The Minoan Shipwreck at , Frontispiece. Yiorgos Klontzas in 2003 with the first hole-mouthed jar 1( , 03/22) found at the site of the Pseira ship- wreck. Photo E. Hadjidaki-Marder. PREHISTORY MONOGRAPHS 65

The Minoan Shipwreck at Pseira, Crete

by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

with contributions by

Philip P. Betancourt, Thomas M. Brogan, Joanne E. Cutler,† Heidi M.C. Dierckx, Eleni Nodarou, and Todd Whitelaw

Published by INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 2021 Design and Production INSTAP Academic Press, Philadelphia, PA

Printing and Binding HF Group – Acmebinding, Charlestown, MA

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Hadjidaki-Marder, Elpida, 1948- author. | Betancourt, Philip P., 1936- contributor. Title: The Minoan shipwreck at Pseira, Crete / by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder with contributions by Philip P. Betancourt [and five others]. Description: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania : INSTAP Academic Press, 2021. | Series: Prehistory monographs ; Volume 65 | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: «The first Minoan shipwreck found near Crete was discovered in 2003 off the islet of Pseira on the northeastern coast of Crete. It was excavated between 2004 and 2009 by the Greek Archaeological Service, directed by Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder. The Minoan ship sank around 1725/1700 BC. The recovered cargo constitutes the largest known corpus of complete and almost complete clay vessels from a single Middle Minoan IIB deposit in several categories. The 140 artifacts recovered from the area of the wreck include 46 oval-mouthed and other amphorae, 41 spouted jugs used for transport, and 11 hole-mouthed jars. The activity of each season is described, followed by a catalog with extensive discussion of the pottery, a petrographic analysis, and catalogs of weights and stone tools. The picture that emerges is of a local transport boat, loaded with products from towns on the northern coast of East Crete, and it provides a rich set of information on a society that revolved around seafaring»-- Provided by publisher. Identifiers: LCCN 2020026126 (print) | LCCN 2020026127 (ebook) | ISBN 9781931534291 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781623034344 (adobe pdf) Subjects: LCSH: Minoans----Pseira Island. | Shipwrecks--Greece--Crete. | Excavations (Archaeology)--Greece--Pseira Island. | Underwater archaeology--Greece--Crete. | Pottery, Minoan. | Pseira Island (Greece)--Antiquities. Classification: LCC DF221.C8 H3125 2021 (print) | LCC DF221.C8 (ebook) | DDC 909/.096384--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026126 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020026127

Copyright © 2021 INSTAP Academic Press Philadelphia, Pennsylvania All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America To Malcolm H. Wiener

Table of Contents

List of Illustrations in the Text...... ix List of Figures...... xi List of Plates...... xiii Preface...... xv Acknowledgments...... xvii List of Abbreviations...... xxi 1. Introduction, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder...... 1 2. Discovery of the Shipwreck, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder...... 13 3. Excavations, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder...... 17 4. Pottery from the Shipwreck and along the Coast, Philip P. Betancourt...... 31 5. Petrographic Analysis of the Pottery from the Shipwreck, Eleni Nodarou...... 55 6. Ceramic and Lead Weights from the Shipwreck and along the Coast, Joanne E. Cutler,† Thomas M. Brogan, and Todd Whitelaw...... 63 7. Ground Stone Implements from the Shipwreck, Heidi M.C. Dierckx...... 69 8. Conclusions, Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder...... 73 References...... 77 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Concordance of Excavation and Catalog Numbers...... 89 Index...... 91 Figures Plates List of Illustrations in the Text

Illustration 1.1. Map of Crete, indicating locations of sites mentioned in this volume...... xxii Illustration 1.2. Plan of the remains of the Minoan breakwater or quay, indicating depth in m...... 9 Illustration 1.3. Plan of Minoan fortification walls, indicating depth in m...... 9

Illustration 3.1. Finds in 2003 and ROV transits in 2004 used to determine the location of the shipwreck...... 18 Illustration 3.2. Plan of the complete excavation, mapped mostly in 2008 and completed in 2009...... 20 Illustration 3.3. Topographic plan of the 2005 excavation season...... 22 Illustration 3.4. Topographic plan of the 2006 excavation season...... 23 Illustration 3.5. Topographic plan of the southern trenches from the 2007 excavation season...... 25 Illustration 3.6. Topographic plan of the northern trenches from the 2007 excavation season...... 27 Illustration 3.7. Topographic plan of the 2009 excavation season...... 29

Illustration 5.1. Concordance of petrographic fabrics and vessel shapes...... 56 Illustration 5.2. Small groups and petrographic loners in the Pseira shipwreck assemblage...... 59

Illustration 6.1. Weights from the MM II shipwreck and underwater settlement, plotted by thickness and estimated complete weight...... 65 x LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

Illustration 6.2. Middle Minoan II clay discoid weights from the underwater excavations at Pseira: weight (preserved and estimated complete), thread thickness, and the calculated thread count per cm when used with threads requiring different tensions in a tabby weave...... 66

Illustration 8.1. Estimated volume of transport containers from the Pseira shipwreck cargo...... 75 List of Figures

Figure 1. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids. Figure 2. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids, highlighting objects made of Mirabello Fabric. Figure 3. Findspots of artifacts within the excavated grids, highlighting objects believed to have been owned by crew. Figure 4. Hole-mouthed jars (1–4). Figure 5. Hole-mouthed jars (5–11) and jugs (12–15). Figure 6. Jugs (16–33). Figure 7. Jugs (34–45). Figure 8. Jugs (46–51) and amphorae (52, 53). Figure 9. Amphorae (54–61). Figure 10. Amphorae (62–67). Figure 11. Amphorae (68–75). Figure 12. Amphorae (76–84). Figure 13. Amphorae (85–93). Figure 14. Amphorae (94–97), basins (98–100), cups (101, 102, 104), and a brazier (103). Figure 15. Cups (105–112, 115–117), a chalice (118), tripods (119–124), jars (125, 126), and jugs (127–131). xii LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 16. Fragments of large closed vessels (132–135, 137–139, 141, 143–145) and a handle (146). Figure 17. Fragments of closed vessels (147–149, 153–157, 159, 160, 162, 164, 165) and jars (150, 151, 158, 161, 163). Figure 18. Fragments of closed vessels (166, 168–171), a basin (167), and amphorae of various later classes (173–175). Figure 19. Jugs (NL 1–NL 3), a basin (NL 4), and cups (NL 5–NL 30) not from the shipwreck. Figure 20. Cups (NL 31–NL 36) and amphorae (NL 37–NL 40) not from the shipwreck. Figure 21. Amphorae (NL 41–NL 46) not from the shipwreck. Figure 22. Jugs (NL 47–NL 57) and a juglet (NL 58) not from the shipwreck. Figure 23. Jugs (NL 59–NL 61, NL 63–NL 67), juglet (NL 62), jars (NL 68–NL 71), and tripods (NL 72, NL 73) not from the shipwreck. Figure 24. Large fragments from closed vessels (NL 74–NL 80) not from the shipwreck. Figure 25. Single lead weight (176) and clay weights (177–180). Some weights not from the shipwreck (NL 81–NL 89). Figure 26. Clay weights (NL 90–NL 100) not from the shipwreck. Figure 27. Stone tools (PSS 1–PSS 9). List of Plates

Frontispiece. Yiorgos Klontzas in 2003 with the first hole-mouthed jar 1( , 03/22) found at the site of the Pseira shipwreck. Plate 1A. A Minoan sunken building offshore near Stalos, West Crete. Plate 1B. A Minoan wall offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 1C. A Minoan building offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 1D. Part of a Minoan wall offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 1E. A Minoan wall more than 20 m in length, offshore, Tavronitis, West Crete. Plate 2A. The ancient maritime settlement on Pseira Island, looking northwest. Plate 2B. The seafloor adjacent to Pseira Island, showing buildings and ceramics fallen from the land site. Plate 3A. The submerged rock-cut quay, showing the holes used for tying ships. Plate 3B. View of the excavation in 2005, with Trench ΑΒΓΔ in the upper center. Plate 4A. View of the excavation grid at the end of 2005, showing the rocky sea bottom with sandy pockets. Plate 4B. Excavation of vessel 168 (09/172) in 2009 using an airlift. Plate 5. Hole-mouthed jars (1–3, 6, 8) and jugs (12–14, 20, 29, 31, 31a, 35, 36, 38). Plate 6. Amphorae (53, 54, 62, 69, 75, 80, 81) and a basin (98). xiv LIST OF PLATES

Plate 7. Cups (102, 105, 110, 115, 116), brazier (103), tripod cooking tray and pots (119–121), other tripods (123, 124), jar (126), jugs (127, 128), basin (167), closed vessel (168), and later amphorae (173–175). Plate 8. Pottery not from the shipwreck: jugs (NL 2, NL 3), a basin (NL 4), cups (NL 5–NL 9, NL 11– NL 13, NL 15, NL 17, NL 23, NL 27, NL 28, NL 31–NL 33), and amphorae (NL 37, NL 39, NL 40). Plate 9. Pottery not from the shipwreck: amphorae (NL 44, NL 46), jugs and juglet (NL 48, NL 49, NL 55, NL 62, NL 63, NL 65, NL 66), bridge-spouted jar (NL 71), a tripod (NL 73), and a Byzantine amphora (NL 80). Plate 10A. Fabric with granitic-dioritic fragments (sample PSA 11/11, 26), the variant for jars. Plate 10B. Fabric with granitic-dioritic fragments (sample PSA 11/29, 119), the variant for cooking vessels. Plate 10C. Fabric with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/16, 71). Plate 10D. Fabric with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/32, 120), possibly from Palaikastro. Plate 10E. Fabric with mica-schist (sample PSA 11/19, 103). Plate 10F. Fabric with micritic limestone (sample PSA 11/01, 7). Plate 11A. Loner with dark siltstone (sample PSA 11/26, 44). Plate 11B. Loner with weathered calcite (sample PSA 11/27, 43). Plate 11C. Loner with sedimentary rock fragments (sample PSA 11/28, 95). Plate 11D. Loner with serpentinite (sample PSA 11/02, 149). Plate 12A. Loner with argillaceous fragments (sample PSA 11/10, 30). Plate 12B. Loner with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/15, 81). Plate 12C. Loner with metamorphic rock fragments (sample PSA 11/24, NL 80). Plate 12D. Loner with micritic limestone (sample PSA 11/23, 175). Plate 13. Single lead weight (176) and clay weights (177–180). Some weights not from the shipwreck (NL 81–NL 89). Plate 14. Ceramic weights (NL 90–NL 100) not from the shipwreck. Plate 15. Stone tools (PSS 1–PSS 10). Preface

This book aims to shed light on a small but bold maritime community on the island of Pseira in the Mirabello Bay, East Crete. The settlement on Pseira was built on a rocky prom- ontory that offered a natural double bay for the protection of ships and was founded in the Final period, well before 3000 b.c. The Pseirans were seafarers from earliest times, and many of the town’s ordinary needs (including all the pottery) were carried to the is- land by sea. Early Bronze Age goods from distant sources, such as from Melos and metals including gold (Betancourt 2003, 68), indicate that Pseira was participating in long- distance trade as early as the Early Minoan (EM) II period. The island was never isolated. A ship transporting cargo from the coastal region of the Mirabello Bay sank near Pseira in Middle Minoan (MM) IIB, around the second half of the 18th century b.c. This was a time when the Middle Bronze Age palaces had already been built at , Phaistos, and Malia. The site is 5.5 nautical miles from the Minoan town of and 2 miles from the smaller settlement at . The ship came to rest at a depth of 35–45 m, sufficient to deter all but professional divers; in 2003, when we found the wreck, it had been looted. Fortunately, remains of its large cargo were safely buried in pockets of sand on the rocky bottom. No wood from the hull survived. Nevertheless, the over 140 artifacts that were ex- cavated provide evidence for the seafaring activities of the inhabitants of Pseira; their con- tacts with the rest of Crete, the , and perhaps western Anatolia; the goods that they traded; the harbors to which they sailed; and hints about the kind of ships that made the trade possible. The shipwreck is the first and largest MM IIB example to have been found and excavat- ed. The results of the investigation are due to a mixture of skill and good luck and the gen- erosity of the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). xvi PREFACE

Finding a Minoan shipwreck had been a goal of marine archaeologists for decades, es- pecially for the community of Greek marine archaeologists. Maritime archaeology is par- ticularly expensive because it relies on divers who can work only for a limited amount of time each day and whose lives depend on support personnel and diving equipment. A Greek department of underwater archaeology was founded in the 1970s. There were fre- quent public declarations that underwater archaeology was essential to the future of the discipline, but adequate funding was always uncertain, and by the year 2000, research projects had slowed to a trickle. The Minoan shipwreck thus would likely never have been found without support from INSTAP. In 2002, I received an invitation to apply for a grant from INSTAP. The application was successful, and it made possible a first month of exploration in September 2003. Prom- ising results led to additional financial support from INSTAP that allowed an additional survey in June 2004 and excavations and surveys from 2005 to 2009. The project was conducted by an almost exclusively Greek team. The deep-water geo- physical survey in 2003 was conducted in collaboration with George Anastasakis of the Department of Geology, University of Athens. He was accompanied by three assistants: Spiros Maroulakis, Giorgos Sgouros, and Christos Agelopoulos. We had occasional as- sistance from the diving archaeologist, Miranda-Despina Hinkley, and the marine biol- ogist, Kostas Frangoulis. The 9 m boat used to house the geophysical equipment was the ΑΦΕΝΤΗΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ Ν.Α.Ν. 162. Also participating in that first year was a deep-diving team led by Yiorgos Klontzas. He and his associates, Kostas Kirsanof and Nikos Golfis, worked from a 20-m wooden sponge-diving boat, ΑΓΙΟΣ ΓΕΩΡΓΙΟΣ Ν.Α.Ν. 92, equipped with a decompression chamber and other equipment. Klontzas and his team returned in all subsequent years, and his boat became the center from which the survey and eventually the excavation were conducted. The dedication of all the team members was remarkable. They dived at great depths and withstood uncertainties both about the weather and about continued official tolerance, all for a very modest compensation, the love of the sea, and the chance to participate in a project they would remember forever. Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder Phalasarna, Crete 2018 Acknowledgments

The underwater excavation of the Minoan shipwreck at Pseira was a Greek project under my direction during the time I served as deputy director of the Department of Maritime Antiquities in the Ministry of Culture. The project lasted for seven years (2003–2009), and it was funded almost exclusively by the Institute for Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP). Addi- tional contributions came from Michael Marder of the University of Texas at Austin. The excavation and the publication of the present volume would not have been accom- plished without the generous financial assistance of INSTAP and above all the support of Malcom H. Wiener, founder and chief benefactor of the institute to whom this book is dedicated. I am also most grateful to Philip Betancourt, executive director of INSTAP, and Thomas Brogan, director of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete; it was because of their initiative that the project took place and allowed my childhood dream of finding a Minoan shipwreck to come true. I have been diving in the Venetian port of Chania in western Crete since I was seven years old, collecting old silverware that seemed to me out of place in the local marine en- vironment. I grew up to become a marine archaeologist and despite specializing in the his- torical period, I never stopped searching for Minoan harbors and ships. It finally happened in September 2003, when I saw a Minoan hole-mouthed jar ly- ing half buried on a sandy seafloor at a depth of 41 m, in the straits between Pseira Is- land and the northeastern coast of Crete. The ensuing excavations were successful because of the highly skilled team of coral divers led by a fearless captain and owner of the div- ing boat, Yiorgos Klontzas. He served as chief diver and took responsibility for the safe- ty of all diving team members. His associate divers, Kostas Kirsanof and Nikos Golfis, dived once or more each day and provided the airlift for the excavation, underwater voice xviii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

communication, and video. They converted to enthusiastic supporters of archaeology and worked day and night with us, seven days a week. Occasional assistance whenever needed because of strong winds or problems with the airlift was provided by the diving technicians, Kyriakos Kavalaris, Thrasyboulos Hiloud- akis, and Vasilis Voyiatzis. The diving club owner and businessman, Nikos Koutoulakis, was an enthusiastic supporter from the beginning who recommended personnel and pro- vided extra diving equipment when we ran short. The archaeological team in addition to myself consisted of Michael Bendon, Lisa Briggs, Ioanna Damanaki, Chrisi Frangiadaki, Evangelia Frangou, Sofia Frangoulopoulou, Yior- gos Garantonakis, Miranda-Despina Hinkley, Derek Irwin, Lilian Martin,† Mirto Mich- ali, Ioanna Roussia, and Eleftheria Tsoupaki. Diving archaeologist Despina Koutsoumba participated in 2009 as an official representative of the Ministry of Culture, Department of Maritime Antiquities. The photographers had constant work, as far down as 48 m and on the surface as the finds came up, and their contribution is highly appreciated. They include Ioulios Glambe- dakis, Nike Marder, Vasilis Mentoyiannis, and Georgos Phillipaios.† Dimitri Markatos as- sisted with photography and served as legal counsel for the team; we found that we needed his services more than anticipated. The contribution of Nike Marder was particularly critical, as she took charge of ensur- ing that the artifacts underwater were photographed systematically in the position where they were found and then cataloged for later reference. She also took many of the photo- graphs immediately after artifacts were brought to the surface and later after cleaning in the museum. Many additional photographs recording artifacts and used for photogram- metry were taken by Vasilis Mentoyiannis. Ioulios Glambedakis was responsible for pho- tographs showing the dig in action. I thank Michel Braunstein for offering use of Plate 2B. Mapping and plotting during the excavations were executed by Dimitris Timologos and Michael Marder. The drawings of the pottery and final maps were produced by Douglas Faulmann, chief artist of the INSTAP Study Center for East Crete. Eleanor Huffman helped with recording and checking artifacts. Conservation of the artifacts was carried out by Ste- fania Chlouveraki and Matina Tzari of the INSTAP Study Center, and Roula Maninou from the Department of Maritime Antiquities. Mary Betancourt† served as the registrar. Photographs of all the objects for final publication were taken by Chronis Papanikolopou- los, drawings were made by Lily Bonga, and pottery maps were produced by Florence Hsu. I thank all these professionals for their persistence and hard work. Several diving professionals assisted as volunteers: Christos Agouridis, Kostas Fran- goulis, Angelos Maglis, Yiannis Rokas, Marion Soltermann, Yiannis Triantafilidis, Yiorgos Patroudakis, and Eleni Vlazaki. Lianna Kissinger-Virizlay helped with the pottery catalog- ing on the ship and in the Siteia Archaeological Museum (SM). Ioanna Hadjidaki volunteered and assisted the team in a variety of tasks, including han- dling logistics, providing supplies, cooking on the boat, monitoring the basket under the airlift, and helping with photography and the first desalination of the artifacts as they were being recovered from the seafloor. In 2005, she was assisted by Thanasis Kaloyiannis, and in 2006 by Eli Galbraith. In 2003, a geophysical survey was carried out by George Anastasakis, Department of Geology at the University of Athens, and his three assistants: Spiros Maroulakis, Yiorgos Sgouros, and Christos Agelopoulos. In 2004, Marinos Pittas, an engineer, and his assis- tant, Panagiotis Matsis, employed a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) assisted by Yiorgos Tzanakis† who provided a video of all ROV transects. THE MINOAN SHIPWRECK AT PSEIRA, CRETE xix

I had the privilege of excavating this shipwreck because of expertise in underwater ar- chaeology, but when the project began I had a great deal to learn about Minoan pottery. In addition to drawing on the knowledge of Philip Betancourt, I benefited greatly from dis- cussions with Honor Frost,† Birgitta Hallager, Eric Hallager, Athanasia Kanta, Alexander MacGillivray, Jennifer Moody, Tom Palaima, Çemal Pulak, Yiannis Sakellarakis, Efi Sake- llaraki, Elias Spondylis, Harry Tzalas, and Maria Vlazaki. Vili Apostolakou, director of the Department of Antiquities of , was consistently supportive of the project throughout the years, and she encouraged the artifacts to be ex- hibited in the museum in Siteia. The Greek Archaeological Council was also supportive of the requests for permits, as were the Greek Ministers of Culture, Michalis Liapis, Antonis Samaras, Petros Tatoulis, Evangelos Venizelos, Yiorgos Voulgarakis, and Minister of For- eign Affairs, Dora Bakoyianni. The harbor police from Hagios Nikolaos and Siteia assisted in numerous ways. Many res- idents of Mochlos provided help and support whenever it was needed. Finally, I am most grateful to my parents-in-law, Herbert and Norma Marder, for read- ing the manuscript and making suggestions. Elpida Hadjidaki-Marder

List of Abbreviations

cm centimeter(s) mm millimeter(s) d. diameter MM Middle Minoan dim. dimension NL cataloged artifact from near the EM Early Minoan land est. estimated pres. preserved g gram(s) PSA Pseira shipwreck petrographic GPS global positioning system analysis number h. height PSS cataloged stone artifact from the INSTAP Institute for Aegean Prehistory Pseira shipwreck kg kilogram(s) ROV remotely operated vehicle km kilometer(s) SM Siteia Archaeological Museum L. length catalog number LM Late Minoan th. thickness m meter(s) w. width max. maximum wt. weight  xxii Zakros Lefki Hagia Photia Hagia Petras Palaikastro Siteia Mochlos Mirabello Bay Pacheia Ammos Pacheia Pseira Island Gournia Ierapetra Istron Sissi Elounda Chersonissos Myrtos Malia Priniatikos Pyrgos Priniatikos Gouves Nirou Chani Nirou lain P Amnissos esara Knossos Galatas M Gortyn Kapetaniana -Katsambas Phaistos Pera Galini Pera Hagia Triada Hagia Eleutherna Monastiraki Libyan Sea Libyan Stavromenos Kommos Kokkinos Pyrgos Plakias Cape Akrotiri Cape Frangokastelo 50 km Stavros Galatas Kydonia (Chania) Kydonia Sphakia Stalos Tavronitis Lissos Nopigia 0 Kissamos Chrisoskalitissa Kaliviani N Cape KriosCape Phalasarna Illustration Crete, Map of indicating 1.1. locations Bronze of in sites Age mentioned this volume. Drawing E. Hadjidaki-Marder.