fishing, yachting, surfskiing, and surf break line diving, jetskiing 3 Between surf break line Board surfing and near inshore 4 Between waterline and Bathing, religious ceremonies standing depth 5 Sand beach Sunbathing, volley ball, running 6 Promenade Walking, running, biking, rollerblading 7 General recreation Sunbathing, picnicking, paddle pools, fast foods, swimming pool 8 Upper promenade and road Craft markets, walking, parking 9 Hotels and apartments Temporary, second home and permanent accommodation 10 Between north harbour pier Yacht and skiboat launching area and submergedVetch’s Pier 11 Vetch’s Pier Snorkling and scuba diving 12 Piers Promenading, fishing 13 Air space Viewing flights, helicopter patrols Table 1. Activity spaces associated with the Durban seaside
Space 4: Contested in the form of cultural that impact on curio traders and law en- dominance of bathing areas. Strictly regu- forcement services. lated by lifeguards who enforce bathing between spaced beacons at designated Space 9: Contested on economic and cultural beaches along the shoreline. grounds through access to expendable in- come. Regulated by hotel industry and Space 5: Contested in the form of cultural apartment boards of control. dominance adjacent to bathing areas but not elsewhere. Regulated by lifeguards and po- Space 10: Uncontested given adequate space. lice who restrict the consumption of alcohol Regulated by fishing, yachting and diving and antisocial behavior. clubs.
Space 6: Relatively uncontested despite wide Space 11: Uncontested given small popula- range of users. Regulated by law enforce- tion of divers who are regulated by safety ment officers. requirements set by the diving club.
Space 7: Differential contests depending on Space 12: Contests occur between users. nature of the activity space. For example, Fishermen are accused of leaving malodor- paddling pools are contested in the form of ous litter and threatening the safety of cultural dominance; restaurants in the form onlookers and surfers with their hooks and of expendable income. Regulation is by in- sinkers. For this reason they are strictly con- stitutional controls such as law enforcement trolled and may fish from only a single pier. and health services. Space 13: Relatively uncontested. The air Space 8: Contested between pedestrians and traffic, mainly in the form of helicopter pa- motor traffic. Regulated by licensing laws trols, does not appear to invade other spaces.
Preston-Whyte 235
However, air traffic authorities strictly generally expansive and the participants few. regulate the space. As part of the globalization of leisure, par- ticipants in these activity spaces are part of a communion with similar activities and Conclusion spaces elsewhere. Their level of expendable income or first world experience also defines The notion of leisure space carries with it the them. By contrast the land-based activity assumptions that people differentiate and spaces 4-9 are heavily used and the spaces categorize this space in their mind. As accordingly become contested in the form of knowledge derived empirically from the cultural domination or economic influence. senses is combined with a priori conceptu- alizations of space and time, a leisure space While conceptions of activity spaces may be becomes a bounded entity. The subjective strengthened by the extent to which they are partitioning of such space gains credibility contested, they are further reinforced by the when sufficient people agree on the princi- regulation of these spaces. Regulation is ple activities that define the space. Once they about the politics of order and control. All are defined in this way leisure spaces be- the defined activity spaces are subject to come part of the social domain in which some level of regulation but vary markedly spatial domination may play a part. Ques- by the nature of the space. The spaces at sea tions of why, when and who dominates lei- are regulated by the harbor authorities but sure spaces exposes issues that can help ex- also by recreation organizations concerned plain the nature of contested space. For rea- with the safety of their members. On land sons that range from ideological control to and in the surf regulation arises out of the public safety, these spaces are also subject to need to control large crowds and from per- regulation by institutions, organizations and ceptions of crime. Lifeguards regulate the local groups. The effect is to reinforce con- beaches while contingents of police on foot, ceptions of how these spaces are repre- horse, bicycle and car provide a visible dis- sented. incentive to the criminal element.
Spatial domination is subject to ongoing Conceptions of how leisure spaces are rep- change as the social domain evolves. The resented, contested and controlled assist racial desegregation of the Durban seaside visitors in choosing between seaside resorts. removed the politically imposed boundaries A wide range of leisure activities provides on leisure spaces. However, the sudden in- an additional attraction. The combination of flux of groups that previously had been ex- these facilities has made Durban the most cluded exposed new contests over space and popular tourist destination in the province of produced new forms of regulations. Levels KwaZulu-Natal (Tourism Durban, 1989a; of contest and regulation describe thirteen 1989b) and one of the largest in southern subjectively partitioned activity spaces. The Africa. domination of these spaces is culturally and economically determined. This in turn in- forms the manner in which these spaces are References perceived, accessed, used and regulated. Appelyard, D. (1970). Styles and methods of Contests over leisure space are directly re- structuring a city. Environment and Be- lated to levels of space scarcity and the cul- haviour, 2: 100-217. tural or economic domination of scarce space Gale, N., and R.G. Gollidge. (1982). On the resources. Thus spaces 1-3 and 10-13 are subjective partitioning of space. Annals relatively uncontested. They are partitioned of the Association of American Geographers, by activities that take place on, under and 72: 60-67. above the sea environment. The spaces are Giddens, A. (1984). The Constitution of Society. 236 Preston-Whyte
Polity Press, Cambridge. Gregory, D. (1994). Geographical Imaginations. Blackwell,Oxford. Gollidge, R.G. (1978). Representing, inter- preting and using cognised environ- ments. Papers of the Regional Science As- sociation, 41: 169-204. Gollidge, R.G. (1981). Misconceptions, mis- interpretations and misrepresentations of behavioural approaches in human geography. Environment and Planning A, Harvey, D. (1989). The Condition of Postmod- ernity. Blackwell, Oxford. Kant, I. (1966). Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. F. Max Muller. Doubleday, Garden City, NY. Lefebvre, A. (1991). The Production of Space. Blackwell, Oxford. Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City. The M.I.T. Press, Cambridge Mass. Massey, D. (1994). Space, Place and Gender. Polity Press, Cambridge. Mitchell, D. (1996). Public space and the city. Urban Geography, 17: 127-131. Moore, G.T. (1979). Knowing about envi- ronmental. Environment and Behaviour, 11: 33-71. Soja, E. (1989). Postmodern Geographies: The reassertion of space in critical social theory. Verso, London. Shields, R. (1991). Places on the Margin - Al- ternative Geographies of Modernity. Routledge, London. Tourism Durban. (1998a). KwaZulu-Natal’s Domestic Tourism Market. Report no. 25 Tourism Durban. 1998b. KwaZulu-Natal’s International Tourism Market. Report No. 26.
OTTER SKINS, CLEARCUTS, AND ECOTOURISTS: RE-RESOURCING HAIDA GWAII
Joel Martineau Department of English University of British Columbia (Canada)
Abstract: This essay traces a history of re- colonizing discourses that have positioned source extraction on Haida Gwaii, the archipel- Haida Gwaii as a source of primary re- ago that is sometimes called the Queen Charlotte sources that could be extracted and trans- Islands and is situated off of British Columbia’s ported to centers where they would be proc- northwest coast. I argue that, beginning with essed. Various manifestations of these the maritime fur trade in the 1780s, visitors have discourses of resource extraction have domi- viewed the archipelago as a source of raw mate- nated social and economic relations on rials that could be advantageously extracted and Haida Gwaii (and much of the Northwest processed in various colonial and neocolonial Coast) ever since. However, during the last centers. I then argue that, since the 1970s, the quarter of the twentieth century, the dis- discourse of ecotourism has contributed to an course of ecotourism has offered Haida and alternative way of viewing the islands. It has non-Haida residents of the islands a means provided the Haida nation with a means to ques- to challenge long-standing colonial and neo- tion the rhetoric of progress through resource colonial discourses. I believe that the dis- extraction and to regain control of some of their course of ecotourism is helping local resi- lands. dents, especially Haida, regain control of
their lands. Keywords : Haida, Haida Gwaii, natural resources, resource extraction, ecotourism, land claims, cultural resources A History of Resource Extraction
on Haida Gwaii
Introduction James Cook’s third expedition (1776-1780)
set out from England with instructions to Haida Gwaii, an archipelago of one hun- sail north through the Pacific, locate the dred fifty islands, lies between the parallels Northwest Passage that led into the polar of 54º 50’ and 51º 50’ North, thirty to ninety sea, and then sail eastward through that sea miles off the northwestern coast of and out into the Atlantic. The objectives mainland British Columbia. The tip of the were exploratory and scientific. However, Alaska panhandle reaches to within thirty- while careening the ships at King George’s five miles of the archipelago, while Vancou- Sound (later named Nootka Sound) in ver Island is one hundred fifty miles south- March and April 1778, officers and crew east and Vancouver is four hundred miles traded for many sea otter skins. Following southeast. There are two large islands in the unsuccessful searches for a Northwest Pas- archipelago: Graham Island to the north, sage in the summers of 1778 and 1779 that and Moresby Island to the south. Spanish bracketed Cook’s untimely death in Febru- sailors on board the frigate Santiago re- ary 1779, the expedition turned homeward corded the first visit to the islands by Euro- with stops at Petropavlovsk and Macao. Americans in 1774 (Beals, 1989; W. Cook, There the pelts acquired at Nootka, and 1973). Soon thereafter, the maritime fur some additional skins acquired in Sandwich trade brought the first in a series of Sound (later named Prince William Sound), 238 Martineau fetched such high prices that the crew on the North West Coast of America” (1789, threatened mutiny, hoping to force an im- p. ix). The financiers assumed that their mediate return to the Northwest Coast for captain-traders would implement trade rela- more furs. However, the officers prevailed tions modeled on British understandings of and the ships returned to England, arriving law, property, and commerce. Specifically, in October 1780. to “secure the trade of the continent and the islands,” Portlock and Dixon were “to estab- When reports of Cook’s voyage began circu- lish such factories” as they deemed neces- lating in Europe, they ignited the maritime sary, purchasing from the natives such fur trade to the Northwest Coast (Cook and tracts of land as the captains thought best King, 1784; Scofield, 1993). Given the high suited for the purpose of trading while pay- demand for sea otter furs in Canton, traders ing the natives “in the most friendly and from England and New England hoped to liberal manner for the same” (Howay, 1929: parlay this “soft gold” from the first leg of 61-62). According to this line of thinking, their voyages into silks, teas, spices and por- the natives were the same as Europeans celain in China and finally return to their (owning and trading tracts of land and wel- home ports bearing Oriental treasures (Gib- coming commercial expansion) yet different son 1992). By the 1790s, British and Ameri- from Europeans (unable to determine and can fur traders had identified Haida Gwaii, obtain the value of their lands). The consor- which they respectively named Queen Char- tium’s instructions to Portlock and Dixon lotte’s Isles and Washington’s Isles, as a were consistent with imperial perspectives, prime source of sea otter skins. Information but at odds with the situations the com- about Cook’s voyage and the possibilities manders encountered en route to and upon for a lucrative fur trade on the Northwest arrival on the distant coast (for example, Coast spread rapidly, with accounts marvel- concern about scurvy, challenges in acquir- ing at the ease with which furs had been ing provisions, fear of native attacks). obtained on the Northwest Coast and the desire they had elicited in Asian markets. Portlock and Dixon acquired few furs in James King, who had assumed command of 1786, their first season on the Northwest the expedition during its final stages, out- Coast. After wintering at the Sandwich Is- lined a comprehensive plan for commerce. lands (later named the Hawaiian Islands), His proposal detailed the types of ships that they experienced further disappointments at should be used, the various trade commodi- Prince William Sound in May 1787. Dixon ties they should carry, the seasons during struck out in a southerly direction and ar- which they should sail, the arrangements rived at Haida Gwaii on July 2, where, he that should be made with the East India writes, “A scene now commenced, which Company, and ways to procure victuals for absolutely beggars all description.” Haida the voyage (Cook and King, 1784, III: 437- paddled out to the Queen Charlotte in canoes 40). The British expedition that would bring bringing “most beautiful beaver [otter] Haida Gwaii into this web of exploration, cloaks,” and “fairly quarrelled with each capital and trade responded to King’s pro- other about which should sell his cloak first; posal. A consortium of financiers hired and some actually threw their furs on board, George Dixon and Nathaniel Portlock, offi- if nobody was at hand to receive them.” cers on Cook’s third voyage, to command The Haida yielded their furs so avidly that the expedition, which departed England in the British had to “take particular care to let September 1785 and returned in September none go from the vessel unpaid” (1789: 201). 1788. Dixon pinpoints the motives of the These events so impressed Dixon that two expedition in the introduction to his account days later he “distinguished” the bay with of the voyage: Cook’s final voyage had “laid the name “Cloak Bay” and then similarly open to future Navigators . . . a new and honored the islands with the name of his inexhaustible mine of wealth” available “by vessel. The questions Dixon and other mer- trading for furs of the most valuable kind, chant explorers raised in their imaginings Martineau 239 and representations of Haida Gwaii were with transforming the social environment primarily those of capital — opportunity, that he encountered. He saw the Haida as risk, return — rather than those of theology, heathens who needed to be saved, yet his philosophy, or science. Dixon’s account, goal exceeded converting subjects through published in 1789, furthered the premise baptism: he sought to implements British advanced in King’s 1784 account: Euro- forms of law and order, British dress codes, Americans should approach the Northwest and European rules of economic regulation. Coast as a resource-based economy that His project was to transform the Haida into could be best understood in terms of re- ideal imperial subjects (Collison, 1981). source extraction. The resources would be brought from the frontier to various eco- Such colonizing schemes accelerated as Brit- nomic, political, and cultural centers where ish Columbia was drawn into the new Ca- their value could be realized. In short, King nadian confederation. Geologist George M. and Dixon appropriated the area into an Dawson was one of the first representatives imperial discourse, aspects of which endure of the federal government to visit Haida to this day. Gwaii. In 1878, the Geological Survey of Canada assigned Dawson to explore the By the end of the 1790s, traders from New archipelago and to assess its potential for England came to dominate the sea otter resource exploitation. His report trade on the Northwest Coast (Gibson, 1992; cartographically erased Haida presence and Busch and Gough, 1997). The American reterritorialized the islands into a national traders redirected capital that the War of (and by extension, international) geological Independence had displaced from its pre- scheme (Dawson 1993; Braun 2000). In es- Revolution applications. Their efforts to sence, his survey cataloged the islands as a develop trade were crucial to the economy fount of resources waiting to be incorpo- of the newfound nation, which was sud- rated into the new nation and its progres- denly isolated from England, the main sive economy. In addition to his profes- source of its pre-Independence exchanges. sional duties, Dawson used his visit to the Alas, the sea otter population on the North- islands to pursue his avocations of ethnol- west Coast could not withstand the pres- ogy and photography. Following the 1878 sures brought to bear by the maritime fur excursion, he published a lengthy article trade. As the number of otters decreased about Haida culture and history, entitled and trade dwindled, foreign interest in “On the Haida Indians of the Queen Char- Haida Gwaii abated, to be revived only lotte Islands,” in the Geological Society’s sporadically by prospects for base metals Report of Progress for 1878-79 and an ex- (Poole 1972) and a short-lived gold rush in cerpted version in Harper’s Magazine in 1882. 1851. The reports of gold on Haida Gwaii Dawson assumes that the most advanta- led the British government to fear excessive geous use of resources is commercial, and American presence in the area. In a pre- recognizes that Haida participation in the emptive strike, Governor James Douglas new resource-extractive economy has been annexed the Queen Charlotte Islands to the and will be limited. He believes that Haida colony of Vancouver Island in September should take up agriculture, a means of pro- 1852. When the amount of gold proved in- curing food that is consistent with English consequential, interest in the archipelago ideals, but “the task of clearing the ground again dwindled and remained quiescent is quite beyond the energy of the Indian” until the 1870s, when the first missionaries (1993: 107). In Dawson’s view, the Haida arrived on the islands. The intentions of are vanishing while the land is not. He as- Reverend William Collison, who arrived in sumes that the Natives will disappear and 1876, differed from those of previous visi- thus free up the resources of the land, the tors in that the resources Collison sought resources (such as coal deposits) that he were human rather than natural; unlike his hires Haida guides to reveal. He sees abo- predecessors, he was overtly concerned riginal people not as full citizens, but as 240 Martineau vanishing natives who hinder the extraction in the case of these people, will be a matter of important resources. of considerable difficulty, for . . . they hold their lands not in any loose general way, but An attitude common to most modern visi- have the whole of the islands divided and tors to the northwest coast is evident in apportioned off as the property of certain Dawson’s ethnography. It pivots on the families, with customs fully developed as to belief, however vaguely articulated, that the inheritance and transfer of lands” (1993: modernization will first degenerate then 166). Dawson’s vision is specific: to dispos- ultimately annihilate the aboriginal popula- sess Haida of their lands and to establish a tion. This line of thinking reasons that resource-extractive economy in which modernization is so antithetical to aborigi- Haida are trained as dutiful workers. He nal ways that it will erase them. Dawson believes that the new and proper culture recognizes that the imposition of the culture will overwrite Haida culture and absorb the that he is importing is responsible for the most fortunate individuals. degeneration of aboriginal cultures. How- ever, he fails to question whether the invad- The depopulation of native villages that ing culture has the right to extinguish (as he Dawson witnessed on Haida Gwaii (and in assumed it would) previous cultures. He other nations on the coast) in 1878 was ar- realizes that the modern and aboriginal cul- guably the deepest reflection of the shock tures are founded on different ways of that aboriginal cultures experienced from viewing the world, but assumes the superi- contact with Europeans; it contributed to the ority of his culture’s cosmology. “The forest invaders’ conviction that natives would dis- of carved posts in front of the village,” he appear. In his thorough review of the his- writes at one point, “doubtless presents to torical literature, Robert Boyd notes that, the native eye a grand and awe-inspiring beginning with Dixon’s visit, smallpox and appearance and brings to the mind a sense venereal diseases ravaged Haida popula- of probably mysterious import, which pos- tions. He estimates the Haida population sibly does not in reality exist” (1993: 110). In prior to 1836 as more than nine thousand; other words, the aboriginal thought world is following the 1836 smallpox epidemic as already a thing of the past, while the less probably one-third less; and by 1882 as mysterious, more rational way of knowing about one thousand six hundred. The num- the world that has replaced it is the present ber of major inhabited villages declined and the future reality. The rational way is from approximately thirteen in the mid- properly progressive. nineteenth century, to eight in 1883, and to three in 1890. By the turn of the century, In the final paragraph of “On the Haida In- only the modern settlements of Skidegate dians,” Dawson summarizes his 1878 visit and Masset remained (1999: 217). Historical and the social restructuring he sought to geographer Cole Harris estimates that the initiate. He concludes that despite “the number of Haida reached a nadir of some alarmingly rapid decrease of the Haida peo- eight hundred (1999: 146), while Haida art- ple” during the nineteenth century, they are ist Robert Davidson cites a figure of five unlikely to disappear as a nation. Their te- hundred (Kittredge 1987: 146). Depending nacity can be turned to the advantage of the upon which numbers one uses, the depopu- new powers, as Haida “show a special apti- lation during the nineteenth century was tude in construction, carving, and other approximately ninety to ninety-seven per forms of handiwork.” Therefore, “those cent. The replacement of Haida economies interested in their welfare” should “promote with voracious colonial economies that co- their education in the simpler mechanical incided with this cataclysmic depopulation arts, by the practice of which they may be was most flagrantly manifested in the twen- able to earn an honest livelihood” (1993: tieth century by the clearcutting of Haida 165). First, however, Haida title to the is- Gwaii’s forests. lands’ resources “must be disposed of. This, Martineau 241
Slowing the Onslaught leading to extensive soil erosion and slides; its methods have destroyed spawning rivers An article entitled “Queen Charlotte Wil- and coastal marine areas; and the Forest derness: Unique and Threatened” and au- Service has, “in direct contravention” of its thored “by the Islands Protection Commit- own guidelines, “quickly approved” tee” appeared in the February 1976 edition Rayonier’s logging plans for the southern of Nature Canada, the magazine published areas. Three color photographs are ar- by the Canadian Nature Federation. A note ranged on one page to mark the contrast at the bottom of the first page explains: “Is- between further exploitation and preserva- lands Protection Committee is an associa- tion. A low camera angle shows a tangle of tion of residents of the Queen Charlotte Is- roots and stumps in a washed-out stream- lands dedicated to preserving the unique bed, with a clearcut receding up the slopes. quality of life on the Islands. They oppose The caption beneath the large image reads, plans by the forest industry to log the “A cut over area on the northern part of Mo- southern part of Moresby Island. You can resby Island.” Arranged beside the scene of support the Committee by writing to Islands wreckage are two smaller photos. One Protection, P.O. Box 302, Masset, B.C.” zooms in on a nesting raptor and is cap- (1976: 39). The article describes the south- tioned, “Peale’s falcon, a distinct race of the ern third of the archipelago as “the living peregrine falcon, is limited to the Char- fabric of a Pacific wilderness,” unique and lottes.” The other sweeps a panorama of special. The islands are home to peregrine coastline and is accompanied by the infor- falcons, sea otters, trumpeter swans, whales, mation that “One of the greatest single re- eagles and other endangered species; they sources in the Charlottes is the rich life of host endemic plant species and contain the coastal marine areas” (1976: 40). world’s largest red cedar, yellow cypress and sitka spruce trees; and they are rich in The article then explains that in “the au- Haida history and legend. However, the tumn of 1974 a group of Queen Charlotte article warns that the traditional harmony residents formed the Islands Protection that existed during some 8,000 years of abo- Committee to voice concerns over riginal inhabitation has been disrupted by Rayonier’s scheduled logging of the South the ethic of the colonists to such an extent Moresby area.” It describes how the Skide- that, for instance, a whaling station helped gate Band Council expressed similar con- “to convert the world’s largest and least un- cerns and how Islands Protection supported derstood mammal into lamp oil, corsets and the Haida, then “went a step further” by shoe polish.” The article appears “at a criti- outlining a “wilderness proposal” for cal moment” in the archipelago’s history, southern Moresby. Islands Protection sub- when “the balance may be cast either way mitted what was essentially a resource — towards preservation or towards in- management plan to the Premier of BC, to creased exploitation.” The area “now faces the Minister of Lands, Forests and Water a threat of unprecedented magnitude,” as Resources, and to the Minister of Recreation Rayonier Canada, “a subsidiary of the and Conservation. “Reaction on the Char- world’s largest multinational corporation, lottes, where logging is the principal indus- I.T.T.,” plans to clearcut many of the “virgin try, was surprisingly favorable” (1976: 42). forests” (1976: 41). Having outlined its con- The submission resulted in a moratorium on cerns, the Committee provides details sup- logging in the area. However, the text con- ported by striking photographs. We read cludes with a warning that Rayonier could that the subsidiary of the multinational cor- quickly move its operations into the con- poration has already clearcut extensive ar- tested area: “Reportedly the Environment eas further north on the archipelago, with and Land Use Commission will take a look devastating results. It has logged slopes at the area in the summer of 1976, but with steeper than forestry regulations permit, the new change of government in B.C. — who knows” (1976: 43). 242 Martineau
The campaign to preserve South Moresby time another tree fell, the dream and the from the exploitative fate that has befallen conviction to achieve it only grew more northerly portions of Haida Gwaii stronger.” (Broadhead 1989: 53) lasted from the fall of 1974 to July 1987. Broadhead argues that significant social “Queen Charlotte Wilderness: Unique and change can occur only with a broadly Threatened” is but one article (albeit the shared experiential base: “In the case of a first major article on this topic to appear in a wilderness proposal, a sufficient number of national periodical) in a long and complex people must know the place and share a gut conflict. Yet, it introduces the key organiza- feeling for the values at stake, before the tion of preservationists; it recognizes the ‘critical mass’ of opinion capable of precipi- primacy of Haida responsibility in the dis- tating political change can be attained.” pute and defers to Haida initiatives; it de- Islands Protection therefore enacted “a sim- lineates two thirds of the exploitation axis as ple, two-pronged strategy: start talking and the forces threatening the environment (the start bringing people to the place” (1989: forest companies and the government forest 54). bureaucracy insist on business as usual, while workers are generally willing to re- Island Protection’s determination to “start consider forestry practices); and it intro- talking and start bringing people to the duces several of the tactics that the preser- place” as a means to rupture the usual ways vationists will use during the conflict. of doing business in the islands’ forests in- volved three tactics.1 The first focused on For the Islands Protection Committee, the the rhetoric of science. When industry re- battle lines were drawn between, on one sponded to criticism of its practices by sug- side, the corporations and provincial gov- gesting that matters were best left to its pro- ernment obliged by its own legislation to fessionals with their scientific expertise and allow rapid, large-scale clearcut logging that little would be gained by consulting the and, on the other side, the preservationists poorly informed public, Islands Protection who advocated the wisdom of keeping identified scientific analysis as an important coastal temperate rainforests intact. The weapon (Pinkerton, 1983: 76). The Commit- issue was the same at the outset as it would tee lobbied various agencies to conduct field be thirteen years later. As IPC spokesperson studies in South Moresby and funded scien- John Broadhead wrote, would the industri- tists to research such topics as eagle-nesting alists process the area’s unique ecological densities, intertidal communities and the features into two-by-fours or would the wil- effects of logging on salmon habitat (Broad- derness campaigners’ dream of “a better head, 1984: 130-33; 1989: 54). As it collected world, of respectful relations and mutual information, Islands Protection gained suffi- benefits among two-leggeds, four-leggeds, cient material to argue for the preservation no-leggeds, beaks, no beaks — the works,” of South Moresby on scientific merit alone. prevail? Islands Protection sought to As Bristol Foster had written years before, change the number who shared that dream. Haida Gwaii hosted so many endemic spe- Broadhead writes, cies that it should be recognized as the “Ca- “Such a dream had a remarkable effect nadian Galápagos” (May 1990: 30). Thus, as upon those who became its advocates. early 1976, in the Nature Canada article, Is- The Haida, having lived in the place for lands Protection was arguing that the 10,000 years, had been the first to uniqueness of South Moresby as an intact awaken to it. It was conveyed to a ecosystem was of greater value than the handful, and then to hundreds, then to timber that could be extracted. The preser- thousands of visitors who came to see vationists also gained expertise in the dis- for themselves, only to fall under its course of forestry management itself. spell. It inspired the unshakable convic- Through their preparation of court affida- tion that it was only a matter of time vits and their participation in the Public before the logging would end. Every Advisory Committee, Island Protection Martineau 243 members gained knowledge of cutting rates, to “do a show on South Moresby,” Suzuki logging waste, soil erosion and related mat- visited Haida Gwaii. As Elizabeth May re- ters. By 1980, the Islands Protection Society, counts, Suzuki “had no intention of getting aided by a growing network of sympathiz- involved in the campaign to save South Mo- ers, was able to counter the claims of the resby. He had never been a champion of forest industry with an elaborate critique of Indian rights and he was leery of environ- forestry practices and policies phrased in mental activists who seemed constantly to the industry’s own language (Pinkerton, demand his help” (1990: 62). However, 1983: 79-80; Wilson, 1998: 190).2 back in Toronto, reviewing footage of inter- views conducted during his visit, he real- The second tactic involved the use of im- ized that his thinking had been profoundly ages. Photographers contributed thousands changed. He had asked IPC founder Guu- of “photographs of wildlife and ancient eco- jaaw why the Haida cared about the area. systems,” as well as “devastating shots of Guujaaw responded, “Our people have de- landslides and debris-choked salmon termined that Windy Bay and other areas streams,” which Island Protection members must be left in their natural condition so “then winnowed down into ever-improving that we can keep our identity and pass it on slide shows for public presentation.” The to following generations. The forests, those slide shows and their accompanying narra- oceans are what keep us as Haida people tives were then “taken on the road at every today.” opportunity, presented to small-town natu- “So if they’re logged off?” ralists’ groups; to politicians, singly and in “If they’re logged off, we’ll proba- groups, from the municipal to the federal bly end up the same as everyone level; to assemblies of thousands in confer- else.” (May 1990: 63) ence halls; and to impromptu audiences in railway cars” (Broadhead 1989: 54). To dis- In other words, wilderness is more than an seminate the images and narrative further, environmental matter, it is identity — a Islands Protection Society produced Islands message that would resonate with many at the Edge — Preserving the Queen Charlotte Canadians when Suzuki devoted three The Islands Wilderness, an abundantly illustrated Nature of Things shows to the wilderness collection of seven essays written from abo- proposal. By bringing the “war of the riginal, ecological and environmentalist per- woods” to television, these interventions in spectives. Released in time for Christmas the conflict extended the debate to a na- 1984, the book became a national bestseller, tional audience and brought the discussion resulting in nation-wide publicity for the to a more popular level than had representa- wilderness proposal. tions in newspapers and courts. The con- cern that initially had been mobilized locally The third tactic involved bringing people to through petitions, letters to the editor and South Moresby to experience the area di- affidavits, was thus disseminated through rectly. Islands Protection sought writers, the electronic media. A movement that had photographers, artists, scientists, industrial- started at the grass roots level as a wilder- ists and politicians who, it was hoped, ness proposal to prevent the plundering of would network the message, exponentially resources in the southern portion of Haida spreading it to a national and then interna- Gwaii was asking Canadians to reconsider tional audience (Broadhead, 1989: 55). The the role wilderness plays in contemporary case of David Suzuki, host of the widely constructions of national identity. watched television show The Nature of Things, affords an example of how bril- The tactic of inviting visitors who would liantly this tactic would succeed. In 1982, experience the natural wonders of the area when Islands Protection supporter Jim Ful- and then share their enthusiasm reached a ton, who was Member of Parliament for zenith early in 1987, with word of a forth- Skeena (and Haida Gwaii), implored Suzuki coming article in National Geographic. Moira 244 Martineau
Johnston’s “Canada’s Queen Charlotte Is- vincial and Haida) negotiated a resolution lands: Homeland of the Haida,” appeared in to the South Moresby conflict. Yet the tacti- the July 1987 issue. It features the dramatic cal leverage the article afforded the preser- tropes and lambent photography for which vationists preceded its publication. The National Geographic has become renowned specter of what would surely be yet another (see Lutz and Collins 1993). Johnston begins exposé of government-industry collusion by sharing the awe with which she views and insensitivity to the increasingly linked the islands. They “are among the globe’s concerns of environmentalism and cultural rare jewels,” a wilderness “abounding in preservation hastened politicians to re- treasures.” Their “brooding rain forests” spond. May reveals that as the federal gov- contain “some of the finest surviving stands ernment became eager to resolve the conflict of ancient cedar, spruce, and hemlock,” by creating a park, Islands Protection while their millennia of isolation have re- spokespeople could mention the impending sulted in “an evolutionary crucible that article and inform McMillan that National forged dozens of unique endemic (sic) varie- Geographic “has a direct circulation of four- ties of both plants and animals” (1987: 104). teen million people. Any story on a possible Whatever the natural wonders of the archi- tourism destination results in an average of pelago, these islands are, above all, “Haida a hundred thousand immediate inquiries. Gwaii, ‘homeland’ of the Haida, the sea- Tourism for the park is an increasingly at- roving lords of the coast” and creators of a tractive proposition” (1990: 200). The notion culture that became “the apogee of the of a park gained an economic aura. Politi- Northwest Coast; unequivocally the most cians could take up the cause of saving the advanced of any hunter-gatherer’s.” After environment and a threatened culture even documenting the threat that resource extrac- as they committed to economic progress. tion has brought to the islands and to Haida Federal negotiators also introduced green culture, Johnston outlines a logging contrac- tourism as a vaguely defined but persuasive tor’s concerns that jobs will be lost if South concept at a crucial point late in their nego- Moresby is protected. She then quotes the tiations with British Columbia premier Bill response of Miles Richardson, president of Van der Zalm (May 1990: 221). The novelty the Council of the Haida Nation: “We’re not of the concept allowed federal negotiators to talking about 70 jobs. . . . We’re talking appeal to Van der Zalm’s grandiose dreams about forever. The issue is not logging ver- without having to provide hard data. sus ‘eco-nuts.’ It’s our ability to sustain our culture. And that lies in our relationship — As the political changes initiated on Haida as a people with a 10,000-year history — to Gwaii brought negotiations to save South the land and the sea and their resources” Moresby to a climax, the Bruntland Com- (1987: 126). Immediately after juxtaposing mission advocated sustainable development the different temporal horizons of those in- strategies in its report, Our Common Future, digenous to the islands and those who published in April 1987. The report defines merely seek its resources, Johnston presents sustainability as “development that meets the current hope for alternatives: “Jobs the needs of the present without compro- would be more than compensated by estab- mising the ability of future generations to lishment of a national park and increased meet their own needs” (Bandy, 1996: 543). tourism,” said [Minister of the Environ- Economic development ministries and tour- ment] Tom McMillan, expressing the com- ism marketers began referring to ecotourism mitment of the federal government in Ot- as a promising manifestation of sustainable tawa to preserving South Moresby “for Ca- development. However, “ecotourism” is a nadians yet unborn and for the international neologism that has yet to settle into a firm community” (1987: 126). definition. I define ecotourism as nature- based tourism that involves education and Johnston’s article appeared in July, just as interpretation of the natural environment the three levels of government (federal, pro- and that aspires to ecological and economic Martineau 245 sustainability. It does not necessarily in- Ecotourists and Cultural Strategies clude a cross-cultural component.3 Ecotouring has become the most frequently Concepts of sustainable development were imagined and imaged way to visit Haida central to the new economic approaches ad- Gwaii, so that contemporary representations vocated by the Islands Protection Society of traveling to Haida Gwaii tend to incorpo- and the Council for the Haida Nation rate images and descriptions of ecotours. (CHN) throughout the South Moresby con- When a popular magazine such as West- flict. The preservationists attempted to re- world targets consumers likely to travel to define growth and development qualita- the islands in recreational vehicles, it in- tively by emphasizing equitable and sus- cludes color photographs of kayaking and tainable forms of political ecology, and thus carefully avoids images of recreational vehi- mitigate the traditional quantitative empha- cles (see, for example, Scott 2001). This sis on economic modernization.4 In 1984, linkage between Haida Gwaii and ecotour- pressed to provide specific alternatives to ism began during the campaign to slow cle- logging, IPS founder Thom Henley ad- arcut logging on the islands and became vanced ecotourism as a relatively benign more apparent with the creation in 1987 of and sustainable alternative to the traditional Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve, with resource-extractive economies of Haida the declaration of Ninstints as a UNESCO Gwaii, while warning that, “From 1978 to World Heritage site, and with the increasing 1982 the number of visitors to South Mo- media portrayal of the archipelago and resby on organized commercial tours in- Gwaii Haanas as tourist destinations out- creased eleven-fold. . . . In addition the standing for their aboriginal culture and numbers of private individuals who visit natural settings. the area . . . has also increased dramatically. At present, with no legislation to curtail The Council for the Haida Nation has used logging and mining development and no this discourse of ecotourism, the appeal of official park status to safeguard against visi- the national park, and the leverage afforded tor abuse, South Moresby is suffering the by their joint-management understanding impact of both” (1984: 145-46). In other with Parks Canada, to assert its rights to words, the impact of ecotourism would administer traditional Haida lands, rights have to be monitored, since it seemed to be the Haida never relinquished in treaties. generating too much new industry. Propo- The quota system that was established dur- nents suggested that ecotourism would pro- ing the 1990s to regulate admission to Gwaii vide immediate employment that would Haanas is one example of a CHN strategy compensate for the loss of logging jobs. that targets ecotourists yet has ramifications Taking a longer-term view, they also hoped for intergovernmental relations, especially that ecotourism would promise ecological land claims. By controlling and or restrict- preservation and economic sustainability. ing access to the park, Haida reestablish The drastic depletion of mature forests and their sovereign right to the area. By July the rapidly dwindling fish stocks signaled 1997, visitors wishing to ecotour South Mo- that the logging and fishing industries were resby had to comply with the terms laid out failing on both counts. in an information circular entitled “Planning to Visit Gwaii Haanas?” The circular, dis- On July 11, 1987, the three governments an- tributed by the Skidegate band and Queen nounced an agreement in principle to save Charlotte Tourist Information, states that the southern portion of Haida Gwaii as ecotourists “traveling” to Gwaii Haanas South Moresby / Gwaii Haanas National must take “the mandatory orientation” at Park Reserve, to be jointly managed by one of the times and locations specified, or Parks Canada and the Council for the Haida phone a toll-free number and make “an ad- Nation (Doern and Conway, 1994: 186). vance reservation” for “a small fee,” or
246 Martineau
“grab” one of the six daily “walk in der,” the American travel writer Tim Cahill spaces.”5 The orientation sessions are not recounts an ecotour in which he and nine difficult and the fees are reasonable. The fellow kayakers visit Sgan Gwaii, the importance of the strategy is that to meet the UNESCO World Heritage site that is also requirement, ecotourists must implicitly known as Ninstints. There the Watchman acknowledge Haida control of the region. Wanagun articulates a history of the site The mandatory orientation sessions are an that passionately and learnedly contests or- adjunct to the long-dormant Haida Watch- thodox Euro-American histories (Cahill, men program, which the CHN has revived. 1997). In Haida Gwaii: Journeys through the In the earliest photographs of the islands, Queen Charlotte Islands, ecotourist Ian Gill small, crouched human figures, wearing arrives at Sgan Gwaii, having “spent the hats with high crowns, sit atop all frontal past few days in a high state of anticipation poles. As Hilary Stewart explains, they are of this moment, coming at last to this Pan- known as “Watchmen,” with supernatural theon of Haida culture” (Gill, 1997: 113-14). powers: “from their lofty position atop the Gill first recounts much of the lore of the pole, they look out in several directions to encounters between Haida from Sgan Gwaii keep watch over the village and out to sea. and early traders, then turns to the present They protect those within the dwelling by by quoting at length Wanagun, “a patient warning the chief of the house of any ap- and solicitous storyteller and guide,” who proaching danger, alerting him to canoes gathers the ecotourists “in a sort of Socratic arriving or anything else he should know. semicircle” and brings to life the history of The high-crowned hats worn by the Ninstints (: 116). Gill cites several Euro- Watchmen symbolize the status of the chief American histories of Sgan Gwaii — as re- whose house they guard” (1996: 36). Three corded by copper-miner Francis Poole, cen- Watchmen sit atop most house frontal poles sus-taker John Work, ethnologist John — one peering up the shoreline, one gazing Swanton, and anthropologists Newton Chit- directly out to sea, and the third watching tendon, C.F. Newcombe, and especially Wil- down the shoreline. Haida artist Robert son Duff — while allowing the knowledge- Davidson stresses that the three Watchmen able Haida Watchman to comment on those “represent the different tenses: past, present histories (: 116-22). The passage illustrates and future.” As “interlinked figures” they the potential of ecotourism to immerse trav- “suggest communication and a presence in elers in past and present cultural features of the world while regarding the future” a significant destination. Gill’s research, (Thom, 1993: 92). That tradition has been lively writing and access to Wanagun’s wis- revived as part of the joint management of dom result in an ecologically informed nar- Gwaii Haanas. Funded by Parks Canada, rative that offers insights into the rehistori- the Watchmen Program staffs vital Haida cizing of that locality, the possibilities of heritage sites in the park and at other sensi- developing alternatives to primary resource tive locations on the archipelago with extraction, and matters of native rights and Watchmen, many of whom are female, de- cultural continuation. In The Laughing One: spite the gendered appellation. The A Journey to Emily Carr, biographer Susan Watchmen welcome ecotourists to these im- Crean tells of participating in an ecotour portant sites, typically by recounting Haida that visited Hlkenul (Cumshewa) and K’una histories of the locations. When ecotourists (Skedans). She weaves reflections about the represent their travels to Haida Gwaii and stories that the great Canadian painter and relate their meetings with Haida Watchmen, writer Emily Carr wrote of her 1912 visits to they act as ambassadors for the CHN strate- the respective villages with self-reflection gies that seek to reestablish Haida sover- about Crean’s own experiences there in eignty. 1994. She then recounts the lesson in Haida history and the cultural politics of Haida In “The Queen Charlotte Islands: Life and Gwaii that the venerable Watchman Charley death (hee-hee) tales from the place of won- Wesley delivers to her group (Crean, 2001: Martineau 247
332-34). The representations by Cahill, Gill and second, they are interested in and concerned and Crean partake in a project in which for the cultural aspects of those destinations. Haida, in often-uneasy coalitions with pres- Ecotourism by definition requires responsibility ervationists and more recently with Parks toward the physical and cultural features en- countered. The idea that an ecotour will trans- Canada, have successfully overthrown long- form the ecotourist “into somebody keenly in- standing perceptions of the islands’ re- volved in conservation issues” is idealistic. Ecot- sources as primary materials that should be ourists can and sometimes do fulfill the require- harvested and processed elsewhere. ment of respecting the physical and cultural Ecotourists such as Cahill, Gill and Crean qualities of the destination without becoming now disseminate Haida cultural resources “keenly” involved in conserving those qualities. to international audiences. In doing so, they To be fair, Caballos-Lascuria proffered that defi- respect Haida forests, lands and especially nition early in the 1990s, and the discursive for- mations that have evolved around ecotourism in people in ways that may well allow Haida the intervening years have been polymorphous to keep their identity and pass it on to fol- in ways that no fixed definition could have an- lowing generations, to recall Guujaaw’s ticipated. words (May 1990: 63). Goodwin discusses “competing definitions of ecotourism” (1996: 277-80). See Bandy for other definitions (1996: 544). Notes: ______4 Bandy writes that this shift from the quantita- 1 In this essay, I use “tactic” and “strategy” more tive to the qualitative often proposed “strategies or less interchangeably. In Martineau (2001), I of common property resources, incorporation of observe Michel de Certeau’s careful distinction indigenous local knowledge, and of course, ecot- between the terms as I analyze the conflict on ourism” (1996: 543). Haida Gwaii. 5 “Planning to Visit Gwaii Haanas?” is re- 2 Islands Protection Committee changed its name produced in Martineau (1999). to Islands Protection Society in 1979.
3 Hector Caballos-Lascuria is often credited with coining the term “ecotourism.” By 1990, his defi- References nition had evolved to: “that segment of tourism that involves traveling to relatively undisturbed Bandy, Joe. (1996). Managing the other of or uncontaminated areas with the specific object nature: Sustainability, spectacle, and of admiring, studying, and enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any global regimes of capital in ecotourism. existing cultural features (both past and present) In: Public Culture, 8, pp. 439-66. found in these areas. Ecotourism implies a scien- Beals, Herbert, (ed.) and trans. (1989). Juan tific, esthetic, or philosophical approach, al- Pérez on the Northwest Coast: Six Docu- though the ecotourist is not required to be a pro- ments of his Expedition in 1774. Oregon fessional scientist, artist or philosopher. The Historical Society, Portland. main point here is that the person that practices Boyd, Robert. (1999). The Coming of the ecotourism has the opportunity of immersing Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced infec- himself or herself in Nature in a way that most tious diseases and population decline people cannot enjoy in their routine, urban exis- tences. This person will eventually acquire an among Northwest coast Indians, 1774- awareness and knowledge of the natural envi- 1874. U Washington Press, Seattle. ronment, together with its cultural aspects, that Braun, Bruce. (2000). Producing vertical ter- will convert him or her into somebody keenly ritory: Geology and governmentality in involved in conservation issues” (quoted by Zu- late Victorian Canada. Ecumene, 7.1: 7- rick 1995: 8). 46. Caballos-Lascuria’s definition foregrounds two Broadhead, John. (1989). The all alone stone important aspects of ecotourism: ecotourists manifesto. In: Endangered Spaces: The fu- travel to locations anticipating to gaze upon ture for Canada’s wilderness. Monte scenery, flora, and or fauna in ways or in amounts that mark the destinations as special; 248 Martineau
Hummel (ed.). Kluwer Academic Pub- tographs by David Nunuk. Rain-coast, lishers, Key Porter, Toronto. pp. 50-62. Vancouver. ———. (1984). Islands at the edge. In: Is- Goodwin, Harold. (1996). In pursuit of lands at the edge: Preserving the Queen ecotourism. Biodiversity and Conserva- Charlotte Islands Islands Protection Soci- tion, 5(3): 277-91. ety (eds.). Douglas & McIntyre, Van- Harris, Cole. (1997). The resettlement of couver. pp. 121-42. British Columbia: Essays on colonialism Busch, Briton and Barry Gough, (eds.) and geographical change. UBC Press, (1997). Fur Traders from New England: Vancouver. The Boston men in the North Pacific, 1787- Henley, Thom. (1984). Visitors who do not 1800. Arthur H. Clarke, Spokane. remain. In: Islands at the edge: preserving Cahill, Tim. (1997). Pass the Butterworms: the Queen Charlotte Islands Islands Pro- Remote journeys oddly rendered. Ran- tection Society (eds.), pp. 145-54. Doug- dom House, New York. las & McIntyre, Vancouver. Collison, W.H. (1981). In the wake of the Howay, F.W. (ed.) (1929). The Dixon-Meares war canoe: A stirring record of forty controversy. Ryerson, Toronto. years’ successful labour, peril & adven- Islands Protection Committee. (1976). Queen ture amongst the savage Indian tribes of Charlotte wilderness: Unique and the Pacific coast, and the piratical head- threatened. Nature Canada, 5.1:39-43. hunting Haidas of the Queen Charlotte Johnston, Moira. (1987). Canada’s Queen Islands, B.C. 1915. Charles Lillard, (ed.). Charlotte Islands: Homeland of the Sono Nis, Victoria. Haida. National Geographic, 172(1):102- Cook, James and James King. (1784). A Voy- 27. age to the Pacific Ocean . . . in 1776, 1777, Kittredge, William. (1987). Owning it all. 1778, 1779, and 1780. Three volumes. H. Graywolf, Saint Paul. Chamberlaine, Dublin. Lutz, Catherine and Jane Collins. (1993). Cook, Warren. (1973). Flood tide of empire: Reading National Geographic, U Chicago Spain and the Pacific Northwest, 1543 - Press, Chicago. 1819. Yale U Press, New Haven. Martineau, Joel. (2001). Islands at the bound- Crean, Susan. (2001). The laughing one: A ary of the world: Changing representations journey to Emily Carr. HarperFlamingo- of Haida Gwaii, 1774 - 2001. PhD Disser- Canada, Toronto. tation. Degree granting institution: Uni- Dawson, George M. (1993). To the Charlottes: versity of British Columbia. George Dawson’s 1878 survey of the Queen ———. (1999). Directing the gaze on Haida Charlotte Islands. 1878. Douglas Cole Gwaii: How Haida watchmen are re- and Bradley Lockner. (eds.) UBC Press, constructing indigeneity. In: Indigen-eity: Vancouver. Constructions and Representations. James Dixon, Captain George. (1789). A voyage N. Brown and Patricia M. Sant (eds.), round the world; but more particularly Nova Science, New York. pp. 209-29. to the North-West Coast of America: May, Elizabeth. (1990). Paradise Won: The Performed in 1785, 1786, 1787, and 1788. struggle for South Moresby. McClelland & Geo. Goulding, London. Stewart, Toronto. Doern, G. Bruce and Thomas Conway. Pinkerton, Evelyn. (1983). Taking the minis- (1994). The greening of Canada: Federal in- ter to court: Changes in public opinion stitutions and decisions. U Toronto Press, about forest management and their ex- Toronto. pression in Haida land claims. BC Stud- Gibson, James. (1992). Otter skins, Boston ies, 57:68-85. ships, and China goods: The maritime Poole, Francis. (1972). Queen Charlotte Is- fur trade of the Northwest Coast, 1785- lands: A narrative of discovery and ad- 1841. McGill-Queen’s U Press, Montreal. venture in the North Pacific. 1872. J.J. Gill, Ian. (1997). Haida Gwaii: Journeys Douglas, Vancouver. through the Queen Charlotte Islands. Photographs by David Nunuk. Rain- Martineau 249
Scofield, John. (1993). Hail, Columbia: Robert Gray, John Kendrick and the Pa- cific fur trade. Oregon Historical Soci- ety, Portland. Scott, Andrew. (2001). Sailing through paradise — The Haida Gwaii archipel- ago, Galápagos of the North. Westworld, 27(3): 41-45. Stewart, Hilary. (1996). Looking at Totem Poles. Douglas & McIntyre, Vancouver. Thom, Ian. (1993). Robert Davidson: Eagle of the dawn. U Washington Press, Seattle. Wilson, Jeremy. (1998). Talk and Log: Wil- derness politics in British Columbia. UBC Press, Vancouver. Zurick, David. (1995). Errant Journeys: Ad- venture travel in a modern age. U Texas Press, Austin.
TRAVEL WRITERS AS POWER BROKERS: TESTIMONIES FROM THE FRONT LINES OF MARINE TOURISM
John B. Davis School of Marine Affairs University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Marc L. Miller School of Marine Affairs University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Travel writers, like all of us, benefit most famous caverns in Greece and in from being tourists. However, unlike tourists, foreign lands are these. travel writers — by virtue of their job — have — Pausanias, Description of cause to circulate their point of view, in turn Greece, written in the sec- creating a power dynamic with their audience. ond century AD (transl. J. Interviews with coastal and marine travel writ- G. Frazer, 1898: 547) ers indicated that many of them recognized this power dynamic and manipulated it, particularly The epigrams above are from travel writers. for the purpose of fulfilling certain ethical re- Centuries apart but speaking of the same sponsibilities — such as environmental protec- country, the quotes suggest the authors as tion — they felt toward the places and locals regular people on vacation, out to have an they covered. In view of this role, the paper ar- enjoyable time in a new place, encountering gues that travel writers serve as important poli- contrasting cultures and environments. In a cymakers, of sorts, wielding significant influence sense, the authors represent us, the readers. over the decisions and behavior of their readers. Documenting sights, experiences or feelings
that ring true for the modern traveler (de- Keywords: travel writer, travel account, spite one writer's having lived long ago), the guidebook, marine tourism, power writers bring the reader along on their trav- els. The writings suggest a certain equiva- lence between writer and reader — a com- Introduction mon humanity or common vision, an egali- tarianism. They are tourists as we are tour- We woke in the morning to find that ists. chance had brought us to one of the more beautiful shores of the Mediterra- Nonetheless, there are significant differ- nean. ences between the travel writer and his au- — Eric Newby, On the Shores of dience. A closer inspection of the travel the Mediterranean (1984: 145) writing industry reveals that the writer pos- sesses substantial power: power to influence The ascent to the Corycian cave is easier the way his readers think and behave to- for a man on foot than for mules and ward a particular destination, or toward horses. This cave got its name from a particular locals or travel brokers or tourists. nymph Corycia; and of all the grottoes I Academic literature bears out that a writer's have seen it appeared to me the most article about a particular site can demon- worth seeing. The total number of strate a direct effect on the level of touristic caves that open upon the beach or on interest shown toward a destination (Glad- the deep sea is past finding out; but the well and Wolff, 1989). In contrast to the 252 Davis and Miller egalitarian relationship described above, the decisions and behavior of their readers in writer's power is ensconced in an asymmetric coastal and marine tourism. In the first two relationship he holds with his readers. The sections, we define travel writing and re- writer is the authority and the reader is the mark on the influence of the flaneur on the student. With presumed knowledge, the genre. The third section provides a Fou- writer instructs us — guides us — in our cauldian analysis of the power role held by understanding. The travel writing industry travel writers. The fourth section illustrates is set up to harness this power for any num- how several marine-oriented travel writers ber of purposes: for simple information dis- have chosen to wield their power role, semination, for marketing, and for enter- based on interviews with writers and ex- tainment. Holland and Huggan (1998: 3) cerpts from travel works. In conclusion, we suggest that: remark on the implications of our findings ... the inducement to read travel narra- for the setting of coastal and marine tourism tives should by no means be thought of policy. as replacing the urge to travel; rather, travel writing sells while also helping to sell holidays. Travel Writing Terminology
The oscillatory (at times, ambiguous) rela- “Travel writing” is a tricky genre to define. tionship between travel writers and readers Academic literature has generally treated it — alternately offering egalitarianism and as if its bounds and component works were asymmetry — is essential for explaining the self-evident and unrequiring of any explica- influence these writers hold. The egalitari- tion (Mulvey, 1983; Snepenger, et al., 1990; anism's presumed consensus, suggesting a Pratt, 1992). But ask publishers and sellers similar view of the world, fosters trust be- who describe their materials as “travel writ- tween reader and writer. This trust, in turn, ing” for a definition, and you will receive a fosters adherence or even obedience, allow- wide range of answers. In interviews for ing the writer to assume an authoritarian this paper, one bookseller described the stance. The reader opens himself to the genre namely by what it offered: “a strong writer's influence, absorbing and applying sense of place” that “empowers and impacts the writer's transferred knowledge. readers” (Andrus, 1998). Another book- seller described it as offering perspectives By extension, as the travel writer's power on a “foreign” place — potentially within influences the way the reader plans or be- the writer's own country — as well as on the haves on his trip, it conversely affects how people who live there (Mouser, 1998). The destinations and locals experience the editorial staff at Publisher's Weekly, an indus- reader's travel. Travel writers have the abil- try magazine that covers all genres of books, ity to influence travel patterns and beliefs on responded that in terms of defining travel a relatively large scale, and, arguably, this writing, they “know it when they see it”, but brings significant responsibility to the pro- otherwise do not have a strict definition (Za- fession — responsibility to avoid causing leski, 1998). We believe that this last de- unfair, unintended impacts to the destina- scription is probably closest to what most tions or locals about which or whom the publishers, sellers, and readers think on this authors write. Sometimes this responsibility subject. can conflict with the writer's duty of dis- seminating information. As described in The difficulty with which travel writing is this paper, coastal and marine travel writers defined is caused by several factors. For choose to navigate this conflict in various one, travel writing can take the form of a ways, with varying effects. diverse array of products, all of which have been considered at one time or another to This paper explores the power role of travel reside in the travel writing genre: travel ac- writers through which they influence the
Davis and Miller 253 counts, guidebooks, nature writing, gonzo number of other treatments. Together, travel journalism, National Geographic - style coun- and writing form a genre in which the travel of try reports, memoirs, diaries, some fiction, the writer is viewed as lending him expertise and even marketing materials, such as on the destinations about which he writes. glossy magazines produced by tourism agencies. Adding to the confusion is the For the purposes of our research, we have fact that many of these works have been excluded from our purview works that are marketed across categories, based on rela- generally fictionalized. For example, we do tively arbitrary marketing decisions by pub- not examine L.M. Montgomery's children's lishers, authors, and booksellers. That is, a classic Anne of Green Gables, a fictional work book on travel by a female scientist to a re- that has long generated a small yet consis- mote natural location might be marketed tent tourism industry on Canada's Prince variously as nature writing, as a travel ac- Edward Island where the book is based count, as a memoir, or as a gender study. (Squire, 1996). Nor do we include in our The categorization of travel writing is also study James A. Michener's novels, which determined by the point of view of the trace the paleontological and modern histo- reader: for example, an account of an ries of such places as the Hawaiian Islands, American writer's trip to London, England, and which have undeniably found a place in would readily be viewed as travel writing in the tote bags of travelers headed to those the U.S., while in London it might well not. destinations. We recognize that several re- searchers have remarked on the centuries- The confusion over definition is not helped old influence of fictional works — including by the fact that the term “travel writing” is books and other media — on touristic pat- composed of two words which, by them- terns and behavior (Butler, 1986; Wood, selves, do not submit to easy defining: travel 1990; Riley and Van Doren, 1992; Hovinen, and writing. Travel has been defined vari- 1994; Herbert, 1996). For this paper, how- ously in the academic literature. The defini- ever, we chose to limit our consideration of tion we will use is from Miller and Ditton travel writing to primarily non-fiction (1986: 11), who characterized travel as trips works, as opening it to fictional material that hold appeal for the three-dimensional would arguably lead us to include most any “contrasts” they offer. That is, the authors work that named and described a particular suggested that the fundamental payoff of place. Admittedly, this does restrict us from travel or tourism has always been found in considering books with touristic followings its potential to generate contrast of any one like Anne of Green Gables that may in fact of three or more kinds: instrumental (e.g., have more of a direct influence on tourist business), educational (e.g., sightseeing), or behavior than some of the non-fictional recreational (e.g., sport).1 For this paper, we works that we have chosen to study here. use travel interchangeably with tourism, al- Nonetheless, we are restricting them in the though narrow differences between the interest of narrowing our focus. terms have been demonstrated (Leed, 1995); for example, it has become conventional to We have also restricted our study of the regard tourism as an activity that is not travel writing genre to works by profes- “work”, while “business travel” is an ac- sional writers, despite the fact that unmar- cepted phenomenon (Miller and Auyong, keted diaries and travelogues have served 1996). an important role for travelers throughout the ages as a form of personal reflection, and Writing can vary from high literature (fiction); have proven invaluable to historians and to non-fiction disciplinary writing (e.g., his- other researchers (Adams, 1983). Black torical or botanical writing); to non-fiction wrote in his history of the Grand Tour that reporting (e.g., journalism and personal ob- for research purposes, “published travel servation); to marketing. It can take the form literature should be sharply differentiated of a book, article, column, brochure, or any from letters and journals never intended for
254 Davis and Miller publication”, (1992: xii) with the reasoning Travel accounts provide a generally non- that the latter could all too easily suffer from fictional, first-hand account of a tourist, in artifice for lack of the pressure that comes which the author describes the locals, bro- with writing for a large, anonymous, and kers, and/or other tourists associated with a critical audience. For the purposes of this destination, mainly in light of the author's paper, we are most interested in the power interaction with each.2 There is some over- role that travel writers wield with regard to lap between this sub-genre and what is of- their readers, and we believe that amateur ten referred to as nature writing — the main writers who do not expect to have their ma- difference being that in the latter, there is terials published — e.g., seamen whose less attention paid to descriptions of hu- shipboard diaries are later excerpted or re- mans in the destination, and more placed on printed in books or academic studies — do the place's physical and biological character- not wield the same role. That is, they expect istics.3 More often than not, travel accounts to have few, if any, readers of their works. are personality-driven, due to their first- person style, and feature the author as hero: We choose to define travel writing as a pro- the aura of the author shines through the fessional activity in which a writer commu- text. The travel accounts in today’s book- nicates to an audience of potential or actual stores are as diverse as the above-described tourists. As such, we posit that it comprises guidebooks, with narratives of adventures two sub-genres of writing (among others) — that feature just as many characteristics, mo- guidebooks and travel accounts — on which tives and favorite technologies. Both guide- we will focus most of our attention. We de- books and travel accounts have diversified fine these sub-genres below. to cater to most any type of traveler and reader (Mouser, 1998). Guidebooks, in the form of instructions, maps or profiles of countries, are written specifi- cally for the tourist and pertain to a destina- The Travel Writer as Flaneur tion, its locals, and/or its tourism brokers. The author's point of view/ personality is The issue of “gaze” — a concept central to generally downplayed in contrast to travel power theory, implying that the gazer accounts, although there are exceptions watches the gazed and can observe and/or (e.g., the Rick Steves' Europe Through the Back control the latter’s behavior — is also central Door guidebook series is replete with first- to travel writing. As such, we argue that person accounts by Steves.) Guidebooks modern travel writing owes as much to the can range from having been written by di- flaneur of Victorian French and English liter- rect brokers of tourism (e.g., brochures from ary society as to any other influence. As chambers of commerce) to having been writ- described by Brand (1991: i), the flaneur was ten by a third party. In today’s bookstores, a “detached, casual, yet powerful urban guidebooks on regions, countries, or cities spectator who regarded the metropolis as an share space with works catering to the char- entertaining spectacle and text.” The devel- acteristics of travelers (e.g., female travel, opment of the flaneur is generally recog- gay travel, group travel, adolescent travel, nized to have been intimately associated elderly travel, disabled travel, vegetarian with the progress of historical forces that travel, travel with pets), their motives (e.g., produced modernity, including urbanization adventure travel, spiritual travel, sex travel), and the development of consumer society. and favorite technologies (e.g., kayaking, Popularized by Charles Baudelaire in his trains, motorcycling). They vary in style essay “The Painter of Modern Life”, the fla- from relatively anonymous booklets to insti- neur character rejoiced in being amongst the tutionalized works along the lines of the crowd, observing and reporting on it. As Let's Go travel series or Fielding's Guide to described by Benjamin (1982: 962): the World's Most Dangerous Places.
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The crowd is his element, as the air is of city life. Brand (1991: 191) goes on to sug- that of birds and water of fishes.... For gest that the flaneur still survives “in the the perfect flaneur, for the passionate happy weekend window-shopper's tune of spectator, it is an immense joy to set up certain travel books and in the parts of house in the heart of the multitude, newspapers and magazines devoted to fa- amid the ebb and flow of movement, in cilitating the consumption of the city.” the midst of the fugitive and infinite. However, we agree with Buck-Morss that To be away from home and yet to feel the flaneur's influence is felt more widely oneself everywhere at home; to see the than this, including outside of urban areas. world, to be at the centre of the world, She suggests that television news programs and yet to remain hidden from the “approach the distracted, impressionistic, world — such are a few of the slightest physiognomic viewing of the flaneur, as the pleasures of those independent, passion- sights take one around the world”. (1986: ate, impartial natures which the tongue 105) In connection with world travel, she can but clumsily define. adds, “the mass tourist industry now sells flanerie in two and four week packets.” Interestingly, one element that distin- guished the flaneur was his asserted ability The nature and role of many travel writers to profile passersby — their profession, — as passionate spectators and assumed character, background, lifestyle, etc. — experts on people — fits the flaneur's profile while unencumbered by any factual knowl- well, whether they are writing about a city- edge of the person (Benjamin, 1985: 39). In or sea-scape.6 In the arena of coastal and essence, he drew impressions of society as it marine tourism, the traditional flaneurial 4 walked past: role is perhaps best played by profilers of Delvau, Baudelaire's friend[,] claimed beach and shorefront culture, as these areas' that he could divide the Parisian public populations most exemplify the crowd that according to its various strata as easily the flaneur is traditionally identified with as a geologist distinguishes the layers in observing. Lencek and Bosker (1998: 270) rocks. If that sort of thing could be would likely agree, as they note that the done, then, to be sure, life in the big city “desire to see and be seen has always was not nearly so disquieting as it brought people to the beach.” probably seemed to people. Many of today's travel accounts — first- In Baudelaire's time, the word flaneur was hand reporting, flaneurial in tone — have used to describe some journalists, who were been influenced by the above historical de- 5 viewed as "botanists on asphalt.” Brand velopment. In contrast to the guidebook, states (1991: 6): travel accounts focus less on instruction The flaneur, through the medium of than on interpretation and, as such, often journalism, could impose order upon incorporate the author as hero. In compari- the potentially disorienting diversity of son, however, both sub-genres of travel the city, by reducing it to accessible im- writing are authoritarian in voice: the travel ages that could be collected and con- done by the writer imbues him with exper- sumed.... According to Benjamin, these tise on the subject, as described earlier. With flaneurs existed to assure a literate this expertise, the writer carries a message bourgeois audience that urban crowds that — whether done through a guidebook were not as incoherent as they appeared or travel account — serves as an instrument to be. of power.
Flaneurs had become authorities in inter- preting society for their readers; in fact, newspapers in Paris regularly devoted their lower front page to flaneurial descriptions
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Travel Writers and Power tivity, rather than a privilege that one might possess; that one should take as Buck-Morss, in her examination of Benja- its model a perpetual battle rather than min's work, suggests that a salaried flaneur a contract relating to transaction of the — a journalist, for example — profits by conquest of a territory. following the ideological fashion (1986: 115). While citing the example of a prominent, Cheong and Miller (in publication), in their proto-Fascist editorialist in 1930s-era Ger- examination of Foucauldian theory and its many who influenced the national political application to the tourism system, suggest scene, Buck-Morss notes Benjamin's asser- that power should be conceptualized as tion that journalists in general advertise the ubiquitous in sets of dynamic relationships state, rather than a commodity. Pratt (1992) linking the elements of a tripartite system — would likely agree: she suggests in Imperial a system illustrated by the “BLT model” Eyes that the great significance of travel (Miller and Auyong, 1991). The BLT model writing is it’s standing as an ideological ap- defines tourism socio-politically as consist- paratus of empire. Her book's primary ing of three interacting components — bro- theme is how travel accounts by Europeans kers, locals, and tourists. In this model, bro- about non-European parts of the world have kers consist of persons who in one way or gone about creating the "domestic subject" another pay professional attention to tour- of Euroimperialism, and how they have en- ism, through such activities as the selling of gaged metropolitan reading publics with touristic services and products. These ac- expansionist enterprises (Pratt, 1992: 4). tivities — serving to inform readers on Propaganda (controlled by the power elite) where to go, what to do, or what to think — and domination (exerted by the power elite) influence the tourist. As suggested in a later are key elements of her thesis. She writes of paper by Miller and Auyong [1996], travel two prominent western travel writers, Paul writers clearly reside in this “broker” cate- Theroux and Alberto Moravia (1992: 219): gory: they manage the experiences that tour- ists will have with locals, with other bro- [They] exemplify a discourse of nega- kers, and with other tourists. tion, domination, devaluation, and fear
that remains in the late twentieth cen- Cheong and Miller assert that at the level of tury a powerful ideological constituent of the west's consciousness of the people the institution, productive power generates and places it strives to hold in subjuga- touristic knowledge. We extend that argu- tion. ment here to suggest that travel writers — whether producing guidebooks or travel Nonetheless, postmodernist theories of accounts — create touristic knowledge and, power, as exemplified by the writings of hence, control the flow of power between Michel Foucault, suggest that it should be themselves (as brokers) and tourists. viewed more broadly than in terms of Foucault (1995: 27) insists that power is so domination and submission. Foucault inextricably linked to knowledge that power (1995: 26) insists that power is exercised and knowledge directly imply one another: rather than possessed, and that it is con- [T]here is no power relation without the stantly negotiated as a relationship: correlative constitution of a field of [T]he study of this micro-physics pre- knowledge, nor any knowledge that supposes that the power exercised on does not presuppose and constitute at the body is conceived not as a property, the same time power relation. but a strategy, that its effects of domi- nation are attributed not to "appropria- Foucault generally equates knowledge with tion", but to dispositions, maneuvers, truth, and suggests that each society has its tactics, techniques, functionings; that own “regime of truth”, encompassing such one should decipher in it a network of things as the types of discourse that it ac- relations, constantly in tension, in ac- cepts and makes function and the status of
Davis and Miller 257 those charged with saying what counts as The following section, in which we discuss true. Note that Foucault uses truth in the our interviews with travel writers and ex- sense of its being a societal mythology, cerpts from their works, will examine the without suggesting that a society's truths ways in which these writers conceive of are, in objective fact, true. He states that their truth-dissemination role, and how they truth is produced and transmitted under the manipulate their power relationship with control of a few great political and economic readers to produce, or obstruct, specific apparatuses, including the media (1980: touristic behavior. 132).
The travel writer's role — as well as, argua- Truth and Responsibility in Travel bly, the role of other brokers — is to define Writing and disseminate truth. Through this, the writer and fellow brokers influence the Truth, as disseminated by the travel writer, reader/tourist. Such influence can be pro- is often formed by what we choose to refer ductive (encouraging an action) or obstruc- to as the author's identity. The content of tive (discouraging an action). The guide- travel accounts and guidebooks is signifi- book's role in influencing behavior is indis- cantly influenced by the background of the putable: the majority of consumers who ob- product's creator — in essence, by the train- tain these materials do so in order to learn ing grounds on which he learned his skill. the best route, the closest/cheapest/most- In this sense, we view travel writers as pos- comfortable hotel, etc. Travel accounts — sessing any one of three identities, or dimen- while obtained more often for their interpre- sions, through which they relate events, tative, rather than instructional, qualities — characters, and places — and deter-mine execute the same truth-disseminating truth — in their writing. An understanding power. of these dimensions provides a foundation for our later discussion of the writers' Academic literature provides excellent ex- power-related actions. The dimensions are aminations of brokers' power role in travel described below: writing and other fields, although the per- spective has largely come from the market The Novelist research realm rather than from sociology or Often possessing a background in teaching political science, and the authors did not or studying literature, the Novelist enjoys a examine Foucauldian power. Etzel and comfort with fiction writing, and is not Wahlers (1985) point out that destination- averse to altering details or whole portions specific travel writing requested by con- of actual trips in the interest of exploring an sumers — namely brochures and other underlying or related truth on paper — or marketing-oriented materials — is an im- simply spinning a better yarn. Herman portant promotion medium for the tourism Melville's tale of shipwreck on a cannibal- industry, used by nearly half of their study's filled island (Typee) and Hunter S. Thomp- respondents to plan and execute trips. Riley son's gonzo trips (e.g., Marlin) are two of the and Van Doren (1992) present a case for the more likely examples of how travel writers “pulling potential” of other media — i.e., have sweetened the actual events of their films shot on beautiful locations, offering trips for their stories' re-telling. Editors of motivations of escape and “quests for un- travel accounts have widely remarked on, tainted environments” — with regard to and embraced, the genre's fictional element. increasing tourism to specific destinations. Granta, the British literary journal, once Klenosky and Gitelson (1998) examine the wrote (1984: 7) of a collection of travel writ- power role of travel agents’ recommenda- ing works: tions — similar to the recommendations of a guidebook — in influencing their clientele's These pieces succeed not by virtue of the behavior. details they report — exotic as they are —
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but by the contrivance of their reporting. Bruce Chatwin, also a celebrated travel They are all informed by the sheer glee of writer, was once asked in Granta about the story-telling, a narrative sequence that division between fact and fiction in his book situates them, with wonderful ambiguity, Storylines, about his experiences with Abo- somewhere between fiction and fact. rigines in Australia. “I don't think there is one”, he said. “There definitely should be, It is noteworthy that several of the most but I don't know where it is. I've always popular 20th-century western travel writers written very close to the line.” have written what are considered to be “fic- tion” works in addition to their travel writ- The Journalist ing. The majority of Paul Theroux's opus, Often possessing a background in journal- for example, is generally considered to be ism, the Journalist enjoys greater comfort fiction (e.g., The Mosquito Coast), and John with non-fiction than fiction, and sees his Steinbeck's fictional writings outnumber his role as that of reporting or documenting non-fictional works. The distinction be- events rather than dramatizing them. The tween categories, however, may be more in emphasis is on telling “the facts”. Pico Iyer the eye of the beholder than in the mind of (Video Night in Kathmandu), a former re- the writer. Steinbeck writes in the introduc- porter for Time magazine, could be seen as tion to his travel account The Log from the Sea fitting this dimension of travel writing with of Cortez, widely regarded to be one of his his matter-of-fact prose style, despite his finest non-fiction works (1986: 1): allowance for some subjectivity and analy- The design of a book is the pattern of a sis. He writes (1988: 24): reality controlled and shaped by the I did not bend my plans to look for ex- mind of the writer. This is completely amples of the Western presence, or to understood about poetry or fiction, but bolster any argument. I simply read it is too seldom realized about books of those books or articles that chanced to fact. come my way and listened to the rick- shaw drivers, strangers, and fellow Travel writer Jonathan Raban (author of travelers I happened to meet on the Coasting and the upcoming Passage to Jun- road. eau) suggests there is little difference be- tween writing “fiction” and writing what Most travel writers stand somewhere be- might be considered “travel literature”: in tween the Novelist and the Journalist. essence, the writer writes as he always Along this line, Outside magazine, one of the would. There is no swapping of hats, no most widely-read regular publishers of change in philosophy. In fact, Raban hates travel essays in the world, has described its being referred to as a “travel writer” and contributors' works as residing partly in the would rather be called, simply, a writer reportorial world, and partly in the realm of (1999).7 Notably, Raban normally waits two campfire tale: to three years after making a trip before he Outside tries to stake out some wide- starts to write his account of it, relying al- open territory in which to conduct its most entirely on memory. He acknowl- business, with hard journalistic and lit- edges this technique may affect the re- erary ambitions. It is a general interest telling. His goal, he says, is to get at the es- magazine that places a premium on re- sence of the experience, not at the minutiae porting, thinking, and storytelling (Ab- of what actually happened. Two of his bey, 1997: 5). works — written well after their described events happened, and based on few notes — Nonetheless, as the Granta excerpts suggest, have won the Thomas Cook Award for best the line between fact and fiction in many travel writing. travel accounts is blurred. The blurring is, to a great extent, due to the journalistic style that most travel accounts adopt — that is,
Davis and Miller 259 the author writes, “I was in this place and the most important aspect of his writing is this is what happened.” In a newspaper, disseminating only the essence (or essential such tales would be read and generally un- truth) of the experience about which he is derstood to be all true. In fact, when a writing. The Journalist is most likely to re- newspaper journalist strays from the ideal port objective details, since his responsibil- of non-fiction — as various ones have by ity is to report on what happened, where it making up stories — it can sometimes serve happened, how it happened, etc. The Ex- as grounds for dismissal. Yet when aspects pert — and particularly the guidebook of stories are made up for travel accounts writer — will also report details (though and published in magazines and books, the viewed subjectively), since a primary driver reader is expected to accommodate the au- for many Experts is the sense of responsibil- thor's fictionalizing. ity they feel toward informing readers of the best travel options. In short, the three di- The Expert mensions each feel a responsibility for dis- A latent third dimension exists for travel seminating truth, but in markedly different writing, somewhere between the Novelist ways: the Novelist provides the essential and the Journalist: that of the Expert. If truth, the Journalist provides the objective “pure non-fiction” and “pure fiction” — truth, and the Expert provides the subjective idealistic categories that, in actuality, likely truth. include few writers — exist at opposite ends of an imaginary continuum of writing, the subjective reporting of the Expert falls in the Conflict of Responsibilities middle. The Expert evaluates what is good or bad and reports his truth to the reader, As noted earlier, the travel writer's defini- either explicitly (as would a film critic or tion and dissemination of truth influences food critic) or more subtly, such as by men- the reader/tourist, and can affect touristic tioning the “best beach in the area” within behavior, including by increasing tourism in an otherwise journalistic travel account. areas profiled by writers. As in-creased Guidebooks exemplify this dimension. tourism can cause change to the destinations Through these evaluations, the Expert and locals being visited — especially if those wields significant power in terms of impos- areas did not previously sustain a high level ing standards and setting touristic trends. of tourism — writers, in disseminating Arguably, to become a travel critic does not truth, could bear responsibility for changing involve substantial training: one can write the places and people about which or whom about hotels and restaurants without having they write. With this in mind, we sought to to go to school for formal training. In- find out if travel writers acknowledged the versely, however, this dimension holds the power role that they played and, if so, most influence in directing touristic behav- whether they ever manipulated the truth in ior. The Expert — whose status is either their writing in order specifically to restrain self-proclaimed or conferred/assumed by the tourism levels that might otherwise re- the reader — is similar to the flaneur, a con- sult from publication. In essence, we cept discussed earlier. wanted to find out how travel writers han- dled the conflict between their professional How travel writers from each of the above sense of responsibility to report facts, and dimensions define and disseminate truth in any ethical sense of responsibility they felt their writings is, to a great extent, inter- (akin to the physician's oath of “First, do no twined with the sense of responsibility they harm”) toward protecting a place or people feel toward informing the reader of details they had visited. of their travels. The Novelist is least in- clined to provide specific details — or, at Do travel writers acknowledge their power least, objectively reported details — since role? Obviously, guidebook writers do. Their raison d'être, as noted earlier, is to
260 Davis and Miller guide the travel of tourists. Guidebook writers and publishers are well aware of the Wheeler and Steves spoke of their responsi- historical influence of their works on touris- bility to the reader. Their reputation rests tic behavior.8 Historian Alain Corbin (1994: on their reporting, they said, and if they 47) writes that on the Grand Tours of the don't let their readers know of all the good 18th century, aristocrats relied so heavily on places they have visited, they as writers are their guidebooks that they rarely, if ever, not doing their job. Steves (1997: 283) writes strayed from the texts' recommendations: of the reporting of secluded places, and of A commonplace spot, no matter how the conflict of responsibility that he has felt: tiny, could attract great attention if it The promotion of a tender place that has had been ennobled by the gaze of one of so far avoided the tourist industry re- the ancients.... On the other hand, all minds me of the whaler who screams, visual perception was lost in the face of “Quick, harpoon it before it's extinct!” sites not mentioned in prestigious texts. These places are this Europhiles' cu- pids. Publicizing them gnaws at what Modern guidebooks have been acknowl- makes them so great. But what kind of edged as having the same effect. The Rick a travel writer can keep his favorite dis- Steves' Europe Through the Back Door series of coveries under wraps? Great finds are travel guides, marketed as a tool with which too hard to come by just to sit on. I to explore the lesser-known corners of keep no secrets. Europe, now outsells the popular Fodor and Frommer guides to Europe (1998: 2), thus While Steves regrets that places he “discov- making its “off-the-beaten-track” claim ered” eight to ten years earlier are now de- seem questionable. In fact, the series has veloped and commercialized and that some been accused of creating its own packs of suffer from tourist congestion, he continues “Steveites” — crowds of tourists, all clutch- to resolve his conflict by erring on the side ing their Rick Steves guides — marching in of reporting, rather than not reporting. step across the continent, going to the same restaurants, hotels, and theatres (Balter, Wheeler (1998) spoke of the changes he had 1998). seen in secluded places about which he had written, but did not suggest that guidebooks Steves and Tony Wheeler — the latter pub- had played a significant role in changing lishes the Lonely Planet series of travel them: guidebooks — embrace their role of steering We've seen a lot of places over the past tourists. Steves (1997: 282) writes: 25 years that have become spoiled. By traveling vicariously with me There are a lot of reasons for that: Boe- through these chapters, you'll get a peek ing keeps building 747s, more people at my favorite places. And just as im- have money to travel, etc. It's a diffi- portant, by internalizing the lifetime of cult problem, and we don't have the an- little travel moments that I've enjoyed swers. and compiled here, you'll develop a knack for finding your own. Like Steves and Wheeler, Outside magazine and Adventure magazine (the latter is pub- lished by the National Geographic Society) Wheeler (1998) said he rejoices in opportu- both pride themselves on directing their nities to open up formerly “closed” coun- readers to uncongested spots. Adventure's tries to tourism: editor wrote in the premiere issue about People always want to get to a place how the magazine would assist people in that's just been reopened. Like Leba- getting to previously untraveled-to places non, for example. It's fun to do a (Rasmus, 1999: 20): guidebook to a place that people would We want to capture that passion and have no idea of going to.9 spirit and expertise — and help set you
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out on your own adventures. And the above writers, several writers of travel ac- time is right. Over the last several dec- counts willfully manipulated their reporting ades, the wildest corners of the world of details of their trips in order expressly to have opened up. Almost any of us, with control the number of tourists following in a little time and a little savings to their footsteps. spend, can travel to places and do things that no previous generation Jonathan Raban, while asserting that he could. rarely thinks of his audience when writing, admits to having changed details of his Outside magazine, while historically featur- book, Bad Land: An American Romance, in ing travel accounts, has also established a order to keep secret the specific locations of tradition of printing guide-like articles ex- the places about which he was writing. “I tolling the virtues of destinations like “a was rather careful, in fact, not to tell how to world-class surf town that’s yet to be dis- get to any of these places, in order to keep covered by surfers” (Salkever, 1999) or pro- the gawkers away”, he said (1999). Al- viding “an island hopper’s guide to world- though he adds that Bad Land was the only class hiking, wreck diving, and sea kayak- book of his for which he was "concerned ing on and around the Pacific’s best-kept about what the reader might do," his omis- secret” (Payne, 1999). Philip Armour (1999), sion of details is an example of how one a publicist for the magazine, said the publi- travel-account writer has resolved the con- cation tries to be as “honest and forthright” flict of responsibilities — in this case, by as it can be in passing along information to siding with his sense of responsibility to- readers, but also tries to balance that hon- ward protection. esty with an ethic of environmental and cul- tural protection: Raban's example is repeated by several Hopefully Outside doesn't sell out all other writers. Barry Lopez, author of the the sweet spots just to sell a magazine. American Book Award-winning Arctic Granted, we do increase the chance of Dreams, claims to have given misleading people traveling to these places even by directions in at least one of his writings for mentioning them, but we try to use our how to get to certain secluded places, with best judgment. Hopefully our readers the intent of steering tourists away (1998). will be a little more sensitive than just Steve Raymond (author of The Year of the going to one of these secluded places Angler), who writes about fishing and fish- and trampling on it. Would we advise ing destinations in books and magazines, people to go to a beach where sea turtles admits to having kept his favorite fishing are breeding? Maybe if there was a holes secret, even though his reporting du- guided tour. But otherwise, perhaps ties require him to direct readers to good not — it would be a judgment call. spots (1998). M. Wylie Blanchet's memoir of voyages with her children through the Armour said the editors leave most decision coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest, The making to the contributing writers in terms Curve of Time, explicitly omits the names of of which places are written about and which Indian villages that she visited, in the inter- ones are not. “As for a writer divulging his est of allowing the villagers to retain their favorite spot, it's up to his discretion”, he privacy (1993: 1). Richard Nelson's tales of said. island life in Southeastern Alaska provide the same type of omissions (1991). The link between travel accounts and tourist behavior may be less direct than that of It is clear that in situations where height- guidebooks and tourist behavior, as travel ened tourism is not desired, multiple writers accounts are usually not written for the ex- have chosen to follow the responsibility press purpose of guiding a traveler. None- they feel toward protecting the places and theless, we found that in contrast to the people they have visited, rather than their
262 Davis and Miller responsibility to report all details of what there may be conflict between the writer's they have done. They have recognized the professional responsibility to disseminate power role that they wield as travel writers, facts, and an ethical responsibility to cause and have responded by manipulating the no undue tourism in a place where height- role in order to divert touristic attention ened tourism may not be desired, writers away from their special places. have considered the consequences and made their decisions, choosing one direction or the other. Conclusion In addition, we call on other brokers, tour- No man, they say, is an island; in the ists, and locals to recognize the power rela- age of international travel, not even an tionship that travel writers hold with each island can remain an island for long. of them, and to be cognizant of its potential — Pico Iyer, Video Night in Kath- and real impacts. Travel writers are able to mandu (1988: 14) influence, or even dictate, vast touristic pat- terns, and the people who are affected by Call someplace paradise. Kiss it good- these patterns should be mindful of this fact. bye. In this sense, the writers amount to (inten- — Don Henley, "The Last Re- tional or unintentional) policy-makers, de- sort" (1976) termining how destinations — including their economy, culture, and people — will The travel writer plays a major role in affect- be impacted by the outside world. To over- ing how destinations and locals experience look the integral role that travel writers play the reader's travel. One writer's mention of in the tourism industry would be to ignore a beach or shoreside village untouched by one of the largest drivers of touristic behav- tourists can lead to the arrival of such tour- ior. ists within months, weeks, days, or even hours, depending on the available reader- How the coastal and marine tourism indus- ship and the mode of information transmis- try grows, changes, and adapts is a result of sion. The most immediate effects may come the interaction of all actors within it. Travel via the internet, whose abundance of ready can mean the “ugly” side of tourism with information can inform and steer tourists in cultural misunderstandings and unintended greater number and with greater speed than consequences, or it can mean the thoughtful ever before. In fact, surfers can now log promotion of understanding between cul- onto the World Wide Web for real-time tures and people. Among writers, other monitoring of waves at popular breaks, a brokers, locals, and tourists, what the tour- capability that has been accused of causing ism industry promotes is up to everyone. overcrowding – and even related violence – at the best wave spots (Salkever, 1999: 2). Notes: As we have described in this paper, the ______travel writer's power comes with the re- 1 Miller and Ditton (1986: 11) wrote: sponsibility to wield it with its conse- In the instance of recreational travel, the quences in mind. In saying this, we are nei- tourist prepares for a contrast in physiologi- ther condoning nor opposing the idea of cal and mental well-being. In instrumental writers keeping secrets from their readers. travel, contrast occurs as the tourist deliber- Rather, we are calling on writers to under- ately secures information, resources, and ob- stand their significant influence upon read- ligations unavailable at home. In educa- ers, and to behave accordingly. From the tional travel, the tourist achieves contrast by replacing familiar physical and cultural remarks above, it appears that many coastal stimuli with exotic substitutes. and marine writers have already given ex- tensive thought to this issue. In times when
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2 It is assumed that most travel writers would we do cover an area like a ski resort, the people cringe at being called a “tourist”, due to the of- there are giddy and thankful. It's free press for ten-negative connotation of the term (Miller and them, and we have 550,000 subscribers.” Auyong, 1996), and would rather think of them- 9 In fact, Wheeler and Steves point out that the selves as unique “travelers” (Andrus, 1998). Pico power role they wield has also had effects in the Iyer appears to be an exception, as he is willing geopolitical realm, sometimes due to the maps to describe himself even in the worst light of their books offer or the name they apply to a tourism: “Like every tourist, I found myself country. Wheeler said his series' book on Burma, spreading corruption even as I decried it” (1988: which that country's government calls Myanmar, 14). was not popular there, and its book on Malawi 3 The writers with whom we communicated for had also met disfavor from that country's presi- this paper included some who would more read- dent. Pico Iyer writes that tourism has carried ily define themselves as nature writers than “American dollars and dreams” to every corner travel writers. of the world, particularly since the 1980s, and that the export of American culture has created a 4 Holland and Huggan (1998) suggest that such geopolitical sea-change (1988: 6): subjective impressions are commonplace in mod- ern travel accounts: Tourists were the great foot soldiers of the new invasion; tourists, in a sense, were the terrorists Contemporary travel narratives ... rely upon of cultural expansionism, what Sartre once called the authority of the witness even if they are ‘the cool invaders’. less likely to be taken at face value or to ex- pect their myths, passing as facts, to be (mis)read with an eye for profit. ... [T]he eyewitness, real or not, functions as a rhe- References torical strategy to persuade the reader of the “authenticity” of what is reported. Abbey, E. (ed.) (1998). The Best of Outside: 5 Note the similarity of this phrasing to Pratt's The First 20 Years. Vintage Departures, suggestion that modern travel writing — at least New York. when covering non-European cultures — was heavily influenced by the 19th century Linnaean Adams, P. G. (1983). Travel Literature and the discipline of classifying plants and animals. Evolution of the Novel. The University (Pratt, 1992: 34) Press of Kentucky, Lexington, KY. (Re- viewed by R. W. Butler. 1986. Annals of 6 Wearing and Wearing (1996) would likely dis- Tourism Research, 13(1): 304-306. agree, as they see tourists less as flaneurs or sightseers and more as individuals who take Ahmed, Z. U. (1991). The Dark Side of Im- home an experience that impacts on the self in age Marketing. The Tourist Review, 4: 36- some way. 37. Anderson, D. M. (1969). Calligraphy: The Art 7 The term travel writer appears to be considered a stigma by writers of travel accounts, particularly of Written Forms. Dover Publications, those who would fit in the Novelist dimension New York. like Raban and Bruce Chatwin, but writers of Andrus, S. (1998). Personal communication guidebooks seem not to have as much trouble with J. B. Davis. (Andrus is manager of with the term's application. Rick Steves and Wide World Books and Maps, Seattle, Tony Wheeler — the latter of whom publishes Washington, USA. the Lonely Planet series of travel guides — both Armour, P. (1999). Personal communication refer to themselves as travel writers. with J.B. Davis. 8 The guidebook's power role is recognized by Bacon, F. (1942). Essays and New Atlantis. D. other agents as well. Rick Steves (1998) has re- Van Nostrand Co., London. marked on how aggressively tourism brokers Balter, J. (1998). In Italy, A Traffic Jam have marketed their destinations to his staff, hop- through the Front Door. Seattle Times. ing to draw attention and earn a mention in the p.1. guidebook. Along the same line, Philip Armour (1999) of Outside magazine noted that although Benjamin, W. (1985). Charles Baudelaire: A the publication does not accept invitations from Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism. brokers to write about their destinations, “When Verso, London.
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GRAY WHALE CONSERVATION AND LOCAL TOURISM MANAGEMENT IN BAHIA MAGDALENA, BAJA CALIFORNIA SUR, MEXICO
Lourdes Flores-Skydancer Comunidad y Biodiversidad, A.C. (México)
Abstract: Gray whale watching activities in the These results illustrated the first step in com- coastal lagoons of Baja California Sur, Mexico munity organization toward obtaining regional were promoted by both Mexican and foreign benefits in using an irreplaceable and valuable brokers in the early '90s. Although the activity marine natural resource within the Magdalena allowed a new economic alternative for the fish- lagoon complex. The process demonstrated that ermen in the region, the Mexican Ministry of NGOs can be influential in the generation of Fisheries and the Environment (SEMARNAP) policies involving the tourism and fisheries in- became concerned with the rapid increase of a dustries. tourism industry related to a species that, until 1993 had been on the endangered species list. Keywords: community development and coor- dination, conservation, whale watching, non- In the management of whale watching, governmental organizations (NGOs) SEMARNAP allocated a limited number of per- mits to local fishermen and others to provide whale watching services. The lack of organiza- Introduction tion within the fishing cooperatives to provide services, coupled with the overwhelming number In the region of Bahía Magdalena over the of visiting tourists, resulted in low quality ser- past decade, tourism has grown dramati- vice to the tourist, sub-utilization of the re- cally by brokers’ increased efforts in the ad- source, and inter-institutional conflicts. In addi- tion, it was feared that whale watching could vertising of whale watching. From the win- possibly threaten the long-term conservation of ter season of 1996 to the season of 1997, the whales. there was an increase in tourism of 19% (Sánchez, 1997). The two main coastal fish- With this situation, the management problem ing communities of Bahía Magdalena, concerned the protection of the gray whale, while Puerto San Carlos and Puerto Adolfo López providing social and economic development Mateos, were not prepared to receive mas- through whale watching in the communities sive tourism. Meanwhile, the gray whale is adjacent to the Bahía Magdalena coastal lagoons. still being strictly monitored after it was With the support of Pronatura, A.C., a large delisted from the endangered species list in Mexican Non-Governmental Organization 1993 (MMC, 1994). Although several efforts (NGO), a project was coordinated to develop a were made by the Mexican Ministry of Fish- proposal for integrated tourism management. eries and the Environment (SEMARNAP) to Community participation was the main focus of establish low impact whale watching, the this project. regulations conflicted with the possibilities for economic development of the fishermen As a result of the project, a need to develop re- providing the service. In 1997, in an attempt gion-specific tourism promotion strategies was to ensure conservation and economic devel- identified, as well as the need for specific man- opment, Pronatura, A.C., a large Mexican agement measures to protect the whales in each non-governmental organization (NGO), de- lagoon. The communities made a commitment to veloped a method for local participation in participate in the development of the tourist ac- search of a solution to this conflict for the tivity within the framework of sustainability. 268 Flores-Skydancer long term conservation of the gray whale only because of the presence of the gray and the associated whale watching industry. whale, but because of the richness and health of its vast array of mangrove chan- nels. This area, being one of the last non- Geographic Area modified wetlands along the Californias (Young and Dedina, 1993), allows for the The Bahía Magdalena Lagoons Complex is diversity of flora and fauna that use the located approximately between 24 and 26 complex, most important for resident and degrees N, on the Pacific side of Baja Cali- migratory birds, as well as for the fishing fornia Sur, the southern state of the Baja industry (Casas and Ponce, 1996). California Peninsula, México (Figure 1). The complex is formed by a series of lagoons and narrow channels, bordered by barrier Background and large islands. The northern part of the complex is a series of narrow channels, es- At the beginning of the present decade, gray tuaries, lagoons and barrier islands. The whale watching tourism started to become average depth in this area is 33 ft. The popular, offering an economic alternative to community that uses this area is mainly the small scale fishermen in the Bahia Magda- fishing town of Puerto Adolfo López lena lagoons. The rapid growth of tourists Mateos, located along the península of Baja visiting the area prompted the Mexican au- California, with an approximate population thorities to take emergency regulatory of 1000. The second part of the complex is measurements to conserve the breeding ar- composed of a series of channels and a big eas of the cetacean, which until 1993, has lagoon: Bahía Magdalena. This area is been on the endangered species list (Marine mainly used for fishing by the communities Mammal Commission, 1994). of Puerto San Carlos on the península, with an approximate population of 3000, and by The Mexican Government, having been a Puerto Magdalena with a population of 800, pioneer in declaring the breeding lagoons as located on Magdalena Island. The third and Sanctuaries and Refugees for this species of southernmost part of the complex is formed marine mammal (Diario Oficial, 1972a; by a series of lagoons, the larger being Bahía 1972b; 1979), became concerned with the Las Almejas, and to the south, Bahía Santa rapid growth of tourism visiting the area. Marina, bordered by Santa Margarita island and Creciente island respectively. This Through the publication of a temporary southern part is mainly used by the fishing Emergency Law (Diario Oficial, 1996), the community of Puerto Chale located on the Ministry of the Environment, Natural Re- península with an approximate population sources and Fisheries (SEMARNAP) estab- of 300, and the Puerto Alcatraz and the Na- lished several guidelines in 1996 to regulate val community of Puerto Cortés on Santa the whale watching activity. These guide- Margarita Island with no more than 200 lines were the establishment of regulated people respectively. whale watching zones inside the lagoons, regulation of the number of boats allowed to Every year, during the months of January be used in the whale watching zone at any through March, the gray whale arrives to one time, and regulation of the type of boat the Baja California’s coastal lagoons to mate used for the activity. The only type of boat and give birth. The complex has been desig- authorized for whale watching was the kind nated as a site of high priority for conserva- used by the local fishing fleet, a 20-24 ft skiff tion by national and international organiza- with an outboard motor. It also became tions (CONABIO- PRONATURA, 1996), not Flores-Skydancer 269
Figure 1. Bahia Magdalena region on the Pacific side of the Baha California Peninsula 270 Flores-Skydancer
mandatory for outside companies to con- those suggestions have been implemented, tract the service through local fishermen, while others were incorporated into the who usually are the owner/ operators of the writing of the Emergency Law (Diario Ofi- skiffs (Sánchez, 1997). cial, 1996). Still other suggestions are con- tradictory or controversial for certain stake- Lack of coordination between government holders, and some have had no follow-up. institutions and the historical conflict for the For example, in an attempt to prepare fish- use of the natural resources within the local ermen for the whale tourism, Pronatura, fishermen (Young, 1995) prompted a series A.C. and the Mexican Ministry of Tourism of irregularities and disorganization in the supported a nonprofit organization, The development of the tourism activity.This Rare Center for Tropical Conservation situation manifested itself with the dissatis- (RARE) in an effort to provide nature guide faction of the tourist, who had to use the training courses to the fishermen. However, small skiff which often lacked certain safety these efforts were not integrated into a gen- equipment. At times, tourists did not have eral participatory program. Therefore, Pro- proper interpretation due to lack of local natura, A.C., a large Mexican non- bilingual guides. Also, sub-utilization of the governmental conservation organization, set permits was a result of disorganization. For to the task of playing the role of coordinator example, sometimes, many tourists had to to develop a community-based proposal wait for long periods of times to board a towards tourism management and conser- skiff, while other times skiffs and the per- vation in Bahía Magdalena, a proposal that mits were not used at all (Sánchez, 1997). would ensure social equity and resource Inter-institutional and intra-community con- conservation. flicts were also ongoing. In addition, it was feared that the situation could be seriously threatening the conservation of the gray The Process Toward Local Tourism whale population through disturbance of Management the species during the mating season. 1. Searching for the latest information, inte- Previous efforts were made by govern- gration of an interdisciplinary team ments, academics and groups of nongov- Existing information was gathered and new ernmental organizations to call attention to studies were conducted on the different as- the problems associated with the whale pects that needed to be put together to de- watching. For example, Conservation Inter- sign an integrated proposal. The new infor- national produced a film to present to all mation consisted of a study on the distribu- stakeholders about the controversies of gray tion of gray whales that visited the lagoons whale watching. In a report by Dedina and in the winter 1996-1997 season. To conduct Young (1995) presented at the Marine this study, a team was formed with re- Mammal Conference in Baja California Sur, searchers from the Marine Mammal group the need for inter-institutional and commu- of the Autonomous University of La Paz nity coordination was again noted. Com- (UABCS), and with researchers from the munity participation was required during Regional Center for Fisheries Research in La meetings called by government agencies Paz (CRIP). each year before the gray whale season. Lo- cal fishers, now brokers, and representatives The team at UABCS had been doing gray of local tourist companies were asked for whale distribution research in San Ignacio suggestions and proposals to organize the lagoon prior to 1997 (Urbán and Gómez, activity. Some of their suggestions have 1995, 1996), while the team at CRIP have been written in several documents (Plan de been the only institute to have conducted Desarrollo Turístico de La Paz, 1993; Plan studies on gray whales in Bahía Magdalena. Municipal de Desarrollo, 1996). Several of Flores-Skydancer 271
At the same time, Pronatura, A.C. promoted Information was presented and the inter- coordination with the Center for Wetland view was applied to individuals in the fish- Studies, based in Puerto San Carlos, a field ing communities of Puerto San Carlos and station which was willing to collaborate Puerto Adolfo López Mateos. Representa- with infrastructure and human resources. tives of the different sectors were selected from the communities to make it representa- Another study that aimed to obtain and in- tive (Fowler, 1990). tegrate other new information was a socio- economic assessment of the two main fish- The results of these first interviews were ing communities that inhabit the coastal added to the original list of proposals for zone of the whales’ winter breeding la- modification of the temporary Emergency goons. The communities of Puerto Adolfo Law and new proposals for tourism man- López Mateos located in the northern area agement were generated. of the lagoon complex, and the community of Puerto San Carlos located along the mid- Based on the new list of proposals, a second dle section of the complex, were selected interview was prepared. The second inter- because they provide the majority of the view contained proposals for management whale watching service. and opportunities for action, on which the interviewees could elaborate and either sup- Pronatura, A.C. also collected data made port some of them or give their own points available by the Ministry of Tourism on the of view. permits used by fishermen in the Magda- lena lagoon complex during the winter sea- At this stage, forty-five interviews were son of 1996-1997. The information analyzed made by fax, telephone, or in person in the related to the number of persons that visited communities of Puerto San Carlos and the area in the season, number of skiffs that Puerto Adolfo López Mateos again, and also were whale watching at the same time in the to the La Paz and Mexico City stakeholders. lagoon, time of day with higher demand for With the results of the second interview, the the whale watching service, and days and importance of certain proposals of man- weeks which illustrated higher demand. agement and the action opportunities were corroborated and new proposals were gen- The information gathered about the dynam- erated. ics of the whale watching activity, together with the data of the study conducted by 3. Testing different proposals: providing multi- UABCS-CRIP, and data from the socioeco- ple tourism management scenarios nomic study, were reviewed during a round With the objective to evaluate the impor- table on July 7, 1997 at the CRIP library in tance of tourist activities during the gray La Paz. Only the main researchers and ex- whale mating season in each of the commu- pert consultants participated during this nities of Puerto Adolfo López Mateos and stage. During this work, many proposals Puerto San Carlos, a series of scenarios were were made to modify the temporary Emer- designed for evaluation. gency Law (Diario Oficial, 1996) based on the new data generated. This information The different tourism management scenar- was the basis for the next step: designing an ios were evaluated quantitatively by Pro- interview and providing data-based infor- natura, A.C., using data generated for the mation to involve all stakeholders. distribution of the gray whale in the la- goons, and data generated on the socioeco- 2. Designing a preliminary management pro- nomic conditions in each one of the towns posal: integrating all stakeholders involved. The evaluation of scenarios was Based on the results obtained from the achieved through the environmental, social round table with researchers, an informa- and economic criteria. tion base and an interview were developed. 272 Flores-Skydancer
In addition to the interview, the responders namics, the participants established consen- were asked to evaluate several tourism sus on opportunities that were a priority for management scenarios in qualitative form. the benefit of the communities which pro- A document with the summary of results vide whale watching services. The partici- was produced. This document would be the pants initiated dialogue toward an inte- basis for the discussion of the integrated grated tourism management proposal. whale watching tourism management pro- posals. The document would be presented during a community workshop in each one Results and Discussion of the participant communities. The docu- ment integrated proposals from all sectors The method used for community involve- involved. ment can be summarized in the model pro- posed by Flores (1995) for local coastal 4. Presenting the information to the community: community involvement in marine conser- community workshops vation projects (Figure 2). In this model, the In order to present the information gathered management agency may have the control for the integrated tourism management pro- on the information generated and distrib- posals, a workshop was planned for each of uted by the researchers. The non- the two participant communities. To ensure governmental organization can function as attendance of the largest number of people, an interpreter, getting all the parties to- an intense one on one invitation campaign gether, and searching for key community was organized and conducted. To achieve members. In the process described in this this, Pronatura, A.C. hired a campaign coor- paper, the NGO Pronatura, A.C. functioned dinator, a person that was well known to as the main interpreter by bringing together the communities before. The coordinator researchers and community members to- announced the event two weeks before the wards a common goal: the economic benefit workshop by going home to home to visit for the communities by using and conserv- people, broadcasted the event on the radio, ing a valuable marine resource: the gray and the mobile media information system in whale. both communities. Processes to involve communities have to be Different stakeholders including fishermen done in several steps if support is to be and representatives of government and pri- gained from them. Sometimes, the processes vate industries were invited. Some of them involve long periods of time only to find the had been participating before as interview- ways of communicating (Flores, 1995; Sky- ees, others had only heard about the project dancer, 1995; Collinson and Shultis, 1999). by word of mouth. As a result of the community involvement Taking into account the traditional conflicts process in Bahía Magdalena, alternative among the fishing cooperatives and among tourism management proposals for the eco- individuals in the area, Pronatura, A.C. nomic benefit of the region’s inhabitants hired a professional mediator with experi- were proposed by the community and in- ence working with fishing communities to volved stakeholders. This type of proposed conduct the workshops. management scheme has the benefit of re- ducing the costs of enforcement and there- During the workshops, the proposals that fore, reducing the threats to the resource, were compiled though the previous process since it is directly in the benefit of the com- were presented. These proposals were ana- munity itself to respect the self-imposed lyzed with the audience under different mediation methods and opportunities were then identified. Through negotiation dy-
Flores-Skydancer 273
MANAGING AGENCY MULTIPLE GOALS
RESEARCHER INTERPRETER ACADEMIC CONSERVATION NGO's GOALS EDUCATION GOALS
KEY COMMUNITY MEMBER
PERsONAL GOALS
COMMUNITY
INVOLVEMENT
INDIVIDUAL ACTIONS
Figure 2. A model for involving local coastal communities in marine conservation projects 274 Flores-Skydancer
regulations. In some cases it has been dem- velopment remain small in scale, placing onstrated that involving the communities relatively little stress on local resources and directly in the design and implementation of social systems. It has been demonstrated, conservation strategies for the resource through the results of this process that an management, makes a difference in success NGO can help in achieving such goals. (Western and Wright, 1994). Based on the results of the workshop, the In addition, as the locals become brokers, NGO was capable of providing an informed according to the model of Miller and community-based recommendation to the Auyong (1991), the dynamics of their rela- government authorities. The results demon- tionships with the tourist and the environ- strated that an NGO can be influential in ment change. During the process presented managing coastal tourism for the conserva- in this paper, some changes in attitude were tion of the environment, and the economic noticeable by the end of the workshops, development of fishing communities and where members of the communities en- the tourism industry. gaged in certain commitments.
During the workshop at Puerto San Carlos, Acknowledgements the representatives of the fishing coopera- To the Pronatura team who worked together tives that provide whale watching tourism to conduct a successful workshop: Maryló services, made a compromise to write a Mandujano was key in the field work and in document to propose modifications to the preparation of the workshop, Andrea Sáenz Emergency Law for the regulation of the prepared and analyzed the scenarios, tourist activity. The proposal would include Ernesto Vázquez M. elaborated the maps, consideration of both communities in Bahía Raven Skydancer helped in all the logistics Magdalena, Puerto Adolfo López Mateos and provided support throughout the proc- and Puerto San Carlos, as two zones with ess. Thanks to all the participant stake- different social and economic profiles, as holders. And to the people of the communi- well as with differences in the spatial distri- ties of Bahía Magdalena, who realize the bution and threats to the gray whale. responsibility that lies in their hands. To Raven and to Professor Marc Miller for en- In Puerto Adolfo López Mateos, fishing bro- couragement to present this paper at the kers asked Pronatura, A.C. to work with CMT99 Congress. them in a proposal to improve their organi- zation and efficiency. The brokers also pro- posed to work with the NGO to obtain References funding for education and training about managing tourism and environmental is- Alam, M.M. and Naser, M.N. (1998). Pros- sues. Realizing the importance of under- pects of coastal tourism development in standing and conserving the resource is a Bangladesh. In: Proceedings of the 1996 first step towards economic development. World Congress on Coastal and Marine As has happened in other countries, the lack Tourism. M. Miller and J. Auyong (eds.). of understanding of such a connection be- Bailey, C. (1998). Sustainable community tween natural resources and nature tourism development through coastal and ma- is against local economic benefit (Alam and rine tourism: opportunities and con- Naser, 1998; Pinel, 1999). By having in- strains. In: Proceedings of the 1996 World creased understanding about the resource Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism. they use, the communities could achieve M. Miller and J. Auyong (eds.). ecological sustainability and social and eco- Collinson, V. and Shultis, J. (1999). Develop- nomic development. According to Bailey ing a community consultation process to (1996), it is likely that locally initiated de- Flores-Skydancer 275
assess support for coastal tourism in a involve local coastal communities in First Nations community. Presentation marine conservation projects. Masters given at the 1999 International Sympo- Thesis. School of Marine Affairs. Uni- sium on Coastal and Marine Tourism. versity of Washington. Seattle, WA. April 26-29, 1999. Vancouver, B.C., Can- Marine Mammal Commission. (1995). Spe- ada. cies of Special Concern. Chapter IV: An- Casas V., M. and G. Ponce D. (eds.) (1996). nual Report to Congress. 1994. pp. 77-82. Estudio del potencial pesquero y acuícola de Miller, M.L. and Auyong, J. (1991). Tourism Baja California Sur. SEMARNAP, Go- in the coastal zone: Portents, problems, bierno del Estado de B.C.S., FAO, and possibilities. In: Proceedings of the UABCS, CIBNOR, CICIMAR, CRIP, 1990 Congress on Coastal and Marine CETMAR. México, D.F. 693 pp. Tourism. Volumes I and II. M.L. Miller CONABIO-PRONATURA, A.C. (1996). and J. Auyong (eds.), (25-31 May 1990, Taller de Priorización de Regiones Ter- Honolulu, Hawaii, USA). National restres para la Conservación en México. Coastal Resources & Development Insti- Dedina, S. and Young, E. (1995). Conser- tute, Newport, OR. pp. 1-8. vation as Communication: Local People Miller, M.L. and Auyong, J. (eds.) (1998). and Gray Whale Tourism in Baja Cali- Proceedings of the 1996 World Congress on fornia Sur, México. Whalewatcher. 29(2): Coastal and Marine Tourism: Experiences 8-13. in Management and Development. (19-22 Diario Oficial. (1972a). Decreto por el que se June, 1996, Honolulu, Hawaii. USA). declara zona de refugio para ballenas y Washington Sea Grant Program and the ballenatos, las aguas del área de la La- School of Marine Affairs, University of guna Ojo de Liebre, al sur de la Bahía de Washington, and Oregon Sea Grant Col- Sebastián Vizcaíno, en el litoral del océ- lege Program, Oregon State University. ano Pacífico, Territorio de Baja Califor- Seattle, WA. 386 pp. nia. 14 de enero. pp. 4-5. Pinel, D. (1999). A Community based model Diario Oficial. (1972b). Decreto por el que se for tourism planning. Presentation at declara zona de reserva y refugio de the 1999 International Symposium on aves migratorias y de la fauna silvestre, Coastal and Marine Tourism. April 26- la consituída por las lagunas Ojo de Lie- 29, 1999. Vancouver, B.C., Canada. bre y San Ignacio, dentro del área que Plan de Desarrollo Turístico de La Paz, comprende la Bahía de Sebastián Viz- (1993). Gobierno Municipal de La Paz. caíno, en el litoral del océano Pacífico, Baja California Sur, México. Territorio de Baja California. 11 de sep- Plan Municipal de Desarrollo. (1996). Plan tiembre. pp. 4-5. Municipal de Desarrollo 1996-1999. IX. Diario Oficial. (1979). Decreto por el que se Ayuntamiento de Comondú. Baja Cali- declara como refugio para ballenas fornia Sur, México. grávidas y ballenatos y zona de atrac- Sánchez P.J. (1997). Descripción y desarrollo ción turístico-marítima, las aguas de la de las actividades turísticas de obser- zona interior de la Laguna San Ignacio vación de ballena gris en las lagunas de en el estado de Baja Caliofrnia Sur. 16 la reserva de la biosfera “El Vizcaíno” y de julio. pp. 23-24. Bahía Magdalena, Baja California Sur, Diario Oficial. (1996). Norma Oficial Mexi- México, temporadas 1996 y 1997. Boletín cana de Emergencia NOM-EM-074- Pesquero No. 7. CRIP La Paz, ECOL-1996. Por la que se establecen los SEMARNAP. pp. 8-18. lineamientos y especificaciones para la Skydancer, R. (1995). Conservation-based regulación de actividades de avis- Environmental Education: A Pilot Pro- tamientos en torno a la ballena gris y su gram for Teachers of Bahía Asunción, hábitat, así como las relativas a su pro- B.C.S., México. Masters in Teaching tección y conservación. Thesis. The Evergreen State College. Flores O., L. (1995). An educational model to Olympia, WA. 276 Flores-Skydancer
Urbán R.J. and A. Gómez G. (1995). Informe sobre el estudio de distribución de la población de la ballena gris (Eschrichtius robustus) en la laguna San Ignacio, B.C.S. durante la temporada in- vernal 1994-1995. Urbán R.J. and A. Gómez G. (1996). Informe sobre el estudio de distribución de la población de la ballena gris (Eschrichtius robustus) en la laguna San Ignacio, B.C.S. durante la temporada in- vernal 1995-1996. Young E. and Dedina, S. (1993). Last Stop in Baja. California Coast and Ocean. Win- ter/Spring. Young, E. (1995). Elusive Edens: Linking local need to nature pro- tection in the coastal lagoons of Baja California Sur, México. PhD. Thesis. The University of Texas at Austin. USA. Western , D. and Wright, M. (eds.). (1994). Natural Connections: Perspectives in Com- munity-Based Conservation. Island Press. Washington, D.C.
CREATE A GOOD FIT: A COMMUNITY-BASED TOURISM PLANNING MODEL
David P. Pinel Pinel & Associates Community Research & Planning (Canada)
Abstract: Communities are rarely at the helm and resource planning. Tourism planning can of the tourism planning and development that then better inform and influence other socio- affects them. This paper describes a Community- cultural, resource use, and economic decision Based Tourism Planning (CBTP) Process Model processes. With more explicit local guidance, and case study. This places otherwise common tourism development can better avoid typical strategic planning and community development “host-guest” conflicts and stereotypes, and can principles into a tourism planning approach. stimulate more clear stewardship of tourism re- This provides a comprehensive framework for sources. This increases the ability of all stake- steering tourism planning toward becoming a holders to guide a better fitting, longer lasting, beneficial and lasting fit with other aspects of and less depleting tourism industry in concert community and area well-being. This CBTP with local needs, desires, abilities, and capacity. approach relies on initial and ongoing assess- ment of stakeholder experiences, concerns, hopes, Keywords: planning, community assessment, fears, and dreams to guide tourism-related deci- community development, integration, new mod- sions. els/old concepts
A community assessment case study in the Kyu- quot Sound area, a remote coastal tourism set- Introduction: The Concept ting on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, demonstrates the potential of using tourism planning as a stimulus for other aspects of com- This paper highlights findings and insights 1 munity communication, organisation, and de- from a community assessment case study . velopment. The depth of community-generated and associated Community-Based Tourism insights depicts an otherwise untapped local ex- Planning (CBTP) Process Model (Figure 1).2 pertise about their tourism situation. This case The CBTP Model proposes that tourism study assessment reveals that the Aboriginal and planning should build from an awareness of Non-Aboriginal residents, tourism operators, community values and organisational needs and other stakeholders share many tourism- to guide more locally-appropriate tourism related perspectives that were otherwise not be- development that fits with other community ing discussed or acted upon. This is a powerful needs, initiatives, and opportunities. This example of how local stakeholder wisdom can brings otherwise established strategic plan- correspond closely with general principles of ning and community development princi- ecotourism and sustainable tourism develop- ples to tourism planning practices so that ment. This suggests significant latent benefits of stakeholders (residents, operators, govern- shifting toward tourism decisions that are more ment) can together guide a more sustainable community-based instead of only market- or ex- and consistent tourism industry for com- pert-driven. munities, not at the expense of communities and local ecosystems. This CBTP approach can be particularly relevant for areas facing difficult transitions from dwin- In planning and development theory and dling or collapsed resource-based economies. It practice, local citizen and stakeholder input can provide a social and perceptual inventory are increasingly stressed as necessary ele- that complements more accepted biophysical, ments for accepted and effective decisions supply, or demand inventories used in tourism which balance economic, social, cultural, 278 Pinel and environmental factors (Hutchison, 1998; the aspirations of affected communities or Friedman, 1987; Verhelst, 1987). Similarly, local residents in a “destination area”(Reid there is a growing and more genuine appre- et al., 1993). ciation of the need for increased community involvement in tourism planning (van This paper first describes the Community- Harssel, 1994; Prentice, 1993: 218; Boo, 1990: Based Tourism Planning Process Model 48; Murphy, 1985) to help preserve and (Figure 1), then provides a brief profile of maintain unique, special, or valued local the case study context, process, and out- features and tourism attractions. Such plan- comes. Of significant note are the potential ning can better prepare a community to Guiding Elements for Tourism Planning “adapt to the unexpected, create the desir- (Figure 2) that were generated by—and able, and avoid the undesirable . . . [and] for—the case study area stakeholders. These promotes the opportunity for improving the Guiding Elements are summarised before total community rather than improving one further discussing the relevance and practi- part of the community at the expense of cal considerations of applying the CBTP other parts” (van Harssel, 1994: 208). This Process Model elsewhere. does not suggest that every tourism decision must be made on a community-wide con- sensus basis. Instead, direction can come CBTP Process Model from a set of periodically refreshed guide- lines or principles generated by the many Some assert that, “All travel is linked with stakeholders. communities no matter how urban or re- mote the purpose may be. This inescapable In corporations and institutions, values and fact can be a blessing or a curse depending visions are commonly clarified at the outset upon how well a community accepts its of strategic planning processes and form the tourism role and maintains a balance be- basis of short- and long-term decisions and tween traveller and resident development actions. A similar approach can be used as and management” (Gunn, 1988: 241). Rather the basis for tourism planning. This ac- than “accepting their role”, CBTP promotes knowledges that “Community demands for that the community should define their active participation in the setting of the tour- own—and the tourism industry’s—role. To ism agenda and its priorities for tourism accomplish this, a community needs to cre- development and management cannot be ate opportunities for stepping back from ignored” (Inskeep, 1991: xi). Though more tourism marketing and product develop- time-consuming than a top-down approach ment pressures. Then, stakeholders can to planning and development, when a evaluate their tourism experiences and local community guides their own development, values while setting a direction for their “the results are often longer lasting and own tourism development in partnership more effective over the long-term” (Reid, with other significant stakeholders. This Fuller, Haywood, and Bryden, 1993: 71, In- community-based approach is fundamen- skeep, 1991: 27). Making and pursuing con- tally linked with a “belief in human poten- scientious and co-operative choices for tial for favorable growth” (Biddle and community development requires patience Biddle, 1965: 58) which relies on community and perseverance from all stakeholders. members having a positive view and under- standing of their own potential (van Willi- Independent operator initiatives, govern- gen, 1986: 97; Freire, 1968). ment promotion, and market responses to tourist demands commonly drive tourism CBTP relies on an initial and periodic com- development. As a result, tourism planning, munity assessment process (Phase 1, Figure development, and marketing typically focus 1) that harnesses the experience, expertise, on tourist trends and desires, thereby insuf- ficiently identifying, upholding, or pursuing Pinel 279 Process Model (adapted from Pinel 1998a) Pinel from (adapted Model Process
Figure 1. Community-Based Tourism Planning Tourism 1. Community-Based Figure 280 Pinel desires, and support of local residents to- This CBTP Process Model emphasises the gether with tourism operators and other need for catalysts from events or individuals stakeholders (government, organisations, to initiate an assessment process, and to and industry). Such assessment can generate keep the process going through tasks that an inventory of perceptions about tourism- stimulate co-operation, trust, tourism related changes (experiences, concerns, awareness, and links with the broader hopes, fears, and dreams). This “social or community development context. The actual perceptual inventory” can complement “little steps” will vary by community and other tourism resource inventories (infra- depend on previous experiences from work- structure, services, attractions, biophysical ing or planning together. The success or features, and cultural features) for making failure of reducing negative tourism impacts more informed and accountable decisions on communities and ecosystems clearly de- while building organisation and infrastruc- pends on how relationships are valued— ture capacity. relationships between people, and between people and their ecosystems. Careful thought and discussion about “what matters to us”, “what we can offer”, and “how we want tourism to affect our Case Study Background home/community/area” can help to chart a clear course with guiding principles for local The Kyuquot Sound area on the Northwest tourism planning and development. This coast of Vancouver Island is one of the is- process is invaluable when rural, remote, land’s last remote coastal tourism destina- and First Nations communities are in- tions, and has one of the most isolated volved—where there are often close com- communities of its size. By most accounts, munities, shared lands, common resources, tourism activity is slowly increasing here, and sensitive cultural heritage. Similarly, in but has not yet seriously influenced local more populated destinations, insightful planning and development in the commu- guidance and collaboration can emerge from nity and surrounding wilderness and pro- an assessment process within the many lay- tected areas. During Kyuquot’s two month ers or sectors of the community, i.e., “the peak tourism season in 1997 (July and Au- many communities” affected. gust), the four sportfishing lodges, three B&Bs, and one sea kayaking and marine Community-based tourism planning is tour company were operating at about 60% about: 1) introducing more “strategic” and of their combined capacity of about 90 cli- “future” thinking or visioning to tourism ents/day. There is currently no monitoring development; 2) relying on residents and of recreational tourist numbers, however, a community leaders as their own “experts” rough estimate is that commercial tourism about community needs and desirable tour- accounts for approximately one sixth of visi- ism influences; and 3) providing opportuni- tors to the area. Though not promoted as ties to clarify community strengths, chal- such, the many provincial protected areas lenges, obstacles, and opportunities for so- (Parks and Ecological Reserves)3 adjacent to cial, economic, and ecological well-being. Kyuquot Sound are undoubtedly tourism CBTP encourages and facilitates reflection draws. Tourism is creeping northward on about how a “destination” is also a “home” Vancouver Island and the people of Kyu- (for residents, flora, and fauna). Tourists are quot are only beginning to more carefully more likely to appreciate and return if they consider its implications and opportunities. feel a “good fit” between aspects of “desti- nation” and “home” rather than experienc- In the peak of the summer, there are an es- ing tourism as a source of tension or nega- timated 300 seasonal and full-time residents. tive impacts. About two thirds of this population are from the Ka:’ yu: ‘k’ t ‘h’ (Kyuquot) and Pinel 281
Che:k’tles7et’h’ (Checleset) First Nation. Each of these outputs provides a valuable This is the northernmost band of the Nuu- reference for ongoing tourism-related dis- chah-nulth Tribal Council (NTC) which cussions, organisation, and planning, or for spans most of Vancouver Island’s west later evaluating the path and successes of coast. Kyuquot’s past is generally described tourism planning and development efforts. as that of a small and remote commercial fishing village that has survived several Some less-tangible community assessment boom and bust cycles in the whaling and outputs included: fishing industries during the last 80 years • Encouraging stakeholder awareness (current generations). As in many coastal about tourism implications and pos- regions of BC, most local residents are sibilities. struggling with an almost collapsed local • Identifying shared community and economy that has relied on fishing and for- stakeholder interests not otherwise estry. Recently, a report through the federal being discussed. Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) • Demonstrating the collective com- ranked Kyuquot as the hardest hit of all munity wisdom and potential of coastal communities affected by changes in combining stakeholder input, ex- the commercial salmon fishery (Gislason, perience, and expertise. 1999). • Stimulating constructive and co- operative discussions. The case study community assessment re- • Clarifying relationships and needs. lied on local and non-local stakeholders as • Prompting links with other local is- the experts for describing Kyuquot’s own sues, decisions, and initiatives. tourism planning situation and organiza- tional needs. Formal and informal inter- Each of these less-tangible outputs adds to views and focus group discussions brought the momentum necessary for stakeholders together experiences, observations, and in- to begin having a more community-based sights from over 80 of Kyuquot’s tourism influence on how tourism affects their lives stakeholders.4 and the area.
Community Assessment Outputs Several stakeholders felt that tourism- The community assessment provided many related decisions and initiatives could be- tangible and less-tangible outputs from, and come opportunities for the community to for, the many stakeholders. In summary, begin addressing chronic economic, social, some tangible tourism planning outputs and cultural challenges. Some of these same included (Pinel 1998b, 17-51): stakeholders worried that continued hap- • A background inventory of tourism hazard tourism growth could add to eco- planning efforts and dynamics. nomic, social, and cultural conflicts, includ- • A summary of related influences on ing lingering tensions between the Native the future of tourism. and non-Native local residents.5 Regardless, • A summary of direct, indirect, and awareness is increasing about how tourism potential stakeholders and their is beginning to influence other aspects of roles. community and area well-being. • A set of potential guiding elements for tourism planning. Guiding Elements for Tourism Planning • A summary of significant hurdles The most significant assessment outputs for tourism planning. were the potential “Guiding Elements” for • A possible tourism steering group Kyuquot’s tourism planning (Figure 2) model. which came from themes identified through • Initial task suggestions as planning stakeholder comments. With some further catalysts. 282 Pinel
1. Using tourism planning to "pull together" local residents; 2. Including broad stakeholder input; 3. Clarifying co-operative stakeholder roles sooner rather than later; 4. Preparing children/youth with values & skills for tourism and community steward-
Inclusive ship; Cooperation 5. Creating a more unified local voice for external relations and communication; 6. Better understanding the implications, potential, demands, and expectations of tour- ism; 7. Working toward a consistent tourism season by satisfying those who come; 8. Ensuring the safety of tourists and locals; 9. Communicating clear community messages to tourists; 10. Encouraging friendly and respectful attitudes between residents and tourists; 11. Setting local land and marine stewardship examples by residents; 12. Working to reduce socio-cultural stereotypes; 13. Shaping appropriate tourist expectations to match local realities; 14. Respecting resident and tourist privacy while also influencing tourism activities and Understanding & Shaping Shaping & Understanding
Implications and Expectations and Expectations Implications behaviours. 15. Maintaining the ability to keep living and working in the area; 16. Managing for gradual growth that matches local capacity; 17. Showing pride in the area and in cultural backgrounds; 18. Protecting the wilderness and waters as primary resources for all local economies; 19. Protecting the mystique, freedom, and other features attractive to locals and tourists alike; and & Enhancement & Enhancement
Local Maintenance Local Maintenance 20. Treating all local resources as a complete system. Figure 2. Summary of Potential Guiding Elements for Kyuquot’s Tourism Planning (Condensed from Pinel 1998a) discussion, refinement, and community rati- having to eventually make a 90o shift to fication, these can serve as the foundation change and repair undesired impacts from principles for tourism-related decisions in tourism. This pinpoints the purpose and Kyuquot. These are a starting point for pro- advantage of identifying guiding elements viding more clear and consistent community early in tourism planning. Another resident messages to tourists, tourism operators, reflected that, “You have to feel good about government agencies, politicians, and others your home before you can invite others to who influence how tourism affects the it.” This is at the heart of community-based community and area. tourism planning. Not surprisingly, there are important ways in which all tourism This helps to demonstrate the comprehen- stakeholders can work to support Kyuquot sive collective wisdom that can be tapped as a healthy home and place to visit. through a community assessment rather than suggesting or imposing a prescribed Other Community Assessment list of tourism principles. These stakeholder- Observations generated Guiding Elements offer more Some stakeholders indicated that several depth and local meaning than what could native and non-native residents increasingly otherwise be suggested to the community avoid or resent tourists who appear to take with concepts of eco- or sustainable tourism. the community, fishing, and favourite local places for granted. A few residents de- One resident astutely commented that it is scribed their observation that some tourists much easier to simply make a 2o shift in see the village like an incidental “backdrop tourism development directions now, than for their experience,” and not as a living Pinel 283 community with real people. Others have ism implications, clarifying community ex- had tourists stare at them as though study- pectations and messages, and stimulating ing “a real Native” like a “monkey in a local pride and stewardship. Given the cage”. One youth explained that, “it seems stakeholder awareness of both desired and that when we try to approach some of them negative tourism impacts, there is ample [tourists], they act ignorant, like they’re reason to believe that these same stake- higher than us and richer. We know that holders can prioritise ways of working to- they are [richer] if they can afford to travel, gether to address tourism concerns, and to but they sure don’t have to bring this to our refine and follow some guiding elements for attention....” These types of encounters and their own tourism future. experiences can quickly shatter local confi- dence, respect, and hospitality in resident- Though few case study interviewees specifi- visitor relationships. One Native resident cally mentioned “sustainability”, many of insightfully added that, if local residents the resultant “Guiding Elements” (Figure 2) increasingly withdraw from contacts with describe an interest in balancing tourism tourists, this will unfortunately only add to development to “meet the needs of the pre- the potential for conflicts and stereotyping sent without compromising the ability of in both directions, and may subsequently future generations to meet their own needs” increase tensions within the community. (WCED, 1987: 8). During this community assessment, Kyuquot’s tourism stakeholders Many described essential links between the clearly demonstrated their awareness of: “visitor experience” and the “local commu- • The “functional interdependencies nity experience” whereby each affects the ...of recreation, conservation, and other. As such, Kyuquot’s remoteness, tourism” (Gunn, 1988: 15) and other quaint village, local services, sportfishing, resource uses. secluded beaches, and protected areas are • The importance of resident satisfac- linked to the collective “stakeholder experi- tion for visitor satisfaction (Reid et ence” of residents and tourists alike. One al., 1993: 24). tourism operator described hopes that tour- • The need to “balance the commer- ists can become more knowledgeable, edu- cial imperatives of tourism with the cated, and inspired from the area and from cultural integrity of the community” local people—that tourism can catalyze (Masterton, 1994: 23). more meaningful understandings and re- spect for coastal ecology, remote and rural In tourism planning, issues of sustainability communities, and Native people. are often linked with other resource and protected area management efforts, espe- cially where protected areas attract visitors. The Relevance of CBTP In Kyuquot, many residents have felt alien- ated from local protected area management. Throughout the research, there was almost a Policies and activities that have emphasized universal stakeholder concern about—and land or marine areas as everyone’s resource, desire to move away from—the status quo playground, or treasure (the “public good” of continuing with haphazard, market- and “provincial interests”) typically over- driven, and externally imposed tourism de- look the greatest potential stewardship as- velopment. Co-operative, inclusive, and set—the local residents. All residents aren’t community-based tourism planning can be necessarily “connected with the land” or approached as casually or intensively as setting stellar examples of treating their suits the local context. For Kyuquot, many home area with care; but if not included in of the tourism planning “task suggestions” the planning and management, they feel focused on education and training, initiating even less of an obligation or need to be community co-operation, discussing tour- stewards. The community assessment iden- 284 Pinel tified the need for tourism and protected a reasonable expectation. Only time and ex- area management strategies formed through amples of CBTP initiatives elsewhere will partnerships between local residents and provide more insights about the value of government agencies. Otherwise, the “trag- this Process Model and validity of its as- edy of the commons” remains a tragedy of sumptions. approaching it as the commons. If tourism and protected area policies are drafted with A CBTP approach doesn’t ignore or pre- nobody’s home in mind, then nobody in that clude more market-conscious tourism plan- home is likely to respect, welcome or em- ning and development, but first establishes brace those policies. Similarly, Kyuquot a common framework for shaping a locally residents will be reluctant to respect tourists appropriate tourism industry. In the CBTP who don’t acknowledge that they are visi- Process Model, the three major feedback tors or guests to somebody’s home area. loops (for community assessment, with community development, and for refining It remains to be seen whether the commu- the tourism products and services) allow for nity assessment will stimulate further com- tourism development to be guided and mas- munity-based tourism planning in the Kyu- saged by community, area, and market- quot area. Nothing more may happen with- conscious inputs. Subsequent assessments out significant increases in tourism-related could be done after every tourism season, pressures and conflicts or without further once a year, or at two- or three-year inter- initiatives from key stakeholders. Neverthe- vals—the frequency would depend on the less, stakeholder feedback has been positive intensity of tourism pressures, other shifts in about the community assessment contribu- the local planning context, and stakeholder tions to clarifying tourism-related issues and satisfaction. The specific community ap- relationships. proach taken will vary by population size, cultural context, local need, tourism inten- sity, seasonality, and previous tourism Applying the CBTP Process Model planning efforts. Nevertheless, the CBTP concepts and framework can remain the The CBTP Process Model (Figure 1) makes same. the following three assumptions: Along the planning path, it is the recipe of • That local capacity building and or- individuals—their talents, skills, experience, ganisational development can be limitations, commitment, time, patience, and most effectively guided using the perseverance—which ultimately determines knowledge and insights of stake- the success of any community-based proc- holders. ess. Stakeholder alienation, turnover, attri- • That most stakeholders can look be- tion, and burnout can leave a well founded yond their immediate circum- process stalled or unable to progress along stance. an accountable decision path. Personality • That with community values identi- dynamics and seemingly unrelated personal fied, most stakeholders will move demands and agendas can block, accelerate, together toward acknowledged de- or accentuate positive planning outcomes. sires that respect local area and With every tourism season and cycle of community well-being. growth or decline, the roles, influence, and relationships of tourism stakeholders As noted earlier, these assumptions relate to change (Reisinger, 1994; Smith, 1977). Ac- community development and strategic cordingly, community-based tour-ism plan- planning principles. The facilitated commu- ning can be pursued as a flexible and re- nity assessment case study has shown that sponsive process instead of as the quest for a the first and second of the above assump- rigid plan. tions are realistic, and that the third may be Pinel 285
Acknowledgements 4 Most of the field research occurred between March and May 1997. Approximately six weeks Many residents of Kyuquot, other tourism were spent conducting over 75 interviews and stakeholders, and colleagues offered the meetings in the Kyuquot area or where non-local trust, support, hospitality, and friendship stakeholders or officials were located (Campbell which made this research not only possible River, Courtenay, Parksville, Vancouver, Victo- and relevant, but personally enjoyable and ria). A draft of the interim findings and analysis enriching—thank you. Also, many thanks to was prepared and distributed to approximately the Canadian Institute of Planners and the 50 stakeholders/research participants for feed- University of Guelph’s School of Rural back and was used as a discussion reference dur- ing two focus group sessions in the community Planning and Development for partially (approx. 20 participants, many of whom had funding the field work. previously been interviewed). Additional and unexpected research contributions came from grade 11/12 students who discussed one of the Notes: focus group questions as a class exercise, and ______who wrote commentaries about parts of the in- 1. The case study was conducted in the Kyuquot terim findings. Primary data (interviews, focus Sound area on the Northwest coast of Vancouver groups, researcher observations) was supple- Island, British Columbia. This applied research mented with secondary references (reports, pre- was for a Masters thesis about community-based vious theses, etc.) relevant to tourism planning tourism planning (1997/98), and as volunteer and development in Kyuquot. consulting to advance stakeholder understanding 5 In many respects, the Kyuquot area is a micro- and discussion about tourism planning and de- cosm of the issues and challenges facing rural, velopment implications in the Kyuquot Sound remote, and coastal communities through-out the area. The thesis findings (Pinel 1998a) and the province and country. subsequent condensed working report (Pinel 1998b) have since been used for other resource, tourism, community, and parks planning reports (e.g., Clover Point Cartographics 1998, Comox- Strathcona Regional District 1999, Synergy 1998). References The findings will be referred to for guidance dur- ing forthcoming economic diversification efforts Biddle, W.J., and Biddle, L.J. (1965). The in Kyuquot and the region. Community Development Process: The Re- discovery of Local Initiative. Holt, Rinehart 2 The macro approach used for this research was partially inspired by the “Tourism Planning and Winston, New York. Community Development Model” developed by Boo, Elizabeth. (1990). Ecotourism: The Poten- Reid, Fuller, Haywood, and Bryden (1993) but tial and Pitfalls (2 vols.). World Wildlife not yet applied or tested in a tourism planning Fund, Baltimore. process. This thesis research deconstructed the Comox-Strathcona Regional District. (1999). Reid et. al. model, then reconstructed it as the West Coast Area Parks and Recreation “Community-Based Tourism Planning Process Report (draft). February 1999 (final copy Model” (Pinel 1998a) using many insights and expected June 1999). experiences from the community assessment case Friedman, John. (1987). Planning in the Public study in the Kyuquot area. Domain: From Knowledge to Action. 3 Protected areas in the Kyuquot area include: 1) Princeton University Press , New Jersey. Brooks-Nasparti Provincial Park (approx. 51 631 Freire, Paulo. (1968). Pedagogy of the Op- ha), 2) Big Bunsby Provincial Park (approx. 639 pressed. Translation by Myra Berg-man ha), 3) Checleset Bay Ecological Reserve (approx. Ramos (1990 edition). Continuum, New 34 650 ha), 4) Rugged Point Provincial Marine Park, 5) Tahsish-Kwois Provincial Park (approx. York 10 829 ha; includes Tahsish River Ecological Re- Gunn, Clare A. (1988). Tourism Planning. serve), 6) Dixie Cove Provincial Park (approx. 156 Taylor & Francis, New York ha), 7) Clanninick Creek Ecological Reserve (37 van Harssel, Jan (ed.). (1994). Tourism - An ha), and 8) Artlish Caves Provincial Park (234 Exploration (Third Edition). Prentice Hall ha). Career & Technology, New Jersey. 286 Pinel
Hutchison, Peggy. (1998). Community De- Common Future. Oxford University velopment in Recreation Services: Why Press, New York. Not? Plan Canada. 38(1):5-7. January 1998. Inskeep, Edward. (1991). Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach. VNR Tourism and Commer- cial Recreation Series. van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. Murphy, Peter E. (1985). Tourism: A Commu- nity Approach. Methuen, New York. Pinel, David. (1998a). A Community-Based Tourism Planning Process Model: Kyu- quot Sound Area, B.C., M.Sc. Thesis. University School of Rural Planning and Development. U. of Guelph. April, 1998. Pinel, David. (1998b). Kyuquot Sound Area Tourism Planning: Community Assess- ment and Organizational Development. Condensed working report based on M.Sc. Thesis research (Pinel 1998a). June 1998. Prentice, R.C. (1993). Community-driven tourism planning and residents’ prefer- ences. Tourism Management, 14(3): 218- 227. Reid, D.G., Fuller, A.M., Haywood, K.M. and Bryden, J. (1993). The Integration of Tourism, Culture, and Recreation in Rural Ontario: A Rural Visitation Program. Pre- pared for the Ontario Ministry of Cul- ture, Tourism, and Recreation. Queen’s Printer, Toronto. Reisinger, Yvette. (1994). Tourist-Host Con- tact as Part of Cultural Tourism. World Leisure and Recreation, 36(2):24-28. Smith, Valene L. (ed.). (1977). Hosts and Guests - The Anthropology of Tourism. University of Pennsylvania Press. Synergy Management Group Ltd. (1998). Kyuquot Region Forest Sector Strategic Plan. Nanaimo, BC. Verhelst, Thierry G. (1987). No Life Without Roots: Culture and Development. Trans- lated by Bob Cumming. 1990. Zed Books Ltd., New Jersey. van Willigen, John. (1986). Applied Anthro- pology: An Introduction. Bergin and Garvey, New York. WCED (World Commission on Environ- ment and Development). (1987). Our A GIS-BASED ANALYSIS AND PREDICTION OF LAND-USE CHANGE IN A COASTAL TOURISM DESTINATION AREA
Jeffery S. Allen Strom Thurmond Institute Clemson University (U.S.A.)
Kang Shou Lu Strom Thurmond Institute Clemson University (U.S.A.)
Thomas D. Potts Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management Clemson University (U.S.A.)
Abstract: South Carolina is the nation's second building permits and parcel data should be used largest coastal resort state in terms of beach des- as alternative data sources for change detection tination trips, superseded only by Florida. Its and analysis because they contain detailed coastal resources and tourism industry are now change information. They are available in digital undergoing tremendous coastal change due to format and can be updated on a regular basis as tourism development and associated commercial more local government agencies utilize GIS for and residential growth. As the negative elements creating and maintaining parcel maps. The logis- of coastal change draw more public attention, tic regression model used successfully predicted and sustainable development becomes a goal for spatial land-use change. Both maps and statisti- many coastal communities, the continuing cal results show that the primary roads, commer- coastal change associated with accelerated cial cluster, commercial zoning, private owner- growth becomes a critical issue. Many agencies ship, and land availability are significant predic- and organizations have initiated research pro- tor variables for commercial parcel land use. In grams to develop new techniques for obtaining addition, beachfront, open view, residential zon- timely and valid land-use change information to ing, private ownership, land availability, pri- assist in coastal management. This study, as an mary roads and commercial centers are major integral part of a five-year multi-disciplinary factors that predict residential development. and multi-institutional coastal research project funded by NASA/SC-EPSCoR, is designed to The results also indicate that Murrells Inlet has develop and apply GIS-based methodologies for experienced tremendous land-use change over analysis, modeling and prediction of coastal the last three decades. The recent period from land-use change. It takes a micro approach to 1982 to 1996 has brought about rapid residential examine the parcel-based land-use change at the growth, but little commercial development. The local scale. A spatial multivariate logistic regres- continuing growth appears to be transforming sion model was developed and 20 variables were the area into a residential community for metro- selected for predicting the possibilities of land- politan Myrtle Beach. There is a significant dif- use change for Murrells Inlet. ference in spatial preference between commercial and residential land uses with commercial par- The results indicate that GIS has advantages cels linearly distributed along the primary roads. over conventional methods in integrating vari- As beachfront and waterfront areas are en- ous data sources, performing spatial analysis, croached mainly by seasonal homes, residential modeling spatial process, and mapping the re- development moves inland though somewhat sults in land-use change studies. It appears that restricted by existing parklands and wetlands. 288 Allen, Lu and Potts
Overall spatial patterns show that the area is governmental agencies and other organiza- lacking an integrated plan for development. Lim- tions. ited public access to waterfront and beachfront and the lack of a focal point in the business dis- trict are major problems from the tourism plan- Background ning perspective. The rationale for studying land-use change Keywords: land use planning, waterfront de- at the local level or small scale is multifold. velopment, technological tools/data or informa- (1) Coastal tourism destination areas to- tion/GIS development gether with urban fringes, mountainous ar- eas, and lakeshore environments are the fastest growing areas with rapid land-use Introduction change. The impacts, positive or negative, of land-use change are therefore relatively South Carolina is the nation’s second largest more serious. (2) Land use, land tenure, and coastal resort tourism state in terms of beach land value can be decisive factors in tourism destination trips only superseded by Flor- development (Davis and Simmons, 1982; ida. Coastal tourism in this state generates Pearce, 1989). (3) 95% of land use decisions approximately USD$4.2 billion in revenues are made at the local level (Kleppel, 1998). annually. For many South Carolina coastal This implies that appropriate decisions lead communities, the tourism industry is the to favorable land-use changes and sustain- mainstay of the local economy. Unfortu- able development. (4) Previous research on nately, both tourism resources and the tour- land- use change at this level is not adequate ism industry are now threatened by dra- (Pearce, 1995). Coastal tourism has perhaps matic coastal change induced by human ac- been studied more than any other form of tivities. Large-scale tourism, residential and tourism. Many conceptual models about commercial development over the past three spatial structure (Pearce and Kirk, 1986; decades have transformed vast coastal areas, Jeans, 1990), spatial evolution (Lundgren, especially those with extraordinary tourism- 1974; Miossec, 1976; Oppermann, 1993), and recreational resources and those close to big temporal change (Bulter, 1980) have been cities, into urban environments, resulting in developed as a result of study on coastal so called “tourism urbanization” or “coastal resorts or coastal tourism. But as Pearce residentialization”. This process involves at (1987 and 1995) has noted, most studies various degrees, transformation of the land- found in the literature of tourism have dis- scape, degradation of the natural environ- cussed land-use change only in general ment, destruction of coastal ecosystems, in- terms. (5) Conventional methodologies have troduction of new residents, alteration of the some limitations on the detection (monitor- existing social structure, and use conflicts. ing), assessment (analysis), modeling (as- All these physical, economic, and sociocul- similation), and predicting (projection) of tural changes are undermining the founda- land-use change. On the other hand, new tion upon which coastal tourism relies. As data sources and GIS technology provide the negative elements of coastal change some promise to improve tourism destina- draw more public attention and sustainable tion land-use change studies. development becomes a goal for most coastal communities, the continuing coastal The application of GIS in tourism research change will become a critical issue for plan- has been minimal though GIS technology ners, developers, managers, policy makers has been discussed in the tourism literature and communities. In order to address this for over a decade (Gunn and Larsen, 1988). situation, the detection, analysis, modeling Tourism planning, recreation and park and prediction of coastal change are cur- management, and visual resource assess- rently priority topics of research of various ment are the three tourism-related fields Allen, Lu and Potts 289 where most applications of GIS have been year building permits can provide detailed found (Gunn, 1990; Wicks et al., 1993; Boyd land-use change information over a period et al., 1994; Bishop and Hulse, 1994). In tour- of time. But, building permits show only ism marketing, it is still difficult to find the intent to build. For change detection, it good examples of applications of GIS in is important to know which parcels have solving real world problems, though the been both permitted and built. This informa- role of GIS in tourism marketing and busi- tion can be derived from the building in- ness has been discussed by a few research- spection. ers (Sussmann and Rashad, 1994; Elliott- White and Finn, 1998). Currently, no tour- Cadastral data or parcel data usually in- ism research has taken a GIS approach to clude two sets: assessor’s information and address land use and land-use change at the parcel maps. The former has the owner’s parcel level. name, address, land-use code, assessed value, tax status, legal description, and re- Techniques and methods of using satellite cent sale price and date. The latter depicts imageries as data sources have been devel- the boundaries of land ownership parcels, oped and successfully applied for land use each with a parcel identification number classification and change detection in vari- (PIN), site address, tax map number and ous environments including rural, urban, parcel number. There is a trend that more and urban fringes (Shepard, 1964; Robin- and more counties and municipalities across nove et al., 1981; Jensen and Toll, 1982; the country are creating their digital parcel Fung, 1990). However, studies on land-use maps using GIS. Combined with building change utilizing satellite images are lacking permits, parcel maps can provide more in- in the tourism literature. This is perhaps formation about land-use change in the fin- because tourism destination areas are rela- est spatial resolution with the highest accu- tively small in size and satellite images are racy in terms of spatial analysis because generally coarse (cover large areas) in spa- parcels are the smallest units of geographic tial resolution. Satellite-based remote sens- divisions commonly delineated. ing technology cannot yet be used to moni- tor land use at the level of accuracy required by developers, engineers, planners, and real Purpose and Objectives estate interests. Thus, new techniques for study of tourism resources at local scales are As an integrated part of the NASA/SC- needed. EPSCoR Wetland Research Project involving three institutions in South Carolina, this The building permit system has been used study focuses on the land-use change and its for monitoring and controlling building ac- impacts. The overall purpose is to better tivities in Europe and the U.S. for over three understand the process of coastal land-use decades. Building permits and building in- change and its consequences in order to spections are now common data sources at minimize negative impacts and to sustain the county or municipal level. The utility of coastal resources and development around building permits has been recognized in nearby wetlands. The project is funded for studies on tourism and urbanization five years and covers three geographic areas (Pearce, 1995). Building permits generally in coastal South Carolina: Murrells Inlet record an applicant’s name, owner’s name, near Myrtle Beach, Mount Pleasant near address, parcel identification number (PIN), Charleston, and Hunting Island near Hilton building activity (e.g., new, add, convert), Head. All of these three areas are among the structure type (e.g., commercial, single- most important coastal tourism destinations family residence, multi-family residence), in the state. For the Murrells Inlet compo- ground area, floor area, housing units, esti- nent of the project, four immediate objec- mated value and cost, and date as well as tives were: plats if new structures are involved. Multi- 290 Allen, Lu and Potts
• Seek an alternative approach that out of business because of reduced number emphasizes human aspects of issues of tourists or overdevelopment. Unlike de- related to land-use change. clining commercial development, the area • Develop a parcel based GIS model has seen a rapid residential growth over the for assessing land-use change in the past two decades. It has become obvious past. that the area is transforming from a major • Apply this model to observe and tourist destination into a residential area for map tenure change, residential metropolitan Myrtle Beach. This is the major change and commercial change for concern of the local community and a spe- the Murrells Inlet area. cial community-wide program has been set • Build and apply a logistic regression up for dealing with these problems. model to predict the possibilities of future land-use change for the area. Database Development A GIS database has been created for the The contribution of this study will be to fur- NASA/SCEPSCoR Wetland Research Pro- ther understand the process of parcel based ject and is shared by all the project teams land-use change and the factors and con- from Clemson University, the University of straints that affect this process. It will add an South Carolina and the College of Charles- alternative methodology to the literature in ton. A specific database has been built for land-use change analysis, especially in terms assessing parcel based land-use change in of understanding change in tourism destina- the past and predicting land-use change in tion areas. the future. This database consists of three key data sets: building permits (tabular data), parcel maps (coverage), and miscella- Methodology neous data that were used for deriving spa- tial variables (coverages) for prediction of The study area for this research is Murrells the likelihood of development. Inlet, South Carolina and its vicinity. It is located on the southern fringe of metropoli- The building permit data was provided by tan Myrtle Beach, SC about 85 miles north- Georgetown County, South Carolina. Only east of Charleston. Sandwiched by the At- those permits issued during 1982-96 were lantic Ocean to the east and Waccamaw selected to be compatible with the temporal River to the west, there is no place within series of data used by other teams of the this area that is over four miles away from project. either the water front or the major highway (US 17). This unique location gives Murrells The digital parcel map was provided by the Inlet an advantage as a gateway to Myrtle GIS department of Georgetown County. The Beach, controlling all the tourist flow mov- original coverage was registered to the ing from south to north along the coast. In South Carolina state plane system. A good addition, this area is well bestowed by match of the major roads was found when Mother Nature with sandy beaches, estuar- overlaying the parcel map onto the USGS ies and bays, salt marshes, forests, and many 7.5" quadrangle topographic map of the wildlife species including alligators, dol- area, indicating that the overall quality of phins, and rare birds, all of which are sig- the parcel map was within the acceptable nificant tourism resources. Pollution from standard error. residential use and recreational boating has resulted in the permanent closure of the The database also includes land cover, shellfish ground in the northern part of roads, digital elevation model (DEM), and Murrells Inlet and the frequent closure of tourism resources. Land cover data is used the entire inlet, especially after strong for three purposes: checking parcel based storms. A few restaurants have been driven land use classifications, deriving polygon Allen, Lu and Potts 291 coverage of tourism resources, and deriving parcels over time. Dates in the attribute ta- spatial variables for establishing the rela- ble can be aggregated by year. Then the total tionships with parcel land use. Because the number and acres of parcels were calculated study area is relatively small, about half of on a yearly basis. the size of a topographic quad, a land cover map with detailed classifications was highly Land-use change in Murrells Inlet was as- desired. Locations of tourist facilities and sessed using this model. The historical land businesses including retail stores and res- use map for 1981 was overlaid over the taurants were collected from the field by NAPP aerial photograph to check if any using GPS (Global Positioning System) and parcel was vacant but misclassified as de- then differentially correcting (error reduc- veloped since some parcels were permitted ing) the point data. before the study period but developed dur- ing the study period. Those permit data GIS Models were not collected. Parcels that belong to Although land use classification is not the this category were eliminated from the 1981 focus of this study, it is necessary to briefly map and added to the land-use change map. describe the land use classifications used for The parcel change in use intensity was this study to avoid any ambiguity. It is a mapped by selecting those parcels onto general classification that includes the which a type of structure has been added. In commercial, institutional, multi-family resi- other words, an “add” activity had oc- dential, single-family residential, pub- curred. Using spatial statistical tools, de- lic/semi-public, utility, and undevel- scriptive and referential statistical analyses oped/vacant areas. This research is de- were performed interactively on the map. signed for assessing and predicting the par- cel-based land use in order to provide in- The second model, a predictive model for formation about what, when and where parcel based land-use change is based on land-use change has occurred in the past logistic regression (Tabachnick and Fidell, and will take place in the future. These two 1996). Factors that influence land-use issues are related but two separate models change are so complex that predicting land- are needed. use change is extremely difficult. However, substantial need exists to warrant efforts to The first model, a procedural GIS model for make predictions. The driving philosophy is assessing parcel-based land-use change in that a better prediction will reduce risks in the past was developed. The operation of land use decision-making. Prediction of this model requires an input comprised of a land-use change involves several steps: se- parcel map linked through parcel identifica- lecting the predictor variables, obtaining the tion number with two attribute data sets: measurements (preparing the variable cov- cadastral records and building permits. erages), establishing the relationships be- Through spatial database management and tween the dependent variables and inde- map algebra operations in a GIS environ- pendent variables, building and running the ment, a series of maps are derived. prediction model, and mapping out the pre- dicted values. Tenure change over time can be easily de- rived from the model because it involves As has been discussed previously, variables only manipulation of tabular data of the used for predicting land-use change in other parcel map using database management settings are not appropriate for predicting in functionality provided by the GIS software. tourist destination areas. Variables used by Dates on the deed show when the parcels Gunn (1990) for identifying the potential have been sold or resold, split or created. tourism destination areas in Upstate South They provide important information about Carolina and those used by Boyd et al. the tenure change or ownership change of (1994) for identifying the ecotourism area in Ontario Canada are not appropriate for our 292 Allen, Lu and Potts prediction because of the differences in Big developers, conservation groups and scale. Three criteria were used for selecting government agencies were key players in 20 variables for our prediction. (1) Variables the transaction of large pieces of properties must characterize coastal tourism destina- during this period. It is noted that many tion areas; (2) variables must represent the parcels created after 1991 are surrounded by spatial relationships; and (3) variables must large properties purchased in the 80s, sug- reflect the properties of parcels. As a result, gesting that they are the parcels split, built two predictive logistic models were devel- or unbuilt, and resold by the big developers oped for residential land-use change and mentioned above. They look like well- commercial land-use change respective-ly. planned subdivisions following the cluster- ing development principles. Clusters of small parcels generally indicate where the Results human activities are intensive. They are mainly located along the beach, waterfront, Parcel Tenure Change major roads, or in the inland subdivisions. Tenure change occurs when a parcel splits Large parcels, on other hand, are mainly the or the ownership of a parcel changes. It is a wetlands within Murrells Inlet and along legal process that reflects overall trends of the Waccamaw River, the parkland in parcel development over time. Although Brookgreen Gardens and Huntington Beach this legal change of parcels could take place State Park in the south, and the forestland pre- or post-development, it is often the case along the county border to the north and that parcel use change occurs after a parcel adjacent to Brookgreen Gardens to the is purchased, especially when a building south. As the wetlands and parklands are activity is involved. Tenure change therefore restricted from development, the private sets up a framework for other land-use forestlands contain the only large parcels change induced by humans. There are five that may be available for cluster housing aspects of parcel-based change in which we development in the future. are particularly interested: (1) overall trends of temporal changes that reveal factors that Commercial Land-Use Change affect the change during a specific period; Business in Murrells Inlet can be roughly (2) parcel physical parameters such as num- grouped into three categories: tourism, fish- ber and size; (3) spatial patterns and their eries, and local services. Tourism related spatial relationships to tourism and recrea- businesses include restaurants, marinas, tion resources; and (4) ownership of large accommodations, rentals, fishing suppliers, parcels that indicate who or which agents and gift shops. The terms “commercial” and have been involved in the parcel-based “business” were used interchangeably in land-use change. this study to include all the service and re- tail establishments. Only 24 out of 36 per- In Murrells Inlet, the period before 1973 saw mitted parcels have been transformed into little land transaction. The fastest growing commercial use over the period 1982-1996, period has occurred since the mid-‘80’s and indicating little commercial growth in this the pace has slowed slightly in the ‘90’s. It is area. These results are congruent with the interesting that the land-use change in terms perception of locals. Most of the commercial of tenure change at this micro level shows a growth occurred in the mid-‘80s with little strong correlation with the macroeconomic in the ‘90s. It is also found that some restau- conditions in the nation over the same pe- rants have been closed due to lack of busi- riod. Because virtually no industry, agricul- ness. Slowing down or declining of business ture or commercial fishing exists in the area, in Murrells Inlet has made the local com- tourism development, commercial devel- munity so concerned that a special revitaliz- opment and residential development are the ing plan-2007 was established in 1997. key factors that caused the land-use change. Allen, Lu and Potts 293
It is also noted that there is no dominant Tourism Land-Use Change commercial center or town square found in Four aspects of changes that have occurred this destination area, though few relatively are worth emphasizing. First, government small and sparsely distributed business clus- agencies and interest groups have acquired ters are identifiable. Because Murrells Inlet large pieces of wetlands for conservation is a non-incorporated area, this has become purposes. The first land transaction was one of the disadvantages it has in competi- done by the South Carolina Wildlife and tion against its commercialized neighbors. Marine Resources Department acquiring 64 Essentially, none of these commercial clus- acres of wetland within the inlet area in ters are big enough to attract more tourists 1984. Brookgreen Gardens Society and S E to stop or stay longer. Even though Murrells Flora & Fauna purchased over 304 acres of Inlet is one of the primary cuisine destina- former rice fields along the Waccamaw tions in the Grand Strand tourism region, River and annexed them to its wildlife park most tourists leave immediately after din- of Brookgreen Gardens. Those lands are im- ing. The growth of local service businesses portant wildlife habitats, have a great poten- and decline of restaurant businesses sug- tial for ecotourism uses, but are threatened gests that Murrells Inlet is undergoing some by development. Second, accompanying the transformation of its functionality. Factors residential or resort development, 210 acres and constraints that form the environment of forestland have been converted into a golf for business development should be stud- course and provide more recreational tour- ied. ism opportunities in the Murrells Inlet area. Another golf course has been planned and Residential Land-Use Change parcels for that have been demarcated. The most significant land-use changes that Third, through a public-private partnership have occurred in Murrells Inlet over the last agreement with the Brookgreen Gardens 15 years were mainly due to the residential Foundation, the South Carolina Department development of both primary homes and of Parks, Recreation and Tourism extended vacation homes. Unlike commercial devel- the lease of Huntington Beach State Park for opment, there have been 947 permits issued another 30 years in order to preserve the for residential development, of which 715 pristine beach, fresh water lagoons, saltwa- parcels have been built over the period 1981- ter mashes, and natural habitats for wading 96, totaling 440 acres. The turnover rate is birds and coastal raptors. Finally, the filling- much higher too, about 76% compared to in of residential development by private 33% for commercial development (Figure 1). owners along the beachfront and waterfront Three peaks of growth occurred respectively has eroded the public open space. Views are in 1985, 1990, and 1996 at an interval of ap- blocked; access is limited; and on-site activi- proximately five years. Single-family dwell- ties are confined. The overall quality of tour- ings have led all categories in number of ism recreational resources have been de- newly built house units since 1986. There graded. are over 50 house units built per year and this number has increased to 200 in 1996, showing a strong trend of continuing Future Land-Use Change growth in the future. In contrast, condo- miniums were the biggest contributor to the Future land use in Murrells Inlet was pre- increased housing units in the early ‘80's but dicted in terms of the possibilities of parcel none have been built since 1988. Murrells transition using a logistic regression model. Inlet has also seen a fast growth in mobile The results are reported in three parts: home dwellings in the recent years. Over model reliability, predictor variables, and 300 permits have been issued for new mo- predicted results for residential land use bile homes and 200 have changed owner- and commercial land use. Figure 2 depicts ship. the predicted residential change using the 294 Allen, Lu and Potts
Figure 1. Parcel-Based land-use change 1981-1996, Murrells Inlet, South Carolina, U.S.A. Allen, Lu and Potts 295
year 2010 as a cut off value in the logistic for the overall. The predicted possibilities of regression model. commercial land-use change in the future show that commercial development will A spatial logistic regression analysis was most likely take place along US 17 Bypass performed on all 20 predictors over 4107 with most development in the northern part total cases (parcels) of which 2591 were used of Murrells Inlet. as the “selected” for building the model and 1516 as the “unselected” for validating the model. Of the total parcels, 2139 were resi- Conclusion dential and coded as 1 while 1968 were non- residential and coded as 0. The slope vari- This study used GIS as an integrating sys- able was dropped off because it was deter- tem and analysis tool to assess and predict mined not significant for this coastal area. parcel-based land-use change. It appears A test of the full model with 19 predictors that building permits and cadastral data against a constant-only model was statisti- contain timely and valid information about cally reliable, x2 (19, N = 4107) = 2342.048, p land-use change. They are the important <0.001, indicating that the 19 predictors, as a alternatives of data sources for change set, distinguished between residential and analysis. This is especially significant for non-residential parcel use. Prediction suc- tourism destination areas as they are often cess was very impressive, with 90% for the too small to be analyzed with traditional residential and 92% for the non-residential land-use change analysis techniques. GIS correctly predicted, for an overall success has advantages over the conventional meth- rate of 91% for the selected cases. The pre- ods in integrating various data sources, per- diction success rates were even better for the forming spatial analysis, and mapping the unselected cases, 95%, 91%, and 93% respec- results in land-use change studies. The tively. Murrells Inlet study shows that using GIS in conjunction with building permits and par- A similar spatial logistic regression analysis cel data can generate sufficient information was performed on commercial land use about parcel tenure change, land use type predictors over 113 cases of commercial use change, temporal change and spatial and 3994 cases of non-commercial use with change. The logistic regression model ap- residential zoning replaced with commercial pears to be appropriate for the prediction of zoning. The analysis indicated that a full spatial land-use change. The success rates of model with 19 variables was also statisti- prediction are 89% and 65% for the residen- cally reliable, x2 (19, N = 4107) = 709, p tial and commercial land-use change respec- <0.001. Prediction success was relatively less tively, with overall rates over 90% for both impressive because only 69% of commercial cases. The ArcView based land-use change parcels were correctly predicted, though analysis and predicting model is a handy 99.57% was predicted for non-commercial tool for county and local planners. use and 98.73% for overall success. The Wald test shows that proximity to the pri- It is admitted that there are some limitations mary roads, proximity to commercial clus- of this study. These limitations are mainly ters, commercial zone, private ownership, due to the data constraints and parcel prop- and vacancy are significant predictors (p < erties. Obtaining the status of building per- 0.05). A model built upon these five predic- mits (already built or not yet built) and im- tors shows an adequate fit to the perfect proving data quality are critical to deriving model according to the result of a Hosmer the accurate information of parcel-based and Lemeshow goodness-of-fit test, x2 (8, N land-use change. An integration of imagery- = 4107) = 26.5, p <0.001. The prediction suc- based change detection and parcel-based cess rates are 65% for the commercial, change analysis is recommended in order to 99.65% for the non-commercial, and 98.69% 296 Allen, Lu and Potts
Figure 2. Predicted Parcel-based land-use change 1997-2010, Murrells Inlet, South Carolina, U.S.A. get timely and valid information on both lina, the Geographic Information Processing physical change and social economic change Lab of the Baruch Institute for Marine Biol- at the finest resolutions possible. Although ogy and Coastal Research of the University future spatial land-use change can be pre- of South Carolina, the Geology Department dicted with reasonable error, it is difficult to of the College of Charleston and the Spatial determine exactly when this change is going Analysis Lab of the Strom Thurmond Insti- to happen. Murrells Inlet is only a small area tute of Government and Public Affairs at and its land-use change is a function of Clemson University. many different factors including physical, economic, political and social change at a regional level. How to integrate the regional References variables into a local predictive model is still a great challenge. At this point the authors Bishop, I.D, and Hulse, D.W. (1994). Predict- have identified no GIS-based research that ing scenic beauty using mapped data has addressed land-use changes involving and geographic information systems. different geographic scales. Landscape Urban Plann., 30: 59-70. Boyd, S. W., Butler, R. W., Haider, W. and Perera, A. (1994). Identifying areas for Acknowledgements ecotourism in Northern Ontario: appli- This work was funded by NASA/SC- cation of a geographic information sys- EPSCoR. The authors greatly appreciate the tem methodology. Journal of Applied data and support provided by individuals Recreation Research, 19: 41-66. from the GIS and Building Permit Depart- Butler, R.W. (1980). The concept of a tourist ments of Georgetown County, South Caro- area cycle of evolution: implications for Allen, Lu and Potts 297
management of resources. Canadian Geo- Pearce, D.G. (1987c). Tourism Today: A Geo- grapher, 24(1): 5-12. graphical Analysis. Longman, Harlow Davis, H.D., and Simmons, J.A. (1982). and Wiley, New York. World Bank experience with tourism Pearce, D.G., and Kirk, R.M. (1986). Carry- projects. Tourism Management, 3(4): 212- ing capacities for coastal tourism. Indus- 17. try and Environment, 9(1): 3-6. Elliott-White, Martin, P., and Mick Finn, Robinove, C.J., Chavez, P.S. Jr., Gehring, D. (1998). Growing in sophistication: the and Holmgren, R. (1981). Arid land application of geographic information monitoring using Landsat albedo dif- systems in post-modern tourism mar- ference images. Remote Sensing of Envi- keting, Journal of Travel & Tourism Mar- ronment, 11: 133-56. keting, 7(1). Shephard, J.R. (1964). A concept of change Fung, T. (1990). An assessment of TM im- detection. In: Proceedings 30th Annual agery for land-cover change detection. Meeting of the American Society of Photog- IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Re- rammetry. Washington, D. C., 17-20 mote Sensing, 28(4): 681-84. March , pp. 648-51. Gunn, C.A. (1990). Upcountry South Caro- Sussmann, S. and Rashad, T. (1994). Geo- lina Guidelines for Tourism De- graphic information systems in tourism velopment. College Station, TX: author. marketing. In: Progress in Tourism, Rec- Gunn, C.A., and Larsen, Terry R. (1988). reation and Hospitality Management, Coo- Tourism Potential—Aided by Computer per and Lockwood (eds.), Wiley, New Cartography. Aix-en-Provence, France: York. Centres des Hautes Etudes Touristiques. Tabachnick, B. and Fidell, L. (1996). Using Jeans, D.N. (1990). Beach resort morphology Multivariate Statistics. HarperCollins in England and Australia: a review and College Publishers, New York. 3rd ed- extension. In: Recreational Uses of Coastal ition. Areas, P. Fabbri Kluwer, Dordrecht, Wicks, B.E., Backman, K.F., Allen, J., and (eds.) pp. 277-85. Van Blaricom, D. (1993). Geographic in- Jensen, J.R., and Toll, D.L. (1982). Detecting formation systems (GIS): a tool for mar- residential land-use development at the keting, managing, and planning mu- urban fringe. Photogrammetric Engineer- nicipal park systems. J. Park, and Recrea- ing & Remote Sensing, 48(4): 629-43. tion Administration, 11(1): 9-23. Kleppel, G. (1998). The land use coastal eco- system study (LU-CES). Presentation at the Environmental Policy Forum. Clem- son, SC. Lundgren, J.O.J. (1974). On access to recrea- tional lands in dynamic metropolitan hinterlands. Tourist Review, 29(4): 124- 31. Miossec, J.M. (1976). Elements pour une Theorie de l’Espace Touristique. Les Cahiers du Tourisme, C-36, CHET, Aix- en-Provence. Oppermann, M. (1993a). Tourism space in developing countries. Annals of Tourism Research, 20(3): 535-60. Pearce, D.G. (1995). Tourism Today: a geo- graphic analysis. Longman, New York. Pearce, D.G. (1989b). Tourism Development. Longman, Harlow, 2nd ed.
A PROCESS FOR COMMUNITY-SCALE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT MODELING
Bruce Whyte Community Visions Consulting Group (Canada)
David Nicholson Clover Point Cartographics Ltd. (Canada)
Abstract: Hit hard by cyclical market down- nomic cycles of these resource industries turns and systemic restructuring in forestry and have created both instant communities and fishing, resource-dependent communities in the ghost towns over the province's 128-year province of British Columbia, Canada, are seek- history. Today, reductions in the levels of ing to diversify their economic bases through employment provided by forestry, fishing tourism. Visitors and host communities both are and mining threaten the viability of some increasingly demanding that new tourism devel- resource-based communities, chiefly smaller opment not disrupt existing environmental, settlements outside the province's urbanized community and economic values. A recent pro- southwest corner. Now, many residents of ject in Nootka Sound explored a planning proc- BC's resource-dependent communities are ess and technical methods to identify opportuni- unwilling to relocate in pursuit of the next ties for new tourism business while seeking to resource boom, if one can be found. Efforts address many of these concerns. This paper de- to diversify local economies to better scribes a development planning process which weather downturns in any one sector have took steps toward empowering the local commu- been undertaken by most communities. nity to direct its own development future, while Tourism, which may be informally de- supplying meaningful input to officials charged scribed as the business of providing acco- with on-going operational management of the modation, transportation and other services Sound’s resources. It reports how the project to recreating visitors, is frequently cited as a applied GIS-based digital modeling techniques to potential growth area. identify and map areas of high biophysical re- source capability for specified tourism products. These methods may hold useful lessons for com- This paper will describe a process model munities seeking to identify their own tourism and set of GIS-based analysis methods used development potential. to identify tourism development opportuni- ties in a manner which respects community Keywords: tourism, tourism development values, providing useful direction to opera- planning, community development, resource tional resource managers. The paper will management, GIS, capability modelling describe a project in Nootka Sound, BC, conducted as the first phase of an intended comprehensive tourism planning process. Introduction GIS resource values, and, by modelling the capability of the natural and cultural re-
source base to support a set of technology Canada's Pacific province, British Columbia assisted in compil ing an inventory of tour- (BC), has an economy which has tradition- ism tourism products, defined areas of high ally been dominated by resource extraction tourism development potential. (logging, fishing and mining) and primary manufacturing. The boom-and-bust eco- 300 Whyte and Nicholson
Figure 1. Location of Nootka Sound
Discussion will review the principal lessons ter communities at Gold River, Tahsis and learned through this project and the paper Zeballos. The bulk of Nootka Island shields will conclude by noting how this project the communities and their waterways from may point toward a workable tourism plan- the worst of the Pacific storms. The Nootka ning approach which incorporates commu- Sound study area boundaries were defined nity values. A complete description of the by its sponsor's sphere of influence, project and its map outputs are available in amended slightly by other key administra- the project report, Nootka Sound Forest Rec- tive boundaries, to include about 370,000 ha reation and Tourism Opportunities Study of land. The area is home to a population of (Nootka Sound Economic Development about 3,600. Commission, 1998). The Sound abounds in extraordinary natu- ral resources. The aboriginal First Nations Background: Nootka Sound had an elaborate and sophisticated culture supported by the Sound's wealth. With The western coast of BC was first charted by European contact, economic attention fo- mariners who described a set of five sounds, cused first on the furs of marine mammals or navigable indentations in the mountain- such as the sea otter. Then canneries ous face Vancouver Island presents to the sprouted on oceanfront pylons to package Pacific Ocean. At the centre lies Nootka fish for overseas markets. Gold and iron Sound, where fjords reach inland to tidewa- were mined at Zeballos, fine building stone Whyte and Nicholson 301 was quarried at one of the smaller intlets. on a detailed area at a smaller scale. At the Logging flourished in stands of huge tim- strategic scale, the planning objective is to ber, and sawing lumber created Tahsis, maintain resource quality and access. At the while pulp and paper production built the community scale, the chief objective shifts to town of Gold River. the identification of near-term business de- velopment opportunities which will not In turn, each of these industries has compromise community values. At any boomed, then collapsed to a fraction of its scale, tourism planning requires a process previous size and economic importance. The which reflects the economic and social pri- otter were hunted out, the shoals of fish de- orities of the community. Given real-world pleted, the gold dug up. Although enor- budgets and political priorities, there is little mous tracts of forest remain, much of the prospect of a full forum for the complete best old-growth timber has been harvested. integrated resource and land use planning At the time of this project, forestry remained of the Sound in the near term, however. The the Sound's dominant economic activity, process applied here is an attempt to find a accounting for a clear majority of direct em- workable, results-oriented set of methods ployment. However forestry too has given which meaningfully provide community troubling signals for the future. Shortly after direction and input on tourism development this project concluded, ownership of the planning, while producing technical results area's chief private forest products company suitable for operational use by government changed hands. Then the new owners an- and private sector agencies. nounced the permanent closure of the Gold River pulp and paper processesing facility, Tourism planning in Nootka Sound is con- the flagship of the forest industry in Nootka ceived as a three-step process, after the ap- Sound, and by far the area's single largest proach advanced by Clare Gunn to incorpo- employer. rate tourism planning in the matrix of its community context (Figure 2). First, assem- Clearly, this forest-dependent community ble an information inventory of resources has a pressing need to diversify its economy and identify candidate tourism develop- to provide employment and business oppor- ment opportunities; second, conduct a plan- tunities for local residents. ning process to select from among the tour- ism development options in the context of community values; and third, implement Locally-Directed Planning Process the tourism plan by issuing tenures and ini- to Empower Community Interests tiating tourism businesses in areas identi- fied as appropriate. This project undertook Tourism in BC is managed by several agen- the first of the components, providing the cies, with responsibility for tourism re- key data required for the second, and help- source planning lying with the Ministry of ing lay groundwork to facilitate the third. Small Business, Tourism and Culture (MSBTC). Since 1992, MSBTC's Tourism Pol- The process was designed with a local or- icy and Land Use Branch has been working ganization, the Nootka Sound Economic to incorporate the industry's requirements Development Commission (EDC), as the into strategic, regional-scale land use plan- project sponsor. It was the EDC which ap- ning processes. plied for and obtained funding to conduct the project, which provided administrative Adapting the tools used for tourism re- management, and which appointed the source planning at the strategic scale to the Steering Committee that directed project needs of the community scale calls for more operations. Ensuring local input, the Steer- than simply recompiling the data at higher ing Committee, chaired by the EDC'sMiriam resolution, more than simply “zooming in” Trevis, was made up of representatives from 302 Whyte and Nicholson
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
INFORMATION PLAN IMPLEMENT - Inventory - Product choices - Issue tenures - Opportunities - Location choices - Start operations - Constraints - Allocation issues - Support/Marketing
Figure 2. Tourism Development Planning Phases recreational groups, tourism operators, mu- the Working Group provided operational, nicipal government, provincial govern- day-to-day direction to the contractor en- ment,First Nations and the major forest gaged to carry out the project's first phase, company. The Steering Committee directed Clover Point Cartographics Ltd. This techni- the project, guiding the selection of tourism cal group, led by tourism and recreation products to be modelled, providing data on specialists from MSBTC and the Ministry of constraints to tourism, and helping to shape Forests, provided expert and technical rec- the tourism capability models to reflect ommendations to the Steering Committee. community values.
To be effective, a plan must be imple- Spatial Inventory Location of mented. The Nootka project set the stage for Tourism's Assets implementation by seeking the active par- ticipation of the agencies which the make A key tool allowing MSBTC to describe the operational resource management decisions existing industry and its resource needs has that impact on tourism. In Nootka Sound, been the Tourism Resource Inventory (TRI) almost all of the land outside townsites is (Resources Inventory Committee, 1994). The owned by the provincial government. Rec- TRI uses GIS technology to describe and ognizing the outcomes of the project could map the locations of businesses involved in provide useful aids to their own operations, tourism, the resource features of importance representatives of provincial managing to the industry, and the routes and areas agencies accepted appointment to the Steer- used by tourism operations. Original ing Committee, where they could provide information is captured via a survey of input and direction, and to the Working tourism operators, supplemented by a Group, where they could supply experts variety of other sources, and recorded at a and information. These included the Minis- nominal scale of 1:250 000, considered try of Forests, which administers most of the suitable for strategic planning. The TRI also Sound's forested landscapes; BC Parks, uses predictive modelling to describe the which manages parks in or bordering the capability of the resource base to support Sound; BC Lands, which issues and admin- specified tourism products, providing isters tenures to use public lands for tourism mapping of relative potential across the or other operations; and Forests Renewal landscape. The TRI approach was adapted BC, an agency which funds a range of activi- to the community scale by substituting the ties on forest lands in support of resource- TRI's 1:250 000 National Topographic Series dependent communities. base with the BC Terrain Resource Information Mapping (TRIM) 1:20 000 While the Steering Committee assumed digital base, and by restructuring the overall responsibility, a smaller group called Whyte and Nicholson 303 analysis used to identify resource capability TRI standard, which parallels the Ministry for tourism products. of Forests Recreation Features Inventory for consistency A portion of the facilities and Clover Point engaged the services of a re- features captured are shown in Figure 3. searcher resident in Gold River to conduct Behind each point or line is a database de- the survey of tourism operators, as experi- scribing its attributes. Data on most other ence had demonstrated responses would be resources, including recreation features and more forthcoming to a local questioner. Us- forest resources, were available only at ing existing TRI data for Vancouver Island smaller scales, and data standards varied and any other available sources to identify with their sources. Other important data, candidates, the researcher issued a four- including wildlife populations and virtually page survey form and blueprint base map any type of underwater feature, were sim- via mail-out, asking tourism businesses to ply not available. The results of analysis identify their operations and the locations of based on these multi-scaled data are there- the resources they use. The researcher fol- fore not reliable to the nominal base scale of lowed up with telephone interviews and 1:20 000. This means the outputs must be personal meetings, to secure a 56 % re- considered cautiously, and reminds us that sponse rate from 118 contacts. Including any actual development should be preceded other sources, a total of 137 operations ei- by a site-specific feasibility analysis. ther based in the Sound or conducting tour- ism-related activities there were identified.
Data points were remapped on the new base. Attribute definition coding used the
Figure 3. Tourism Facilities and Resource Features in a Portion of Nooka Sound 304 Whyte and Nicholson
Resource Modelling Maps Areas • Caving/Karst Tours • of Capability for Future Tourism Remote Access Lodge/Resort • Marine Cruising • MSBTC has been developing methods to Scuba Diving • model the capability of natural and cultural Sea Kayak Touring • resources to support tourism products since Snomobile Touring • 1992. The concept is to draw upon the ex- Wildlife Viewing perience of successful tourism operators to define the conditions which make for a good Using previous experience and input from location for a specific activity, or product. Steering Committee and Working Group GIS overlay functions permit mapping of members, models were developed to evalu- areas where the desired conditions occur on ate how the Sound's resources met the con- the landscape. At the strategic 1:250 000 ditions required for the tourism products. scale, simple models have yielded informa- Generally, the models were predicated on tion useful for regional land use planning. two sets of factors. The first is the presence This project followed a similar general ap- of attributes essential to the activity (and the proach, with the added ingredient of local absence of attributes which preclude the direction in setting modelling parameters. activity). The second is the presence of fac- tors which modify the quality of the activity. A product evaluation selection matrix helped pick which products should be mod- Accessibility was considered an essential elled. A list of 34 possible activities, grouped component of the product models in order into water-based, land-based, snow-based, to best represent tourism development ca- touring and facility/services types, was pability with existing infrastructure. Marine drawn up by the Working Group for rank- accessibility was ranked by considering the ing according to a suite of resource, market composition or type of shoreline and the and economic criteria (Table 1). Though level of exposure, while land accessibility subjective, this ranking allowed for synthe- was ranked by classifying the road network. sis of expert and local knowledge, and an Combined, these layers defined the relative evaluation of factors about which little data accessibility of coastal and inland areas. It is is available. The Steering Committee then important to note that in this largely- selected ten products from the top-ranked undeveloped region, residents and tourism products on the list, incorporating local val- business people repeatedly suggested infra- ues including a stated wish to investigate structure improvements (road construction products likely to lead to near-term devel- and upgrading, wharf and marina rehabili- opment. tation) as a key requirement for tourism growth. Saltwater fishing, the traditional mainstay of tourism in the Sound, was not chosen. The Features include any natural or cultural re- Steering Committee felt fishing would be- activity, whether it is the primary focus of come a part of almost any activity occuring the activity (i.e., the Upana Caves to a spe- in the Sound. The Committee also voiced lunking tour), or just an enhancement to concerns about the carrying capacity of the some other activity (i.e., the same caves to a fish resource, and about recent uncertainties family on a camping vacation). A total of 43 on fishing regulations. types of biophysical, heritage, wildlife, ex- isting use and facility features were consid- The products selected and modelled were: ered, where relevant, in the models.
• Automobile Touring (2WD and The flow chart below (Figure 4) shows the 4WD) conceptual model for determining capability • Heritage Tours for one product, marine cruising. Marine • Hiking (Day and Overnight) cruising includes private or charter power Whyte and Nicholson 305
Evaluation Criteria Definition
Resource Criteria:
Quantity Does the resource exist? How extensive is the resource base? What is the ability of the resource base to support each product? Quality What is the quality of the resource from a tourism perspective? Accessibility How accessible is the resource for this product usage? Distance from population cen- tre? Transportation to resource? Terrain. Safety. Appropriate access for product? Seasonality How many months can the product be utilized? Market Criteria:
Existing Market How often is the product utilized in the region today? How important is the product in relation to other products offered in the region? Trends in Tourism How does this product relates to local, regional & national trends in tourism activity participation? Potential Market What is the potential of this product to attract additional visitors to the region or have visitors increase their stay? This criteria is dependent on resource quality, exist- ing market and market trends. Geographic Market What is the "highest" visitor market to which this product appeals? In increasing importance these area 1) local, 2) Provincial, 3) border states and provinces, 4) re- mainder North America/International. Economic Criteria:
Job Creation What is the likely job creation potential associated with expanding the market for this product? Job Duration What is the duration (weeks/months/full year) of jobs created to support this prod- uct? This criteria relates to resource seasonality. Tourism Revenue How much are tourists and recreationists willing to spend to participate in this ac- tivity? Is there potential to increase the actual per capita spending on this activity? Employment Income How does this product contribute to the local economy in direct and spin-off jobs?
Table 1. Tourism Product Evaluation Criteria
306 Whyte and Nicholson
Marine Cruising Capability Model
Excellent and Good Anchorage Mooring Buoy, Marina, Public Wharf
High / Moderate Features Yes High Marine Access & / or within Park Capability
No Possible Anchorage Moderate Capability Yes
Low / Very Low Marine Access Features or Known Marine Cruising Route with no access rank No Low Features Capability No Marine Access / no (outside of 500 meter buffer) Yes Known Marine Cruising Route
No No Capability
Figure 4. Marine Cruising Tour Capability Model
Whyte and Nicholson 307
Figure 5. Marine Cruising Product Capability for Nootka Sound
and sail boats, on day or overnight excur- tures relevant to the marine traveler will sions. Challenging open-ocean conditions modify the essential condition established off-shore mean the region receives very few by access, and entice the visitor. Presented transient mariners arriving by sea, but trail- as a thematic overlay, the model mapped erable vessels with Canadian and U.S. regis- areas of high, moderate, limited or nil capa- try numbers are common on protected in- bility for the marine cruise touring product shore waters. (Figure 5).
The model is based on the premise small craft are unable to travel under adverse Local Values Add Constraint weather conditions, and that even under the Filters finest skies mariners must overnight in some kind of haven. Known good anchor- The constraints to tourism development in ages, mooring buoys, marinas and public Nootka Sound, as expressed to this project wharves therefore are classified directly as through direction from the Steering Com- having a high capability for this product. mittee, survey results, public meetings and Outside these defined stopping-places, the other sources, are extremely varied. These marine access layer provides an indication constraints represent social and economic of whether the mariner will have the option priorities. Many are beyond the scope of a of lingering. The presence or absence of fea- resource development planning effort (fi- 308 Whyte and Nicholson nance and marketing), some are in use in a data modelling method which brings spa- other management or planning areas (rec- tial analysis tools to the task. reational use, First Nations values, provin- cial, regional and municipal land use zon- Of the two, the process model is most likely ing), while others were captured as exclu- to offer an enduring lesson to tourism de- sion areas in the models as representing de velopment planning in other areas. The digi- facto social decisions (active use by other tal modelling methods are continually being resource sectors, such as aquaculture ten- revised, as new data become available, and ures or log handling areas). as market forces reshape the kinds of activi- ties visitors will seek out. Mapping of tour- At this phase of the process, only constraints ism development potential is no more than indicating active use for other purposes a tool aimed at supporting informed deci- have been applied in the models. Data on sion-making. Certainly, the methods de- other types of constraints could be applied scribed here can be applied anywhere, using to the models, if direction on social values the best available data and the expert were provided. Data on constraints posed knowledge of tourism business people to by environmental factors, and analyses describe the resource requirements of tour- based on indicators of the resource base's ism products, and to map the capability of carrying capacity could also be provided. the resource base for those products.
In addition to mapping the mappable, the Traditionally, tourism development plan- project documented constraints identified in ning has occured either as regional eco- the categories of the biophysical, infrastruc- nomic development studies or as site- ture/services, regulatory/policy and mar- specific feasibility studies. While each pro- keting/promotions environments. This in- vides useful information, the first does not formation will inform decision-making on consider the “where” question, while the land and resource use, and contribute to second considers only a predetermined loca- defining areas where taking the tourism tion. This project has suggested a way to development process to its next level - de- address the “where” question across a termining economic feasibility - should oc- community-scale region, seeking to spatially cur. identify areas where business-style site fea- sibility analysis is appropriate on resource and social grounds. The resource capability Discussion: Steps Toward a is provided by the GIS analysis, and the so- Technically-Sound Approach to cial suitability has been suggested by local Tourism Development Planning at direction of the process. the Community Scale
Acknowledgments This project completed the first of three in- tended phases of an integrated tourism Thanks to the people of Nootka Sound who planning process. It collected information participated in this project, including “ordi- on the resources important to tourism, used nary” citizens, civic leaders, tourism opera- modelling techniques to identify areas on tors, recreational enthusiasts, and the for- the landscape with capability for tourism estry sector. products, and defined important social and environmental constraints to the develop- Christopher Hamilton, formerly of MSBTC ment of tourism opportunities. In so doing, and now with BC Parks Cariboo Region, it has presented a process model which pro- was the chief spark in getting this project off vides for a high level of local input and di- the ground. rection, supported by technical expertise from government and private industry, and Whyte and Nicholson 309
Working Group members Mason Davis, Bill Heidrichs (Zeballos); Laura-Lee Fenton (Tahsis); Margarita James (Tsaxana); Bob Volk, Miriam Trevis (Gold River); and Rec- reation Specialist Charlie Cornfield, of Min- istry of Forests Campbell River, deserve special recognition for their contributions. Portions of this paper were presented by the authors at GIS '99. The Nootka Sound FRTOS project was funded by Forest Renewal BC.
References
Gunn, C.A. (1979). Tourism Planning. Crane Russak & Co., New York. Nootka Sound Economic Development Cor- poration. (1998). Nootka Sound Forest Recreation and Tourism Study, Gold River, BC. Resources Inventory Committee. (1996). 1:250 000 Scale Tourism Resource Inven- tory Standards and Procedures, Victo- ria, BC. Nicolson, David and Bruce Whyte. (1999). Modelling Tourism Development Op- portunities at the Community Scale: Ex- plorations at Nootka Sound. In: Proceed- ings, 13th Annual Symposium on Geo- graphic Information Systems (GIS '99). Vancouver.
OCEANS BLUE FOUNDATION A Blue Revolution
Coralie Breen Oceans Blue Foundation (Canada)
Abstract: Oceans Blue Foundation, an envi- creases in production and yet greater travel. ronmental charitable organization, was founded Ten years after the Rio Earth Summit in in 1996 to develop conservation best practices for 1992, no national government has devel- the tourism and travel industry with a vision of oped a policy for sustainable travel and environmentally responsible tourism. This focus tourism best standards, consumption or responds to recent rapid, unmanaged growth in production, and no third party legitimate tourism, both worldwide and in the Pacific eco-labeling schemes exist to inform tourism Northwest, and the resulting impacts on envi- and travel consumers. ronmental quality, specifically in coastal regions. Tourism is touted as the world’s largest and Conservation efforts are focused on encouraging fastest growing industry, of which “nature environmentally responsible behavior – blue and adventure” travel is the fastest growing manners - in activities related to travel and tour- sector. This makes communities with rela- ism. This is done through the development and tively pristine environments extremely identification of environmental standards – or popular destinations – both for the inter- “best practices” for residents of and visitors to national traveler and the vacationing resi- coastal communities, as well as the tourist opera- dent. Increased coastal tourism results in tors who service them. increased stress on local environments. Just a few of the environmental impacts of high In its six year existence, the Foundation has im- tourist volumes are: litter in beach and park plemented a series of programs to raise aware- areas; chemical effluent from boats and ma- ness, education and develop standards for all rinas; marine and coastal habitat denigra- sectors in tourism, including the Cruise Ship tion; stresses to local sewage systems; and Stewardship Initiative. compromised air quality due to air, marine
and ground transportation. Keywords: Conservation, Tourism, Environ- mentally Responsible Tourism Marine Protected Many strategic issues in tourism are debated Areas, Best Practices, Cruise, Whale Watching, upon and have yet to be resolved. While Certification, Standards tourism can offer resource communities an
alternative to vicious boom-bust cycles of
more traditional, extractive industries, it will Introduction only do so responsibly if the industry initi- ates using fewer toxic materials, reduces, Is travel a right or a privilege? Can we pro- reuses and recycles it’s wastes, maintains test the destruction of the rainforest when clean and eco-friendly sites and preventa- we are prepared to burn 15,000 pounds of tively looks upon the sources of its own en- fossil fuels per hour on a fourteen hour air- vironmental emergencies. At times, this may plane flight? One study suggests that each mean judging whether a new tourism activ- of us should only be entitled to just one such ity or facility is even the “best use” of the flight in our lifetime. region’s environment. Some current systems of tourism management that promote envi- Today, greater efficiency in the use of re- ronmental responsibility include Rocky sources has been more than matched by in- 312 Breen
Mountaineer Rail-tours, Fairmont Hotels Oceans Blue Foundation is a Vancouver- and the Vancouver Port Authority. based Canadian environmental charity es- tablished in 1996 to maintain and enhance We must continuously ask ourselves if in- coastal environments through the delivery creases in some forms of tourism will create of education and awareness programs. Ac- similar problems as overfishing, industrial tivities are directed by a nine-member vol- pollution, and haphazard development unteer Board of Directors. In addition, thir- have. Some industry critics suggest that we teen volunteer advisors representing envi- are protecting those individual interests that ronmental, tourism, and academic sectors benefit the most from tourism dollars and assist Oceans Blue Foundation with our leaving the burden of tourism impacts to overall direction. those least able to resolve them. To ignore such assertions is to risk tourist destination The organization was created in response to boycotts and actions of environmental the need for an independent body to pro- groups such as Sierra Club Hawaii, which is vide standards and guidelines for the con- now suing the State Tourism Authority for servation of coastal environments in a cli- failing to undertake an environmental as- mate of rapid tourism growth to these re- sessment on worsening tourism impacts gions. The premise was that environmental prior to spending yet more public funds to protection is neither the sole responsibility promote Hawaiian tourism. of government nor counter to business suc- cess, as the tourism industry and the envi- With 2002 the UN proclaimed, “Inter- ronment are interdependent. national Year of Ecotourism”, major debate has ensued due to the growing awareness There is an urgent need to preserve the Pa- that the ecotourism industry is not as benign cific Northwest’s spectacular natural quali- as initially believed – in fact, many studies ties, and a great motivation to do so. The conducted around the world demonstrate tourism marketing slogans of Vancouver that ecotourism falls short of the ideal inher- and British Columbia, “Spectacular by Na- ent in the principles it promotes – benefits to ture” and “Supernatural B.C.” can also be local communities and conservation. said to be based on the draw of the Pacific Northwest environment in attracting the For the tourism industry to avoid the re- domestic and global traveler. Not only is the source conflicts, reproaches and recrimina- advertising integrity of millions of dollars in tions which have come to characterize rela- promotion marketing at stake, but also the tions between conservation organizations economic viability of many wilderness- and the timber, fishing, mining, aquaculture adventure operations and Seattle-Vancouver and biotech industries, our general philoso- gateway facilities. Industry leaders and as- phy should be to cooperatively “overpro- sociations alike must strive to look for far- tect” coastal wilder-ness until any tourism reaching solutions to habitat and species industry impact is clarified. loss, contain urban sprawl and develop- ment, and unsustainable industrial use of resources, as well as possibly making more Principles use of its own soapbox.
Our mission is: “To maintain and enhance environ- Programs mental quality in coastal communities by encouraging highest possible stan- Oceans Blue Foundation’s Blue Tourism Ini- dards of environmental responsibility tiative sets out three program areas: Com- among residents and visitors.” munity Programs, Education and Commu- nication, and Strategic Planning. Under the Breen 313
Blue Tourism Initiative umbrella, Oceans Blue Initiative are to co-establish an accreditation Foundation is engaged in four initiatives body of integrity, independence, impartial- targeting specific tourism sectors that have ity and sound governance, including audit- been identified as being priority sectors for ing mechanisms that ensure accountability urgent action for reasons of conservation for the highest environmental performance, concern and/or highly elevated wastewater and to institute a fair, equitable and open and air emissions generated by its opera- process in the development of the accredita- tions. tion body and standards.
Education and Communication: Blue Oceans Blue Foundation is in Phase II, and Green Meetings Initiative working with leaders and innovators in en- The objective of the Blue and Green Meetings vironmentally responsible cruise tourism in Initiative is to reduce, or eliminate, negative establishing the highest standards of envi- environmental impacts associated with the ronmental and corporate social responsibil- meetings industry. The goals are to identify ity through a cooperative, consultative and and/or develop environmental best practice communicative planning process. Phase III standards for all aspects of the meetings in- will certify the observance of these stan- dustry, to educate meeting planners, goods dards by cruise tourism operators and Phase and service suppliers, facility operators and IV will create a campaign to recognize those other professionals in the meetings industry that meet or exceed the defined standards. about relevant environmental best practice standards, and to encourage meetings pro- Strategic Planning: Environmentally fessionals to apply them. Responsible Whale Watching In the B2B Region: a pilot of Oceans Blue Oceans Blue Foundation is currently work- Foundation’s Environmentally ing on Phase II of the Blue and Green Meet- Responsible Tourism in Marine Protected ings Initiative, a web-based informational Areas Project tool for meeting planners, hosts and suppli- In its inception, Oceans Blue Foundation’s ers to be launched in July 2002 at the Inter- Environmentally Responsible Whale Watch- national Association of Convention and ing in the B2B Region project is a partner- Visitors Bureaus (IACVB) annual conven- ship with the North American Commission tion in Vancouver. In the Fall of 2002, Phase for Environmental Cooperation, and the III of the Initiative will see an extension of Baja California to Bering Sea (B2B) Initiative. the web-tool into an online education pro- The Orca Pass International Stewardship gram. The Education Program will allow Initiative, which designates a marine pro- meeting planners, hosts and suppliers to tected area (MPA) in the shared waters of earn a certificate or designation, which may British Columbia and Washington State, is be used to market their skills in planning encompassed within the parameters of the and staging environmentally responsible interconnected MPAs proposed under the meetings. Phase IV and V of the Blue and B2B Initiative. Green Meetings Initiative will be the devel- opment of an eco-label for meetings and The objectives of the Environmentally Re- events respectively. sponsible Whale Watching in the B2B Re- gion project are to enhance and support Strategic Planning: Cruise Ship conservation of whales and marine biodi- Stewardship Initiative versity in critical marine habitats through- The objective of this initiative is to protect out the Baja California to Bering Sea region, and preserve the Cascadia marine and ter- and develop and strengthen the whale restrial environment from the possible nega- watching industry’s stewardship of the ma- tive impacts of the cruise tourism industry. rine environment, particularly as commu- The goals of the Cruise Ship Stewardship nity wardens of marine protected areas. Oceans Blue Foundation will deliver an in- 314 Breen ternational whale watching best practices mental groups, industry leaders and gov- charter with signatories from a critical mass ernment through the implementation of of Canadian, American, and Mexican whale these programs, Oceans Blue Foundation watching operators committed to exceeding facilitates conservation through creating and regulatory standards on marine mammal promoting best practice standards for envi- viewing, and provide whale watching op- ronmentally responsible tourism. erators with reputational and market-based incentives to develop and endorse an inter- national whale watching best practices char- References ter. Breen, Coralie, and Adamson, Robert. Education and Communication: Blue (2001). Tourism and the Environment: and Green Boating Initiative Making the Connection. Presentation to Oceans Blue Foundation is starting a pilot Tourism Vancouver Board of Directors. program to raise awareness and to educate Vancouver, Canada. Nov. 22, 2001. recreational boaters on the environmentally Oceans Blue Foundation. (1996). 12 Ways to responsible practices in handling sewage be an Environmentally Friendly Visitor. from recreational boats. The key elements of Oceans Blue Foundation, Vancouver, the initiative are: Canada. • Creation of supportive partnerships Oceans Blue Foundation. (2001). Education among key players. Kit: Overview; Vision; Community; • Develop and distribute promotional Education; Strategic; Principles. Oceans material at marinas, boating and Blue Foundation, Vancouver, Canada. marine supplies dealers, and tour- OBF. (1996). Green & Blue Conference: A ism offices. helpful tip sheet for meeting & confer- • Encourage the use of best practices ence planners. Oceans Blue Foundation, in boating sewage treatment Vancouver, Canada. through private and public sector Georgia Strait Alliance. (2000) Guide to Green policy changes. Boating. Georgia Strait Alliance, Van- • Encourage retailers and manufac- couver, Canada. turers of environmentally-safe prod- ucts to ensure availability of products through-out British Co- lumbia. • Encourage manufactures of environ- mentally-safe products to consider Eco Logo certification of their prod- ucts.
Conclusion
Oceans Blue Foundation delivers four key initiatives: the Blue and Green Meetings Ini- tiative, Cruise Ship Stewardship Initiative, Environmentally Responsible Whale Watch- ing in the B2B Region: a pilot of Oceans Blue Foundation's Environ-mentally Responsible Tourism in Marine Protected Areas Project, and the Blue and Green Boating Initiative. By working cooperatively with environ- MAKING TOURISM SUSTAINABLE, SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, AND WHAT SHOULD TOURISM SUSTAIN: DIFFERENT QUESTIONS, DIFFERENT INDICATORS
Stephen F. McCool School of Forestry The University of Montana Missoula, Montana (U.S.A.)
Abstract: As the world's fastest growing indus- generally dealt with important social goals - eco- try, tourism has a substantial potential to posi- nomic opportunity, protection of quality of life - tively impact important social and economic but indicators selected did not directly reflect development goals. At the same time, it often those goals. There is an apparent disconnect be- brings other negative and sometimes pernicious tween the two. impacts. As we move to greater consideration of sustainability as a fundamental political, eco- Keywords: sustainable tourism, indicators nomic and social goal, there is a need to better understand not only current conditions, but progress toward meeting those goals as well. Introduction Indicators are variables that help achieve the monitoring needed to assess progress toward Perhaps the most fundamental challenge sustainability. Selection of indicators must meet confronting the tourism industry today is its not only important technical criteria but policy ability to contribute to three fundamental relevant criteria as well. goals of human welfare: (1) providing for Understanding what is to be sustained thus be- economic opportunity; (2) enhancing quality comes a significant question in the pursuit of of life; and (3) protecting our cultural and indicators. Tourism is confronted with several natural heritage. In this sense then, the tour- different sustainability constructs that reflect not ism and recreation industry is an agent for only different policies but carry implications for societal development, a tool deliberately and selection of indicators. These constructs briefly carefully chosen to address these three stated are: (1) what is the sustainability of the goals. Therefore, the tourism industry is di- tourism industry?; (2) how is sustainable tour- rectly integrated into broad community de- ism developed and managed?; and (3) what velopment strategies, rather than viewed as should tourism sustain? The policy implication a separate program or entity. of the latter question is directly related to inte- gration of tourism as an economic activity into The issues and challenges confronting the community development; and served as the focus tourism and recreation industry in achieving of this study. these goals are well documented. The indus- try is often confronted both with scornful Over 100 participants in Montana's tourism criticism and bestowed with ecstatic expec- and recreation industry - representing the pri- tations about the role it can play in reviving, vate sector (hoteliers, outfitters), quasi-public even saving, small community economies, agencies (the six destination marketing organiza- particularly in areas where traditional re- tions at the regional level within Montana); and source commodity industries (e.g., fishing, agencies managing public lands used for tourism logging, mining, agriculture) have lost -answered a brief questionnaire designed to un- ground. derstand what they felt tourism should sustain and what we be useful indicators of that. The results indicated that the highest priority items 316 McCool
The developmental process, however, has are real needs to assess progress toward sus- recently been challenged by the debate over tainability, definitions are important in se- sustainability as an important policy goal lecting indicators that can be used to moni- for the industry. This debate, like others in tor relevant social and resource conditions natural resources, was triggered largely by and provide information on effectiveness of the report of the World Commission on En- social policy in meeting sustainability goals. vironment and Development released in Despite the call of Garrod and Fyall (1998) 1987 (World Commission on Environment to go beyond the rhetoric of sustainable and Development, 1987). Our Common Fu- tourism [definitions], the confusion in ter- ture suggested that environmental quality minology remains an important obstacle, and economic opportunity are closely linked and must be addressed prior to selecting and that government policies should em- indicators. phasize actions that meet "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of In this paper, I wish to address two primary future generations to meet their needs". The questions. First, I discuss the significant dif- tourism industry, particularly academics ferences in implications for how we con- and places with abundant natural resources, struct the concept of sustainable tourism. has embraced this discussion. Indicators serve as the bellwethers, as the signals suggesting progress toward or This debate is usually framed in terms of movement away from sustainability. Once "sustainable tourism", and indeed there are chosen and systematically monitored, they now many books, countless scientific arti- become the basis for policy reform. As such, cles, and even a technical journal focusing their selection is not only dependent on on sustainable tourism. This literature is what construct of sustainable tourism we littered with definitions of sustainable tour- select, but they are also critical to under- ism. These definitions emphasize that sus- standing if actions and policies have tainable tourism is a "kinder and gentler" changed the future to a more desirable one. form of tourism development that stresses As the title to this paper implies, there are forms that are sensitive to environmental multiple meanings to the term of sustainable impact, give rise to harmonious relation- tourism. I review three such constructs and ships between hosts and tourists, and follow suggest the implications of each for selecting a long-term timeframe in consideration of indicators. Second, I will review what has economic consequences (see, for example, happened in the State of Montana (U.S.A.) Bramwell and Lane, 1993; Innskeep, 1991; in terms of sustainable tourism indicators Cater and Goodall, 1992). To some, this de- research as an example of the difficulties in bate over definitions has gone on too long: selecting indicators. This is an example, and the focus on defining sustainable tourism, it provides particular lessons for identifying according to Garrod and Fyall (1998) needs indicators. to be replaced with more consideration of implementing the ideals that are repre- sented by the various definitions. Worldviews of Tourism and Sustainability While I agree with this comment somewhat, definitions serve to frame the problem and Definitions help communicate ideas and lay the foundation for future work, assess- concepts by clearly specifying the underly- ment, analysis and evaluation. Definitions ing meaning of terms. Good definitions lead that are widely shared are critical to effec- to both readers and writers agreeing to what tive communication. Widely held debate was stated, and provide interpretation as to over definitions helps ensure that problems meanings in problematic situations. While are framed in useful ways, and examining some definitions of tourism (such as travel different interpretations brings out impor- away from home of more than 100 miles in tant issues (Bardwell, 1991). Because there McCool 317
one direction) can meet these criteria, many to justify its presence. However, a number writers discussing sustainable tourism leave of presentations in two recent symposia readers wondering about what they mean. demonstrate increased concern about the social, political and environmental mean- That the concept of sustainable tourism re- ings of sustainable tourism (McCool and mains somewhat elusive is a conclusion to Watson, 1995; Reid, 1991). Many authors which most writers would agree. McKercher implicitly, if not directly, emphasize the re- (1993) for example, criticizes sustainability lationship between tourism and the natural as being “ill-defined”, even within the con- environment as the basis for numerous text of the Brundtland Commission report. questions about sustainability, relationships He argues that the definition may encom- that are particularly significant in coastal pass both developmental and conservation and marine environments. perspectives, perspectives that conflict and lead little guidance to resolving complex The widely varying approaches to tourism resource allocation decisions. However, sustainability suggest three worldviews that Aronsson (1994) suggests that it is important have meaningfully different implications for to recognize limits in tourism development not only selection of indicators but even as a key component of sustainability: devel- more fundamentally the focus of tourism opment beyond these limits leads to overex- policy. Within this context the tourism and ploitation. He appears to favor the conserva- recreation industry is confronted with three tion or ecological definition of sustainability views: that McKercher fears: “sustainable tourism 1. What is meant by "the sustainability development entails protecting the resource of the tourism industry"? base”. These perspectives reinforce two ma- 2. How can sustainable tourism be de- jor views about sustainable development— veloped? with one view emphasizing the existing 3. What should tourism sustain? “expansionist” worldview while the other supporting a newer “ecological” worldview Here I will briefly review the meanings (Taylor, 1991; Rees, 1992). broadly assigned to each of these world- views. Such views are important in generating in- formed discussion about sustainable tour- What is the Sustainability of the Tourism ism. While science may play an important Industry? role in identifying impacts and conse- This question concerns itself with the long- quences of tourism development, how much term presence of the tourism and recreation tourism is acceptable, and under what con- industry. As such, it is narrowly focused on ditions remains a social and political deci- the industry itself—including the product or sion. Tourism development in the context of supply side. This question would entail re- McKercher's definition requires that deci- sponses dealing primarily with promotional sion-makers identify trade-offs between en- strategies, understanding the relationship vironmental protection and economic de- between demand and supply, competitive velopment. In this sense, decision-makers products, product quality development and are confronted by two conflicting goals and protection, and private sector business prac- must decide which takes primacy and how tices. In addition, where the industry is much each will be compromised to achieve based upon natural environments and cul- the other (Cole and Stankey, 1997).1 tural heritage, the sustainability of the in-
dustry is linked directly to actions that pro- In general, tourism development organiza- tect and maintain the quality of those prod- tions and academics have avoided the de- ucts. Indicators that address this question bate concerning integrating environmental, would draw upon market size, travel pat- social and economic objectives, relying pri- marily on the economic benefits of tourism 318 McCool
Figure 1. Extent to which adult Montanans agree that tourism increases the quality of life in their community. The data shows less variability in responses the last several years (Source: Institute for Tourism and Recreation Research, The University of Montana) terns, occupancy rates, park visitation rates development because they feel it will lead to and profitability estimates. socially desirable goals, such as increased employment, higher labor income, reduced What is Sustainable Tourism? crime, greater protection of the natural or The literature suggests that sustainable tour- cultural heritage, or an enhanced quality of ism is a different type of tourism than so- life. In a broader sustainability context, tour- called “mass” tourism, a “kinder and gen- ism would be viewed as an agent to seek tler” form of tourism that is generally income redistribution and preserving of op- smaller in scale, more environmentally sen- tions for future generations. While this ap- sitive and socially aware than the former. proach directly integrates tourism into Sometimes sustainable tourism is also community development, the extent to termed “green” tourism or ecotourism. To which the private sector feels a responsibil- some, sustainable tourism means the behav- ity to improve human welfare at the com- iors individual tourists practice; to others, munity level is unknown. Of the three ques- sustainable tourism concerns itself with in- tions, this is the most fundamental, because frastructure and social policy questions. To it requires us to address the reasons for eco- others, sustainable tourism focuses on in- nomic development. By so doing, it sets the dustry codes of acceptable practice. Indica- stage for addressing the previous two ques- tors that deal with this "stainless conception" tions. definition of tourism might focus on waste production, pollution, energy consumption and local resident attitudes. What are Useful Indicators of Tourism Sustainability? What Should Tourism Sustain? This question places tourism in a human Given the concerns and issues identified and community development context. It above, how would we know if we are mak- addresses the purposes of tourism devel- ing progress in addressing concepts of sus- opment and views tourism as a tool, not as tainability in our tourism development an end. Tourism becomes a strategy to en- strategy? One important way is to identify a hance certain features of a community. In key set of quantitative measures that we can this sense, public agencies engage in tourism monitor over time. These measures, or indi- McCool 319
cators, will inform us if we are making pro- gress and if our actions—such as promotion What characteristics make indicators useful or protection programs—are effective. for tourism policy and decision-making? Linda Merigliano (1989), in her discussion of Indicators are pieces of information that impacts from recreationists on the environ- measure things that are important to real ment, provides several criteria for good in- decisions. Identifying indicators allows for dicators. For example, indicators should be monitoring to determine if policies are lead- reliable, easy to measure, quantifiable, rele- ing to community development goals. Vast vant to important conditions and sensitive quantities of tourism information exist and to change. Livermann and others are readily obtainable to address many sus- (Livermann et al., 1988) mention additional tainability concerns (Meyboom, 1993). criteria; indicators must 1) be sensitive to change over time, 2) have predictive ability, Only a limited amount of information is 3) have reference or threshold values associ- truly useful to decision-makers. Indicators ated with the indicator, 4) be able to meas- are useful in that they measure a few aspects ure reversibility or controllability, 5) have of a situation, but allow a decision-maker to integrative ability, and 6) be relatively easy assess the health or condition of the entire to collect and use. Indicators must also system. Thus, an important criterion for a measure conditions over which people have good indicator is that it can be used to assess some degree of control. Similar characteris- more than one aspect of the overall condi- tics have been suggested by McCool and tion. Stankey (McCool and Stankey, 1998, Gallopin, 1997) and many others. One example of an indicator concerning tourism's ability to address the needs and Different conceptions of indicators exist concerns of host community residents is among different authors. For example, how they feel about tourism. Figure 1 shows Meyboom (1993) conceives of three types of attitudes of adult Montana residents be- indicators for sustainable tourism; leading tween 1992 and 1998 in terms of their per- indicators relate to future events (consumer ceptions of the effect of tourism on their confidence), current indicators signal what is quality of life. The data here show little happening now (visits, labor income), trail year-to-year variation, but the values do not ing indicators measure the effects of past ac- suggest a lot of enthusiasm for tourism (nor tion (attitudes of residents, satisfaction of do they show a lot of negative affect). This visitors). Manning (1992) believes there are information is useful to tourism promotion six different types of indicators (see Table 1). agencies because this indicator suggests an opportunity to reevaluate the goals of tour- ism promotion.
Indicator Type Examples 1. Warning indicators Water quality, air quality 2. Measures of pressures or stresses Fish caught, deer harvested 3. Measures of the state of the natural Current use levels of facilities. resource base and use levels. 4. Measures of impacts/consequences Loss of old-growth forest, tourism jobs lost 5. Measures of management ef- Regulations on visitor use and numbers fort/action 6. Measures of management impact These indicators measure an item to evaluate if the intervention is achieving the desired result. Table 1. Types of sustainable tourism indicators and examples of each (excerpted from Manning, 1992) 320 McCool
Rank
1 2 3 4 5 N % N % N % N % N % Total N Montana natural and cultural heritage 13 12.5% 19 18.1% 12 11.5% 18 17.3% 7 6.9% 69 Community economic stability 22 21.2% 13 12.4% 6 5.8% 6 5.8% 9 8.8% 56 Montana quality of life 27 26% 8 7.6% 8 7.7% 7 6.7% 6 5.9% 56 Unique Montana natural environment 7 6.7% 13 12.4% 9 8.7% 12 11.5% 7 6.9% 48 Tourism promotion activity 6 5.8% 6 5.7% 9 8.7% 9 8.7% 8 7.8% 38 Recreation opportunities 1 1% 7 6.7% 7 6.7% 12 11.5% 9 8.8% 36 Tourism employment opportunities 4 3.8% 4 3.8% 7 6.7% 8 7.7% 7 6.9% 30 Safe and secure community environment 7 6.7% 5 4.8% 7 6.7% 5 4.8% 6 .0% 30 Employment opportunities in general 1 1% 6 5.7% 7 6.7% 7 6.7% 6 5.9% 27 Level of tourism activity 4 3.8% 5 4.8% 6 5.8% 4 3.8% 7 6.9% 26 High quality natural resources 3 2.9% 3 2.9% 13 12.5% 5 4.8% 1 1% 25 Clean air and pure water 3 2.9% 6 5.7% 3 2.9% 4 3.8% 6 5.9% 22 Number of non-resident visitors 3 2.9% 3 2.9% 5 4.8% 2 1.9% 5 4.9% 18 Lodging occupancy rates 2 1.9% 1 1% 1 1% 0 .0% 5 4.9% 9 Access to higher education 0 .0% 1 1% 0 .0% 3 2.9% 3 2.9% 7 Access to affordable housing 0 .0% 1 1% 0 .0% 0 .0% 5 4.9% 6 Biological diversity 1 1% 2 1.9% 0 .0% 0 .0% 2 2% 5 Low taxes 0 .0% 0 .0% 1 1% 1 1% 2 2% 4 Biological integrity 0 .0% 0 .0% 3 2.9% 1 1% 0 .0% 4 Family cohesiveness 0 .0% 2 1.9% 0 .0% 0 .0% 1 1% 3 Table 2. Rankings of potential items that could be sustained by tourism by Montana tourism and recreation industry officials
Developing Indicators in Montana tainability is the most important of the five tourism development goals identified. The former Five-Year Strategic Plan for the travel and tourism industry in Montana This study was conducted from spring 1996 called in its vision statement for a tourism to winter 1997(McCool, Burgess, and Nick- industry that “fosters an enhanced quality of erson, 1998). The study had, as its primary life for its residents...” (Travel Montana, 1992). objective, the response to the question “what To this end, the plan included as one of its should the tourism and recreation industry four major goal areas, “Maintaining and sustain?” The research was conducted in the Measuring Quality of life and Resource Sustain- state of Montana. The research involved 108 ability.” The specifics of how this was to be members of Montana’s tourism and recrea- achieved were not explicitly stated, al- tion industry. These individuals sit on the though review of proposed tourism devel- boardsof directors of each of the state’s six opments from the perspective of environ- tourism promotion regions. During a regu- mental sustainability was suggested. In ad- larly scheduled meeting of each of the dition, monitoring of Montanans’ attitudes boards, the study was explained and the toward tourism was indicated as a specific participants were lead through a question- action to be undertaken by the Institute for naire concerning sustainable tourism. Each Tourism and Recreation Research, a task participant ranked the importance of 20 that was initiated in December 1992 and items that could be sustained by tourism. continues today. The more recent strategic Each of the 20 items had been identified plan (Nickerson, 1997) also states that sus- through a review of the sustainability, tour- ism, and economic development literature. McCool 321
Respondents were also asked to evaluate the What Should Montana’s Tourism usefulness of 26 indicators of sustainability, and Recreation Industry Sustain? also proposed in the literature, at three lev- els of destination marketing: the state, tour- Respondents reported a relatively broad ism region, and local community. The initial range of answers to the question of what the list of 26 items was identified from the sus- industry should sustain. The items ranked tainable tourism literature and discussions highest (see Table 2) were Montana’s natural with individuals in the tourism and recrea- and cultural heritage, community economic tion industry. Many of the items were cho- stability, quality of life, and unique natural sen to represent indicators of the 20 things environment. These four items accounted that could be sustained. Only indicators for 44.1% of the total responses. Tourism- concerning the community level are shown specific items such as nonresident visitation, here.
Very useful Moderately Not useful useful N % N % N % Hotel occupancy rate 86 81.9% 16 15.2% 3 2.9% Visits to parks, recreation areas, and historic sites 83 79.8% 17 16.3% 4 3.8% Number of non-resident visitors 76 73.1% 23 22.1% 5 4.8% Per capita tourist expenditures 76 73.1% 21 20.2% 7 6.7% Resident attitudes toward tourism 66 64.1% 34 33% 3 2.9% Tourism promotion budget 64 62.1% 31 30.1% 8 7.8% Inquiries from promotions 62 60.2% 35 34% 6 5.8% Lodging revenues 61 58.7% 33 31.7% 10 9.6% Annual number of new tourism businesses 60 57.7% 31 29.8% 13 12.5% Number of tourism employees 54 52.4% 43 41.7% 6 5.8% Resident perceptions of quality of life 54 51.9% 40 38.5% 10 9.6% Percent of labor force in tourism 53 52% 42 41.2% 7 6.9% Highway traffic count 50 47.6% 40 38.1% 15 14.3% Presence of a sustainable tourism plan 50 48.5% 40 38.8% 13 12.6% Number of non-resident fishing and hunting li- 47 45.2% 44 42.3% 13 12.5% censes Labor income from tourism 46 44.2% 49 47.1% 9 8.7% Water pollution from sewage 36 35% 36 35% 31 30.1% Airline deplanements 31 30.4% 35 34.3% 36 35.3% Crime rate 31 30.4% 32 31.4% 39 38.2% Building permits 22 21.2% 40 38.5% 42 40.4% Gasoline tax revenue 20 2% 49 49% 31 31% Number of State Parks 18 18% 37 37% 45 45% Per capita water consumption 16 15.7% 35 34.3% 51 5% Real estate sales 16 15.5% 52 50.5% 35 34% State Park management budget 13 12.6% 38 36.9% 52 50.5% Per capita energy consumption 6 5.9% 34 33.3% 62 60.8% Table 3. Ratings of the usefulness of indicators of sustainability
322 McCool
promotional activity and lodging occupancy items. Ranking indicators such as number of rates—three variables frequently discussed nonresident visitors highly could have re- as objectives of tourism marketing organiza- flected experience with traditional methods tions--were ranked significantly lower in of measuring tourism industry outputs, may importance. Items such as low taxes, bio- suggest that respondents recognized that logical integrity, and family cohesiveness numbers of visitors impact such items as tended to be ranked the lowest of the items quality of life, or may reflect a willingness to presented to study participants. It is impor- accept crude indicators. Finally, ranking tant to understand the highest ranked items indicators may have been a task requiring tend to be broad social goals, which the par- understanding of a complex set of relation- ticipants in this study linked directly to ships among a variety of factors, thus mak- tourism development. ing the ranking process itself difficult.
Defining sustainability in relatively broad What are Useful Indicators of terms—as a goal rather than a technique— Tourism Sustainability? provides the recreation and tourism indus- try with a strategic framework from which When asked to rate the usefulness of a vari- to respond to change and uncertainty. If the ety of indicators of sustainability, respon- goal is economic opportunity, for example, dents rated indicator variables that ap- then tourism may be viewed more as a tool peared to be directly related to level of tour- to help a community attain it. By viewing ism activity. The most useful indicators sustainability in this manner, actions to en- were hotel occupancy rate, visits to parks, hance economic opportunity can maintain recreation areas, and historic sites, and some flexibility in light of changing condi- number of nonresident visitors (see Table 3). tions.
Had we asked our participants to identify Discussion and Implications indicators of sustainable tourism or the sus- tainability of the tourism industry we likely
would have found indicators that are sig- The results suggest that tourism industry nificantly different from the current results. representatives view sustainability from a We would then have embarked on a poten- very broad perspective, suggesting that tially much different monitoring program. tourism development is more of a means to an end than an end in itself. Our data imply We have learned that the concept of sustain- that fundamental purposes of tourism de- ability, as it applies to Montana’s tourism velopment are being re-examined, even in and recreation industry, is an important the U.S. where sustainability concepts ap- concept for the industry to address, but is plied to tourism have generally been ne- very complex. Simplifying this concept glected. would be a disservice and dishonest. We
need to recognize and appreciate all the While study respondents reported relatively various complicating factors. However, be- broad perceptions of what tourism should cause the concept is complex does not mean sustain, the failure to rank specific indica- we should ignore it. To the contrary, it is tors dealing with these broad definition clear the industry feels that human welfare highly (e.g., affordable housing, etc.) may goals are important and certainly need at- have been a result of failure to see at the tention. Yet, it is clear that sustainability community level connections between tour- goals such as biological integrity and diver- ism and these potential indicators, a lack of sity that are frequently discussed in the sus- understanding of how the industry could tainability literature were not favored by have an impact, or a question about the in- this group. The connection between tourism dustry’s responsibility to deal with these and these goals may not be evident, suggest- McCool 323
ing the need for venues to discuss the link- many Montana made products to purchase, ages. The study does have several implica- their expenditures will have smaller indirect tions for the concept of sustainable tourism. and induced effects. First, the data suggest somewhat of a “dis- connect” between preferences for what There are several implications for research. should be sustained by tourism and indica- First, if tourism is viewed as a tool of devel- tors that might measure progress toward opment to achieve sustainability, there must this goal. For example, maintaining the be both agreement on what is to be sus- “Montana” quality of life was the third tained as well as the appropriate routes to highest ranked item to be sustained, yet the that goal. In a dynamic social context, de- indicator “resident perceptions of quality of termining what is to be sustained involves life” was ranked eleventh in usefulness at significant, meaningful and authentic inter- the community level. While community actions among all segments of the tourism economic stability was also rated high, indi- and recreation industry, but particularly cators that might be useful in measuring this with managers of the publicly owned re- such as employment did not receive a very sources upon which the industry is based. high rating. While some interactions are beginning to occur, interaction at both the local level - Second, the lack of consistent results may where tourism development happens - and reflect confusion among three important the national level - where institutional questions: the concept of sustainability, the frameworks and cultures originate that form question of what should tourism sustain, the context for local efforts - are needed. and the idea of sustainable tourism. Each of This dialogue must extend to residents in these concepts includes a variation on the communities where tourism happens so that term “sustain”, but represents significantly not only tourism maintains its social accept- different notions. The question of what tour- ability, but the industry learns from resi- ism should sustain inevitably leads to a dis- dents their concerns and worries. Scientists cussion of a variety of economic, social and can assist in this process by applying meth- political processes and how they can be odologies and approaches to developing used to produce a better life. Sustainable appropriated indicators. tourism may represent a particular type of tourism – small-scale, community oriented, Second, more specific ideas about what is to environmentally benign, for example. This be sustained are needed. Our research, for confusion exists not only in the minds of example, identified “Montana quality of tourism business operators, but most likely life” as an important item to be sustained. in academia as well. But what does this mean? For which Mon- tanans? Over what time frame? What indica- Third, we note that many of the top-ranked tors would be most suitable? And, most im- indicators of sustainability identified here portantly, what is meant by quality of life? represent inputs: they really do not measure Economic development activities, such as the results of tourism development policy, tourism, thus are viewed more as a tool than but only the level of tourist activity or tour- as an end: “there are important qualitative ism promotion activity. For example, the dimensions to development that distinguish number of nonresident visitors as an indica- it from economic growth” (Barbier, 1987). tor does not necessarily measure important This suggests a continuing role for research economic outputs - such as labor income, to support the industry in attaining sustain- nor does it assess the effects of resident- ability. visitor interactions. While there is a statisti- cal association between visitation levels and Third, the sustainable tourism literature, expenditures, a large variety of factors in- while in the developmental stage, needs to tervene to make this relationship more diffi- address the question of indicators. Some cult to understand: if visitors don’t find literature exists (see Hawkes and Williams, 324 McCool
1993; Manning, 1992), but many proposed proach. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1: indicators do not meet the criteria for indica- 1-5. tors identified in other fields. For example, Cater, E., and Goodall, B. (1992). Must tour- indicators should be reliable, easy to meas- ism destroy its resource base? In: Envi- ure, quantifiable, relevant to important con- ronmental Issues in the 1990s, A. M. Man- ditions and sensitive to change (Merigliano, nion and S. R. Bowlby, (eds.). John 1989). One proposed indicator we used in Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. this study - number of state parks - that has Cole, D.N., and Stankey, G.H. (1997). His- been proposed in the literature doesn’t meet torical development of Limits of Ac- all these requirements. While this indicator ceptable Change: Conceptual clarifica- is easy to measure and is quantifiable, it tions and possible extensions. Paper doesn’t fluctuate in response to policy initia- read at Limits of Acceptable Change tion or implementation, and may not be and Related Planning Processes: Pro- closely related to significant issues such as gress and Future Directions, at Mis- quality of life. Linking tourism sustainability soula, MT. indicators to the broader discussion of indi- Gallopin, G.C. (1997). Indicators and their cators of sustainable development would use: Information for decision-making: provide a stronger integration of tourism Part One -- Introduction. In: SCOPE 58 into a more holistic approach (e.g., Moldan, Sustainability indicators: A report on the Billharz, and Matravers, 1997). Identifying project on indicators of sustainable devel- indicators that are more directly linked to opment, B. Moldan, S. Billharz and R. general goals of sustainability--such as inter- Matravers, (eds.). John Wiley & Sons, generational and intra-generational equity is Chichester, UK. needed. Garrod, B., and Fyall, A. (1998). Beyond the rhetoric of sustainable tourism? Tourism Management, 19(3): 199-212. Note: Hawkes, S., and Williams, P. (eds.) (1993). ______The Greening of Tourism--From Principles 1 Actually, sustainability implies the three goals to Practice. Globe '92 Tourism Stream: Case of improved human welfare noted in the intro- Book of Best Practice in Sustainable Tour- duction. Each of these goals is to some degree compatible, and each is to some degree in conflict ism. Centre for Tourism Policy and Re- with the other. Compromises will have to be search, Simon Fraser University, Bur- made; so decision-makers are confronted with naby, BC. how much compromise in each goal is accept- Innskeep, E. (1991). Tourism planning: An able. integrated and sustainable development ap- proach. Routledge, London, UK. Livermann, D.M., Hanson, M.E., Brown, B.J. References and Jr. Merideth, R.W. (1988). Global sustainability: Toward measurement. Aronsson, L. (1994). Sustainable tourism Environmental Management, 12(2): 133- systems: the example of sustainable ru- 143. ral tourism in Sweden. Journal of Sus- Manning, E. (1992). Managing sustainable tainable Tourism , 2(1): 77-92. tourism: Indicators for better decisions. Barbier, E. (1987). The concept of sustainable Paper read at 1992 World Congress on economic development. Environmental Adventure Travel and Ecotourism, 1992. Conservation, 14(2): 101-110. McCool, Stephen F., Burgess, Chuck and Bardwell, L. (1991). Problem framing: A per- Nickerson, Norma. (1998). Toward as spective on environmental problem- sustainable tourism and recreation in- solving. Environmental Management, 15 dustry in Montana: An examination of (5): 603-612. concepts and industry perceptions. In- Bramwell, B., and Lane, B. (1993). Sustain- stitute for Tourism and Recreation Re- able tourism: An evolving global ap- McCool 325
search, The University of Montana, Mis- An Agenda for Research, 1991, at Hull, soula, MT. Quebec. McCool, S.F., and Stankey, G.H. (1998). Rep- Travel Montana. (1992). Five year strategic resenting the future: A framework for plan for the travel and tourism industry evaluating the utility of indicators in the in Montana. Department of Commerce, search for sustainable forest manage- State of Montana, Helena, MT. ment. Paper read at International Con- World Commission on Environment and ference on Indicators. Development. (1987). Our Common Fu- For Sustainable Forest Management, at ture. Oxford University Press, Oxford, Melbourne, Victoria Australia. UK. McCool, S.F., and Watson, A.E. (eds) (1995). Linking Tourism, the Environment, and Sustainability, Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR- 323. Intermountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Ogden, UT. McKercher, R. (1993). The unrecognized threat: Can tourism survive 'sustainabil- ity'? Tourism Management, 14 (April): 85- 90. Merigliano, L.L. (1989). Indicators to moni- tor the wilderness recreation experience. Paper read at Managing America's En- during Wilderness Resource, at Min- neapolis, MN. Meyboom, J. (1993). Canada's Approach to Sustainable Tourism. In: Proceedings - 23rd Travel and Tourism Research Associa- tion Canada Conference. Whistler, B. C. Moldan, B., Billharz, S. .and Matravers, R. (eds.). (1997). SCOPE 58 Sustainability indicators: A report on the project on indica- tors of sustainable development. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. Nickerson, N.P. (1997). Montana's five year strategic plan for travel and tourism: 1998. ------(2002). Institute for Tourism and Recreation Research, The University of Montana, Missoula, MT. Rees, Willam E. (1992). Understanding sus- tainable development: Natural capital and the new world order. Unpublished manuscript. 20 pp. Reid, L.J. (1991). Tourism -- Environment -- Sustainable Development: An Agenda for Research. Tourism Canada, Hull, Que- bec. Taylor, G.D. (1991). Tourism and sustain- ability -- Impossible dream or essential objective? Paper read at Tourism -- En- vironment -- Sustainable Development:
STILL SEEKING SUSTAINABILITY
Stephen F. McCool School of Forestry The University of Montana (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Tourism and sustainability are two and puzzling than simple and lucid, more terms more and more frequently seen juxtaposed. elusive than tangible. Addressing sustain- Yet sustainable tourism or tourism sustainabil- ability authentically requires more than slo- ity issues are frequently viewed as technological gans, education and public participation. or marketing questions. Sustainability carries Sustainability is not an operational issue strong implications for intergenerational and that can be corrected through better public intragenerational justice. These are fundamen- information, environmental analyses, tech- tally moral or ethical questions rather than tech- nology, or refinements in existing law and nical ones. Limiting discussions of sustainable regulation. The barriers to sustainability are tourism to technical issues is a serious miscast- primarily structural or systemic in character ing of the problem. This paper sets forth some (Caldwell, 1990), and changing those types basic propositions concerning framing of the of barriers will challenge the capacity of problem of sustainability within a tourism con- democracies and capitalism everywhere. text, based on the author's presentation at a pre- vious Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism. This somewhat pessimistic assessment is
triggered not by any type of personal fatal- Keywords : sustainable tourism, institutional ism about the state of the world, but rather capacity, problem framing by a fear that the illusion of achieving sus- tainability (through excessively reductionist approaches) may be its most fundamental Introduction obstacle. Sustainability is a guiding fiction (Shumay, 1991) in the sense that as long as it The continuing interest in sustainable tour- remains vague it serves very useful social ism testifies to its enormous popular and functions such as motivating and organizing technical appeal.1 Not only have rural com- social discourse around problems that are munities, unexpectedly caught by massive widely perceived, but as more and more structural economic and social change, specificity is sought, the term tends to lose turned to tourism to salvage their ravaged its value for directing or guiding social ac- economies, but academics (and consultants) tion (see McCool, 1996 for previous discus- have launched themselves onto the sustain- sion). It is quite possible that following a ability "train" before they would be left be- meeting on tourism sustainability partici- hind holding bags of increasingly irrelevant pants could go away assuming agreement concepts and approaches to tourism devel- with others when key disagreements really opment. Part of the "beguiling appeal" of exist. sustainable tourism may be its apparent success in resolving economic, ecological In the three years since the previous Con- and social goals. All one must do is find the gress on Coastal and Marine Tourism, much intersection of economic feasibility, ecologi- progress has been made in dealing with the cal viability and social acceptability. concept of sustainable tourism. But that progress is more in terms of what is meant Seeking a sustainable world is not easy; in- by the term than development of specific deed the concept of sustainability is often policies and actions to achieve it. This is im- more implied than explicit, more convoluted portant because problem framing is the key 328 McCool to not only selection of appropriate actions Sustainability is More of an Ethical (Caldwell, 1990), but also to organizing so- Problem than a Technical One cial discourse, allocating resources and im- plementing plans (Bardwell, 1991). Without To a very large degree, sustainability in- attention to problem framing, organizations volves decisions concerning obligations of risk not only addressing symptoms, the the current generation to future ones while wrong problems, (or even solutions parad- addressing significant equity issues within ing as problems), but cementing inappropri- the present generation. This is what the ate answers and losing capacity (because of highly popular Brundtland Commission misspent resources or lack of political credi- meant when it defined sustainable devel- bility) to address the “correct” problem. opment as, “meeting the needs of the pre- sent without compromising the ability of Contributions by Budowski (1976), Butler future generations to meet their own needs” (1991), Pigram (1990), and Hunter (1997; (World Commission on Environment and 1995) have helped frame the boundaries of Development, 1987). The Brundtland Com- the sustainable tourism issue in policy and mission was essentially arguing that the cur- conceptual terms. Hunter in particular has rent generation has a moral obligation to linked sustainable tourism to the larger allow future generations the same opportu- question of community development and nities as it enjoys. The values of one genera- sustainability. Nevertheless, the literature tion's needs and preferences are assessed has neither synthesized nor adequately against another's. Tradeoffs between inter- linked sustainable tourism to the larger is- generational equity and goals of intragen- sues of sustainability. Both Wight (1993) and erational equity may have to be made. Sadler (1990) argue that sustainable devel- opment lies at the intersection of economics, While the field of neoclassical economics ecology and sociology; Wight suggesting often considers equity issues in evaluation that each be given equal weight “in striving of alternative courses of action, these issues for sustainable tourism”; yet, clearly the are best identified and assessed through in- natural resources upon which tourism in volving those affected by decisions. Mecha- coastal and marine environments is based is nisms such as public participation help ad- fundamental to all other considerations. dress issues of intragenerational equity, yet These statements have in many ways added the major question remains as to who best clarity, and in some other ways added con- represents future generations (McCool and fusion to the discussion, but in all cases have Stankey, 1998), particularly those in the dis- suggested the framework for further dis- tant future. In one sense, democratic gov- course. ernments that institutionalize open, inclu- sive forms of participation provide this rep- In this paper, I wish to outline what I believe resentation. However, the complexity of are the key elements in understanding and environmental issues often translates into framing the problem of sustainability. While agencies focusing on their own self-interests the context may be tourism in coastal and (e.g., ensuring survival of the organization) marine environments, the elements are rele- rather than the public interest at large. In an vant to any area of sustainability. The ap- era of increasing fragmentation of public proach I will use is to identify a series of interest, it becomes important to address the propositions and support those with logical question of whose interest an agency plan- analysis in the hopes of triggering further ner represents. thought, debate and deliberation. Given the ethical basis for sustainable tour- ism concerns, what is the proper role for scientists, technicians and academics in this discussion? Individuals in these occupations McCool 329 play an important role in seeking sustain- This is an issue of problem displacement, ability, in that they can provide important and is one fundamentally of the spatial and information on cause-effect relationships, temporal scales at which sustainability is identifying the consequences of alternative studied and implemented. Displacing prob- policies and actions, and in raising issues lems to other places or generations has at and questions that may otherwise be ig- least two effects: First, the problem is not nored. These are critically important parts of resolved, just moved around, yet such dis- a multi-dimensional debate. However, aca- placement may lead to the illusion of sus- demics, technicians and scientists must care- tainability briefly mentioned above. This fully identify what role they are playing false sense of security may result in deci- when entering the discourse on sustainabil- sions that may not otherwise be made if the ity in that values and ethics are often inter- illusion did not exist. Second, the places or twined with science. generations that receive the problem thus displaced may not have the institutional, financial or political capacity to deal effec- Efforts to Attain Sustainability Must tively with the problem, potentially leading Seek to Resolve Problems, Not to resource or environmental impacts above Displace Them what would have otherwise happened. The result is that the problem (e.g., pollution) is
not solved, only displaced to other places or Temporal and spatial scales are essential generations. And, again the capacity to ef- components of any discussion of sustain- fectively move toward sustainability at lar- ability. We need to understand how long ger spatial scales is threatened. some thing should be sustained over what spatial scale. Without such definitional pre- A related issue is that of functional specific- cision, the concept of sustainability may ity. Tourism is generally only one compo- have little specific meaning. The inclusion of nent of an area's economy. Efforts to seek scale in the discussion forces participants to sustainability for tourism must do so within develop a framework for understanding the larger context of sustainable develop- equity issues--who benefits and who pays ment. Failure to consider linkages between the costs, across time, space and communi- tourism and other components may lead to ties. negative social and economic impacts. For
example, promoting tourism without con- Advocates of sustainability are confronted sidering the impact of tourism on other land with a major paradox: efforts to make local uses may lead to incidental unemployment. communities more sustainable may result in problems of pollution, resource extraction and consumption being shifted to other places. Thus, when a community adopts Sustainability is a Messy Problem strict population growth management poli- cies, the community may effectively deal As a concept, sustainability contains a lot of with the issues within its boundaries, but appeal, but the concept is a guiding fiction growth problems may be pushed elsewhere. (Shumay, 1991); moreover, the concept is so Prohibiting polluting facilities in one juris- broad it may hide fundamental disagree- diction may lead to those facilities being ments. Dovers and Handmer (1993) summa- located in another. Putting off controversial rize this issue by stating ‘Sustainability is decisions now may require future genera- indeed characterized by deep-seated con- tions to deal with them, potentially without tradictions -- paradoxes, conflicts, and ten- the same breadth of options the current gen- sions -- between perhaps irreconcilable goals eration may have available. or directions”. In fact, participants in sus- tainability discussions may have entirely different mind-sets and visions of the future, 330 McCool yet believe they agree. Situations where Lack of Integration is a Barrier for goals are in conflict are termed wicked prob- Nature-based Tourism lems (Allen and Gould, 1986). When cou- Development pled with scientific uncertainty or dis- agreement over cause-effect relationships, Nature-based tourism development - in the problems become messy ones. Messy coastal, marine and other nature-dominated situations require dramatically different ap- environments - is often confronted with a proaches to resolution than the types of lack of integration between government and problems for which most planning proc- private sectors. In one sense, government esses have been developed. Traditional de- planners represent those who have little cision-making or planning processes have power to participate in planning processes - been based on engineering approaches and such as those with little income or those have attempted to be apolitical (Friedmann, from future generations. While government 1993); such approaches are not effective planning processes can assist communities when dealing with messy problems. in developing visions of sustainable futures,
specific development decisions are often the Decision-making processes in messy situa- responsibility of individual private entre- tions must focus on consensus building (to preneurs whose temporal and spatial hori- deal with conflicting goals) and mutual zons are different from the collective. Gov- learning (to confront uncertainty and con- ernment - particularly in the U.S. - may have flicting science). Since these situations are little control over where, how and what type likely to be contentious, venues for discuss- of development occurs. Controls may be ing sustainability must not be hostage to only indirect. No doubt this disparity be- stormy and threatening dialogue. As tween goals and implementation can be the Yankelovich (1991) argues, such settings source of a great deal of frustration. should provide opportunities to deliberate, which may mean authentic, considerate so- A second issue concerning integration is the cial discourse. frequent disconnect between state/ provin-
cial tourism promotion agencies and natural Unfortunately, government institutions are resource administrations that manage the not particularly well adapted for dealing recreation opportunities promoted as part of with messy situations. Decision-making a nature-based tourism effort. These agen- processes used in NEPA, for example, tend cies are usually located in distinctly differ- to promote divisiveness, positioning, and ent ministries or departments. One has a formalization of “bullet-proof” agency deci- goal of economic development, the other, sions. Agencies may attend to procedure protection of the natural environment. more than content as a defensive mecha- While these goals are not necessarily con- nism in this age of contentiousness. The ca- flicting, lack of coordination and under- pacity of agencies themselves to facilitate standing frequently lead to conflicting ac- dialogue and learning is limited because tions, as when one agency promotes a park many agencies are staffed with resource and in the “shoulder” season when the park is environmental specialists who have little, if normally closed. When natural resource any training, in conflict resolution tech- agencies are losing institutional capacity niques. and expertise to manage parks and pro-
tected areas, efforts to promote and increase
visitation will often be viewed both nega-
tively and defensively.
By framing the problems of economic de-
velopment (success measured by larger numbers of visitors) and protected area McCool 331 planning (success measured by nondegrada- scale requires an analysis of who represents tion of resources) differently, managers and future generations to be explicit. planners may develop more effective and mutually agreeable policies. For example, by It is unlikely that economic, environmental understanding that the objective of tourism and social acceptability concerns can be val- development is increased labor income (not ued equally in sustainability discussions. larger numbers of visitors) promoters can Economic feasibility is so dependent on design programs to maintain smaller num- short-term market and financial conditions bers of people in an area for longer lengths as to be counter to the long-term notion of of time. This would be consistent with many sustainability. Social acceptability varies protected area managers' desires to educate significantly across cultures, so we are con- visitors and provide quality experiences. It fronted with the question of: acceptable for would require manager's to be directly in- whom? There are no clear, technically based volved in such promotion efforts. Such a guidelines for answering this question. strategy can lead to as much economic im- Dryzek (1987) argues in this context that pact as more visitors, but have less impact social choices must be first ecologically ra- on resources. tional, for if we lose the environmental basis for human life, there is no future for other considerations. Conclusion While these questions and challenges are Our efforts to form sustainable solutions to complex, there is no particular reason that tourism development questions must be they cannot be surmounted. The most fun- based on a clear and widely shared defini- damental barrier to sustainability is not the tion of what we plan to achieve. Framing the complexity of the question, not the dilem- problem is a necessary step in moving to- mas or paradoxes that confront sustainable ward a sustainable world. Framing the tourism, nor the contradictions facing those problem as one with technical dimensions who argue for a more sustainable world. only, when it is primarily an ethical issue, Rather, it is the illusion of sustainability that would be a serious miscasting of the chal- accompanies reductionist approaches. lenge of sustainability. Certainly, under- standing relationships between causes and effects, which results in accelerating con- Note: ______cerns about human impact on the environ- ment, is important, and key to technical so- 1 Please see the companion paper in this volume lutions. by the author for a discussion of various sustain- able tourism terms. Scale is an important consideration because it forces us to consider equity issues, which are foremost in people's minds (witness the NIMBY syndrome). Scale provides a frame- work to evaluate who wins and who loses, and may encourage development of poten- tial win-win resolutions. Forcing inclusion of scale leads to more comprehensive evaluation of the trade-offs involved in de- velopmental decisions and avoids the func- tional specialization characteristic of the di- vision between tourism promoters and re- source providers. In addition, considering
332 McCool
References Development Through Northern Conserva- tion Strategies. University of Calgary Allen, George M., and Gould, E.M. Jr. (1986). Press, Calgary, Alberta. Complexity, wickedness and public for- Shumay, N. (1991). The Invention of Argen- ests. Journal of Forestry, 84 (4):20-24. tina. University of California Press, Ber- Bardwell, L. (1991). Problem framing: A per- keley, CA. spective on environmental problem- Wight, P. (1993). Sustainable ecotourism: solving. Environmental Management, 15 Balancing economic, environmental and (5): 603-612. social goals within an ethical frame- Budowski, G. (1976). Tourism and environ- work. The Journal of Tourism Studies, 4 mental conservation. Environmental Con- (2): 54-56. servation, 3 (1): 27-31. World Commission on Environment and Butler, R.W. (1991). Tourism, environment Development. (1987). Our Common Fu- and sustainable development. Environ- ture. Oxford University Press, Oxford, mental Conservation, 18 (3): 201-209. UK. Caldwell, Lynton Keith. (1990). Between two Yankelovich, Daniel. (1991). Coming to Public worlds: Science, the environmental move- Judgment: Making Democracy Work in a ment and policy choice. Cambridge Uni- Complex World. Syracuse University versity Press, New York, NY. Press, Syracuse, NY. Dovers, Stephen R., and Handmer, John W. (1993). Contradictions in sustainability. Environmental Conservation, 20 (3): 217- 222. Dryzek, John S. (1987). Rational ecology: Envi- ronment and political economy. Basil Blackwell , New York, NY. Friedmann, John. (1993). Toward a non- euclidean theory of planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 60 (3): 482-485. Hunter, C. (1997). Sustainable tourism as an adaptive paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research, 24 (4): 850-867. Hunter, C.J. (1995). On the need to re- conceptualize sustainable tourism de- velopment. Journal of Sustainable Tour- ism, 3(3): 155-165. McCool, S.F., and Stankey, G.H. (1998). Rep- resenting the future: A Framework for Evaluating the Utility of Indicators In the Search for Sustainable Forest Man- agement. Paper read at International Conference on Indicators For Sustainable Forest Management, at Mel- bourne, Victoria, Australia. Pigram, J.J. (1990). Sustainable tourism - pol- icy considerations. Journal of Tourism Studies, 1 (2): 2-9. Sadler, B. (1990). Sustainable development, northern realities and the design and implementation of regional conserva- tion strategies. In: Achieving Sustainable IMPEDIMENTS AND OPPORTUNITIES IN TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTHWEST ALASKA
Terry Johnson Marine Advisory Program University of Alaska (U.S.A.)
Abstract: The Bristol Bay region of southwest- waters of Bristol Bay itself, the remainder ern Alaska is sparsely inhabited, but richly en- being tundra, rolling hills, and mountains, dowed in resources that could support a major laced by dozens of rivers, hundreds of tourism industry. Despite an abundance of creeks, and thousands of lakes and ponds. natural and cultural attractions and a clear need The total population is about 7,000 which for economic diversification, the tourism indus- means that people there are outnumbered try is still largely undeveloped. by bears.
Several factors account for this unfulfilled oppor- The regional economy has long depended tunity, including high travel costs, lack of visitor primarily on the commercial salmon fisher- facilities, a shortage of capital, willing labor and skilled management, local resistance, problematic ies, but changing environmental and eco- weather, and an ignorance of the region on the nomic conditions have drastically reduced part of tourism promoters and the traveling pub- the value of the commercial fisheries, and lic. A dynamic involving local people, tourism the region has earned several state and fed- service providers, and the tourists themselves is eral economic disaster declarations in recent required for successful development of an indus- years. try and this dynamic is not yet fully in place in the region. About two-thirds of the region’s people are classified Alaska Native and belong to any Bristol Bay presents numerous opportunities for of three regional cultural groups: Yup’ik regional tourism development and for local indi- Eskimo, Aleutiiq Eskimo (some consider vidual enterprise. Governments, associations and themselves Aleut), and Denaina Indian. communities may play a role in assisting busi- They are distributed among some 32 towns ness owners to capitalize on those opportunities. and villages, the largest of which is Dilling- However, it remains to be seen whether the re- ham with a year-around population of about gion’s residents will come to the point of endors- 2,200 persons. No roads connect the region ing further tourism development, and whether to any other part of Alaska, and within the local individuals will find ways to make new region only a few communities are con- tourism businesses work in the region. nected to one another by road. Shallow wa- ter, severe weather, and seasonal ice cover- Keywords: Bristol Bay, Southwest Alaska, ing preclude passenger vessel access. Virtu- tourism development ally all travel into and within the region is by airplane.
Introduction The region is rich in potential visitor attrac- tions. Wildlife abounds, including moose, The Bristol Bay region encompasses some caribou, black and brown bears, wolves, 120,000 square miles of land and water in porcupine, otter and beaver, walrus, seals the southwestern corner of mainland and sea lions and several species of whales, Alaska, north of the Alaska Peninsula and plus many species of seabirds, shorebirds, bordering the southeastern Bering Sea. raptors and migratory water fowl. Thou- About half of that area consists of the tidal sands of miles of clear rivers and streams 334 Johnson support healthy wild populations of trout, As noted above, virtually all travel to and charr, salmon, grayling and pike, and serve within the region is by air, and because of as corridors for rafters, kayakers and motor- low volume and high operating costs, fares boaters. Snow-capped mountains, some are disproportionately high. For example, with glaciers and volcanic peaks, give way round-trip commercial airfares for the 300- to scenic timbered hills and tundra lowlands mile flight from Anchorage to Dillingham suitable for hiking and camping, as well as currently range between $329 and $489 dur- for big game hunting and wildlife photog- ing the summer season. Local commuter raphy. fares (to villages with airstrips) average $2 to $2.50 per mile, and seat fares (when In most Native villages people continue to available) on bush planes (landing on conduct traditional subsistence activities. beaches or on floats) are $3 per mile or Local languages are spoken, dances per- more. In most cases bush flights require formed, and arts and crafts such as walrus charter of the whole plane (with three to six ivory carving, skin sewing and grass basket passenger seats) at a cost of $350 to $500 per weaving, are practiced. Although village hour, and the rate is applied to the air time architecture is dominated by the ubiquitous for the plane making the return flight from and homely “HUD house”, visitors may still the drop-off point as well as the time pas- see the log cabin, the smoke house, the meat sengers are on board. Since many of the rack, dog sled, the seal or bear hide tacked region’s recreational attractions are located to the shed wall, and even the skin-on-frame 50 to 200 miles from hub locations, air travel kayak. cost can be a significant deterrent to poten- tial visitors. A few dozen high-end sport fishing lodges and hunting guides account for the bulk of High insurance, fuel and maintenance costs, the tourism trade in the region. Most along with a long slow travel period in the sportsmen fly into hub town airports (many off-season, keep air travel costs up. Al- in their own or their corporations’ Lear jets), though start-up companies are constantly transfer to bush planes, and fly out to the entering the market, attrition is high. In the remote lodges. Most lodges and hunting last ten years alone, three of the five major operations are owned by non-residents of regional air carriers serving the Anchorage- the region, and most fishing guides are Bristol Bay market have gone out of busi- hired from other parts of the country. It is ness1, as have numerous commuter and possible for a visitor to spend a week and bush flying services. No indicators cur- several thousands of dollars in the area rently point to a lowering of air travel costs without ever meeting a local person. in the foreseeable future.
The Bristol Bay region is only a few hundred Impediments to Tourism miles east of the home of the Aleutian Low, Development the atmospheric phenomenon that spawns storms for the entire Bering Sea. Summer Several impediments retard development of temperatures normally are in the mid-40s to a broad and locally based tourism industry. low 60s (°F), with frequent overcast skies These include the high cost of access to and and rain through the summer. In some years travel within the region, climate and isolated snowdrifts remain into June, and by weather, cultural resistance, lack of capital, early August autumn colors begin to ap- lack of expertise and management skills, pear. Fog is common, especially where lack of visitor facilities and amenities, and warmer air overlies cold river waters. Fre- ignorance of the region by the public and quent squalls of 20-30 knots, and occasion- the tourism industry. ally up to 50 knots, buffet the region during the summer. Waterborne activities, includ- ing kayaking, sport fishing and marine Johnson 335 wildlife viewing, are frequently curtailed or try the processors do much of the mainte- interrupted by weather. Uncertainties about nance, procurement, and accounting for weather delays of flights make a trip to Bris- most of the local fishermen. Other area tol Bay less appealing to some potential visi- businesses, such as general stores, air taxis tors. and construction, tend to be managed by outsiders, and relatively few local people Residents of the widely dispersed Native are hired even as technicians and laborers. villages within the region are divided in College courses offered through rural cam- their attitudes about tourism and tourists. puses and by distance delivery emphasize An illustration of the dilemma is the classic office skills and village government admini- confrontation over catch-and-release fishing. stration, but not business management2. While anglers and fishery managers favor non-retention, particularly of rainbow trout Many but not all villages in the region have and other sport species, traditional Native one or more bed and breakfast-type lodging people are highly offended by the practice, facilities, but otherwise tourist infrastructure which they disparagingly refer to as “play- is scarce. Dillingham, Naknek and King ing with your food.” Salmon each have a few hotels and restau- rants; otherwise the exclusive fishing and Other serious conflicts arise, such as spatial hunting lodges are about the only other competition for quality fishing sites between source of tourist facilities. Opportunities for anglers and subsistence fishermen, and of- shopping and dining, which consistently fense taken by local people who are studied rank at the top of the list of activities en- and photographed in their villages. Some joyed by Alaska tourists, are sparse and Native people believe that tourists bring bad considered low in quality by visitors to the habits to village youth and encourage an region. Although most of the land area of unhealthy interest in money and material the region is encompassed by various re- goods. Most villages are split on the issue, serves, including Katmai and Lake Clark with some members actively opposing while National Parks, Wood-Tikchik State Park, others are planning to engage in or currently Aniakchak National Monument, and the enjoying financial rewards of tourism busi- Togiak, Alaska Peninsula and Becharof Na- nesses. Where tourism has succeeded it has tional Wildlife Refuges, nearly all of these created a class of haves in a cash-poor com- areas are de facto wildernesses. In fact, with munity of have-nots. the single exception of the Brooks Camp location in Katmai, none of those millions of Most of the residents of the region live on acres of public lands is even graced by an small earned cash incomes, and rely to a on-site administrative center. Again, with large extent on subsistence activities and on the exception of Brooks, not one has roads, services and transfer payments from gov- campgrounds, concessions or other visitor ernment. Savings are low to non-existent, facilities. Even a high-profile visitor desti- and many people don’t have checking ac- nation like Round Island in the Walrus Is- counts, or a credit history. Access to capital lands State Game Sanctuary has only six for business start-up is sorely lacking. Al- plywood tent platforms and a single out- though various funds exist to assist with house as its complement of visitor ameni- small business development, some exclu- ties. sively for Native people, few local people meet minimum standards for cash equity Possibly the single biggest impediment to and creditworthiness. tourism industry expansion in Southwest Alaska is a general lack of knowledge of the Also lacking is business expertise and region on the part of tourism professionals managerial skill. Few area residents have and the traveling public. The perception of experience with any kind of business other Bristol Bay is that it is a “terra incognita – a than commercial fishing, and in that indus- distant, difficult-to-reach land”3. Only 336 Johnson about eight per cent of Alaska’s tourists visit and widely scattered human popu- the Southwest, which encompasses about 20 lations leave plenty of room for un- per cent of the state4. Cruise ships do not disturbed wildlife, and the large visit the region, no roads bring automotive amount of land in federal reserves visitors, and package tours generally omit it. protects habitat while assuring ac- Few Anchorage-based or outside tour pack- cess to visitors. agers and wholesalers have ever visited • Cultural tourism could be based Bristol Bay. When inquiring about oppor- largely on the still relatively intact tunities there, some potential visitors ask if Eskimo and Indian cultures of the they can fly directly from Juneau, whether region. Village tours, music and they can drive to their destinations, or they dance performances, native foods ask if they can see glaciers, musk ox, polar feasts, arts and crafts creation and bears or even penguins5. sales, demonstrations of subsistence activities, storytelling, and home Among those who know of Bristol Bay at all stays are all potential cultural tour- the association is with superlative trout and ism attractions. In addition to Na- salmon fishing, and with caribou and bear tive cultures, tourism based on hunting. A much smaller group, mainly “economic cultures” such as com- Alaska residents at that, associates the re- mercial fishing, fish processing, gion with bear viewing at Katmai, walrus at prospecting and mining and similar Round Island, and kayaking/rafting in activities could provide a northern Wood Tikchik and on various other rivers. version of the “agricultural tour- ism” that is popular elsewhere in the country. Museums, cultural and Tourism Development visitor centers, and community fes- Opportunities tivals can enhance both Native and non-Native cultural appeal. Because sportfishing is considered by some • Adventure travel can encompass to be nearing capacity, and hunting is lo- everything from whitewater rafting cally controversial (see below), this inquiry and mountaineering to windsurfing, addresses three somewhat interrelated di- hang gliding, jet boating, snow ma- rections that tourism development could chining, dogsled travel and winter take: nature/wildlife-based ecotourism, cul- camping. tural tourism, and possibly adventure travel. Each of these options has been developed at least to some extent. A few small village- • Ecotourism, based on the region’s based operations exist that combine cultural abundant birds, mammals, wilder- tourism with wildlife and nature viewing6, ness scenery, lakes and rivers, and some of the sport fishing and hunting probably represents the greatest lodges also have cultural and ecotour com- growth potential. Bird watching ponents to their program7. The bear view- and large mammal viewing may ing site at Brooks Falls is probably the best serve as the biggest draw. Key at- known ecotourism destination in the region tractions for wildlife enthusiasts: the (along with McNeil River on the “back side” 200,000-plus Mulchatna caribou of Katmai if you count the west shore of herd, the walruses at Round Island, Cook Inlet as part of Bristol Bay). The vil- the 8,000 brown bears on the east lage of Togiak has a cultural center that side, belukha (white) whales in the serves as a workshop for village crafts pro- Nushagak and Kvichak, and several ducers, and hosts visitors8. A few individu- million red salmon escaping past als have experimented with commercial commercial fishing fleets and into fishery based visitor programs, hosting tour- crystalline lakes and rivers. Sparse ists at their setnet sites. One individual Johnson 337 outside of Kotzebue (800 miles north of Bris- lic interest is sure to be expressed in the tol Bay) has made a business out of hosting form of increased tourism. groups of visitors at her setnet site through the Elderhostel program, serving as an ex- ample of the potential9. Discussion
Adventure travel is probably least devel- Elsewhere tourism theorists, academics and oped of the three. A considerable amount of planners may argue over whether tourism is rafting is done on some rivers, but mostly in good or bad for local people and communi- conjunction with sport fishing as those riv- ties, and how to develop and regulate it and ers have little whitewater. Various indi- mitigate its effects. In Bristol Bay it is still an viduals have considered going into snow open question whether an expanded tour- machine or dogsled tours but have been ism industry is even possible. In all of stymied in part by inconsistent winter Alaska west of Cook Inlet (with the possible weather that presents 40-below tempera- exception of Kodiak) tourism is viewed tures one week and warm winds the next theoretically as a panacea for regional eco- that turn the snow to slush and make the nomic woes (or as a threat to traditional life- rivers dangerous to cross. styles and values), without significant first- hand experience. Mass tourism is unknown Interest in nature/wildlife and cultural tour- in the region, and even the more exclusive ism is growing, and an affluent class of pro- low-volume, high value tourism is limited to fessionals and retirees with financial re- select locations and is largely out of the view sources and free time points to the potential of, and little understood by, most residents. for a bright future. Nationally, ecotourism growth in the 1990s grew at a rate estimated An often expressed sentiment within the at 30 per cent annually, and although no region goes something like this: “If fish Alaska data are available, it appears that the prices don’t come back up, we might have to trend is replicated in the state. Crowding turn to tourism,” as if it is a less-desirable and overuse of quality recreation areas in industry that at least has the advantage of other parts of the country, awareness of being an easy and reliable source of income. wildlife and natural systems instilled by cable television nature programming, and Several components have to come together an increasing reverence for Native cultures for tourism to work: are all contributing to increased interest in • A marketable attraction. the amenities Bristol Bay offers. • Capital for goods and for operation
costs over a period of several start- In particular, the effort on the federal and up years. international levels to create a Bering Land • Provisions for acquiring pertinent Bridge international park, and attention di- permits and complying with laws rected on the Bering Sea by international and regulations. conservation organizations10, are focusing • Willing and capable workforce. national consciousness on western Alaska. • Although the perception is that the Land Managerial expertise. • Bridge encompassed only a narrow strip of A viable marketing plan. what is now the Bering Strait, the fact is that it was a very broad expanse of the current As indicated above, some of these elements Bering Sea floor, extending south to the are missing or in short supply in Bristol Bay. heart of Bristol Bay. As more progress is 11 made on park development, and as more As outlined by Miller and Auyong , the information reaches the public on the results tourism industry is comprised of three com- of scientific work in the region, greater pub- ponents—locals, tourists, and brokers—and development of the industry in the Bristol 338 Johnson
Bay region depends on a suitable dynamic tal, workers, managerial expertise, and a involving all three components. This does workable plan for marketing those attrac- not mean that they all have to be in agree- tions to potential tourists. ment and work in concert, but rather that a balance is required whereby the goals of each can be reasonably accommodated Notes: without unduly harming the others. ______1 Mark Air, Yute Air and Reeve Aleutian Air- ways were regional carriers that provided service Tourism is controversial in Bristol Bay, and between Dillingham, other Bristol Bay locations it remains to be seen whether local people and Anchorage with jet or turboprop aircraft are going to get behind it, at least at the vil- during the 1990s. All three have gone out of lage level to allow it to develop on the business. broadest terms. In a 1996 survey of area 2 According to course catalogues of the Bristol village councils conducted on behalf of the Bay Campus (University of Alaska Fairbanks) Bristol Bay Native Corporation, 12 of 14 re- and the statewide distance delivery catalog of the sponding councils registered support for College of Rural Alaska, also UAF. tourism development. However, most op- 3 Beck, Chris. For the Bristol Bay Native Corpora- posed cultural tourism, most perceived tion, Christopher Beck & Associates. p. 4-8. tourism as causing conflicts with traditional activities, most viewed sport hunting as de- 4 For the Bristol Bay Native Corporation, Chris- nying access to subsistence foods, and most topher Beck & Associates, 1995, p. 1-11. viewed sport fishing as creating conflicts 5 These are all questions posed to the author by with subsistence fishing and the health of prospective visitors. One lady announced that the fishery resources12. A similar survey she intended to “do” Alaska in a week and conducted five years later indicated a dimin- planned to see “the beautiful glaciers, the polar ished support for tourism in general, despite bears and penguins.” Penguins, of course, do not occur in the Northern Hemisphere. increasing need for economic development due to poor financial returns to the fishing 6 For example, the Maranatha Lodge in Koli- industry. ganek, owned by Roger Skogen, who retired after 20 years as a schoolteacher there and his wife, To be sure, acceptance by locals is not essen- Vera, a Yup’ik woman who grew up in that vil- lage. tial for further tourism development. Just as most tourism businesses currently are 7 For example, Chrystal Creek Lodge, located owned and run by non-locals, there is noth- about 20 miles from Dillingham, specializes in ing to prevent further development by out- sport fishing but also takes guests to see walruses and to visit the cultural center in the village of siders. Brokers, public sector and private, Togiak. may continue to promote and exploit oppor- tunities where they exist, whether local peo- 8 Marie Paul, Togiak city manager, speaking at ple choose to participate or not, and for that the Bristol Bay village leadership conference, matter, whether they like it or not. The Anchorage, December, 2001. question is not whether locals will stop in- 9 LaVonne Hendricks, Arctic Circle Educational dustry expansion, but whether they will fa- Adventures, located at Kotzebue. cilitate and benefit directly from it. 10 The World Wildlife Fund and The Nature Con- servancy are two prominent national organiza- The bigger question is whether those bro- tions currently with Bering Sea and Beringia ini- kers, particularly entrepreneurs directed at tiatives. providing tourism services, can put together 11 Some specific examples of brokers in this story the necessary components in order to de- are the people referenced in notes 6 – 8, which velop new or expanded tourism businesses. can be further separated into private, part-time Marketable attractions exist and compliance brokers and brokers also in government, illustrat- with laws and regulation is not a difficult ing the range and interconnectedness of dynam- hurdle to cross, so those brokers need capi- ics. Locals include those in other trades such as Johnson 339 commercial fishermen, and all residents uninter- ested, against or unaware of tourism, including elements of the native population mentioned.
12 Beck, Chris, personal communication, Decem- ber, 2001.
References
Beck, Chris. (1994). Bristol Bay Tourism De- velopment: Regional Strategies and In- vestment Opportunities. Beck, Chris. (1996). Draft Results: BBNA’s Land Use Conflicts Survey As Related to Tourism. Christopher Beck & Associates for Bristol Bay Native Corporation. Miller, Marc L. and Auyong, Jan. (1998). Remarks on tourism terminologies: Anti-tourism, mass tourism and alterna- tive tourism. In: Proceedings of the 1996 World Congress on Coastal and Marine Tourism, M.L. Miller and J. Auyong, (eds.). Washington Sea Grant Program and School of Marine Affairs, University of Washington, pp. 4-5. Miller, Marc L. and Kaae, Berit C. (1993) Coastal and Marine Ecotourism: A formula for sustainable development? Trends in Coastal Resource Management, (30)2: 38.
PARTICIPATORY RAPID RURAL ASSESSMENT IN ZANZIBAR
Issa M. Mlingoti Commission for Tourism, Zanzibar (Tanzania)
Barbara A. Koth Commission for Tourism, Zanzibar (Tanzania)
Abstract: The small island of Zanzibar [popula- However, there is also willingness to compromise tion 800,000] has embarked on a strategy of on the use of beaches or islets if access and use tourism development in the last 8 years. With a rights in perpetuity were guaranteed. World Heritage Site and world-class marine sports activities, Zanzibar is a competitive desti- As a result, a rational first step in understand- nation. Visitor arrivals topped 60,000 in 1995 ing the complexities of tourism investment is and have been growing at 12 percent annually, plans to develop a community tourism awareness though the country remains mostly rural. The campaign in urban and rural areas of both is- first formal efforts to plan for and attract a tour- lands, of which PPRIA is a useful tool in putting ism industry were in the mid-1980's, as the more emphasis on local understanding. clove market collapsed - with positive response from the international market and the investor Keywords: tourism development, Participatory community. This paper investigates the history Rapid Rural Assessment, Zanzibar of tourism here and asks what the keys to sustain that success are.
Zanzibar has a history of investigating tourism Introduction as a tool for economic development since 1987, though resource-use conflicts have caused the As even the name Zanzibar is evocative of President to declare a moratorium on further the fragrance of spices and an “Arabian leasing of islets for tourism until scientific study nights” fantasy, so too this small Indian of resource capacities and “best use” could be Ocean Island [population 800,000] has em- undertaken. barked on a strategy of tourism develop- ment in the last 8 years. With the classic ar- A study of Participatory Rapid Rural Assess- chitecture of its old Arab Stone Town desig- ment (PPRA) was conducted, with twenty pro- nated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO, fessionals (three women) within government complemented by world-class marine sports selected as PRRA trainees. The project objective activities, Zanzibar is a competitive destina- was to use PRRA tools to assess the resource tion upon entry into the marketplace. While status and social issues on small islets together visitor arrivals topped 60,000 in 1995 and with the knowledge and input of local people who have been exhibiting a 12 percent annual know it best. growth, it remains mostly rural with many Among the findings being compiled are the ob- small farms and subsistence fishing. With servation that the resource base for most is- the collapse of the clove market in the lands - both inhabited and uninhabited - was mid-1980's, the first formal efforts to plan used at or over capacity, both for agriculture and for and attract a tourism industry were put extraction of marine products. While changing in place - with positive response from the fishing grounds throughout the year appears international market and the investor com- haphazard, it is in fact a highly institutionalized munity. What are the keys to sustain that system with use patterns firmly entrenched. success? 342 Mlingoti and Koth
History of Tourism Development later, the ban on local use of the island is still in place, there are few entry conflicts, and Zanzibar has been a trade center for the the resort does a good business in luxurious West Indian Ocean for centuries, where getaways for the rich and famous, with an numerous cultures came together in com- emphasize on world-class diving. But, as the merce. However, from the time of inde- paper will show, the legacy of Mnemba Is- pendence in 1964, the modern phenomenon land as Zanzibar's first entry into interna- of travel was considered a "friendship" force tional tourism lives on. for continuance of the African socialist agenda, as evidenced by the positioning of The Zanzibar Investment Promotion the tourism bodies in social Ministries re- Agency (ZIPA), a one-stop shop for inves- lated to youth and culture, rather than the tors, was established in the liberalization economic sector. With liberalization in 1987 act. To date, over 70 land leases have been and an Investment Act, tourism was first granted to foreigners for hotel construction, openly encouraged as a tool for economic and tourism accounts for the majority of the development. ZIPA portfolio. A new investor to the main island of Unguja would not find any beach- One of the initial land allocations made for front land still in the traditional communal hotel development was on Mnemba Island, “ownership" of the village, but would have a small islet on the remote northeast coast, to deal with a group of speculators - elites leased by an Italian firm. While not inhab- from Zanzibar Town who hold land for ited, Mnemba had a long tradition of being themselves or mainlanders - or broker a used for "logo," that is as a seasonal fishing buy-out of the original hotels. On many camp where migratory fishermen live in sites that have been locked up, no construc- temporary huts, dry their catches, and base tion has begun in defiance of the 3-year re- their daily operations. The location of quirement. While there are over 750 rooms Mnemba outside a break in the fringing reef, in the rural areas now, over 60 percent of meant there were no substitutes fishermen the current units are of poor standard built could use that did not require crossing the by local entrepreneurs and catering to the reef at limited times and returning to the budget backpacker market. main island. Its' important role also meant that the nearshore reef on Mnemba was se- Some of the experience regarding land riously overfished, so that the de facto pro- rights and tenure Zanzibar residents have tection offered by the resort enhanced the gained from hotel developments to date in- biodiversity of one of East Africa's most clude: important reefs (Bryceson, 1981). • Loss of plots for seaweed farming, an economic activity introduced 8 With government approval, the manage- years again which is now the largest ment of Mnemba Island established a 300 income source for residents (espe- meter no-entry zone around the islet and cially women) on the East Coast, rigorously enforced the no-trespass rule. where tourism is concentrated Ten simple, but upscale "bacndas" (huts) (Uroa). were constructed which rent for over • Relocation of the village and the USD$300 per night. The compensation to dhow harbour for “suburban” hotel fishermen was limited to 2 new wooden construction (Mazizini). boats and a place to dry their fish. For the • Loss of access and stopover privi- first several years, fishermen repeatedly de- leges in transit to the mainland to an fied the ban, blocked supply and client boats island operating as a private Coral going to the islet, and an atmosphere of con- Park and marine conservation edu- flict and harassment was created as broad- cation centre (Chumbe Island). cast at one point by the BBC. Seven years Mlingoti and Koth 343
• Construction of low-quality ac- PRRA was developed in the 1980's as a commodations halted for lack of means of involving local people in creating funds on an island just offshore information, rather than extracting it from from town, in an area very impor- them. PRRA involves role reversal, where tant for recreation by visitors. researchers learn from local residents. It is • Land withdrawn from production characterized by (Chambers, 1991): for a major hotel development ap- • Optimizing tradeoffs between data proved over 6 years ago, with no quantity, relevance, timeliness, truth, visible evidence of construction at and actual beneficial use. In the present. process, attempts are made to achieve “appropriate imprecision” Coupled with very predictable impacts of and “optimal ignorance”, meaning tourism in general, such as localized infla- knowing what is not worth know- tion [villagers can no longer afford to buy ing, and knowing when enough is fish and eggs, the only protein sources in known. PRRA tries to offset com- their diet, since these items are being sold to plete reliance on statistics and for- the hotels), and continued cultural conflict mal methods. over tourist dress and behavior (e.g., use of • Offsetting biases such as wealth, alcohol, photography) in a conservative gender, seasonality, access etc. by Muslim society, there has been controversy trying to see and learn what is nor- over the direction of tourism development. mally not mentioned or out of sight The 53 offshore islets in particular are seen (or down the worst road!). by Zanzibaris as being extremely vulnerable • Triangulation of methods and team to loss and degradation. There is a conflict composition, such that multiple con- by definition between tourism resorts and firmation of results are possible. fishermen: both are seeking sand beaches • Learning directly from and with ru- with deep-water access. For this reason, the ral people with direct face-to-face President declared a moratorium on further contact. leasing of islets for tourism until scientific • Learning rapidly and progressively, study of resource capacities and “best use” in a flexible, adaptive and explora- could be undertaken. tory mode. The idea is to engage in an iterative process, making deci- sions about what to do next on the Participatory Rapid Rural basis of what has been discovered Assessment so far.
Overview The PRRA toolkit is extensive (Kane, 1994). While the Commission for Tourism (CFT) While key informants and group meetings and the Commission for Lands and Envi- are used, semi-structured interviews within ronment (COLE) are both partners in the some preset guidelines or perhaps a check- investment decision making as convened list format are the cornerstones of the tech- and led by ZIPA, it was felt that the process nique. Respondents may be asked to de- bypassed local residents and was simply a velop a seasonal calendar of their activities rubber-stamp endorsement without thor- or engage in pair-wise ranking (e.g., do you ough analysis. Therefore, expatriate advi- like option one better than option two?; do sors at CFT and COLE proposed that the you spend more time in activity one or ac- Presidential call for detailed study of prob- tivity two?) to quantify responses to some able island sites with high tourism potential extent. Direct observation of both biological be achieved through application of partici- and community attributes from mapping a patory rapid rural assessment techniques transect - walking or boating a line - can sys- (PRRA). tematize “data” collection. Because it is im- 344 Mlingoti and Koth portant to know how different segments of in operation, with the exception of islands society are affected differentially by devel- off Zanzibar Town. Four to seven day visits opment, wealth rankings where informants were scheduled on each islet, with logistical use their own criteria to stratify inhabitants arrangements for camping or staying in lo- and neighbors’ economic status are com- cal homes made to minimize dependence on monly used. These results and interpreta- government leaders (“sheha”) in the villages, tions are shared with contributors as part of and thus the appearance of a conflict of in- the evolution of an information package. terest. With the Zanzibaris’ strict hierarchi- cal approach to leadership, it was difficult to Project Implementation utilize “mzee” - older, often religious, lead- Twenty professionals (three women) within ers - as informants while keeping the proc- government representing the Commission ess open to women, the poor, and those not for Tourism, the Commission for Lands and affiliated with the ruling party.i After each Environment, the Fisheries Department, the visit, the team met to evaluate progress and Forestry Department, and the Investment plan for improvements on the next field Promotion Agency were selected by their study, a process replicated in writing the own institutions as PRRA trainees and team final reports for each islet. members. The project objective was to use PRRA tools to assess the resource status and One significant advantage of PRRA is social issues on small islets together with the low-cost. The PRRA training and field visits knowledge and input of local people who extending over a 6-month period were com- know it best, as input to recommendations pleted for approximately USD$8,000 (ex- about “best use” of specified islets: open for cluding advisor time). The most significant leasing for tourism development, inclusion expenditures were boat rental for travel to in a protected areas system yet to be estab- the islets and per diem for team members. lished, or maintenance of the status quo be- The expenses were shared by the World cause traditional resource uses were so well Bank and the Finnish bilateral donor established and/or critical. FINNIDA, with government salary contri- butions. Two Zanzibaris from the Department of Forestry who had been trained in PRRA methodology in Europe were recruited to Findings train the group, after consultation with the Ministry of Agriculture about its’ use of Individual reports are being prepared for PRRA to the assess cash crop opportunities each islet, but this paper summarizes some and the introduction of a farming systems commonalities. First, it was observed that approach (Thomas, 1993). It is important to the resource base for most islands - both note Zanzibaris were trained in a one-week inhabited and uninhabited - was used at or session, with field visits, by Zanzibaris with over capacity, both for agriculture and ex- experience in application of the methods, traction of marine products. The level of rather than by non-national advisors. effort for fishing activities reported and ob- served was very intensive, ranging from Three 6-person teams, two with an expatri- octopus harvest and netting (both done by ate advisor, were then set up to conduct foot), to spearfishing, to line fishing by boat. field studies, with each team studying 4 is- Residents in Pemba, in particular, reported lets. The study sites, often remote with diffi- that the islands served as “banks” for the cult access, were selected based on per- poorest of the poor, who could move to ceived tourism pressure as evidenced by the these last few islands where land was not level of investor interest to date. Most were already being farmed. The use patterns for located in the isolated northern island of fishing are firmly entrenched, and while the Pemba where only one small diving camp is change of fishing grounds throughout the Mlingoti and Koth 345 year appears haphazard, it is in fact a highly cases are the only source of information institutionalized system. Non-local fisher- about islet use patterns and inhabitation, it men at “dago” (camp) will in fact protect has been proposed that PRRA be required as their fishing grounds from other external part of the ZIPA investment analysis, with users. These islet communities appear to the team available for hire by the potential have few options if they are excluded from investor. This would be in addition or com- the areas they now occupy or their extrac- plementary to the environmental impact tive activities are severely limited. assessment requirement that was recently passed as part of the new environmental When asked what benefits the community legislation. To date, “business as usual” is and individuals expected from tourism, im- the norm and the investment process pro- proved social services rather than economic ceeds unchanged; at least one island has return were cited. Villagers wanted a clean been leased in the interim to a foreign inves- and convenient water supply, schools, ac- tor. In continuing the exercise, it seems pru- cess to health care, better (or a) roads, rather dent to involve more staff from the invest- than direct mention of jobs, money or start- ment agency and to try to get high level de- ing a tourism-related business. The only ex- cision-makers out in the field in Zanzibar ceptions were a stated desire to sell fish to and other destinations to understand the the hotels --which due to transport and stor- complexities of tourism investment. A ra- age problems and erratic swings in produc- tional first step that has resulted are plans to tion is not an automatic benefit --- and to develop a community tourism awareness learn English so as to have future options campaign in urban and rural areas of both within the tourism economy. islands. PRRA seems to represent a change in emphasis to put people first, and to give The fishing community expressed a willing- the poorest people, a forum for opinions ness to compromise on the use of beaches or about how to maintain their lifestyles in the islets (i.e., giving it up), if access and use face of increasing resource and economic rights in perpetuity were guaranteed to constraints. other islets by the government and investor. Fishermen were able to come to agreements on priorities, such as which islets were so Note: critical that no negotiation on access was possible, and on which there was compro- i Tanzania's first multi-party election was held mise. just after the completion of the PRRA field stud- ies. Finally, island inhabitants and fishermen generally wanted or would allow day visits by tourists, but wanted permanent construc- tion of lodging facilities to be built on the main island only.
Results and Conclusion
When individual reports are completed this summer, they will be forwarded for presen- tation to government authorities. The project is behind schedule because of the November
1995 election when attention was diverted to other issues. Because the PRRA studies fill such a critical information gap and in many 346 Mlingoti and Koth
References
Bryceson, I. (1981). A review of some prob- lems of tropical marine conservation with particular reference to the Tanza- nian coast. Biological Conservation, 20: 163-171. Chambers, R. (1991). Shortcut and participa- tory methods for gaining social informa- tion for projects. In: Putting People First: Sociological Variables in Rural Develop- ment. M.M. Cernea, (ed.). The World Bank, Washington, D.C. pp. 515-537. Kane, E. (1994). Rapid and Participatory Learn- ing Approaches. EDI Thomas, M. (1993). Zanzibar cash crop farm- ing systems project PRRA programme. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Natural Resources/Overseas Develop- ment Authority. 28 pp.
1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism
APPENDICES
TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ON VANCOUVER’S WATERFRONTS: SUMMARY OF THE WATERFRONT TOUR
Robert F. Goodwin School of Marine Affairs University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Vancouver, a major coastal Keywords: Vancouver, coastal zone metropolis, has an extensive marine shoreline. planning, waterfront revitalization, water One-day field trips during the symposium dependency provided an opportunity for participants from around the world to observe first-hand, some of the shoreline planning and marine Introduction conservation issues in two areas, False Creek and Granville Island. Diverse issues in coastal development
abound in the very city in which the four-
Figure 1. Map of Vancouver 350 Appendix I: Summary of the Waterfront Tour
day symposium was held, Vancouver, A look at two areas with differing histories British Columbia. One-day field trips as and challenges explore sustainable part of the symposium provided an development issues that have emerged in opportunity for participants from around Vancouver and the approaches taken the world to observe first-hand, some of towards them: False Creek and Granville the shoreline planning and marine Island. conservation issues being addressed in the region. False Creek False Creek embodies a tension commonly Vancouver, a major coastal metropolis, has found in areas undergoing urban an extensive marine shoreline. The City’s waterfront redevelopment today: downtown occupies a peninsula bounded competition for waterfront space between on the north by Burrard Inlet, a long east- traditional marine industries and new west fjord; on the west by English Bay, recreational, residential, and mixed-use and on the south by False Creek, a shallow developments that threaten to displace inlet. Coal Harbor, a protected natural them. On False Creek, shorelines once anchorage off Burrard Inlet, is the historic heavily dominated by traditional marine port area, now the locus of downtown industry are undergoing redevelopment waterfront redevelopment. Hotels, a with recreational marinas, restaurants and cruise ship terminal, smallcraft moorage pubs and linear public access. Tugboat and a seawall walkway now line Coal operations, as well as boat repair and sand Harbor. Stanley Park occupies the entire and gravel companies are among the west end of the peninsula (See map). industries most at risk from these land-use trends on False Creek
Local Challenges Tour participants had the opportunity to discuss this and other issues with An originally planned bicycle tour of the stakeholders present on the boat cruise, waterfront and a marine including a tugboat operator and the two conservation/whale watching tour were city council members, one of whom combined into a single boat tour, championed Vancouver’s Blueways incorporating the two themes of sustainable Initiative, a blueprint for the future of the waterfront development and nature-based City’s waterways that enunciates tourism and ecosystem management. The tour principles to protect navigation and water- began near the conference hotel at Coal dependent industry. Harbor, and made its way around Stanley Park, English Bay and False Creek to With a relatively fixed amount of Granville Island where participants developable waterfront on urban enjoyed a catered luncheon. In the coastlines today, the allocation of space afternoon participants reboarded the boat among industrial and recreational for whale watching in Haro Strait. The waterfront-dependant uses is an tour brought together conference important issue and one that will remain participants and stakeholders of different at the forefront of urban coastal tourism stripes, including approximately 30 and development. conference participants, two city council members, city and regional land-use Granville Island planners, and commercial maritime Granville Island illustrates another interests. Stakeholders had a wide range situation in coastal development. A small of views and interests concerning the island off of Vancouver’s southwest coast - forces and effects of tourism and changing ---, it is widely perceived to be a successful development and spoke of the past, and well-planned example of coastal present and future of Vancouver’s coastal development. It’s institutional and zone. physical setup is unusual in North America in that the entire island is owned Appendix I: Summary of the Waterfront Tour 351 by the federal government and entity ensures that day-to-day decisions management is undertaken through a conform to long-range planning and public development corporation created management goals. specifically for that purpose. Granville Island was historically made up entirely of factories for marine industry: boat Conclusion building, shipyards, wireworks, barrel and chain manufacture, etc. A downturn Current and future plans and projects in in those industries led to the closing of the coastal zone will need to balance a most of the factories and the onset of myriad of uses, conflicts and concerns. dilapidation. Through dialogue, interaction observation and experiences in Vancouver during this Key to the successful redevelopment of field trip all participants gained a the island has been the active involvement heightened awareness of how one N. of stakeholders in the planning and American metropolis is meeting these decision making process. The federal challenges. owners engaged in public meetings and other community-based planning activities with the remaining industry References representatives, recreational boaters, residents, tourist interests and others to McCullough, Michael. (1996). Granville create a multi-use redevelopment plan Island, An Urban Oasis. Canada that addressed the needs of all. Mortgage and Housing Corp., Canada. Through a guided walking tour, Gourley, Catherine. (1998). Island in the participants were able to observe the Creek: The Granville Island Story. island firsthand on their stop there, and Harbour Publishing, Canada. learn about the redevelopment process from the principal of the architectural firm that developed the plan and from two representatives of the Granville Island Office, the authority that manages development and leases property.
Granville Island mixes recreational boating, marine industry, educational institutions, a hotel, houseboats, a brewery, retail stores, art studios and galleries, restaurants and places “for kids only” – all in a pedestrian-friendly environment in which cars and trucks are able to move slowly on narrow, brick- paved alleys, sharing the road with tourists on foot or bicycle. Old industrial buildings have been adapted for new uses and infill structures echo their industrial architectural heritage.
The success story of Granville Island was clearly influenced by its unique advantages. Federal ownership of the island played a major role in the “ease” of development, and a single management
APPENDIX II: ABSTRACTS OF PRESENTATIONS SANS PAPERS
COMMUNITY-BASED SOLID WASTE ing the community from the assessment phase MANAGEMENT IN COASTAL through planning stage promoted essential “buy- in” from key stakeholders that is currently being TOURISM DEVELOPMENT reflected in successful implementation.
William Trousdale The research supports the conclusion that EcoPlan International through the transfer management technology (Canada) and applied action research at the local level, successful solutions for achieving effective solid As we enter the new millenium, coastal and ma- waste management at the community level are rine tourism faces the growing challenge of possible. The Borocay case study is intended to achieving sustainability. One of the more pro- alert the participants of the 1999 World Con- nounced components of any sustainable tourism gress on Coastal and Marine Tourism to oppor- effort is implementing solid waste management. tunities and constraints of managing tourism’s Nowhere is this challenge greater than in the solid waste in a coastal developing world setting developing world where the disparity between by exploring the approach, the results and the advanced engineering systems, community par- lessons learned on Borocay. ticipation and local capacity collide in a startling array of ill-conceived technological fixes, decision Keywords: community action planning and paralysis and makeshift solutions. All too often coordination, solid waste management, recy- action is crisis driven, as tourism communities cling, social and environmental impacts, tech- lurch into the future without a common under- nology transfer standing of the problems, or workable plans to address them.
This paper focuses on the sensible and the sus- tainable. It offers an example of hope in the area of solid waste management. It examines a com- munity-based approach that utilizes interactive waste assessment and action planning tech- niques. The approach incorporates learning and cooperation in order to tap into the local knowl- edge base and empower the community, thereby promoting durable solutions.
The approach is contextualized through a case study of Borocay Island, Philippines, where in- creasing pressure on the solid waste management system parallels tremendous growth in tourism visitation and development. Initiated by a part- nership between the Canadian Urban Institute and the Philippines Department of Tourism on Borocay (partially funded by CIDA), a planning project based on the systematic use of multiple objective decision analysis (MODA) was under- taken. It had the support of international, na- tional and local organizations. Not only did the project focus on management of the collection, transfer and disposal of waste, but also the sources of waste – tourists and residents. Involv-
APPENDIX III: CONFERENCE PROGRAM
Editors’ Note: The original conference schedule follows; minor changes to the program were made in the course of the meeting. The papers in the Proceedings may be slightly modified from the original presentations, and are organized to correspond to presentations in the program.
Asterisks(*) in the program indicate that papers are unavailable for selected presentations, and therefore do not appear in the Proceedings.
1999 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON COASTAL AND MARINE TOURISM The Westin Bayshore Vancouver, British Columbia CANADA April 26-29,1999
(P) signifies session discussants
Monday, 26 April: Rethinking Tourism: Choices, Responsibilities, and Practices
7:30 AM-3:30 PM Registration and Coffee (Stanley Foyer)
8:30 AM *Welcome Jan Auyong, CMT99 and Oregon Sea Grant, USA
9:00-10:30 AM *Keynote Plenary, Part A: the changing fabric of tourism planning and development The British Columbia experience Moderator-Coralie Mackie, Oceans Blue Foundation
*Michael Harcourt, former premier of British Columbia *Rick Antonson, Tourism Vancouver
10:30-11:00 AM Break 11:00-12:00 AM *Keynote Plenary, Part B: the changing fabric of tourism planning and development The roles of the public arid private sectors Moderator-Gordon Goodman, BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism, and Culture Don Alcock, Cooperative Reef Research Centre for the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area, Australia -The Cooperative Research Centres model: collaborative science for sustainable tourism *Bill Henwood, Parks Canada-National Marine Conservation Area (NMCA) feasibility study in the southern Strait of Georgia 12:00-1:00 PM Lunch-will be held in the Discovery Room
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356 Appendix III: Conference Program
Monday, 26 April continued 1:30-3:30 PM *New Tourism Planning Perspectives Moderator-Alison Gill, Simon Fraser University Tim Tyrrell, University of Rhode Island, USA-Economic issues in environmentally sustainable coastal tourism: practical project analysis *Rick Rollins, Malaspina University College & Stephen Connolly, Ministry of Small Business, Tourism, and Culture, Canada-Tourism planning in Clayoquot Sound Steven Parker, University of Nevada, USA-Management of tourism on Australia's Great Barrier Reef: public and private dimensions of regulation *Florence White, Aqua-fact International Services Ltd., Ireland (P)-New perspectives on the role of tourism in marginal coastal communities in the west of Ireland Veronica Dujon, Portland State University USA (P)-The challenge of ecotourism in the Caribbean: structural constraints and local potential *Katrina Van Dusen, USA (P)-Destiny 2000: A Strategy For Sustainable Tourism In Downeast Maine *Abraham Hallenstvedt, University of Tromso, Norway (P)-Marine recreation and integrated coastal management
3:30-4:00 PM Break
4:00-5:30 PM Concurrent Session A: Tourism Planning Approaches Moderator-Alison Gill, Simon Fraser University William C. Norman & Tiffany J. McClinton, Clemson University, USA-A profile of visitors to National Estuarine Research Reserves: implications for interpretive programs James Sweeting, Aaron Bruner, and Amy Rosenfeld, Conservation International-The green host effect: sustainable approaches to large-scale tourism and resort development in natural areas Lisa Testoni, The University of Queensland, Australia-Planning for sustainable coastal tourism in Australia *William Trousdale, EcoPlan International, Canada-Community based solid waste management in coastal tourism development in the Philippines Gunathilake Tantrigama , University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka-Coastal re sources management and sustainability of tourism in Hakkuduwa, Sri Lanka and Goa, India: a comparative study
4:00-5:30 PM Concurrent Session B: Discussion on the public-private dimensions of ecotourism regulation in British Columbia Special speakers: Don Alcock, James Cook University, Australia Steve Parker, University of Nevada, USA Glen Milbury, Coastal Connections, Canada Peter LaBor, North American Water Trails, Inc.
continued
Appendix III: Conference Program 357
Tuesday, 27 April: Field Trip Day
Tour 1, 8:00 AM: Meet in Westin Bayshore lobby
Tourism and Sustainable Development on Vancouver's Waterfronts Enjoy this half-day bicycling or van tour of Vancouver's beautiful and dynamic marine waterfronts, including Coal Harbor, Stanley Park, English Bay, False Creek, and Granville Island guided by Vancouver City Councilors Nancy Chiavario and Sam Sullivan, and municipal and regional planning experts (lunch at Granville; bicycle rental included) We suggest you wear comfortable, soft clothing and bring light rain gear.
Tour 2, 8:00 AM: Meet in Westin Bayshore lobby
Nature-based Tourism and Marine Ecosystems Management This trip features whale watching for resident Orca pods as well as marine ecosystem management lectures and discussions. We will be guided by BC Tourism and BC Land Use Coordination Office planning staff, in addition to Oak Bay Marine Group scientists. (Boat tour of Vancouver Harbor and, weather permitting, whale watching in Haro Strait and visit to Victoria Harbor on Vancouver Island; lunch at scenic coastal spot included.) Bring light rain gear and warm, layered clothing.
Wednesday, 28 April: Clients of Natural Resource Tourism
8:00 AM-3:30 PM Registration and Coffee
8:30-10:30 AM Industry Workshop-Who is our client? Moderator-Robert Goodwin, Washington Sea Grant *Raymond Chan, Tourism British Columbia-Trends in nature based tourism and redefining the client *Mark Consiglio, Reef Point Adventure Station, Canada-A case study: The transition between natural resource dependency and tourism in Ucluelet *Connie Robertson, Canadian Pacific Hotels & Resorts-Redefining business practices: implementing "The Green Plan" *MacMillan Bloedel, Canada-Redefining business practices: coexisting with tourism providers *Craig Murray, Nimmo Bay Resort, Canada-Meeting your client's special needs 10:30-11:00 AM Break 11:00-12:00 AM Workshop continues Peter Williams, Simon Fraser University, Canada; and Terry Hood, Pacific Rim Institute of Tourism, Canada-A Case Study of the Community Fisheries Network Tourism Strategy 12:00-1:00 PM Lunch (on your own)
continued
358 Appendix III: Conference Program
Wednesday, 28 April continued 1:00-2:45 PM *Market strategies for the nature based tourism business Moderator Jan Auyong, Oregon Sea Grant
Russell Currie & Laani Uunila, Lakehead University, Canada-Market feasibility of a water trail Gail A. Vander Stoep et al., Michigan State University, USA-Shipwreck management: developing strategies for assessment and monitoring of newly discovered shipwrecks in a limited resource environment Elizabeth Halpenny, The Ecotourism Society-Marine ecotourism: an update on private sector best practice guidelines implementation *Kenji Hotta, Nihon University, Japan-A study on the physiological effects of ultrasonic waves of coastal area on human brain waves Bruce DeYoung & Erin Williams, Oregon State University, USA (P)-Low power radio: an antidote for coastal visitors looking but not seeing! Raymond S. Tabata, University of Hawaii Sea Grant, USA (P)-Thematic itineraries: an approach to tourism product development Peter LaBor, North American Water Trails, Inc. (P)-Marketing cultural heritage on water trails
2:45-3:15 PM Break
3:15-4:45 PM Concurrent Session C: Enhancing marine protected areas Moderator-Jan Auyong, Oregon Sea Grant
Brijesh Thapa & Vinod Sasidharan, Pennsylvania State University, USA-Debt-for-nature swaps and protected area tourism in coastal and marine environments: a symbiotic relationship for developing countries, debt for nature swap David McVetty, Parks Canada & Michele Deakin, Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/ Haida Heritage Site, Canada-Optimizing the outcomes of tourism in co-managed protected heritage areas: the cases of Aulavik National Park and Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve/ Haida Heritage Site Aimee M. Lowe, The Nature Conservancy, USA (P)-Ecological and economic sustainability of tropical reef systems: establishing sustainable tourism in the Exuma Cays, Bahamas Reinaldo Estrada and Antonio Perera, National Centre of Protected Areas, Cuba-Planning and management of marine protected areas in Cuba
3:15-4:45 PM Concurrent Session D: Transformations in commercial recreation Moderator-Tom Bird, Executive Director, Sport Fishing Institute of British Columbia
*Craig Murray, Nimmo Bay Resort, Canada-Setting the standard for environmentally responsible adventure tourism Colin Wood & Margo Stoilen, University of Victoria, Canada-Problems ahoy: marina operators' perspectives on the coastal zone John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada-Charting a new course? sport fishing lodges and tourism in coastal British Columbia *Kristin Berg Nordstrand, Norway-Fish as bait: recreational fishing- vision and reality 5:30 PM Waterfront Centre Hotel-Reception (no host) 6:30 PM Waterfront Centre Hotel-Banquet - Special Speaker: Dr. Joe MacInnis continued
Appendix III: Conference Program 359
Thursday, 29 April: Integrating Tourism into Environments and Communities
8:00-12:00 AM Registration and Coffee
8:00-9:30 AM Concurrent Session E: Exploring the relationships between Brokers, Locals, and Tourists Moderator-Marc Miller, University of Washington So-Min Cheong and Marc Miller, University of Washington, USA-Power, Foucault, and Coastal Tourism in Seattle, Washington Robert Preston-Whyte, University of Natal, South Africa-Contested and regulated seaside space at Durban Joel Martineau, University of British Columbia, Canada-Otter skins, clearcuts, ecotourists: re-resourcing Haida Gwaii John Davis and Marc Miller, University of Washington, USA-Travel writers as power brokers: testimonies from the front lines of marine tourism
8:00-9:30 AM Open Discussion, Concurrent Session F: Sea Grant Network Strategies for Coastal and Marine Tourism and Recreation Moderator, Jack Thigpen, North Carolina Sea Grant, USA
Delaware-Jim Falk Hawaii-Ray Tabata Minnesota-Glenn Kreag North Carolina Jack Thigpen Oregon Jan Auyong, Shari Currey Puerto Rico-Alida Ortiz Washington-Bob Goodwin
9:30-10:00 AM Break
10:00-12:00 AM Part A: Integration Strategies for Tourism Moderator-Sandra White, Aboriginal Tourism Team Canada
*R.J. Payne et al, Lakehead University, Canada-Reassessing marine tourism in the Carib bean: local views on issues and opportunities *Lucille Bell and John Shultis, University of Northern British Columbia, Canada-Develop- ing a community consultation process to assess support for coastal tourism in a First Nations community Lourdes de Maria Flores O. de Skydancer, Baja California Natural: Consultores Ambientales, Mexico-Gray whale watching in Baja California Sur, Mexico: alternative tourism for resource conservation in Bahia Magdalena David P Pinel, Canada-A community based model for tourism planning *Sandra White, Aboriginal Tourism Team Canada (P)-First Host Program *Grant A. Roden, USA (P)-Fais Island Tourism Development Strategy 12:00-1:30 PM Lunch-Searching for Sustainability continued
360 Appendix III: Conference Program
Thursday, 29 April continued
1:30-3:15 PM Part B: Strategies for tourism integration Moderator-Gordon Goodman, BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism, and Culture
Jeff Allen, Kang Shou Lu, and Tom Potts, Clemson University, USA-Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) for tourism planning Bruce Whyte, BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism and Culture, and David Nicholson, Clover Point Cartographics Ltd., Canada-Explorations into modeling tourism development opportunities at the community scale *Sarah L. Richardson, Texas A&M University, USA-Balancing community and regional interests in tourism development: lessons from the Texas coast
Appendix III: Conference Program 361 1999 INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON COASTAL AND MARINE TOURISM The Westin Bayshore • Vancouver, British Columbia • CANADA • April 26-29, 1999
Sponsoring Partners The Sea Grant Network of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Tourism Vancouver Oceans Blue Foundation Simon Fraser University British Columbia Ministry of Small Business, Tourism & Culture
Sponsors BC Ferry Corporation Granville Island-CMHC Fisheries & Oceans Canada Naiad Explorer Tourism Vancouver
Contributors CRC Reef Research Centre Nimmo Bay Lodge Pacific Rim Institute for Tourism Parks Canada Reef Point Adventure Station and Roots Westin Bayshore Yacht Charters Delaware, Minnesota, North Carolina, Oregon, and Washington Sea Grant Programs
CMT99 Planning Committee Jan Auyong, Oregon Sea Grant, Chair Alison Gill, Simon Fraser University Gordon Goodman, BC Ministry of Small Business, Tourism, and Culture Robert Goodwin, Washington Sea Grant
Members-at-Large Joe Cone, Oregon Sea Grant Andrea Copping, Washington Sea Grant Shari Currey, Oregon Sea Grant Karl Fellinius, Simon Fraser University Nina Hadley, University of Washington Greg Ringer, University of Oregon George Stankey, People and natural Resources Program, Pacific Northwest Research Station, U.S.D.A. Forest Service
APPENDIX IV: LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
Don Alcock John Appleton CRC Reef Research Centre District of Pitt Meadows James Cook University 12007 Harris Road Townsville, QD 4811 Pitt Meadows BC V3Y-2B5 Australia Canada Phone: 617-4781-5247 Phone: (604) 465-1267 FAX: 617-4781-4099 FAX: (604) 465-1206 Email: [email protected] Jan Auyong Michelle Alcock Oregon Sea Grant CRC Reef Research Centre 500 Kerr Administration James Cook University Corvallis, OR 97331 Townsville, QD 4811 USA Australia Phone: (541) 867-0233 Phone: 617-4781-5247 FAX: (541) 867-0369 FAX: 617-4781-4099 Email: [email protected]
Anita Alfonso Sam Baird Volunteer Government of Canada Canada 200 Kent Street Ottawa ON K1A-OE6 Jeffrey Allen Canada Clemson University Phone: (613) 990-5095 Attn: Jean Martin- STI Dept Box 5203 Perimeter Road Lucille Bell Clemson, SC 29634 University of Northern USA British Columbia Phone: (864) 656-0228 Canada FAX: (864) 656-4780 Sabrina Bini Douglas Andrie Conservation International Fisheries & Oceans Canada 2501 M Street, NW, Suite 200 4166 Departure Bay Road Washington, DC 20037 Nanaimo BC V9T-4B7 USA Canada Phone: (202) 973-2207 Phone: (250) 756-7095 FAX: (202) 331-9328 FAX: (250) 756-7349 Tom Bird Rick Antonson Fisheries & Oceans Canada Tourism Vancouver 400-555 W. Hastings Street 210-200 Burrard Street Vancouver BC V6B-5G3 Vancouver BC V6C-3L6 Canada Canada Phone: (604) 689-3438 Phone: (604) 682-2222 FAX: (604) 389-3471 FAX: (604) 631-2848 364 Appendix IV: List of Participants
Jason Boire Raymond Chan Marine Management Tourism British Columbia 92 Jasper Road Canada Beaconsfield PQ H9W-5R9 Canada So-Min Cheong Phone: (514) 694-4004 University of Washington Geography Department Coralie Breen 4514 Thackeray PI NE Oceans Blue Foundation Seattle, WA 98105 #405-134 Abbott Street USA Vancouver BC V6B-2K4 Phone: (206) 545-1840 Canada Email: [email protected] Phone: (604) 684-2583 FAX: (604) 684-6942 Mark Consiglio Email: [email protected] Reef Point Adventure Station Canada Aaron Bruner Conservation International Parzival Copes 2501 M Street, NW, Suite 200 Simon Fraser University Washington, DC 20037 2341 Lawson Avenue USA West Vancouver BC V7V-2E5 Phone: (202) 973-2207 Canada FAX: (202) 331-9328 Phone: (604) 926-2338 FAX: (604) 926-2339 Alex Brylske Florida Institute of Technology Shari Currey Science Department Oregon State University-COAS 5412 Thomas Street Marine Resource Management Program Bokeelia, FL 33922 104 Ocean Administration Bldg USA Corvallis, OR 97330 Phone: (941) 283-8155 USA FAX: (941) 283-8159 Phone: (541) 737-2500 FAX: (541) 737-2064 Isabel Budke Simon Fraser University Russell Currie 3779 Dunbar Street Lakehead University Vancouver BC V6S-2C8 Canada Canada Phone: (604) 224-0764 John Davis University of Washington Robert Burco School of Marine Affairs 5050 Foothills Road, A-E 3707 Brooklyn Avenue, NE Lake Oswego, OR 97034 Seattle, WA 98105-6715 USA USA Phone: (503) 697-1635 Phone: (206) 681-1582 FAX: (206) 543-1417 Barron Carswell Email: [email protected] Ministry of Fisheries 780 Blanshard Street Victoria BC V8W-9M2 Canada Phone: (250) 356-2237 FAX: (250) 350-7280 Appendix IV: List of Participants 365
Michele Deakin Michael Edmundson Gwaii Haanas National Park Canadian Coast Guard Reserve/Haida Heritage Site Room 350, 555 W. Hastings Box 435 Vancouver BC V6B-5G3 Queen Charlotte BC VOT-1S0 Canada Canada Phone: (604) 775-8821 Phone: (250) 559-6305 FAX: (604) 775-8826 FAX: (250) 559-8366 Email: [email protected] Steve Edwards Conservation International Nicola Dedeluk 2501 M Street, NW, Suite 200 312-2125 W. 2nd Washington, DC 20037 Vancouver BC V6K-1H7 USA Canada Phone: (202) 973-2207 FAX: (202) 331-9328 Adrienne Denham 102-5950 East Blvd. Susanne Emond Vancouver BC York University Canada FES Department Phone: (250) 902-0411 Toronto ON FAX: (604) 267-2067 Canada FAX: (416) 667-9635 Bruce DeYoung Professor of Management Reynaldo Estrada Oregon State University CNAP 209 Bexell Hall CITMA Department USA Neptuno 1064 Phone: (541) 737-0695 Havana Email: [email protected] Cuba Phone: (537) 227-970 Veronica Dujon FAX: (537) 240-798 Portland State University Sociology Department Perry Falcone PO Box 751 University of Washington Portland, OR 97207 3707 Brooklyn Ave NE USA Seattle, WA 98105 Phone: (503) 725-8503 USA FAX: (503) 725-3957 Phone: (206) 543-7004 Email: [email protected] FAX: (206) 543-1417
Anna D’Uva Jim Falk York University University of Delaware 21 Fariweather Road Sea Grant Marine Advisory Srvc Toronto ON M6M-4C9 700 Pilottown Road Canada Lewes, DE 19958 Phone: (416) 241-0774 USA Phone: (302) 645-4235 FAX: (302) 645-4213 366 Appendix IV: List of Participants
Karl Fellenius Nancy Gelhen Simon Eraser University BIEAP-FREMP 1241 River Drive Suite 501-5945 Coquitlam BC V3E-1N7 Burnaby BC V5H-4J9 Canada Canada Phone: (604) 464-9140 Phone: (604) 725-5196 FAX: (604) 775-5198 Ann Finlayson Interpretation Canada Carey Gersten 782 East Kings Road Puget Sound Kayak Company/WWTA Vancouver BC V7K-1E3 7030 Earl Avenue NW Canada Seattle, WA 98117 Phone: (604) 987-8653 USA FAX: (604) 987-8629 Phone: (206) 933-3008 FAX: (206) 789-1499 Lourdes Flores-Skydancer Comunidad Y Biodiversidad, AC Johanna Gilhespy 4717 Ridgemont Ct SE David Suzuki Foundation Olympia, WA 98513 2211 West 4th Avenue USA Suite 219 Phone/Fax: (360) 491-8950 Vancouver BC V6K-4S2 Email: [email protected] Canada Phone: (604) 732-4228 Phil Foster FAX: (604) 732-0752 Camosun College Business Tourism Alison Gill 4461 Interurban Road Simon Eraser University Victoria BC V8X-3X1 Department of Geography Canada Burnaby BC V5A-1S6 Phone: (250) 370-4066 Canada FAX: (250) 370-4104 Phone: (604) 291-3718 FAX: (604) 291-5841 FRDC Director Fraser River Discovery Gordon Goodman 103-810 Quayside Drive Ministry of Small Business New Westminster BC V3M-6B9 Tourism & Culture Canada 5/Floor, 1405 Douglas Street Phone: (604) 521-8401 Victoria BC V8W-9W1 FAX: (604) 521-9401 Canada Phone: (250) 387-5440 Patricia Gallagher FAX: (250) 387-9376 Simon Fraser University 8888 University Avenue Heather Goodman Burnaby BC V5A-156 Goodman & Associates / CMT '99 Canada 3144 Mars Street Phone: (604) 291-4653 Victoria BC V8X-1B8 FAX: (604) 291-3851 Canada Phone: (250) 380-2057 Appendix IV: List of Participants 367
Robert Goodwin Meredith Hamstead Washington Sea Grant York University School of Marine Affairs 406-16 Passy Crescent 3707 Brooklyn Ave. NE Toronto ON M3J-3L3 Seattle, WA 98105-6715 Canada USA Phone: (416) 665-1756 Phone: (206) 685-2452 FAX: (206) 543-1417 Charles Hansen Email: [email protected] Transport Canada Marine Safety 620-800 Burrard Street Julie Gordon Vancouver BC V6Z-2J2 J. Gordon & Associates Canada 2745 Trafalgar Street Phone: (604) 666-1990 Vancouver BC V6K-3T7 FAX: (604) 666-7177 Canada Phone: (604) 737-2608 Howard Harshaw FAX: (604) 737-6970 University of British Columbia Forest Resource Management Carolyn Gray C/O #2-2574 W. Broadway BC Ferry Corporation Vancouver BC V6K-2E9 1112 Fort Street Canada Victoria BC V8V-4V2 Phone: (604) 727-8835 Canada Phone: (250) 978-1177 Michael Harcourt FAX: (250) 388-7759 Former Premier of BC Canada Nina Hadley Tidal Delta Consulting Karla Hart 5632 20th Ave NE University of Oregon Seattle, WA 98105 Environmental Studies USA PO Box 22425 Phone: (206) 527-0885 Juneau, AK 99802-2425 Email: [email protected] USA
Abraham Hallenstvedt William D. Henwood University of Tromso Parks Canada Fishery Department 300-300 W. Georgia Street Breivika Vancouver BC V6B-6B4 Tromso 9037 Canada Norway Phone: (604) 666-0285 Phone: 47-77645546 FAX: (604) 666-0446 FAX: 47-77646020 Email: [email protected] David Hill-Turner Parks Canada Elizabeth Halpenny 300-300 West Georgia Street Nature Tourism Solutions / PhD candidate Vancouver BC V6B-6C4 University of Waterloo Canada 257 Erb St. West, Apt. 1 Phone: (604) 666-9492 Waterloo ON N2L 1V8 FAX: (604) 666-7597
Canada Terry Hood Phone: (519) 883-8116 Pacific Rim Institute of Tourism FAX: (519) 746-6776 Canada Email: [email protected] 368 Appendix IV: List of Participants
Susan Hootman Terry Johnson CMT Volunteer Associate Professor/Marine Advisory Canada Program Agent School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, Twee Hormchong University of Alaska Fairbanks Siam University Marine Advisory Program, 4014 Lake St. Science Department #201B, Homer, AK 99603 235 Petkasem Road USA Bangkok 10160 Phone: (907) 235-5643 Thailand Email: [email protected]. Phone: (662) 457-0068 FAX: (662) 413-0275 Nanao Kachi Parks Canada Don Howes 25 Eddy Street, 4/Floor Land Use Coordination Office Hull PQ K1A-0M5 836 Yates Street Canada Victoria BC V8W-9V1 Phone: (819) 994-1679 Canada FAX: (819) 997-3380 Phone: (250) 356-7721 FAX: (250) 953-3481 Judy Karwacki ARA Consulting KPMG HRDC Staff Member 350-355 Burrard Street Human Resources Dev. Canada Vancouver BC V6C-2G1 Suite 1400-300 W. Georgia Canada Vancouver BC V6B-6G3, Canada Phone: (604) 609-3859 Phone: (604) 666-8344 FAX: (604) 669-7390 FAX: (604) 666-3615 Gordon Kibble Glen Hvenegaard Coastal Communities Augustana University College Conservation Society 4901-46 Avenue 11171 4th Avenue Camrose AB T4V-2R3 Richmond BC V7E-3G6 Canada Canada Phone: (780) 679-1574 Phone: (604) 274-8641 FAX: (780) 697-1129 Sung Gwi Kim Michelle Imbeau Korea Maritime Institute Fisheries & Oceans'Canada Department of Fish and Tourism 400-555 W. Hastings Street 154-10 Sangsungdong Gangaamgu Vancouver BC V6B-5G3 Seoul, Korea Canada Phone: 82-82-34043141 Phone: (604) 666-2872 FAX: 82-82-34043159 FAX: (604) 666-1847 Barbara Koth Director of Planning and Development and World Bank Advisor Commission for Tourism P.O. Box 1410 Zanzibar, Tanzania Office 255-54-30966, 33485!'6/7 Fax 255-54-33448 Email: [email protected]
Appendix IV: List of Participants 369
Glenn Kreag Kang Shou Lu Minnesota Sea Grant Clemson University 2305 E. 5th Street Attn: Jean Martin- STI Dept. Duluth, MN 55812-1445 Box 5203 Perimeter Road USA Clemson, SC 29634 Phone: (218) 726-8714 USA FAX: (218) 726-6556 Phone: (864) 656-0228 FAX: (864) 656-4780 Peter Labor North American Water Trails Brian MacDonald PO Box 1810 Parks Canada Agency 155 Government Road Room 300-300 W. Georgia Street Wawa ON POS-1K0 Vancouver BC V6B-6B4 Canada Canada Phone/FAX: (902) 562-5632 Phone: (604) 666-6159 Email: [email protected] FAX: (604) 666-7957
David Lang Joe MacInnis Canadian Press How We Raised the Titan: 840 Howe Street Canada Vancouver BC V6Z-2L2 Canada Mary Mahon-Jones Phone: (604) 687-1662 COTA FAX: (604) 687-5040 535 Thurlow Street #100 Vancouver BC V6E-2L6 Adam Lewis Canada Lakehead University Phone: (604) 685-5956 Outdoor Recreation FAX: (604) 833-3290 288 Flanagan Crt New Market ON L3X-2E7 Joel Martineau Canada University of British Columbia Phone: (905) 853-3350 2538 Crown Street Vancouver BC V6R-3V8 Evan C. Loveless Canada UCC - Tourism Department Phone: (604) 822-5128 273 Birch Avenue Email: [email protected] Kamloops BC V2B-1J6 Canada Gayle Mayes Phone: (250) 319-6403 University of the Sunshine FAX: (250) 554-8051 E&P Arts PO Box 161 Mooloolaba Aimee Lowe Sunshine Coast, QD 4557 The Nature Conservancy Australia University of Miami, Biology Phone: 7-5479-5240 PO Box 249118 FAX: 7-5443-8356 Coral Gables, FL 33124 USA Tiffany J. McClinton Phone: (305) 284-3013 Clemson University FAX: (305) 284-3002 USA
370 Appendix IV: List of Participants
Stephen F. McCool Joel Moribe The University of Montana University of Washington Forestry Department 3707 Brooklyn Missoula, MT 59812 Seattle, WA 98105 USA USA Phone: (406) 243-5406 Phone: (206) 543-7004 FAX: (406) 243-6656 FAX: (206)543-1417 Email: [email protected] Louise V. Murgatroyd Mike McPhee Dalhousie University Quadra Planning Consultants Marine Affairs 1030 Crestline Road 109 Alcorn Avenue West Vancouver BC V7S-2E2 Toronto ON M4V-1E5 Canada Canada Phone: (604) 926-2080 Phone: (416) 944-0903 FAX: (604) 926-7748 FAX: (416) 944-1619
David McVetty Craig Murray Client Research Specialist Nimmo Bay Parks Canada, Western Canada Service Box 696 Centre Port McNeill BC VON-2R0 Suite 800-457 Main Street Canada Winnipeg, MB R3B 3E8 Phone: (250) 956-4000 Canada FAX: (250) 956-2000 Email: [email protected] David Nicholson Glen Milbury Clover Point Cartographics Ltd. Coastal Connections 202 – 919 Fort St. Canada Victoria, B.C. V8V 3K3 Canada Marc L. Miller Phone: (250) 384-3537 University of Washington FAX: (250) 384-2697 School of Marine Affairs Email: [email protected] 3707 Brooklyn Avenue, NE Seattle, WA 98105-6715 Kristin Berg Nordstrand USA University of Tromso Phone: (206)543-0113 Fishery Department FAX: (206) 543-1417 Breivika Email: [email protected] Tromso N-9037 Norway Patrick Moore Phone: 477-845-0237 Forest Alliance of BC FAX: 477-843-4438 4068 W. 32 Ave. Email: [email protected] Vancouver BC V6S-1Z6 Canada William C. Norman Phone: (604) 221-1990 Clemson University FAX: (604) 222-9353 263 Lehotsky Hall Clemson, SC 29670 USA Phone: (864) 656-2060 FAX: (864) 656-2226 Email: [email protected]
Appendix IV: List of Participants 371
Alida Ortiz Robert Preston-Whyte University of Puerto Rico University of Natal Sea Grant Program Life & Environmental Science Humacao University College Durban, Kwazulu-Natal Humacao 00792 South Africa Puerto Rico Phone: 312-602-283 Phone: (787) 850-9360 FAX: 312-601-391 FAX: (787) 850-0710 Sarah Richardson Steven Parker Michigan State University University of Nevada Park, Recreation & Tourism Political Science Department MSU PRTR 131 Natural Resources 4505 Maryland Parkway E. Lansing, MI 48824-1222 Las Vegas, NV 89154-5029 USA USA Phone: (979) 845-5386 Phone: (702) 895-3710 FAX: (517) 432-3597 FAX: (702) 895-1065 Email: [email protected] Connie Robertson Candian Pacific Hotels/Resorts R. J. Payne 4599 Chateau Blvd. Lakehead University Whistler BC VON-1B9 Canada Canada Phone: (604) 938-2212 Deborah Phelan FAX: (604) 938-2016 Fisheries & Oceans Canada 400-555 W. Hastings Street Grant Roden Vancouver BC V6B-5G3 Humboldt State University Canada International Development Tech Phone: (604) 666-8675 PO 1241 FAX: (604) 666-1847 Trinidad, CA 95570 USA Michelle Pico Phone: (707) 677-0300 University of Washington FAX: (707) 677-1970 School of Marine Affairs 3707 Brooklyn Avenue, NE Raquel Roizman Seattle, WA 98105-6715 University of Northern USA British Columbia Phone: (206) 543-7004 3650 Starlane Drive FAX: (206) 543-1417 Prince George BC V2N-5L6 Canada David Pinel Phone: (250) 960-5671 PO Box 679 Errington BC VOR-1V0 Rick Rollins Canada Instructor (RECREATION & TOURISM Phone: (250) 954-1923 MANAGEMENT) FAX: (250) 954-1901 Nanaimo Campus, Building 195, Room 222 Malaspina University College Tom Potts Canada Clemson University Phone: (250) 753-3245 ext. 2413 USA E-mail: [email protected] 372 Appendix IV: List of Participants
Amy Rosenfeld Kevin Smith Conservation International Outdoor Recreation Council of BC 2501 M Street, NW, Suite 200 PO Box 433 Washington, DC 20037 Mill Bay BC VOR-2P0 USA Canada Phone: (250) 743-3873 Marcy Sangret AXYS Environmental'Consulting Esther Speck Box 2219-2045 Mills Road CMT Volunteer Sidney BC V8L-3S8 Canada Canada Phone: (250) 656-7966 Graham Stallard FAX: (250) 656-4789 Reg. District Comox Strathcona RR#4, 4795 Headquarters Road Happy Ratna Santosa Courtnay BC V9N-7J3 Simon Fraser University Canada ATTN: Renata J. Sommer Phone: (250) 334-6000 8888 University Avenue FAX: (250) 334-8156 Burnaby BC V5A-156 Canada Sean Standing Phone: (604) 291-4653 Fisheries & Oceans Canada FAX: (604) 291-3851 360-555 West Hastings Vancouver BC V6B-5G3 Vinod Sasidharan Canada Assistant Professor Phone: (604) 666-8384 Dept. of Recreation, Parks, and Tourism FAX: (604) 666-0417 College of Professional Studies and Fine Arts Margo Stoilen 5500 Campanile Drive University of Victoria San Diego State University Canada San Diego, CA 92182-4531 USA Maggie Stronge Phone: (619) 594-4726 Gwaii Haanas National Park FAX: (619) 594-3320 Box 37 Email: [email protected] Queen Charlotte BC Canada Shaugn Schwartz Phone: (250) 559-6317 The Evergreen Foundation FAX: (250) 559-8366 106-163 W. Hastings Street Vancouver BC V6B-1H5 James Sweeting Canada Conservation International Phone: (604) 689-0766 2501 M Street, NW, Suite 200 FAX: (604) 689-0768 Washington, DC 20037 USA John Shultis University of Northern BC Resource Rec. and Tourism 3333 University Way Prince George BC V2N-3L2 Canada Phone: (250) 960-5640 FAX: (250) 960-5538 Email: [email protected] Appendix IV: List of Participants 373
Raymond Tabata Tomas Tomascik Extension Agent Parks Canada Agency University of Hawaii at Manoa Room 300-300 W. Georgia Street Sea Grant Extension Service Vancouver BC V6B-6B4 2525 Correa Road, HIG 237 Canada Honolulu, HI 96822 Phone: (604) 666-6159 USA FAX: (604) 666-7957 Phone: (808) 956-2866 FAX: (808) 956-2858 William Trousdale Email: [email protected] EcoPlan International 39113-3695 West 10th Ave. Gunatilake Tantrigama Vancouver BC V6R-4P1 Univ. of Sri Jayewardenepura Canada No. 145 Thissa Mawatha Phone: (604) 228-1855 Bangalawatta, Kotta FAX: (604) 228-1892 Sri Lanka Email: [email protected]
Lisa Testoni Mel Turner The University of Queensland Province of British Columbia Geographical Sciences & Planning 1610 Mt. Seymour Road Brisbane, QD 4072 North Vancouver BC V7G-1L5 Australia Canada Phone: 617-3365-6529 Phone: (604) 924-2241 FAX: 617-3365-6899 FAX: (604) 924-2244
Brijesh Thapa Dave Twynam 306 FLorida Gym University College of the Dept. of Recreation, Parks & Tourism Cariboo - School of Tourism University of Florida Box 3010 Kamloops BC V2C-5N3 Gainesville, FL 32611 Canada Phone: 352-392-4042 x1239 Phone: (250) 371-5861 Email: [email protected]
Timothy J. Tyrrell Jack Thigpen URI ENRE North Carolina Sea Grant 5 Lippitt Road Box 699 Kingston, RI 02881 Manteo, NC 27954 USA USA Phone: (401) 874-4580 Phone: (252) 441-3663 FAX: (401) 782-4766 FAX: (252) 441-7403 Email: [email protected]
Eugene Thomlinson Laani Uunila University of Calgary Lakehead University Environmental Design School of Outdoor Recreation 90 Hidden Hills Road NW 7223 17th Avenue Calgary AB T3A-5Y2 Burnaby BC V3N-1L1 Canada Canada Phone: (403) 730-2488 Phone: (604) 524-4543 FAX: (403) 292-4404 Email: [email protected] 374 Appendix IV: List of Participants
Katrina Van Dusen Leigh West State of Maine Environment Australia State Planning Office GPO Box 787 184 State Street, Sta. #38 Canberra ACT 2601 Augusta, ME 04333 Australia USA Phone: 612-6274-1368 Phone: (207) 287-1497 FAX: 612-6274-1006 FAX: (207) 287-8059 Florence J. White Gilles Valade Aqua-Fact International Services University College of the 12 Kilkerrin Park Cariboo - Tourism Department Liosbaun, Tuam Road Box 42 Galway Kamloops BC V2C-5K3 Ireland Canada Phone: 353-91-756812 Phone: (250) 314-9894 FAX: 353-91-756888
Gail Vander Stoep Sandra White Michigan State University Aboriginal Tourism Team Canada Park, Recreation & Tourism Canada MSU PRTR 131 Natural Resources E. Lansing, MI 48824-1222 Bruce Whyte USA BC Ministry of Small Business Phone: (517) 353-5190 Tourism & Culture FAX: (517) 432-3597 PO Box 9806, Stn. Prov. Govt Victoria BC V8W-9W1 Kelly Vodden Canada Simon Fraser University Phone: (250) 356-8797 Burnaby BC FAX: (250) 356-6555 Canada Email: [email protected] Phone: (604) 253-8322 FAX: (604) 291-5473 Erin Williams Dept. of Environmental Science & Policy Jenny Waddell Wickson Hall One Shields Avenue University of Washington UC Davis School of Marine Affairs Davis, CA 95616 3707 Brooklyn Ave USA Seattle, WA 98105 Phone: (530) 752-3419 USA FAX: (530) 752-3350 Phone: (206) 543-7004 Email: [email protected] FAX: (206) 543-1417 Peter Williams Robyn Wark Simon Fraser University Westland Resource Group Canada 1863 Oak Bay Avenue Email: [email protected] Victoria BC V8R-1C6 Canada Tim Wohlsclagel Phone: (250) 592-8500 Lakehead University FAX: (250) 592-1633 Outdoor Recreation R.R.#1 Wainfleet ON LOS-1V0 Canada Phone: (405) 899-3529 Appendix IV: List of Participants 375
Colin Wood University of Victoria Department of Geography PO Box 3050 Victoria BC V8W-3P5 Canada Phone: (250) 721-7336 FAX: (250) 721-6216