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South China Sea (MPCBM*OUFSOBUJPOBM 8BUFST"TTFTTNFOU 4PVUI$IJOB4FB (*8"3FHJPOBMBTTFTTNFOU 8JMLJOTPO $ %F7BOUJFS - 5BMBVF.D.BOVT -BOE%-BXSFODF Global International Waters Assessment Regional assessments Other reports in this series: Caribbean Sea/Small Islands – GIWA Regional assessment 3a Caribbean Islands – GIWA Regional assessment 4 Barents Sea – GIWA Regional assessment 11 Baltic Sea – GIWA Regional assessment 17 Caspian Sea – GIWA Regional assessment 23 Gulf of California/Colorado River Basin – GIWA Regional assessment 27 Patagonian Shelf – GIWA Regional assessment 38 Brazil Current – GIWA Regional assessment 39 Amazon Basin – GIWA Regional assessment 40b Guinea Current – GIWA Regional assessment 42 Lake Chad Basin – GIWA Regional assessment 43 Indian Ocean Islands – GIWA Regional assessment 45b East African Rift Valley Lakes – GIWA Regional assessment 47 Indonesian Seas – GIWA Regional assessment 57 Pacifi c Islands – GIWA Regional assessment 62 Global International Waters Assessment Regional assessment 54 South China Sea GIWA report production Series editor: Ulla Li Zweifel Editorial assistance: Johanna Egerup, Monique Stolte Maps & GIS: Rasmus Göransson Design & graphics: Joakim Palmqvist Global International Waters Assessment South China Sea, GIWA Regional assessment 54 Published by the University of Kalmar on behalf of United Nations Environment Programme © 2005 United Nations Environment Programme ISSN 1651-940X University of Kalmar SE-391 82 Kalmar Sweden United Nations Environment Programme PO Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profi t purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from the United Nations Environment Programme. CITATIONS When citing this report, please use: UNEP, 2005. Wilkinson, C., DeVantier, L., Talaue-McManus, L., Lawrence, D. and D. Souter. South China Sea, GIWA Regional assessment 54. University of Kalmar, Kalmar, Sweden. DISCLAIMER The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily refl ect those of UNEP. The designations employed and the presentations do not imply the expressions of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNEP or cooperating agencies concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or areas or its authority, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This publication has been peer-reviewed and the information herein is believed to be reliable, but the publisher does not warrant its completeness or accuracy. Printed and bound in Kalmar, Sweden, by Sunds Tryck Öland AB. Contents Executive summary 9 Abbreviations and acronyms 12 Regional defi nition 14 Boundaries of the region 14 Physical characteristics 15 Socio-economic characteristics 20 Assessment 26 Freshwater shortage 26 Pollution 31 Habitat and community modifi cation 35 Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and other living resources 40 Global change 44 Priority concerns for further analysis 46 Causal chain analysis 48 Environmental and socio-economic impacts 49 Immediate causes 49 Root causes 51 Conclusions 54 Policy options 55 Defi nition of the problem 55 Construction of the policy options 56 Policy defi ciencies and needs 56 Identifi ed policy options 59 Performance of the chosen alternatives 59 References 61 Annexes 65 Annex I List of contributing authors and organisations 65 Annex II Detailed scoring tables 67 Annex III List of important water-related programmes and assessments 70 Annex IV List of institutions that aff ect water use 74 Annex V Criteria for scoring environmental impacts 77 Annex VI The South China Sea Large Marine Ecosystem 78 Annex VII Irrigation, water withdrawal, and drainage development 81 The Global International Waters Assessment i The GIWA methodology vii CONTENTS Executive summary This GIWA report presents the results of Scaling, Scoping, Causal chain At the time of the assessment, many of the relevant laws and regulations and Policy options analyses conducted for the GIWA region 54 South were not well accepted and there was little eff ective implementation. China Sea region in 2001-2002. The South China Sea region contains This was compounded by insuffi cient capacity for eff ective alleviation, nine nations; China, Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, which was, in part, related to currency depreciation, shifts in government Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines. This Large Marine Ecosystem spending and diffi culties in establishing strong multilateral support for and its catchments are bounded to the west by the Mekong River large-scale interventions. (GIWA region 55), north by East China Sea (GIWA region 36), east by the Sulu-Celebes (Sulawesi) Sea (GIWA region 56) and Small Island Total pressures are likely to increase moderately to 2020, being driven States (GIWA region 62), and south and southeast by Indonesian Seas by the continued population growth. This is expected to cause (GIWA region 57). The assessment determined that the most severe signifi cant deterioration in environmental and most socio-economic environmental issues facing the South China Sea include: aspects of international waters in the South China Sea region. Suspended solids resulting from deforestation and agriculture in The rate of deterioration will be contingent upon the success of hundreds of watersheds; improved regulation and ongoing and future planned interventions. Habitat loss and modifi cation, through massive deforestation and Priority concerns for the future are the same as those for the present, associated siltation, conversion to agriculture and other land uses Unsustainable exploitation of fi sh and Habitat and community (freshwater, coastal and estuarine habitats) and destructive fi shing modifi cation. practices (coastal, estuarine and marine habitats); Overexploitation and destructive fi shing practices. The Causal chain and Policy options analyses focused on the linkages between habitat loss and unsustainable exploitation, particularly the Priority environmental and socio-economic concerns are Unsustainable environmental and socio-economic impacts, causes and policy options exploitation of fi sh and Habitat loss and modifi cation. Pollution and of overfi shing and destructive fi shing practices. Environmental and Freshwater shortage are of secondary environmental and socio-economic socio-economic impacts are as follows: concern, with Global change presently of tertiary importance. Loss and fragmentation of mangrove forests from development, including massive conversion for aquaculture; The present human population of the region is approximately Loss and fragmentation of coral reefs from coastal development, 350 million, and future scenarios suggest an overall human population sedimentation and destructive fi shing; increase of approximately 2% per year. There is expected to be Loss and fragmentation of seagrass areas; increasing urbanisation and reliance on extractive industries (mining, Reclamation of wetlands for urbanisation, industry and plantation agriculture, forestry and industrial fi shing), although there agriculture; will be considerable variation in sectoral changes among the nations. Confl icts among villagers and outside fi shers; There is already widespread overexploitation and use of inappropriate Injuries to fi shers; technologies, raising serious concerns as to even the medium-term Changes to market prices. sustainability of the production systems. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9 The following immediate causes are identifi ed in the analysis: Ongoing and expanded community education programmes; Urbanisation and industrial development; Improved options for the generation of alternative income/ Expansion of mining activities with coastal run-off ; ecologically sustainable livelihoods for the burgeoning poor Deforestation of old growth forests for settlement and coastal populations, particularly among the fi sheries sector; agriculture; National and international surveillance strategies, with Expansion of fi sheries, including the use of destructive methods, participation from all levels of government, IGOs, NGOs, and local and development of aquaculture. communities; Much-improved enforcement supported by stronger legal The identifi ed root causes behind habitat modifi cation and overfi shing penalties; in the South China Sea are: Improved transparency in governance and policing, with stronger Economic: anti-corruption legislation and enforcement. - Economic growth; - Overcapitalisation; This framework is crucial in bridging the gaps between policy - Foreign aid; formulation, development of legislation and enforcement of - Market demand; regulations. Five recommendations and eleven strategic actions - Export pressures for forest products - building materials; relevant to implementing immediate interventions are proposed. - Export pressures for fi sheries products, aquarium trade and alien species. Policy recommendations include the development or expansion of: Political: Bio-physical (biodiversity) and socio-economic research focused - Military infl uence. on improving management eff ectiveness and effi ciency; Demographic: Functional, integrated networks of marine protected areas founded - Overpopulation, particularly among poor coastal communities; on the above research and with strong co-management focus; - Urban migration; Sustainable livelihoods; - Poverty and limited access to alternative
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