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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01691-0 - Climate Change in Deserts: Past, Present and Future Martin Williams Index More information

Index

Accelerated soil erosion, 70, 166 Alluvial fans, 169–70, 172, 178, 266–7, 461 Acheulian, 118–19, 198, 203, 271, 308–9, 313, 345 Alpine glaciations, 215–16, 226–7 Adaptations to aridity, 37–56 Amazon basin, 75, 408–9, 415–17 animals, 45–6 America, see North America, South America humans, 37–40, 203, 216–55 Amino-acid racemisation dating, 95–6 plants, 40–6, 62 Andes, uplift, 239–40, 407–13 Adiabatic lapse rate, 14, 234 Antarctica Adrar Bous, Sahara, 102, 189, 271, 312, 317–18 carbon dioxide, 35, 243, 505 Aeolian/eolian dust, see Dust cooling, 28 Afar desert, see also Middle Awash dust, 29 alluvium, 159–60 glaciation, 24, 28, 30, 243–4, 431 hominids, 159, 286–7, 304 ice core record, 35, 228, 505–6, 525 lakes, 65, 159, 190–1 methane, 35, 505 rift, 337–9 Aphelion, see astronomical theory stone tools, 32 Aquatic organisms, terrestrial, 289–93 Africa, see also Sahara Aquifers, recharge, 40 biomass burning, 484–6 see also groundwater Cenozoic desiccation, 30, 331–7 Arabian deserts, 67, 349–51 Cenozoic tectonism, 30, 331–7 Aral Sea, 490–1 Chad basin, 30–1 Archaeological evidence, 308–27 climate, 329–30, 470–1 Arctic sea ice desertification, 317, 494–6 present extent, 513 drought, 464–8 Cenozoic growth, 391, 393–4 dust, 149 Ardipithecus, 305 glaciation, 225–6, 235–6 Areic, 38, 162 Harmattan, 72, 142 Argon-argon dating, 85–6 Holocene climates, 184–5, 189–90, 222–3, 470–1 Aridity lake fluctuations, 30–1, 191, 198–202, 215–18 causes of, 14–18, 20–1 last glacial maximum, 220–2 glacial, 185–6, 220–2 overgrazing, 317, 488–9 present-day distribution, 2 precipitation, 329–30 Arrhenius, Svante, 508–9 Quaternary climates, 215–18, 224, 344 Arroyo, see Gullies tectonic history, 25, 30, 331–7 Asia, see also China, India volcanoes, 339–40 Cenozoic cooling, 366–7 wind systems, 329–30 Cenozoic desiccation, 32, 364–8 Afro-Arabian dome, 337–3 Cenozoic tectonism, 364–8 Agriculture climate, 361–3 origins, 47, 311–13 deserts, 68, 360–83 prehistoric, 47, 50, 311–13 desertification, 68, 489–94 A¨ır Mts, 30 dunes, 370–2, 491–4 Albedo, drought model, 466–8 glaciation, 237–9, 378–9 Allerød-Bølling interstadial, see Bølling-Allerød lakes, 204–5, 218, 377–8 interstadial landscapes, 363–4

621

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-01691-0 - Climate Change in Deserts: Past, Present and Future Martin Williams Index More information

622 Index

Asia (cont.) westerlies, 437 loess, 491–2 Willandra lakes, 192–3, 205–6, 208, 437, 443, 437 marine sediments, 381–2 Australopithecus, 53, 159, 286, 300 monsoon systems, 361–3, 367–8 onset of desiccation, 364–8 Badain Jaran desert, China, 204, 364, 371–2 rivers, 186, 218–19, 366, 372–5 Bale Mts., Ethiopia, glaciation, see Ethiopia, glaciation speleothems, 380–1 Beryllium 10 (10Be) dating, 94–5, 237–8, 240–2, 305, Toba volcano, 375–7 366, 428–30 Astronomical cycles, see astronomical theory Bilharzia, see schistosomiasis Astronomical theory (of climatic change), 33, 227–8 Biodiversity, 519–23, 528 Atacama desert, 17, 75, 408–13 Biogeophysical model of drought, 466–8 Atlantic Ocean Biomass burning, 484–6 influence on climate, 229, 240, 244, 391 Bioturbation, see soil, bioturbation thermohaline circulation, 391 Bipolar seesaw, 241, 243–4 Atlas Mts., glaciation, 225 Blue Nile Atmosphere alluvial history, 105, 181–4, 186, 217, 267, 342, effect of composition on climate, 500, 503–10 351–4 human impact on, 503–10 distributary channels, 171–81 Atmospheric carbon dioxide, 500, 503–10 fan, 177–81 Atmospheric circulation, 14–16, 358, 410, 426, 451 gorge, 342–3 Australia incision, 178, 342–3 biomass burning, 444–6, 485 Bolivian Altiplano, 34, 408, 412–14 Cenozoic desiccation, 32, 298, 430–4 Bølling-Allerød interstadial, 256, 297, 324, 405 Cenozoic tectonism, 25–7, 430–3 Bond cycles, 36 climate, 423–7 Botswana, 468, 522 Cooper Creek, 72, 140, 159, 207, 440 Brazil deforestation, 486–8 droughts, 468–9 desert dunes, 71, 136–40, 436 speleothems, 255–6, 468–9 desert dust (loess), 70–2, 143, 154–5, 436–7 Brunhes magnetic chron, 83–4 desert exploration, 70–1 Butchery site, prehistoric, 318–20 desert landscapes, 6–7, 424–5, 428–30, 437 droughts, 451–60 Cainozoic, see Cenozoic early Holocene, 445 Calcrete, 160, 219, 275–88, 370 Eastern Highlands, 192, 208, 239 Carbon dioxide (CO2) El Nino,˜ 452 glacial atmospheric levels, 506 erosion rates, 430 historic increase in atmospheric concentration, faunal extinctions, 207, 250–1, 320–3, 442, 444–7, 505 485 interglacial atmospheric levels, 506 fire, 322–3, 444–6, 485 possible impact on future global temperature, fire-stick farming, 485 505 Flinders Ranges, 195, 207, 428, 435, 439, 447 released by burning fossil fuels, 507 floods, 451–60 Carbon isotopes glaciation, 176, 242–3, 438 in plants, 31, 107, 367 Great Artesian Basin, 40 in soils, 31, 107, 109, 367–8, 370, 375, 395 Lake Eyre, see lakes in speleothems, 247, 251–3, 256 Lake Mungo, see lakes Cenozoic lakes, 72, 205, 207, 220, 435–6, 441–3 cooling, 28 last glacial maximum, 72, 206–7, 438–9, 441, 443–4, desiccation, 24, 29, 30 448 sedimentation, 27 Lynch’s Crater, Queensland, pollen record, 434–5 tectonism, 24–30 Murray-Darling, 266 time-scale, 23 periglacial solifluction, 72, 220, 438 weathering, 280, 298 present-day climate, 423–7 Charophyte, 390 Quaternary climates, 219–20, 434–48 Chihuahuan desert, see North America Riverine Plain, 72, 174–6, 439–40 China rivers, 72, 174–7, 186, 439–41 Cenozoic cooling, 28 salinization, 488 Cenozoic desiccation, 24, 29–30 separation from Antarctica, 26–7, 431–2 desert dunes, 131–4, 370–2 Snowy Mts., 176, 438 desertification, 491–4 source-bordering dunes, 140, 439–41 droughts, 452–9 summer monsoon, 447 floods, 452–9 vegetation history, 186, 433–6, 438–9 lakes, 204, 377–8 wetlands, 437 loess, 31–2, 35, 69, 152–4, 157, 368–70

Index 623

Loess Plateau, 32, 152–4, 157, 366, 368 biophysical factors, 485 speleothems, 251–3, 380–1 causes, 66, 477, 480–6, 517, 519 Chironomid, 290–1 consequences, 477, 484, 490 Cladocera, 290 definition, 473–6, 486, 517 Clay dunes, 121–2 detection, 488 Climate change, present-day dryland salinization, 487–8 causes of, 500–15 economic factors, 481–3 carbon dioxide, 500, 504–7 extent, 489, 496–7 greenhouse effect, 500, 503–10 fire, 484–6, 495 impact, 500–1, 510–15 hazards, 523 methane, 504–7 human impact, 473–99 trends, 505, 508–10 natural, 476, 477–9 Climatic cooling and volcanism, 517 overgrazing, 488–9, 493 Climatic warming, see climate change, trends plant cover, 479–80, 487–8, 493–6, 520–3 Clumped isotopes, 99 prevention, 497–9, 516–30 Colorado plateau, see North America processes, 476–9, 480–6 Complex response, of rivers, 9 social factors, 481–3 Continental breakup, 25–6, 431–2 solutions, 498, 516–30 Continentality, 16–17 Deuterium, temperature record, 243 Cores, deep-sea, 381, 501 Dew point, 15, 16 Cosmogenic nuclide dating, 94–5 Diatoms, 65, 142, 146, 189, 191, 194, 299–300, Cosmogenic radionuclides (CRN), 94–5 345 Disjunct distribution, fauna and flora, 284–5 Dams, 526 Distributary/distributive fluvial system, 162, 164, Dansgaard-Oeschger (D-O) events, 35, 248, 173 251 Drake Passage, opening of, 24, 367, 412 Darwin, Charles, 70, 75, 142, 146, 407 Droughts Dating methods, 77–97 albedo model, 466–8 Dead Sea, Lake Lisan, 197, 202–3 causes of, 449–72 Dead Sea rift, 273 definition, 450 Debris-flow, 169 El Nino-Southern˜ Oscillation (ENSO) events, Deep-sea cores, see cores, deep-sea 451–62, 471–2, 511–12 Deep weathering, see weathering historic, 60, 158, 449–72 Deflation, 191 Sahel, 464–8 Deforestation, 486–96 volcanic eruptions, 462–4 Deglaciation, causes of, 228–9 Dunes Dendrochronology, 96 Active, 19, 114–15 Denisovan, 307 Africa, 119–20, 125, 134 Desert Arabia, 126–7 causes, 14 Australia, 19, 136–40 definition, 3, 12 barchan, 113, 118–19 distribution, 2, 13 China, 131–4 dunes, 112–41, 370–2 clay, 121 dust, 142–57, 363, 366, 368–70 dating, 119, 121–3 encroachment, 475 distribution, 114–17 floods, 158–9 downwind of lakes, 137 glaciation, 224–44 fixed, 114–16, 119, 125, 266 history of research, 57–76 gypsum, 121 lakes, 8–9, 189–223 Kalahari desert, 134–6 landscapes, 1, 4 linear, 113, 117–19, 137 origins, 516 lunette, 121–2 pavement, 167, 273 mobilisation, 20, 117–19, 492–4 pluvial, 209–23 Namib desert, 134–6 polygenic landscapes, 4, 5–8 Negev desert, 126 refugia, 284–5 North America, 141 rivers, 9, 38–9, 158–88 orientation, 119 soils, 258–82 soil, 265–6 Desertification stabilisation, 125–6 Africa, 494–6 Sahara, 19, 30, 119, 123–6 Asia, 489–94 source-bordering, 120–1, 140, 352–3 assessment, 496–7 South America, 409, 417 Australia, 486–9 Thar Desert, India, 127–30 biomass burning, 484–6, 499 Duricrust, 258, 275–80

624 Index

Dust El Nino-Southern˜ Oscillation (ENSO) events, characteristics, 143, 145, 147 451–60, 471–2 climate, effect on, 154–6 flash, 449–50 deposition, 146–7, 149, 151, 154, 273 historic, 158–9, 450–72 distribution, 144–5, 150, 152 Flowstone, 246, see also speleothems entrainment, 147–8, 274 Foggara, 39, 552–3 in ice cores, 145, 156 Food security, 528–30 in marine cores, 145, 148, 221 Foraminifera (forams) in soils, 265–6, 273–4, 278 assemblages, 288–9, 298 origins, 145 isotopic composition, 227 particle size, 143, 146 oxygen isotopes, 227, 289 plumes, 144–5 Fossils, 283–301 rainfall, relation to, 149 invertebrates, 189, 194, 196, 267, 288–93 reworking, 146, 151 plants, 271–2, 295–300, 344–5 sources, 146, 148–9, 154–5 pollen, 195, 285, 294–9 transport, 147, 149 vertebrates, 189, 283, 284–8, 307, 312 see also Desert dust Fossil fuel burning, 503–10 Dust Bowl, 512 Full glacial, see glacial maximum Dust, volcanic, effect on climate, 462–4 Gastropod, 178, 183, 195–6, 267, 292–3 East Africa, Cenozoic desiccation, 340–1 Geomagnetic dating, 83–4 Ecological sustainability, prerequisites, 516–30 Gezira plain, Sudan, 158, 177–8, 186, 292–3 Effective precipitation, 4 Gibber, 18, 436 El Nino-Southern˜ Oscillation (ENSO) events, 317, Glacial 451–60, 471–2, 485, 511 aridity, 185–6, 206, 220–2, 206 Electron spin resonance (ESR) dating, 94 cycle, sawtooth pattern, 34 Eluviation, see soil erosion, 226, 229–32 Endoreic, 38–9, 162 erratic, 231–2 Eocene-Oligocene transition, 366–7 maximum, 238, 398 Epic of Gilgamesh, 57, 209 moraine, 230–3, 237 Equifinality, 9, 270 pluvial, see pluvial Equilibrium line altitude (ELA), 234, 240–1, 244 outwash, 232 Erosion stages, North America, 396–8 accelerated, 166 striations, 230–1 geological, 166 termination, 229, 237 processes, 166 theory, see astronomical theory surface, 167 Glacial-interglacial cycles, 27, 34, 226–9 Ethiopia Glaciation Afar desert, 190, 338–9 Africa, 235–6 deforestation, 494–6 Asia, 237–9 glaciation, 225–6, 235 Australia, 242–3 lake fluctuations, 185, 190–1, 339 causes of, 33, 227–8 Rift Valley, 339–40 evidence of, 229–32, 236 volcanoes, 339–40 chronology, 226–9 uplift, 341–3 Europe, 396 European Alps, 215–16, 226–7 North America, 239, 241–2 Evaporation, 3, 207, 470 South America, 239–41 Exoreic, 38, 162 Global Assessment of Soil Degradation (GLASOD) Extinctions study, 496–7 Australia, 320–3 Global climates, present, 2, 15, 16 Blitzkrieg model, 323–4 Global conveyor belt, see thermohaline circulation causes, 320–4 Global cooling, 29, 517 Eurasia, 324 Global ice volume and oxygen isotopes, 101 North America, 323–4 Global warming, 508–10 prehistoric fauna, 320 Gobi, 18 Gobi desert, 364 Ferricrete, 275–6, 278–80 Goyder’s Line, 41–2 see also laterite Grand Canyon, see North America Fire Great Artesian Basin, Australia, 40 biomass burning, 484–6 Great Basin, USA, see North America prehistoric, 55, 484–5 Greenhouse effect, 243, 500, 503–10 Floods Greenhouse warming, 508–10 causes of, 449–72 Greenland ice core records, 35, 225, 228, 256

Index 625

Groundwater, 40, 42, 526–8 Isotopes Gullies carbon, 53, 102–4, 106–9, 196, 247–56, 293 alluviation, 169–74, 401–2 clumped, 99, 249 incision, 168, 169–74, 401–2, 478–9 deuterium, 243, 247 vegetation, impact of, 171–4, 401–2 marine stages, 84–5, 227 Gypcrete, 275–6, 281 oxygen, 100–4, 107, 196, 247–56, 293 marine stratigraphy, 84–5, 100–1 Hadley circulation, 14–15, 410, 451 strontium, 99, 178, 187, 376 Half-life, 80 Isotopic equilibrium, 80–1 Hamada, 18 Isotopic fractionation, 85, 100, 106–7 Harappa, 375 Israel Harmattan, 72, 144 Desert dunes, 350–1 Heinrich events, 35–6, 222, 248, 256, 358 Negev desert, 350–1 Herodotus, 1, 58, 159, 177, 351 Pleistocene Lake Lisan, 197, 202–3 Hillslope erosion, 366–7 speleothems, 350–1 Himalayan uplift, 25, 30 Hoggar Mts., Sahara, 5, 30 Jebel Marra volcano, Sudan, 30, 270–1, 344 Holocene, subdivision, 22 Jet stream, 30 Hominid, 302–7 Jet stream, easterly, 30 Hominoid, 288 Homo erectus, 203, 305, 313–4, 326 Kalahari desert, 32, 55, 134–6, 354–9 Homo ergaster, 306, 313–14, 326 Kenya, lake fluctuations, 185–6, 196, 199, 215–18, Homo habilis, 305–6 346–7, 465 Homo heidelbergensis, 307 Kilimanjaro, glaciation, 225, 233, 236 Homo neanderthalensis, 307 Homo sapiens, 307, 314–6, 351 Lake Human health, 51, 526, 529–30 amplifier, 193 Hydrogen isotopes, 243 classification, 193 Hydrological cycle, 29 fluctuations, 194, 197–207 organisms, 191, 194–5, 197 Ice cores origins, 190 Africa, 225 regression, 191, 194 Andes, 479 reservoir, 193 Antarctica, 505, 507 saline, 194, 367, 435 Greenland, 380 salinity, 194, 527–8 Ice-rafting, 27, 35 sediments, 191, 194 Ice sheet shorelines, 192 Late Pliocene build-up in Northern Hemisphere, 24, stable isotopes, 196–7 27, 30 temperature, 194, 197 Ice volume, global, 101 transgression, 191, 194 Illuviation, see soil water budget, 192–3 India Lakes calcrete, 109, 130 Abhe (Afar desert), 65, 159, 254–5 convergence on Asia, 24 Bonneville (USA) glacial lake, 74, 211–13, desert dunes, 109, 127–30, 370 401–3 desert lakes, 218–19 Chad (Africa), 64, 160, 194, 200, 207, 222, 465 droughts, 452–9 China, 68, 203–5, 377–8 rivers, 186, 372–5 Didwana (India), 219 separation from Australia, 24–5 Eyre (Australia), 72, 159, 194, 205–7, 442–3 summer monsoon, 452–9 Frome (Australia), 139–40, 207, 436, 446–7 Toba volcanic ash, see Toba volcano Gadeb (Ethiopia), 30, 191, 299 Indian Ocean, 454, 460–1 George (Australia), 72, 230 Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), 454, 460–1 Lahontan (USA) glacial lake, 211, 213–14, 402–4 Indus Valley Culture, 69, 218–19, 375 Lisan (Israel), 197, 202–3 Infiltration, 165, 168 Makgadigkadi (Africa), 200–1, 208 Inselberg, 48, 167–8, 259 Malawi (Africa), 201, 359 Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation (IPO), 469 Masoko (Africa), 201–2, 359 Interglacial, 34, 224–5, 353 Mungo (Australia), 155, 205 Interstadial, 35, 297 Ngami (Africa), 194 Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), 15, 16, 185, Shati (Africa), 198, 346 358, 410, 426 Tana (Africa), 200, 221 Irrigation, 50–1, 526 Tibetan plateau, 204–5, 377–8 Invertebrates, 267, 288–93 Victoria (Africa), 200, 223

626 Index

Lakes (cont.) Namib desert, 17, 134–6, 159, 354–9 White Nile, last interglacial lake, 195 Neanderthal, 307 Zihor (Israel), 203 Negev desert, 146–7, 249–50, 273, 281, 350–1 La Nina,˜ 159, 452 Neodymium isotope ratios, 265 Last glacial maximum (LGM), 34, 152, 195–9, 205–6, Neolithic, 47–8, 56, 66–7, 183, 189, 311–13, 317–19 213, 217, 221–8, 238–9, 285, 289, 350, 358, 416 Nile, see also Blue Nile, White Nile dust ﬂux, 148, 205, 222 alluvium, 351–4 sea level, 443 delta, 105–6, 185 Late Cenozoic ﬂoods, 159, 351–4, 452–9, 462 cooling, 24, 29 gorge (Egypt), 340 desiccation, 24, 29 Herodotus, 58, 159, 351 ice build-up, 24 response to vegetation changes in headwaters, 181–4 vegetation history, 24, 31 sapropel record, Mediterranean, 184–5, 351–4 Laterite, 69–70, 264, 275–6, 278–82, see also ferricrete Nitrogen isotopes in bones, 107 Laurentide ice cap/sheet, see North America Nomads, subsistence strategies, 47–50 Levallois, 309–10 Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), 479 Lithospheric plate movements, 25–6 North America Little Ice Age, 464 alluvial fans, 399–402 Locusts, 50–1 arroyos, 168–74, 401–2 Loess, see Dust Baja California, 389 Luminescence dating, 92–4, 198 Basin and Range province, 388, 391, 399 Lunettes, 121–2 Cenozoic cooling, 395–6 Cenozoic desiccation, 394–6 Macrofossils, plant, 293–5 Cenozoic tectonism, 391–3 Magnetopolarity time scale, 83–4 Chihuahuan desert, 389, 399, 405 Makgadigkadi basin (Africa), see lakes climate, 389–91 Marine isotope stage (MIS), 84–5, 227, 248 Clovis hunters, 384, 404–6 Matuyama magnetic chron, 83–4 Colorado Plateau, 171, 386, 388–9, 391–3 Meat-eating, prehistoric, 318–20 deserts, 384–406 Mediterranean desert landscapes, 6, 385–9 Miocene desiccation, 24, 333, 340 faunal extinctions, 74–5, 385, 404–6 sapropel record, 184–5, 351–4, see also Nile glaciations, 30, 239, 241, 396–8 Megafan, see rivers Grand Canyon, 73, 253, 385–6, 392–3 Mesa, 39 Great Basin, 76, 213–14, 387, 389, 403 Mesolithic, 189, 311, 318 Great Plains, 388, 391, 395, 399 Mesozoic, 430–2 Great Salt Lake, 402 Messinian salinity crisis, 24, 333, 340 lakes, 74, 211–14, 400–4 Methane Last Glacial Maximum climate, 397–8, 405–6 Atmospheric, 504 late Quaternary vegetation history, 405 ice core records, 506 Laurentide ice cap, 384, 397, 399 recent increase in atmospheric, 506 loess, 398–9 Microfossils meltwater, 391 marine, 288–9 Mojave desert, 380, 389, 399 non-marine, 295–300 Nebraska Sand Hills, 399–400 Microlith, 309, 311 packrat middens, 405 Middle Awash valley, 159–60, 191–2, 272–3, 287, 300, paleosols, 395 305–8 pluvial lakes, 74, 402–4 Migrations, prehistoric, 313–18 Quaternary climates, 396–405 Milankovitch cycles, see astronomical theory rivers, 393, 399–400 Minevaporal hypothesis, see pluvial Rocky Mountains/Cordillera, 239–40, 387–8, Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), 313, 315–16, 327 391–4 Mohenjo-Daro, 375 Sierra Nevada, 387–8, 391 Mojave desert, see North America Sonoran desert, 389, 399, 402, 461 Molecular biology, 285, 302, 313–16 speleothems, 253, 392, 405 pongid and hominid divergence, 304 tectonism, 391–3 Mollusca, non-marine, 291–3 vegetation history, 395, 405 Monsoon North Atlantic, 240, 244, 391 African, 178, 196, 200, 329–30 North Atlantic Oscillation, 468–9 Australian, 427, 435, 447 Nubian Sandstone aquifer, 40 Asian, 204, 251–2, 361–3 Moraine, glacial, see glacial, moraine Ocean currents, 17 Mount Kenya, glaciation, 225, 233, 236 Oceans Mousterian, 309–10 microplankton, 100, 288–9, 298

Index 627

Ogallala Aquifer, 40 East Africa, 215–18 Okavango (Africa), 200–1, 206, 208 Dead Sea, 211 Oldowan, 271, 308–9 glacial, 185, 211–14 Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating, 92–4 India, 218–19 Orbital eccentricity, see astronomical theory North America, 74, 211–14 Ostracods, non-marine, 195, 289–90 South America, 214–15 Outwash, glacial, 232 Pollen, 31, 195, 433 Overland flow, see runoff Pollen analysis, Oxygen isotopes, see isotopes, oxygen interpretation, 285, 295–8 methodology, 295–6, 298–9 Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), 469 Potential evaporation, 469–70, 512 Pacific Ocean Potassium-argon dating, 85–6 sea surface temperature anomalies, 469 Potwar Plateau (Pakistan), paleosols, 30, 367–8 Southern Oscillation Index, effect of, 451, 511 Poverty alleviation, 528–30 Pacific Oscillation, 469 Precessional cycle, see astronomical theory Packrat middens, 405 Prehistoric Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum, 395 butchery, 318–20 Palaeolithic extinctions, 320–4, 326–7 Lower, 310, 313 fire, 320–3 Middle, 198–9, 272–3, 287, 310, 314, 326, 351 hominids, 302–7 Upper, 310–11, 314, 316, 324 migrations, 313–18 Paleochannel, see rivers stone tools, 32, 304–11, 324–6 Paleoclimatic record, evidence used to reconstruct, 196–7 Quaternary Paleodiet, isotopic evidence, 106–8 climatic variability, 287, 518–19 Paleoenvironmental indicators, 196–7 duration, 23 Paleomagnetism, 83–4, 195 environments, sources of data used to reconstruct, 10, Paleosol, see soil 217–18, 300–1 Paleothermometer, ostracods, 110–11, 289–90 sea-level fluctuations, 518–19 Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), 469–70, 512 time scale, 2, 22–4, 32 Palynology, see pollen analysis Panama isthmus, closure, 24, 412 Radiocarbon (14C) dating, 80, 86–91, 277–8, 316 Pangea, fragmentation, 24, 412 Raindrop impact, 167–8 Paratethys Sea, 31 Rain-shadow effect, 17–18, 361, 410, 412 Pastoralists, nomadic Rajasthan desert, see Thar desert drylands, influence on, 488–9, 493 Red Sea, crossing, 313–15 subsistence strategies, 47–50, 521–3 Red Sea Hills, 292 Patagonia Refugia, 284–5 dust, 155 Regression, lake, 191, 194 glaciations, 241, 244 Relative humidity, 15 Patterned ground, 233 Rivers Periglacial anabranching, 172–3 landforms, 176, 232–3, 235 anastomosing, 173 solifluction, 233, 235 bed load/traction load, 173, 176, 180–3, 186 Permafrost, Pleistocene, 232, 384 braided, 177 Peru, impact of El Nino-Southern˜ Oscillation (ENSO) channel pattern, 162, 177, 181 events, 159, 452 dissolved load, 166, 279 Petra, Jordan, 50, 52, 67 distributary, 173 Phreatic zone, 245 ephemeral, 162–3, 169–74 Photosynthesis, pathways, 31, 107, 109, 367–8, 370, floodout zone, 164 395 incision, 178, 185, 372–5 Phylogenetics, 285 meandering, 177, 179–80 Phylogeography, 285 megafan, 164, 266–7 Phytoliths, 300 metamorphosis, 72, 173–4 Plant macrofossils, 293–5 mixed load, 176 Plants, soil conservation, 487, 521–5 paleochannel, 72, 160, 174–81 Plate boundaries, 25, 431 plant cover, 181–4, 186 see also lithospheric plate movements stream power, 171, 173, 212 Pleistocene, timescale, 22–3, 32 suspension load, 162, 166, 173, 176 Pluvial terrace, 161–2, 164, 187, 372–5 Asia, 218–19 traction load/bed load, 173 Australia, 72–3, 219–20 Rub’ al Khali Desert, 127 Definition, 67, 210–11 Runoff, 165, 168–9, 197

628 Index

Sahara desert horizon, 260–1, 264 Cenozoic desiccation, 30–1, 331–7 illuviation, 168 dunes, 186 infiltration, 165, 167–8, 468 dust, 144 mapping, 258 former drainage network, 19, 63, 160–1, 315, 333–5, micromorphology, 264–5 351 moisture, 468 fossil fauna, 189 paleosol, 54, 258, 270–5, 281, 368–9 glaciation, 225 permeability, 168, 267 Holocene lakes, 63–5, 160, 184, 189, 222, 347–9 polygenic, 264, 274 onset of aridity, 31, 331–7 processes, 263–5 Pleistocene lakes, 64, 198–200, 222–3, 345–9 reg, 273 pollen analysis, 31, 65–6 salinization, 487–8, 519 prehistoric human occupation, 1, 62, 189, 316–17, stone layer, 268–70 345–9 termite activity, 264, 268–70 Quaternary glacial aridity, 185–6, 347–8 toposequence, 259–60 rock art, 1, 18, 283–4 vertisol (cracking clay), 178, 261–2, 267–8 topography, 332 Soil creep, 166, 169 vegetation history, 31, 65–6, 335 Solar radiation Sahel drought, 464–8 energy balance, role in, 502–3 Salinisation, 488–91 Solifluction, periglacial, see periglacial solifluction Salt lake, see lake, saline Sonoran desert, see North America Sand dunes, see dunes South America Sangamon interglacial, 396 Amazon basin, 75, 285, 408–9 Sapropel, 184–5, 351–4 Andes, 239–40, 407–13 Schistosomiasis, 51, 526 Atacama desert, 17, 75, 408–13 Sea-ice, see Arctic Bolivian Altiplano, 34, 408, 412–14 Sea-level Cenozoic cooling, 412–15 and ice volume, 229, 384 Cenozoic desiccation, 412–15 at glacial maximum, 384 Cenozoic tectonism, 407, 412–15 fluctuations, 229, 384, 508 climate, 409–12 last interglacial, 224–5, 508 desert exploration, 75 Semien Mts, Ethiopia dust/loess, 416 glaciation, 216 El Nino,˜ 407, 409, 451–9 periglacial deposits, 216 fossil soils, 414 Serir, 18 glaciations, 239–41, 417–19 Sierra Nevada, 387–8, 311 lakes, 214–15, 419 Silcrete, 275–6, 280 landscapes, 407 Silk Road, 69 loess, 416 Simpson desert, Australia, 137–9 Malvinas/Falklands current, 410 Slopewash, 168, 430 Quaternary climates, 415–22 Snowline, see Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) paleosols, 414 Soil Patagonia, 75, 408–9, 412 bioturbation, 260, 264, 268–70, 523–5 Peruvian/Humboldt current, 410 buried soil, 259, 271, 274, 281 pluvial lakes, 419, 421 carbonate, 108–9, 261–2, 265–6, 272, 274, 277, 375 Quaternary climates, 415–22 catena, 260 quebradros, 414 characteristics, 258, 261–2, 266–8 relict drainage, 414 classification, 261–3 rivers, 408, 413, 420 climate, 260 salars, 408, 419 climatic zonalism, 263 vegetation history, 285, 415–16 conservation, 523–5 Southern Ocean, 24 crust, 167 Southern Oscillation, 451 definition, 259–60 see also El Nino-Southern˜ Oscillation degradation, 165 Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), 451–60, 511 desert, 258–82 Speleothems, 245–57 dryland, 258–82 Africa, 256 eluviation, 168 Arabian peninsula, 248, 349–50 erodibility, 167 Australia, 250, 435–6 erosion, 166, 266, 430 Brazil, 468–9 factors, 259–60 China, 251–3 fauna, role of, 260, 268–70, 523–5 definition, 245 formation, 259–60, 263–5 isotopes, 247, 251–3, 256 fossil, 54, 258, 270–5 Negev desert, 249–50, 350

Index 629

North America, 253 Transgression, see lake, transgression precipitation, 103, 246–7, 251–3 Travertine, 245, see also speleothems temperature, 103, 247 Tree removal in Australia, effect on salinity, 488 Sponge spicule pottery, 60–1, 178 Tree rings, and drought, 469–70 Stadial, 35 Tufa, see also speleothems see also Younger Dryas Australia, 253–4 Stick-nest rat midden, 435 Brazil, 255–6 Stone Age definition, 245 Early (ESA), 310 Somalia, 254–7 Middle (MSA), 198–9, 310, 314, 326 South Africa, 255–6 Late (LSA), 310–11, 326 Stone tools Upwelling, 17 origins in Africa, 308–9 Uranium-series disequilibrium dating, 91–2, 247 prehistoric, 32, 304–6, 308–11, 324–6 see also prehistory, stone tools Vadose zone, 245 Stream power, see river Valley-fill, 195, 274–5, 437–9 Striation, see glacial striation Vegetation cover Strontium/calcium ratios, 110, 290 albedo, Sahelian, 466–8 see also paleothermometer removal, effect of, 174, 466–8 Strontium isotope ratios, 104–6, 376, 278, 265 Vertebrate fossils, see fossils Strzelecki desert, Australia, 137–9 Volcanism and climatic cooling, 463 Surface exposure dating, see cosmogenic nuclide dating Volcanic dust and drought, 462–4, 472 Sustainability, 516–30 Volcanic dust veil index (DVI), 463 Vostok, 505, see also Antarctica Taklimakan/Taklamakan desert, China, 364, 371 Taphonomy, 286 Wahiba Sands, Oman, 382 Tephra, 81–3, 106, 271–2, 324–5, 375–7 Warm Pool, Indo-Pacific, 427 Tephrochronology, 81–3 Water cycle, see hydrological cycle Termites and soil formation, 268–70, see also soils, Water resources of drylands, 37–40, 52–3 termites Water table, see groundwater Terrace, river, see river, terrace Weathering Thar desert, India, 109 climate, 382 Thermohaline circulation, 391 deep weathering, 280, 282, 298, 382 Thermoluminescence (TL) dating, 92–4 relict mantle, 280 Tibesti Mts., Sahara, 30 West Antarctic ice sheet, 225 Tibetan plateau see also Antarctica glaciation, 379 West Pacific Warm Pool, 427 lakes, 203–4 Wetlands, 187–8 uplift, 27, 30, 365–6, 382 White Nile, 104–5, 173, 178, 184, 195–6, 199–200, Toba volcano, impact on climate, 81–3, 106, 108–9, 267–8, 351–4 315, 375–7, 383 Wind Toolmaking, prehistoric, see prehistory, stone tools Gustiness and dust entrainment, 147–8 Trace gas emissions, see greenhouse effect Quaternary fluctuations, 145, 148, 156, 221 Trace element geochemistry, 110–11 sand transport, effect on, 117–19 Trace elements Wisconsin glaciation, 396 in non-marine ostracods, 110, 290 Wurm¨ glacial, 227, 396 in volcanic ash, 376 Trade Winds, stronger during glacial times, 30, 337 Y chromosome, genetic evidence, 312, 316 Transfer functions, 289 Younger Dryas (YD) stadial, 242, 297, 350–1, 358