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SOCIOLOGY 3 1 01 CHAPTER IS SOCIOLOGY? THE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS ARE IS COMMUNITY LEARNING IMPORTANT LEARNING IS COMMUNITY to the “Another major system failure, equally “Another major system failure, THREE MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS? MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL THREE TO A SOCIETY? WHAT WHAT WHY the lower and sometimes middle level of our the lower and sometimes middle is the The major failure wage-labor hierarchy. the best of inability of the system, even in able and jobs for all who are times, to provide millions of would-be willing to work. Every day, told that our society has nothing workers are not needed, that for them to do, that they are surplus. they and their dependents are number destructive, is the fact that a growing heads of of men and women—individuals and . . . poor. workers but remain families—are floors, clean These workers file papers, mop the whatever needs guarding. tables, or guard done they say “OK, I’ve At the end of the day, what you asked me to do. What am I worth?” the employ- And our society answers, through er, Not even enough to live on.” “Not much. Q

“Like you, “Like Foundations of Sociology “There are many homeless people in are “There “The connection between homelessness I know people who drink, people who do drugs, I know people who their have tantrums and treat and bosses who have good jobs. like dirt. They all subordinates of them they to become homeless, some Were also become “alcoholics,” would surely if some of “addicts,” or “mentally ill.” Similarly, now so labeled the homeless women who are to be magically transported to a more were of them— usual and acceptable setting, some labels and not all, of course—would shed their of us somewhere take their places with the rest on the spectrum of normality. on you, America and that is a shame. Shame Shame shame on me, shame on America. we have of choices because it is the result not have made, shame because it does homeless are to be. . . . Homeless people to live. because they do not have a place at and poverty points to major system failures An Introduction 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:14 AM Page 3 Page AM 2:14 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:14AMPage4

Chapter 1 4 flimsy cardboardbox. beneatha ing warmth walk orthewomanseek- panhandling ontheside- connection totheman don’t feelapersonal eye totheproblemifwe ablind easy forustoturn dled underbridges.It’s andhud- on streetcorners voiceless peopleloitering people onthestreet are nolongeranonymous encounters. Thehomeless homeless womenhe gives avoicetothe sociologist ElliotLiebow Women Am: TheLivesofHomeless T SOCIOLOGY In is defined Tell ThemWhoI • John Bell • J W.E.B. DuBois • • H • K Conflict Theorists • Robert Merton • T • Emile Durkheim • Herbert • Auguste Comte Functionalists nameless, faceless, often viewedas he homelessare , professorand a a a a ne Add lcott P a rl M rriet M s a rx S a a a a pencer a by ourpl not onlybyourindividu th rsons my Foster rtine ms scienceguidedbytheb a t “thesoci a u a ce inthesoci • How • Erving Goffm • Herbert Blumer GeorgeHerbertMe • Symbolic Interactionist a l m a tters: ourlives a rd Becker a a l ch of thiswasplanned;it house. Ofcourse,none had kickedheroutofthe pregnant, andherparents clothing aisles.Shewas local storetosleepinthe and thenwalkedtoa in thelibraryuntilclosing place tolive,sosheread time. Shedidn’thavea the libraryuntilclosing students oftenstayedin thatoneofmy learned out onesemester:I lege campus,asIfound anywhere, evenonacol- Homelessness canhappen against himorher. times circumstancesturn some- Liebow writes,but chooses tobehomeless, Nobody names andfaces. theynowhave corner; l world” a sic underst a a n r a cteristics, but a a re d a a ffected, nding sociologists such a nd w a s foundedby studied using a nd shouldbe a s a soci everyd • is focusesonhowpeopleinter • Symbolic Interactionism a nd howheorsheinter Sociological Imagination a microorient influences theoutcome see howone’s society for success the individu the all angles. he tacklestheissuefrom the UnitedStates.Instead, cause ofhomelessnessin to pinpointonespecific doesnottry like Liebow conclusions. Asociologist cies anddrawshisown He questionssocialpoli- about thebiggerpicture. findings, andthenthinks explainshis information, is allabout.Hegathers blueprint ofwhatsociology culture. partofits a “normal” become homelessness to United Stateshasallowed as developedthe wonder whyacountry was left,likeLiebow,to simply happened.AndI a l environment a a y liveswiththeirsociety’s symbols Liebow’s bookisa bility tolookbeyond a a a l nd f a tion ontheindividu s thec a ilure a cts withthe a use a — nd a ct intheir the rel a nd ex a between l a a tionship mines

5 Sociology <<< <<< nd rts a a tions l a a ted p l rel or a a ces contribute tion a society works a use it studies how The Sims use it studies how the a a ce, gender, soci ce, gender, a nd intern how outside for a s r Think about a real-world a ffect how system of interrel tion bec a a tion bec a a s a l justice, to test. How would you use the a ACTIVITY cro orient cro orient a l structures a theory you’d like to use you don’t have to be afraid to test how have to be afraid to test you don’t your characters. behaviors affect extreme >>> Façade game to test the theory? What do you think the outcome of your study will be? paragraphs describing your a few Write If you have sociological study. proposed access to either of these video games, go ahead and test your theory! a m m a ss, crimin a Like any science, sociologists seek to understand the Like any science, sociologists a 2 is a science guided by the basic understanding that “the guided by the basic understanding is a science Functionalism society • views • is soci

Conflict Theory • studies issues such cl • is struggle for resources holds society together manipu- nd a When we think of kids in trouble, many of us probably blame the par- many of us probably When we think of kids in trouble, digms a r SOCIOLOGY SOCIOLOGY social matters: our lives are affected, not only by our individual characteris- not only by our affected, our lives are social matters: place in the social world.” tics but by our Façade a the social world.” facts of a situation while keeping an open mind about what they are study- keeping an open mind about what they are facts of a situation while bay. we strive to keep our personal opinions at ing. In addition to this, ents. But, in this situation, does the blame rest solely on her shoulders? rest ents. But, in this situation, does the blame Mills (1916–1962) would say no. Famous American sociologist C. Wright Mills asserted that people must understand behind in school, hanging out on street corners,behind in school, hanging out on street and getting into trouble. she had no other options and no idea what else Like many single parents, to do. l p a allow you to study and play up the entertainment Façade n The Sims nd is studied using one is a sci- and a of three theoretic Façade and The Sims Players of sociology WHAT IS SOCIOLOGY? IS WHAT late characters in a virtual world to see the certain behaviors have on the charac- effects become characters ters’ lives. Your when they have little interaction depressed life. with others, just like in real Sims the effect people’s actions have on themselves people’s the effect and others. The best part is that in the simu- so not real, lated world, the consequences are factor, they also provide a lesson in sociology. a they also provide factor, nisms a The l mech ctions a a The d has Façade —the soci person's a te —the level of connectedness a CONNECTIONS

t regul a person feels to others in a th the environment the • Social Control • Social Individual Choice vs. Social Forces • Solidarity , a strategic computer game that MAKE sprung forth a similar idea. While Using Video Games to Study Sociology some- Have you ever wanted to control actions? Leave it to video one else’s games to allow you to act out such a most popular is One of the fantasy. Sims decide when your life. You simulates real character sleeps, eats, and even bathes. the game recently, More Sociology Define Sociology the study of society, it’s might say that define sociology? You How do you with one interactions study of people’s how people live, or the the study of scratch the surface. these answers only This is all true, but another. Association, to the American Sociological According our lives understanding that “the social matters: ence guided by the basic our place in by our individual characteristics but by not only affected, are Developing a Sociological Imagination her job at a nearby automotive factory. lost One of my students recently at a convenience store She attended classes during the day and worked had no one to watch her kids at night. Being a single mother of two, she falling while she was at work. Without were children supervision, her get the topic: the get 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:14 AM Page 5 Page AM 2:14 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:14AMPage6

Chapter 1 6 gives usmore thananindividualistic interpretation oftheworld. our interpretation ofevents. So, usingthesociologicalimagination it more clearly. Thesefactorsinfluencebothourindividualchoicesand point ofviewinourimaginingthesocialworld,wecanunderstand structure affect theindividual.Byincludingthis tion ontheindividual.We mustalsounderstandhowhistoryandsocial the outcome. the causeforsuccessandfailure andseehowone’s societyinfluences sociological imagination to someone’s situation.Inotherwords, Millswantedustodevelopa the lure ofhiringcheaplabor. gasandfoodpricesskyrocketing, With nesses istomakethebiggest profit possible,soownerscan’t resist workers intheUnitedStatessuffer. Ultimately, thegoalofmostbusi- When U.S.companiesclose because ofcheaperoverseaslabor, ical imaginations.Isoutsourcing labortoblameforhersituation? point ofview. most ofusseesocialissuesthrough biography;thatis,ourpersonal biography ofasituationtogeneratethisimagination.Millsargued that place inacomplexworld.We mustgraspboththehistoryand Let’s considermystudent’s situationthistimeusingoursociolog- Developing asociologicalimaginationhelpsyouunderstandyour 3 4 This micro , orsmall-scale,reference focusesouratten- —the abilitytolookbeyondtheindividualas macro , orlarge-scale, 5 other forces,suchasrisinggasprices, to imagination, however, mightattribute the parents’predicament. motivation. their predicament onalackofeducationor plexities ofhumansituations. sociologically aboutanissue,simple answersrarely explainthe com- school. Now, sherarely seesthem.What’s clearisthatwhenthinking her oldjob,shewashomeevery daywhentheygothomefrom dren stillbeintrouble? Probably not.Shereported thatwhenworking in mystudent’s case.Ifmystudenthadnotlostherjob,wouldchil- expensive waysofdoingthings.Somepeoplewinandothers lose,as many businessesmustadjusttheirbudgetsaccordingly andfindless >>> put foodonthetable,somemightblame When working-classparents struggleto People usingasociological 7 Sociology —illustrated in the is the ability to look beyond the beyond ability to look is the 8 are suicides that occur when the level of suicides are are suicides that result from a lack of a from that result suicides are refers to the social mechanisms that regulate a that regulate to the social mechanisms refers refers to the level of connectedness and integration a connectedness and to the level of refers means large-scale. means small-scale. Durkheim identified four different types altruistic, of suicide—egoistic,

SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION SOCIOLOGICAL one’s and see how failure success and cause for as the individual the outcome. society influences MICRO MACRO SOLIDARITY to others in the environment. person feels SOCIAL CONTROL actions. person’s EGOISTIC SUICIDES among those who have few social connections, occurring solidarity, likely to fall into despair. more and are feel isolated and alone, SUICIDES ALTRUISTIC high and when the individual views the solidarity is exceptionally to all other interests. as superior interest group’s >>> fatalistic, and anomic graphic below. . 7 social pilots and refers to the level refers altruistic suicides occur. People who occur. kamikaze Solidarity 6 Theory Theory ’s DURKHEIM’S FOUR TYPES OF SUICIDE DURKHEIM’S FOUR TYPES egoistic suicides , sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) pro- , sociologist Emile Durkheim e d Suicide refers to the social mechanisms that regulate a person’s actions. a person’s that regulate to the social mechanisms refers When people lack solidarity, When people lack solidarity, Solidarity levels also influence the likelihood of Solidarity levels also influence the likelihood posed that two social forces, solidarity and social control, influence the influence and social control, solidarity forces, posed that two social his or her own life. chance of a person taking of connectedness a person feels to others in the environment, and feels to others in the environment, of connectedness a person control These two social forces are independent factors that help predict the type independent factors that help predict are These two social forces commit. of suicide someone might on Suici on causes for every social, and historical often several biographical, are There a socio- to suicide. Using to unemployment homelessness event—from on the individual consider the impact means that we logical imagination commit someone would Ever wonder why view. these points of from death, and yet in most personal type of is perhaps the suicide? Suicide the 1897 book Emile Durkheim Emile commit these suicides have few social connections, feel isolated and have few social connections, feel isolated commit these suicides Of course, this doesn’t likely to fall into despair. more alone, and are suicidal. It only shows that having low levels of mean that all “loners” are the odds for egoistic suicides. solidarity increases These suicides result when the level of solidarity is exceptionally high. These suicides result he or she views to a group, Because the individual is deeply connected This par- as superior to all other interests. of the group the best interests behind ticular analysis might explain the rationale suicide bombers. 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:14 AM Page 7 Page AM 2:14 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:14AMPage8

Chapter 1 8 tant waytoconsiderthetensionbetweensocialforces andindividualchoice. will taketheirownlives. decide thatlivingthrough the chaos ismore thantheycanhandle,so as religion, losetheirpower. result, manyofthesocialinstitutionsthathadonceregulated society, such these adjustmentsresult inachangeofsocietalrulesandnorms.As in anomicsuicidesbecausepeoplemustadjusttotheirnewsituations,and andindustrializationwouldbringanincreasepredicted thatmodernization refers tosocialinstabilitycausedbyeconomicandturmoil.Durkheim term health-care facilities—are more likelytocommitfatalisticsuicide. Individuals wholiveinhopelessenvironments—such asprisonsandlong- his orherfuture isbleakandthere isnowayforthesituationtoimprove. one’s socialcontrol. Thistypeofsuicidehappenswhenapersonfeelsthat period alsoplayarole. duringthesametime the relativesizeofagrouppeopleborn suicide inasociety.Otherfactorssuchasone’sfamilymakeupand but wecanunderstandthatone’senvironmentinfluencestherateof factors tospecificallypredictwhowillandnotkillthemselves, social factorsthatseemtoinfluencesuiciderates. focuses onhowpeopleinteractwithothersintheireverydaylives. change, usuallyeconomic. an unequalsystemthatbringsaboutconflictandchange. SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM CONFLICT THEORY FUNCTIONALISM PARADIGM ANOMIC SUICIDES FATALISTIC SUICIDES control. a systemofinterrelated parts. scientists studytheworld. there isnoteasyatall.” easy tofallintohomelessness,butbeing Women, Tell ThemWhoIAm:TheLivesofHomeless have evenmadetheargumentyourself.In people choosetobehomeless?You might Have youeverheard someonearguethat Choice vs.SocialFactors Homelessness—Individual women are actuallyworking-classwomen to payamortgageorbuygroceries. finding thattheydon’t haveenoughmoney to imaginesomeonewakinguponedayand are livingpaychecktopaycheck,it’s nothard THINK SOCIOLOGICALLY Although Durkheim’s theoryismore thanacenturyold,it’s stillanimpor- During timesofsocialunrest, Unlike altruisticsuicides, Suicide mightbeseenasanindividualdecision,butthere are many Liebow findsthatmosthomeless Liebow says,“itis,perhaps,alltoo refers toatheoretical frameworkthrough which is atheoretical frameworkthatdefinessocietyas are suicidesthatoccurasaresult ofrapid is atheoretical frameworkthatviewssocietyas 10 are suicidesthatresult from toomuchsocial 12 9 fatalistic suicides When manypeople In timesofchange,certainindividualswill is atheoretical frameworkthat anomic suicides are related tothelevelof We cannotusethese l o success. els for ment withlittleprivacyandfew role mod- result, herchildren grow upinanenviron- her familyandothernecessities. Asa her moneyislikelytobespentonfoodfor transportation togetwork.Therest of must spendagoodpartofhersalaryon to payforahouse,especiallywhenshe many timesherwageswillnotbeenough homeless womanactuallyfindsajob, people whohavenohome.Evenifa because employersshyawayfrom hiring hole. Findingworkisespeciallydifficult they findittoughtoclimboutofthatdark these women“fallintohomelessness,” who havefallenonhard times.Once increase. Anomie n spectives andthesociologistswhohelpeddevelopthem. to studythelargerworld?Let’s examinethree importanttheoretical per- an individual’s choice.Howdosociologistsusethesociologicalimagination sociologicalimaginationtohelpconsiderhowsocialfactorsinfluence their such assuicide,homelessness,oranyothersocialevent,theyuse a higherriskofkillingthemselves.Whensociologistsexamineanissue, als tocommitsuicideperse;however, theydoindicategroups whoare at According totheCentersforDiseaseControl andPrevention: own lives. data onsuicidesthatindicatepeoplewhoare athigherriskoftakingtheir an individualchoice,andinfactitis.However, certaintrends ariseinthe consider theactofsuicide.Mostmystudentssuggestthatthisistotally sonal choices.Theyprovide acontextinwhichwemakedecisions.Again, You’ve probably guessedbynowthatsocialfactorsofteninfluenceourper- AND SOCIALFORCES INDIVIDUAL CHOICE Generally, therateofsuicideincreases withage.Furthermore, men • Policeofficers haveahighriskofsuicide.Perhapsthisisbecausethey • SuicideratesintheUnitedStatesare lowestinwinterandhighest • It isimportantforyoutonotethatthesefactorsdonotcauseindividu- Time ofyear,Time profession, andageallpredict thelikelihoodofsuicide. of suicide. more illnessesand/orphysicallimitationsthatincrease therisk have alsobeduetofatalism,becausewhenpeopleage,theymay may 65havethehighestratesofsuicideinUnitedStates.This of are more likelytocommitsuicidethanwomen.Menover the age suicide. structural characteristicsthatmayleadthemtofatalisticthinkingand to thisfactthattheyhaveeasyaccessguns,andyoucanseesome work longhoursandare exposedtoviolentandgraphicscenes.Add The lackofintegrationmightincrease theoddsofanegoisticsuicide. friends andfamily. However, inthespringthissocializationmayend. spring. Duringthewinterholidays,mostpeopleare surrounded by 11 >>> they against homelesspeople,whatchoicedo thecards seeminglystacked help. With he doesarguethatsocietyisdoinglittleto homelessness isimpossibletoovercome, homelessness. factors thatledtoperson’s one ofthepeopleyoumet,analyzing the like before? Write aparagraphdescribing arrive attheshelter?Whatwere theirlives tributed totheirsituations.Howdidthey there andfindouthowsocialfactorscon- in yourcommunity. Talk tothepeople Although Liebowdoesnotsuggestthat ACTIVITY really have?

Visit ahomelessshelter Visit <<< <<< 9 Sociology is a theoretical framework that focuses on framework that is a theoretical Symbolic interactionism inevitably results in an unequal system. Similar to functionalism, conflict to functionalism, unequal system. Similar in an inevitably results is concerned as this theory approach, with various theory is also a macro Inequality of wealth and power in battling for power. groups interested For example, conflict of modernsociety is often the focus conflict theory. the poor how the chasm between the rich and theorists might examine no surprise that children It’s our society. opportunities in people’s affects the best to receive can afford privileged backgrounds who come from lessons. in organized sports, and take music educations, participate families may poorer from children However, not get these same opportu- opportunity puts them at a disadvantage. nities, and this lack of these between people influence them and how how individual interactions interactionism is primarily a Symbolic interactions can impact society. to sociology because it is concerned approach with the individual’s micro gestures, words, The use of “symbols,” such as society. in creating role how people influence body language, and facial expressions, For example, if you’re communicate. Our actions communicate meaning. One student once told me he what does that mean? having a “bad day,” is the case, could such a had a “bad day” every time it rained. If that others on your job or influence how you behave toward definition of reality How might his “bad day” influence the “days” of oth- in the classroom? how small interactions ers? Interactionists constantly seek to understand influence the larger society. WHAT ARE THE ARE WHAT —a theoretical framework through which framework through —a theoretical paradigm is a theoretical framework that views society as being is a theoretical is a theoretical framework that defines society as a sys- framework that defines is a theoretical Can you In 2010, Functionalism In the United States, most sociologists view the world through three most sociologists view the world through In the United States, Conflict theory see Durkheim’s point about anomic suicide in such cases? home foreclosures became a “sign of the times.” The stress of tough economic times can push some people, who probably would not have ever thought of suicide, to take that step. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE THREE MAJOR THREE OF THE CHARACTERISTICS SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS? SOCIOLOGICAL think sociologically: think scientists study the world. scientists study the world. and symbolic interaction- conflict theory, major paradigms—functionalism, ism. tem of interrelated parts. This paradigm is a macro approach to sociological approach parts. This paradigm is a macro tem of interrelated rather than individuals. study because it focuses on larger social structures be helpful to think about the When you think about functionalism, it may that help it maintain a nor- The body has built-in mechanisms human body. way of trying to maintain its opti- This is your body’s mal body temperature. you will temperatures, outside in freezing stranded mal functioning. If you are Society is your body temperature. start shivering in an attempt to regulate a social system to throw similar in many ways. When something happens step in to help balance things out again. certain forces off-kilter, in a constant struggle over scarce resources. This constant struggle resources. in a constant struggle over scarce Before I ever knew anything about sociology, I had a worldview. Being I had a worldview. about sociology, I ever knew anything Before my born working-class family, religious, in the United States to a born Had I been in China, point of view. teachings shaped my parents’ How do about the world. likely think differently Chad, or Chile, I would most? personal beliefs or ideas do you value you view the world? What questions, but I bet you have to these to respond It might be difficult When sociologists take in the world, definitive answers. some pretty a they do it through >>> 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:14 AM Page 9 Page AM 2:14 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:14AMPage10

Chapter 1 10 selves self-fulfillingprophecies thathelpthemremain mired intheirplight flict theory).Thosewhoexperiencehomelessnessoftencreate inthem- those structures andare generallyabusivetothepoorest ofthepoor(con- homelessness (functionalism),andpeoplewithwealthpowercontrol understand homelessness.Liebowfindsthatasociety’s structures create for example,you’llseethatheusesbitsandpiecesofeachparadigmto to lookcomprehensively atasingleissue.IfyouconsiderLiebow’s work, They mayuseeachparadigmtoilluminatedifferent issuesoruseallthree ily. Infact,theworldviewsofmostsociologistsare rathereclecticordiverse. world. So,isoneschoolofthoughtbetterthantheothers?Notnecessar- aboutsociety.and symbolicinteractionistsapproach learning differ. Thechartbelowillustrateshowfunctionalists,conflicttheorists, world. However, thequestionstheyaskasanalyzetheseissues aboutthesocial as whyhomelessnessexistsorhowchildren learn by whichpeopleinfluencesocietyandaffects them. and micro approaches, andyettheyallseektounderstand theprocess the individual.Eachsociologicalparadigmcancombineaspectsofmacro viduals haveontherest ofsocietyandtheinfluencethathason istheeffect thattheseindi- focus ontheindividual,primaryconcern ing theworkingsofhumanmind.Althoughsomesociologicalstudies ology from psychology, aspsychologyoperatesonamicro levelbystudy- institutions andtheireffects onsociety. Thisispartofwhatseparatessoci- approach ismostcommonlyused,asitexamineslargersocialgroups and from eitheramacro ormicro perspective.Insociology, themacro society. given conditionsandcanbeusedasground rulesforanykindof elements ofsociety. SOCIAL DYNAMICS SOCIAL STATICS SOCIAL LAWS Sociologists usethesequestionstohelpthembuildtheoriesaboutthe Sociologists from eachparadigmoftenanalyzesimilarissues,such As youcansee,sociologistsoftenapproach theirstudyofsociety Level ofAnalysis Core Questions are statementsoffactthatare unchangingunder are theexistingstructuralelementsofsociety. are thechangesinexistingstructural COMPARING THETHEORETICALPARADIGMS Whatare theintended • are What thepartsof • keepssociety What • outcomes ofanevent? and unintended they relate? society andhowdo functioning smoothly? Functionalism Macro Howare society’s • Are there groups • dopeoplewith How • Howare wealth • this societyandwhy? that getaheadin keep them? wealth andpower in society? and powerdistributed opportunities divided? resources and and capitalism,whichultimatelyleadstotheoppression ofwomen. oppressive nature ofthesocialworldisrooted inthestructures ofpatriarchy patriarchies thatkeepwomenonthemarginsofsocialworld.The sion theories ing poweroverthemthrough purposefuldiscrimination. sion theories opportunities forwork,education,andothersocialneeds. from thatlimitwomen’s thoseofmen.Often,this focusesonsexistpatterns ories the outcomesforindividuals? race, ethnicity, socialclass,andageallinteractwithgendertodetermine the socialworldbechangedtomakeitaplaceforallpeople?”Howdo Feminists oftenask,“Whyisthesocialworldwaythatitis?”and“Can women fitintoasocialworldthathasbeentraditionallycontrolled bymen? answer howthesocialworldisordered around gender. Inshort,howdo Feminist theoryisagendered andinterdisciplinary approach thatseeksto FEMINIST THEORY revisit someoftheseinchapterswhere theybestapply. three. Let’s lookatafewemergingparadigmsoftenusedinsociology. We’ll essential foryoutounderstand,socialthinkershavegonebeyondthese in sociology. Althoughtheseare thecore paradigmsinsociologyand New sociologystudentsmaythinkthattheseare theonlythree paradigms Emerging Para complete viewofwhyhomelessnessexistsinoursociety. (symbolic interactionism).Liebowuseseachoftheseideastocreate a minimize theircosts,thusleadingtochoiceofsocialaction.Often, rewards andcosts.Peopleinherently seektomaximizetheirrewards and Exchange theoristssuggestoursocialexperiencesconsistofaseries EXCHANGE THEORY Conflict Theory Feminist theoriescanfallintooneofthree types. focus onhowwomen’s experiencesofthesocialworldare different Macro suggest thatwomen’s oppression isrooted incapitalismand suggest thatmenoppress womenbykeepingandmaintain- d Symbolic Interactionism Dopeoplechange • doessocial How • Howdopeople • igm and ifso,why? setting toanother, behavior from one human relationships? create, andsustain interaction influence, co-create thesociety? s Micro Gender inequalitythe- Structural oppres- Gender oppres- 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:14 AM Page 11

>>> Moths with colors that stand out in their environment are beautiful, but such colors may not function well as a survival mode. Similarly, societies that cannot adapt may not survive.

exchange theory appeals to thinkers on a micro level, such as why you tural elements of society, and social dynamics, or the change in those ele- may select the particular mate you choose. If a girl is dating a boy but ments. He believed that by discovering the interplay between structures becomes exasperated with his manners when they are dining out, she may and dynamics we could develop social laws that would help improve soci- choose to break up with him because she perceives the costs of staying in ety. To date, we have no social laws, but some sociologists are still trying the relationship as higher than the rewards. Of course, exchange theory to develop them. Although few people follow Comte’s theories today, his also has a macro point of view. Is it really in the best interests of any coun- basic ideas are the groundwork on which functionalism is based. try to export all of their manufacturing jobs simply because the countries to As we’ve discussed, functionalism is a theoretical framework that which they send those jobs can provide cheaper labor? In calculating the defines society as a system of interrelated parts. These parts work in con- value of the exchange, one must consider not only the short-term rewards cert with one another to satisfy the needs of society as a whole. According 11 (immediate profits), but also the potential long-term consequences (eco- to functionalists, society is relatively stable, which means that things occur nomic collapse when transportation of goods gets interrupted). in society for a specific function and those functions help maintain stability. Sociology Social institutions such as the family, economy, educational system, ENVIRONMENTAL THEORY and political system are critical for society to function properly. Understanding how these and other social institutions work in a society is This is perhaps the most recent emerging paradigm. This perspective of great interest to functionalists. Since these parts are interrelated, each seeks to blend social thought and ecological principles to discover how has an impact on the others. Remember my student who lost her job? environmental attitudes have changed, as well as how environmental The economic system influenced the family system, which may, if her chil- policies and justice influence society. Environmental social thinkers often dren continue to get into trouble, interact with the criminal justice system. seek to understand how societies adjust to ecological changes. How Performing functional analysis can be layered and quite complex. many people can actually live in a specific area? This idea is known as Functionalism suggests that a society’s values and norms provide the carrying capacity of an area. Often, we believe that human beings are an exception to the ecological limits of carrying capacity. Environmental the foundation for the rules and laws that it creates. These norms regu- theory suggests this is not necessarily true. For environmental sociology, late the relationships between social institutions. Therefore, general human beings are merely one more type of organism sharing the ecolog- agreement on these norms must occur for a society to achieve balance. ical space with animals. Dealing with the reality of limits becomes an All of the social structures, from the minor day-to-day interactions important component of the social world. How do societies adapt, and if with friends to the complex cultural traditions and customs, work they fail to adapt, will they continue to survive? These questions and together to keep society running. Functionalists, however, have differing more are at the core of environmental social thought. views about how these structures cooperate with one another. Some compare society to a living, breathing organism; others analyze the expected and unexpected outcomes of a social event, while still others The Functionalist’s Worldview wonder what exactly it is that holds a society together. Although it’s the oldest theoretical approach, functionalism remains an important way to Although philosophers have always tackled the issues surrounding how consider society. On the next few pages, we’ll investigate some early people and society fit together, it was not until French philosopher functionalists and you can see who these ideas come from. Early theo- Auguste Comte (1798–1857) coined the term sociology that the disci- rists like Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim contributed to the growth pline got its name.13 The oldest sociological paradigm, functionalism and development of the functionalist perspective. owes much to Comte, who is considered the father of sociology. Comte felt that sociology should strive to discover social laws— statements of fact that are unchanging under given conditions and can be HERBERT SPENCER used as ground rules for any study of society. In order to discover these Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) was a British intellectual whose ideas fur- laws, Comte proposed that we study social statics, or the existing struc- thered the development of functionalism. Spencer’s study of sociology 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:14AMPage12

Chapter 1 12 that suggestsstrong societiessurviveandweakonesbecomeextinct. activities. It’s thisbondthatworkstokeepsocietyrunningsmoothly. societies inwhichpeopleshare beliefsandvaluesperformcommon solidarity solidarity intotwodifferent types,mechanicalandorganic. the typeofsocietyinfluencessolidarity. Durkheimdivided together, becausepeopleseethemselvesasunified. Hepointsoutthat that holdssocietytogether. Solidarityintegrates, orholdssociety work provides thebasisformuch offunctionalistthought. of thefirsttruesociologists,inthatheuseddatatotesttheories.His from ourdiscussionofsuicide earlierinthechapter. Durkheimwasone viewed societyasanorganism.You shouldrecognize Durkheim’s name Like Spencer, French intellectualEmileDurkheim(1858–1917)also EMILE DURKHEIM division oflabortofeedourselves.Truckers, grocers, andfarmersall never. Foodisessentialforsurvival,andyetmostofusrequire acomplex thing youeithergrew orkilled yourself?Formostofus,theansweris another forsurvival.Askyourself,whenwasthelasttimeyouatesome- many different jobswehavetoday. Thisforces peopletodependonone in asocietywithdiversedivisionoflabor. Divisionoflaborrefers tothe from mechanicaltoorganic. success duetoitsownmerit?Ifso,youthinkabitlikesocialDarwinist. superior toothers?Would yousuggestthattheUnitedStatesreached its social Darwinism?Onthemacro level,doyouthinksomesocietiesare Spencer’s ideasinhercomments?Howdowords reflect theideaof one elsedoes;theirhomelessnessisownfault.”Doyousee of mystudentsstated,“Homelesspeoplecan’t followtherulesthatevery- vive. Forexample,inarecent classdiscussionabouthomelessness,one superiority orinferiorityofasocietybasedonitsabilitytobestrong andsur- you canseeatypeofthinkingoftencalled because theyadaptbettertochangesintheenvironment. From Spencer, evolve, thrive,ordie.Forhim,somesocietiesare “more fit”thanothers Spencer viewedsocietyasabiologicalorganism,andsuch,itcan organisms bestadaptedtotheenvironment—makes evolutionoccur. argued thatnaturalselection—aprocess resulting intheevolutionof was informedbyCharlesDarwin’s theoryofnaturalselection.Darwin Durkheim’s worksuggestedthatsolidarityisavitalcomponent As societiesbecomemore complex, theirtypeofsolidaritychanges Spencer’s ideainformsasocialtheorythat,inessence,evaluatesthe refers tothestateofcommunity bondingintraditional Organic solidarity “social Darwinism” occurs whenpeoplelive Mechanical —a notion 15 14 organic solidarity. society,important inamodern butwhatbindspeopletogetheristheir we getthethingsneedandholdssocietytogether. Beliefsremain Talcott Parsons. a placetostudytheworkingsofsociety. Oneofthesethinkerswas the wholesystemsuffers. Similarly, societyisaninterrelated system,andifonepartfailstowork, breaks onyourwheel,theentire wheelwilleventuallyfalloutofbalance. nected tothehubkeepswheelspinning.Butifjustonespoke pendent parts.Whenproperly balanced,eachindependentspokecon- was muchlikeabicyclewheel,madeupofindependentyetinterde- experience andhowsocialsystemsinterconnect. ForParsons,society grand theoriesthatattemptedtoexplaineveryaspectofthehuman sociology intheUnitedStates.Parsonswasinterested increating Functionalist Talcott Parsons(1902–1979)wasagiantinthefieldof TALCOTT PARSONS across theUnitedStates. University ofChicago,anewacademicdisciplinebegantoemerge After AlbionSmallcreated thefirstdepartmentofsociologyin1892at in theUnite Functionali must dotheirpartssowecaneat. and expandedhisideasintowhatisknownasfunctionalistthought. though. AnumberofAmericanthinkersdrew inspirationfrom Durkheim and oftendisruptive.Ofcourse,oncetheprocess ofchangestarts,the because societiesnaturallywillfindabalance.Thuschangeisunlikely great force mustimpactthesystemoritwillremain unchanged.Thisis world actsthesameway. Thus,inorder tochangeasociety, some some otherforce muststopit.Parsonspointedoutthatthesocial of thealleystopit.Althoughfrictionfrom thefloormayslowitdown, the ballstartsrolling, ittendstokeeprolling untilthepinsandend bowling ballanduseyourownforce tomakeitroll downthe alley. Once already inmotion.Forexample, whenyougobowling,musttakea that theytendtoremain atrest, iftheyare atrest, orstayinmotion,if Durkheim’s ideasaboutsolidarityare justthetipoficeberg, Parsons alsocommentedontheinertiaofsocialsystems,meaning 17 the samevalues. same things,and shares the sameway, doesthe everyone livesinmuch solidarity because have mechanical nities <<< s 18 19 d This buddingscienceprovided socialthinkers m State Amish farmcommu- 16 This organicconnectionensures that in Pennsylvania s 13 Sociology 22

EMILE DURKHEIM refers to the state of community to the state of refers are functions that lead to an expected functions that lead to an expected are SOLIDARITY occurs when people live in a society with a people live in a society occurs when is a notion that suggests strong societies strong that suggests is a notion are functions that lead to unforeseen or that lead to unforeseen functions are are social factors that affect people in a society. people affect social factors that are

ROBERT MERTON Y CI ET SO diverse division of labor. diverse division consequence or outcome. SOCIAL DARWINISM SOCIAL extinct. ones become and weak survive SOLIDARITY MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC FUNCTIONS MANIFEST FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS LATENT bonding in traditional societies in which people share beliefs and which people share traditional societies in bonding in perform common activities. values and unexpected consequences.

exist because they meet some need. For example, years ago in the had hitching posts in front stores town in which I live, downtown area gone because no one rides a horse for trans- of them. Now they’re cars become obsolete, society will find If and when portation anymore. in the some other way to deal with transportation issues. However, meantime, cars serve an essential function for society. any social event, sociologists should ask the question, “For whom is this should ask the question, “For whom any social event, sociologists con- this, we’ll do a complete analysis because we’ll functional?” By doing that latent functions. For example, one could argue sider both manifest and profits a company’s jobs is to improve outsourcing the manifest function of the latent function consumers. However, cheaper goods to while providing lost, and for families whose jobs are tension of such a system creates one cannot complete a func- who then might lose their homes. For Merton, and latent functions. tional analysis without considering both manifest HERBERT SPENCER HERBERT the Only strong

survive! TALCOTT PARSONS TALCOTT , or factors that lead to an unfore- THE FUNCTIONALISTS—AT A GLANCE THE FUNCTIONALISTS—AT This idea is widely accepted in sociology This idea is widely accepted , or factors that lead to an expected conse- 21

AUGUSTE COMTE latent functions 20 and laws! social J’aime physics manifest functions —social factors that affect people in a society. Merton identified Merton in a society. people —social factors that affect One of Merton’s greatest theoretical contributions to functionalism was contributions to functionalism theoretical greatest One of Merton’s seen or unexpected consequence. Merton suggested that when looking at seen or unexpected consequence. Merton suggested quence or outcome, and today, as most sociologists have an area of expertise, be it race, gender, have an area as most sociologists today, possible to population, or a host of other issues. It is crime, inequality, seeking to in one of these areas, pursuing knowledge spend a career that describe these issues and how theories of the middle range create shows how sociologists are work also Merton’s they influence society. theorists in any area. “pure” rarely have both intended and unintended social realities his understanding that functions two types: ROBERT MERTON ROBERT of Parsons, a contemporary Robert K. Merton (1910–2003), Functionalist the gap that could bridge middle-range theory a create sought to He of society. study of individual parts theories and the between grand parts and studying them individually to society into did this by breaking whole. better understand the system will continue on that path until some counterreaction occurs counterreaction some path until on that will continue system social inertia. due to CRITICISMS OF FUNCTIONALISM was the dominant theoretical functionalism In the mid-20th century, years. recent its dominance has waned in more However, approach. Critics of functionalism sometimes claim that this paradigm does not take into account the influences of wealth and power on the formation all social structures functionalist point of view, a purely From of society. 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:14 AM Page 13 Page AM 2:14 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:14AMPage14

Chapter 1 14 Worl either case,conflicttheorysuggests thatwe’re allstruggling for could bebecausethosewiththe “stuff” don’t wanttoletgoofit.In could bebecausethere isnotenough“stuff” togoaround, orit theorists acknowledgethatwe liveinanunequalsociety. Why?It forconflicttheoristsare economicwealthandpower.concerns Such ety inastruggleforscarce resources. So,whatisscarce? Two main Remember, conflicttheoryisatheoretical frameworkthatviewssoci- The ConflictTheori these socialinequalitiesaffect societyasawhole. functionalism’s weaknesses.Conflicttheoristswanttoanalyzehow our society. inequalities insocialclass,race,andgenderperpetuateimbalance job? Thefunctionalistperspectiveoftenfailstorecognize how choice didmystudenthaveaboutglobalizationandthelossofher minorities beingignored. Who speaksforthehomeless?What enough.” However, criticswouldarguethatthisbelief results inmany est numberofpeople.Changewillarisewhenproblems become“big benefit? Functionalistsmightarguethatsocietyworksforthegreat- yourself forwhomisthesystemfunctional?Whomdoes tunity” foreveryone? balance pointisfair. Thus,istheUnitedStatesreally a“landofoppor- lessness. Inthisway, hecriticizesthefunctionalargumentthat lack ofadecentwagedrivesmuchthepovertythatresults inhome- housing orhigh-payingworkforallofitscitizens,hepointsoutthata Liebow arguesthattheUnitedStatesdoesnothaveenoughcheap lack ofaffordable housinginsocietyremains aproblem. Although really goodforanyonetohave peoplesleepingonthestreets? The out thatcertainindividualtraitsmayleadsometoliveinshelters,isit should beaddressed slowlyorquickly?Althoughitiseasytopoint tain socialproblems, suchashomelessness,isthissomethingthat actually inthebestinterest of society. However, ifyouthinkaboutcer- point ontheirown.Ifchangeoccurs,itwilldososlowly, andthisis potential accidentsthatcomewithit. ing thecarmeanssupportingairpollution,acres ofparkinglots,and quences ofthisinvention,wedonotfullyunderstandit.Thus,support- movement formillions.Andyet,ifwefailtoconsiderthelatentconse- Certainly ithasmadesocietymore mobileandprovides freedom of it maybeharmfultodoso.Considertheinventionofautomobile. class system. CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS her positioninsociety. FALSE CONSCIOUSNESS PROLETARIAT BOURGEOISIE As youconsiderhomelessnessorothersocietalissues,ask Functionalists suggestthatsocietieswillnaturallyfindabalance Functionalists are accusedofsupportingthestatusquo,evenwhen The conflicttheoryparadigmarose asaresponse tosomeof d view refers tomembersofthepoorworkingclass. refers tomembersofthecapitalistclass. is aperson’s lackofunderstandinghisor is anunderstandingofone’s positioninthe s t ’s lead fewerthan15. companies. Ofthetop500companiesinUnitedStates,women women. You’d behard-pressed tofindwomenCEOsinthebiggest while inthiscountryitcanbeillustratedbyopportunitiesafforded to cannot choosetheirownhusbandsorprocure jobsoftheirchoosing, still subordinate tomen.Insomecountries,thismightmeanwomen conflict-oriented pointofview. Women throughout theworldare often experiences andopportunitiesofmenwomen,oftentakesa their desires overothers’,thenyouthinklikeaconflicttheorist. occur insocietybecausesomepeoplehavethepowertopromote believe thatdiscrimination,ageism,sexism,racism,andclassism tion, environment, andahostofothersocialphenomena.Ifyou digm appliestosocialclass,race,gender, marriage,religion, popula- always involvesaconsiderationofconflicttheory. Therefore, thepara- tries, ordifferent socialclasses.Thestudyofinequalityinsociology macro conflictsbetweendifferent groups ofsociety, different coun- people. these sible forthosewhoare because weallowthesystemtoignore suggesting thatthoseofuswhoare nothomelessare, inpart,respon- deserve becausewepermithomelessnesstoexist,heisinessence Liebow discussesthelackofadequatewagesandshameweall system, laws,institutions,andtraditionssupporttheirauthority. When the pyramiddeterminerulesforthosebelowthem.Undersucha structure ofpowerandwealthexistsinsociety. Theeliteatthetopof a disadvantage. create advantagesforthemselves,eveniftheiractionsputothersat to keepit.Forthisreason, thewealthyelitesare more likelyto some attheexpenseofothers.Onceyouhavepower, youwant economic system.Suchasystembreeds inequality, asitrewards conflicttheoristsoftenlookattheinequalityofacapitalist Modern issues, viewinghowsociety’s structures contributetotheconflict. the world. more “stuff,” whetherthat“stuff” ispowerinamarriageorwealth owners payworkersaslittle possible. Liebow, too,noticesthiswhen they control thebusinesses.Sinceincreasing profit is theirfirstgoal, or membersofthecapitalistclass, ownmostofthewealthbecause it forall. ent from Comtebecausehewished tounderstandsocietyimprove utopia inwhichequalityreigned. Athiscore, Marxwasnotthatdiffer- Believing thatcapitalismcorruptedhumannature, Marxhopedfora which privateindividualsownbusinessesandcontrol theeconomy. writer whoanalyzedtheeffects ofcapitalism—aneconomicsystemin Karl Marx(1818–1883)wasaGermantheorist,socialactivist, and KARL MARX of conflicttheory. me thatherviewsoriginatedfrom thethoughtsofKarlMarx,afounder diately tookoffense anddeniedmyclaim.However, itwasevidentto advantage ofthepoor. WhenIlabeledherviewsasMarxist,sheimme- at theshortendof“financialstick”andpowerfulpeopletake keep womenout.Doyouseetheconflictperspectivehere? men wanttomaintaintheirpositionsofpowerinsocietyandstrive Modern feministtheory,Modern orthestudyofhowgenderaffects the Many theoristswhousetheconflictparadigmmightexamine In general,theessenceofconflicttheorysuggeststhatapyramid Conflict theorists,likefunctionalones,tendtofocusonmacro Marx suggestedthatinacapitalist system,the A studentoncepointedoutthatwomenoftenfindthemselves 23 Feminists oftensuggestthisoccursbecause bourgeoisie , 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 15

he encounters homeless women who actually have some form of owned stock in the company that let her go, so was she a worker or an employment, but don’t make enough money to afford housing. owner? Seems like both. Employers generally pay these women as little as possible, and the Marxist theory clearly remains active in today’s discussions of sociol- women have no way to fight the system. ogy. Marx felt that economic power should be in the hands of the people Marx called the workers in a capitalist system the proletariat, the because wealth corrupts human nature. poor working class of society. They do all the work and the owners reap These ideas continue to inspire sociologists. Let’s next look at the all the benefits. The proletariat lives in an unending cycle in which work of four conflict theorists, Martineau, Du Bois, Addams, and Foster, they work for low pay and then use those wages to survive. According to study how gender, race, and class affect a society. to Marx, workers will never get ahead if they do not share in the wealth they create. Why don’t workers do something to change their fate? Marx sug- HARRIET MARTINEAU gested that it was because people had a false consciousness, or a lack Harriet Martineau (1802–1876), like Karl Marx, came from a bourgeois of understanding of their position in society. Marx proposed that the family and received the benefits and status that came with such a class workers must develop class consciousness, or an understanding of distinction. However, she hoped that capitalism and industrialization one’s position in the system. He suggested that most workers do not would bring greater justice and opportunity. Martineau, one of the first truly understand how capitalism enslaves them. They think if they work female sociologists, did not just examine the inequalities in the economic hard, they’ll get by and perhaps thrive. Marx argued that these ideas system, she also focused on the inequality between the sexes. were fantasy. In the book Society in America, Martineau analyzed the impact of slav- Marx believed that once workers recognized their positions, they ery, the position of women in society, and the social customs within U.S. would unite to end the tyranny. He proposed an overthrow of the private political and economic systems.24 She points out out how these systems ownership of business, and instead suggested favor men who hold the power in society. socialism. In such a system, the government CYCLE OF WEALTH Martineau’s studies noted hypocrisy and controls the economic system, ensuring that all IN A CAPITALIST SYSTEM favoritism in the United States. For exam- people share in the profits generated by their ple, only white men could vote in the United own labor. States, despite the nation’s democratic Sociologists’ opinions on Marxist theory The Bourgeoisie ideals. Enslaved people and women did not vary. Although some may hope for a type of have equal opportunities for political, eco- class consciousness to arise and replace our nomic, and educational involvement. current system, others think he oversimpli- Martineau pointed out that some people

fied class struggle. His simple system of did not have the same opportunities as 15 social class is difficult to apply to a others. She not only paved the way

complex postindustrial capitalist for other female sociologists, but Sociology society, and even if you try, also expanded people’s thinking where would you draw the line about the world, enlightening between owners and work- what would become the ers? My student actually conflict paradigm.25

spends their owns the wages in wealth and businesses exploits owned by

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Chapter 1 16

of prejudice anddiscrimination. among AfricanAmericansintheUnitedStateswasprimarilyresult would eventuallyleadbetter-quality lives. with greater assimilationintothemainstream culture, AfricanAmericans ness,” created tensionandconflictforAfricanAmericans.Hefeltthat they were equals.Thisidea,whichDuBoistermed“doubleconscious- one. Inoneworld,theywere second-classcitizens,whileintheother Americans ofhistimehadtoliveintwoworlds,awhiteoneandblack history wasinfluentialoverthepresent. HealsonotedthatAfrican capitalism ledtoAfricanAmericans’problems, DuBoispointedoutthat problems hiscontemporarieswere facing.Implyingthatslaveryand of AfricanAmericansinPhiladelphiaandconnectedthathistorytothe racial inequalityintheUnitedStates. study ofraceinAmerica.Hewasparticularlyinterested inissuesof work. Hiswritingsare vast,but heisoftencredited forinitiatingthe would eventuallycompletebothhisundergraduateandgraduate attending FiskUniversity, DuBoismovedontoHarvard, where he theorist whoagreed withagreat dealofMarx’s thinking. After W.E.B. DuBois(1868–1963)wasanAfricanAmericanconflict W.E.B. DUBOIS tial sociologisttostudyraceintheUnitedStates.Hewasasocial What abouttoday? each personinthephotographbelow? >>> In manyrespects, DuBoiswasthefirstandperhapsmostinfluen- In hisbook inequality intheU.S.democraticsystem. Early conflicttheorystudiesrevealed The PhiladelphiaNegro 27 Is theU.S.systemfairfor In thebook,hereviewed thehistory 26 , DuBoisshowedthatpoverty 28 tpeace. at justice andequalityhelpstheworldbe little toimprove thelivesofAfricanpoor. generate wealthforcapitalistswhiledoing was aprimarywayforEuropean powersto world. the causeofwar andpoverty throughout the Europeof theUnitedStatesandwestern was Du Boisincreasingly believed thatthegreed caused many oftheseproblems. herealized thatcolonizingEuropeans Africa, andmany in wars oppressive governments, When DuBoissaw extreme poverty, she sawthingsthatchangedherlife. from Rockford Women’s Seminaryin1882,thentraveledtoEurope, where strongly opposedslavery, raisedher. abachelorofartsdegree Sheearned father, abusinessmanandpoliticianwhoworkedtoelectLincoln inCedarville,Illinois.Addams’sLaura JaneAddams(1860–1935)wasborn JANE ADDAMS years inAfrica. For thisreason, helefttheUnitedStatesandspenthisremaining this. equaltowhitesbecausethewhitepopulationwouldnotallow be Bois eventuallycametobelievethatAfricanAmericanswouldnever the Africancontinentandlessinterested inlifetheUnitedStates.Du activist, andhebecamemore interested inworkingtoimprove lifeon In Toynbee Hall,Addamswitnessedthesettlementhousemovement. To counterthis,promoting economic 29 The settlementhousemovementsupportedthe Colonialism 30 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 17

THE CONFLICT THEORISTS — AT A GLANCE

JANE ADDAMS

MARX W.E.B. DU BOIS KARL Ignorance + Structural Barriers Equal = Greed Poverty – Wealth War = + Peace Poverty

JOHN BELLAMY HARRIET FOSTER MARTINEAU

Democratic Capitalism Power = Destruction for All! of Earth 17 Sociology

idea that poverty results from ignorance and structural barriers, not from fail- JOHN BELLAMY FOSTER ings in the morality of the person. The settlement house workers actually lived and worked in the slums. Addams and a friend, Ellen Gates Starr, John Bellamy Foster, a contemporary professor of sociology, often writes decided to create a settlement house in Chicago. In 1889, they opened Hull- using a conflict paradigm. His work is primarily concerned with the nega- House with these three principles: tive effects of capitalism on society and the planet as whole. In his article, “The End of Rational Capitalism,” he points out that purely 1. Workers would live in the slums to better understand the problems there. capitalist economies, or economies in which markets are totally free, are 2. Every person has dignity and worth regardless of race/ethnicity, disappearing throughout the world. gender, or social class. In free-market capitalism, businesses seek short-term rewards by 3. Dedication, education, and service can overcome ignorance, disease, working to expand markets. They do not care about long-term conse- and structures that perpetuate poverty. quences. As a result, Foster argues that businesses’ pursuit of wealth has Offering services from medical to educational, Addams also used her posi- created environmental and global problems, including the existence of tion at Hull-House to write articles and books on a variety of topics such as extreme global poverty and inequality. the rights of women and the poor. In many ways, Hull-House became Foster argues that markets cannot “solve problems” because there a laboratory for the application of sociological principles. In 1931, are no profits to be had from such an endeavor. Often, people suggest Addams won the Nobel Peace Prize for her lifetime of service and dedica- that the United States is the wealthiest country in the world because we tion to peace.33 have worked harder and used the capitalist system to give opportunity Through her teaching, writing, and action, Addams embodied the and incentive to people. Foster reminds us that such a perspective best of sociology principles. Along with Albion Small, she helped found ignores important parts of history, namely the period after World War II the American Sociological Association and often guest lectured in sociol- when most of the “industrialized world” was destroyed (except the United ogy classes at the University of Chicago. In order to understand the poor, States). The expansion of the U.S. economy was largely related to build- Addams felt that she must live among them. Once she comprehended ing up these devastated countries. This had very little to do with the this situation, she wrote about it to change the system. These theories superiority of the American capitalist system. Issues such as the fall of impacted her work at Hull-House. These are the steps you will take in the USSR and the privatization of the Chinese economy seem to indicate learning to think like a sociologist. that capitalism has won and is “superior” to socialism. However, totally 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 18

<<< This is a collage of flags from many of the world’s most populous and powerful nations. Do any of these flags have meaning to you?

The Symbolic Interactionist’s Worldview

Symbolic interactionism focuses on how communication influ- ences the way people’s interactions with each other create the social world in which we live. Symbolic interactionists believe that the root of society comes from its symbols. They suggest that the symbols we use are arbitrary, meaning that they vary from culture to culture. Do you write with a pen or una pluma? Neither is wrong; one is a label in English, the other in Spanish. As long as you are with other people who speak the same language, you can interact.

18 A long time ago, I enrolled in a language school in Mexico. I lived with a family who spoke no English, and my teachers only free-market capitalism will result in the destruction of the environment spoke to us in Spanish. At first, I was totally lost. I clung to the and the exploitation of workers throughout the world.32 The long and members of the family with whom I lived as if I were a little short of it, according to Foster, is that capitalism requires expanding mar- child. However, I soon began to learn the language. It is amazing Chapter 1 kets. Once the entire planet is developed, the system will collapse. how our need to communicate with others helps us learn. Although the words or accents sound different, communication is central to all human interactions. CRITICISMS OF CONFLICT THEORY Of course, words are not the only symbols. Consider the photo- Critics of conflict theory often accuse it of being too radical. This paradigm graph of flags from countries around the world. The flag that proba- often becomes synonymous with the idea that powerful people oppress bly has meaning for you is the U.S. flag. However, people from the weak. However, most people seem to agree that the roles and rules of China, Brazil, Belgium, or the United Kingdom probably feel the society “make sense.” For example, even after we discussed globalization same way about their flags as you do about yours. These symbols and the depletion of factory jobs in the United States, my student who lost represent entire nations, and yet you cannot identify many of them her job still felt that the U.S. system was “fair.” She said, “it still makes and they probably don’t hold much interest to you. This is because sense to me, even though I’m being hurt by it.” This illustrates the reality the importance of a symbol is rooted in the culture from which it that most people in society tend to agree with the status quo. Certainly, comes. Just as language varies between people, so, too, do their some are victimized by racism, sexism, and other prejudices, but most symbol systems. members of society seem to agree that things are generally fine. As you can see then, for interactionists, society is fluid thing. A simple reading of conflict theory can also seem to make the notion It is always in a process of change because how we use symbols of conflict seem like a “bad” thing. However, doesn’t competition breed and what they mean to us is constantly changing. For example, excellence? When I played baseball, I never worked harder than when when I was in school, teachers might tell ethnic jokes, such as my team got a new member, a young man who also played second “Polack” jokes. Of course, now most of you have not ever heard base. I worked even harder to maintain my spot on the roster. Starting these jokes. Why? Because people began to define such humor positions are rare, and the “conflict” actually improved my play. as unacceptable. After examining the works of functionalists and conflict theorists you’re You can see then, that our definition of what has value depends on probably thinking in a macro manner. Whether you’re using functionalism our understanding of it. Context and setting affects our understanding or conflict theory, you are thinking like many sociologists. Yet one more par- of a social event. You certainly behave differently in church than you do adigm remains. If you believe that the way to change the world is through in a bar or on a golf course. Social order results when the members of the individual, you might find symbolic interactionism appealing. society share common definitions of what is appropriate. 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 19

Disputes arise when we do not share the same definitions. Think SELF refers to a person’s identity and what makes that person different about an argument you’ve had with someone recently. Did the fight stem from others. from a different interpretation of meaning? For example, if your roommate eats your food without asking your permission, you might interpret that behavior as disrespectful and rude. However, he might feel that his called, “John,” I turned my head. Eventually, I learned nuances of the behavior shows that the two of you are friends and share everything with symbol John. For example, if my mother yelled my name, I knew I one another. was in trouble. Mead argues that all these various symbols enter Symbolic interactionism is the most micro of sociological approaches, our minds, where their meaning is interpreted and we are told as it often studies the activities of individuals and then draws connections to how to react. Mead suggests that this process is never-ending; larger society from these. Studies of relationships, race, deviance, and even therefore, we have a fluid sense of who we are. Our selves can social movements can all use a symbolic interactionist approach. change, and they do change based on how we interpret the symbols Interactionists argue that individuals have the power to co-create thrown our way. the world, to make it what they want it to be. People develop stan- In this way, your self develops. Self is your identity. It’s what dards and norms through a process of interacting with others. This makes you who you are and separates you from others. According to way, we learn what is “normal” and acceptable behavior. Widespread Mead, you couldn’t have a self without symbols or without someone social acceptance of a behavior is the main criterion in declaring it to pass those symbols to you. In other words, you learn who you are to be “normal,” and we quickly learn that different situations allow through others. for different behaviors. For example, if you’re dating someone, kiss- In middle school, did you ever feel embarrassed by your parents? ing good night is a perfectly acceptable behavior. However, trying to Do you feel the same level of embarrassment today? The answer to kiss a co-worker good-bye could result in your being charged with both questions is probably yes and no. When I ask this in class, most sexual harassment. of my students report that they don’t find their parents nearly as embar- Symbolic interactionism is a distinctly American way of looking at rassing as they used to. Why does this occur? It is because when the world. In many ways it blends sociology and psychology. Let’s take a you’re young, you don’t have a well-developed sense of self. You are look at the work of its founder, George Herbert Mead. anxious, taking your cue from others as to what is “cool” or acceptable. You worry that your parents’ actions might reflect upon you. As you GEORGE HERBERT MEAD grow older, you’ve experienced thousands of interactions that have Symbolic interactionism was the brainchild of George Herbert Mead taught you who you are. This is why, the older you get, the less embar- (1863–1931), an American sociologist from the University of Chicago. rassing your parents seem. You know yourself much better now than you did in middle school. After his death in 1931, Mead’s former students were so committed to 19 his legacy that they combined his articles, notes, and lectures into the Mead proposed that symbols build society. Symbols have meaning, and meaning directs our lives. The symbols a society uses help book Mind, Self, and Society. This book introduced a new theory called Sociology symbolic interactionism.33 us understand the people in that society. In the United States, we In Mind, Self, and Society, Mead suggests that the root of society have accepted that we need the word “homeless” to discuss people is the symbols that teach us to understand the world. We then use these who cannot afford housing. Symbols help us define a situation and symbols to develop a sense of self, or identity. It is this identity that we determine what we should do about it. For example, Liebow finds that then take into the world and interact with other identities to create soci- people often assign labels, such as “addict,” “alcoholic,” or “mentally ill,” ety. Thus, the building blocks of society start with our minds, where we to the homeless, but not as often to people who have jobs. Some interpret symbols. even use addiction as an excuse not to help the homeless—Oh, he or How do you learn to interpret symbols? Mead suggests that we she is just an addict. If potential employers believe in these labels, then do this through the micro interactions we have every day. When I they will be less likely to hire homeless people, perpetuating a system was born, my parents named me John. When I got older, if someone that keeps them homeless.

Homeless Labels in to prevent such negative stereotyping. In Criminal, alcoholic, immoral—these are China and India, people connect homeless- only a handful of labels that exist for the Around the World ness with a lack of governmental registration, homeless around the world. As Liebow Assigning negative labels to the homeless which means that the homeless aren’t seen noted, negative labels make it even more occurs not only in the United States, but as true citizens. In Peru, children living on the difficult for homeless individuals to rise also in countries all over the world. In street are called piranitas, or little piranhas, above their situation. If people who are Finland during the 1980s, homelessness which implies that they are dangerous and homeless are given an opportunity and became associated with alcoholism. likely to resort to criminal behavior. People in adequate support, they can be just as People related the two ideas so closely Bangladesh equate homelessness with having successful and stable as any other that the government in Finland had to step a lack of morals.34 members of society. 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:15AMPage20

Chapter 1 20 the wagonsanddefendgroup. but whenoutsidersjoinin,youcircle it’s OKforsomeoneinthefamily, meaning totheactofdissingthat sive? Thisisbecauseyouascribe someone elsedoes,yougetdefen- you can“dis”yourmom,butif and peoplebasedonhowweperceive them.Haveyouevernoticedthat thinking rationallyandactin waysthattheymightnotconsider thought weuseinanindividual decision.Atsomepoint,peoplestop gests thatinagroup settingwereact withoutthesamedegree of setting ourbehaviorsare somewhatdifferent. Generally, Blumersug- the settingafterwe’veinterpreted thereactions. However, inagroup results inrationalbehavior, meaningthatwetailorourresponses to them anddeterminetheirbehaviorbasedonthisinterpretation. This eliminating racism. ing creates reality. Eliminatingracistlanguagemoves societycloserto Blumer wouldsuggestthattheyare. Words conveymeaningandmean- United Stateshascertainlydeclined.Are thesetwofactorsconnected? change eliminatedracism?Certainlynot,butthelevelofracism inthe racial slurs.Today, suchlanguageissociallyunacceptable. Hasthis with it.Considerthisexample:Inthe1950s,manywhitesspoke using as awhole.Thewaywetalkaboutsomethingcreates thewaywedeal have great powertoaffect society tance ontheideathatsymbols micro focusplacesgreat impor- ual interactionswithsymbols.This approach involvesstudyingindivid- mary focusoftheinteractionist and cannotdisher. meaning youascribetowhocan tions youhadwithhersupportthe In otherwords, thesocialinterac- nurtured youwhenwere sick. fed you,tuckedyouinatnight,and you crazysometimes,shecertainly Whileshemaydrive you. cared for many yearsinwhichyourmother They probably occurred from the feelings emerge? 3. 2. 1. symbolic interactionistperspective: sociology department,establishedthree basicpremises that definethe Berkeley Herbert MeadandformerchairoftheUniversityCalifornia, Symbolic interactionistHerbertBlumer(1900–1987),adiscipleofGeorge HERBERT BLUMER h encounters. she process usedbythepersonindealingwiththingsheor These meaningsare handledinandmodifiedthrough aninterpretive social interactionthatonehaswithothersandsociety. The meaningofsuchthingsisderivedfrom, orarisesoutof,the they ascribetothosethings. Human beingsbehavetoward thingsonthebasisofmeanings Normally, peopleinterpret thewords andactionsofthosearound Blumer proposed thatthepri- How didyour What doeshemean? 35 week. Hedidn’twanttocomeoff that we’dallseehimagainnext season ticket-holderandheknew it wasprobablybecausehea the footballgame“calmeddown,” as the“jerkwhocusses.” think ofus. action weusetocontrol whatothers us. Impression managementisthe the impressions thatothershaveof we are constantlytryingtomanage First, weallreact tosituations Goffman’s primaryinsightisthat When theangrymanat a numberofpeoplearound himwere watchinghisbehaviorclosely. be scoldedinpublic,buthequickly“cooleddown”asnoticedthat were children around. Initially, thefoul-mouthedmanseemedangryto Eventually, someonetoldthemantowatchhismouthbecausethere can seethatindividualinteractionscreate socialrealities. ting, they“losetheirheads”andreact emotionally. Inthisway, you mode inwhichpeopledonotthinkrationallyorclearly. Insuchaset- act rationally. ThisiswhatBlumercalls an intenseemotionalbehaviorthatmakesithard forustothinkand Blumer wouldsuggestthatitwastheresult ofcollectiveexcitement, have behavedthiswayataPTA meeting.Sowhydidthishappen? with men,women,andchildren, andI’msure thismanwouldnever steam outofOldFaithful.Thestandswere fillednotwithsailors,but extremely distraught;four-letter words camefrom hismouthlike team waslosinganimportantgame.Amaninthestandsbecame acceptable inadifferent setting.Lastfootballseason, our college Sociology ofDeviance is related tothelabelsattachedit.Inhisbook, Howard Becker, asociologistfrom Chicago,suggeststhathumanaction HOWARD BECKER gauge thereactions thattheir actionswillreceive. has more “practice”insocializing, heorshemaybebetterequippedto a complexseriesofactionsandreactions. Asapersongetsolderand pletely yourself.Goffman points outthatmanagingimpressions involves care tomakeagoodfirstimpression, evenifitmeansnot beingcom- ing aboutit,changeyourbehavior. Why?Becauseyouare takingextra and eatcarefully. You maybenervous,butyouwillalso,withoutthink- old friend?Usually, onafirstdateyoudress differently, talkdifferently, on afirstdate,doyoubehavedifferently thanthewayyoudowithan more detailondramaturgy. , Beckersuggeststhatalabel is attachedtoa about this. Goffman developedatheory are watching?SociologistErving How dowereact whenothers thought. Forexample,ifyouare behavior withoutmuchdeliberate interactions accordingly. them, andtheyadjusttheirsocial the rest oftheworldwillthink aboutwhat people are concerned always “fakingit,”butratherthat world. Nottosaythatpeopleare wish toportraytheoutside people ofthecharacterthatthey stantly “acting”inorder toconvince actors onastage.Peopleare con- interactions tothegestures of theory tocompare dailysocial is likeacting.Goffman usesthis theory ofinteractioninwhichalllife theory hecalled Goffman (1922–1982)developed a Canadian sociologistErving ERVING GOFFMAN contagion Frequently, wealterour Outsiders: Studiesinthe 36 Chapter 4provides , arapid,irrational dramaturgy , a

21 Sociology HERBERT BLUMER HERBERT = Irrational Behavior Collective Excitement

is a theory of interaction in which all life is like acting. interaction in which all is a theory of ARD BECKER ARD

is a rapid, irrational mode in which people do not think do not which people mode in irrational is a rapid, HOW Consider the example of a five-year-old girl who has been labeled girl who has been example of a five-year-old Consider the CONTAGION or clearly. rationally DRAMATURGY a “good girl.” The theory would suggest that somewhere along the line, would suggest that somewhere a “good girl.” The theory power of her and that these people had she did what others expected her to take a bath and she did. She received asked Her parents over her. events repeated and through a good girl,” “she’s a positive reward, she never that sense of self whereby her life, she developed throughout out of line and always takes or “dangerous” does anything remotely and her if this “good girl” becomes a “terrible teen” a bath. However, she might stop bathing and start smok- label her as a delinquent, parents has a that the label we ascribe to people ing. Becker would suggest behavior. major influence on their

“Convict” D “Bad boy”

“Good girl”

MEA GEORGE HERBERT HERBERT GEORGE is to To know To a society understand its symbols.

Becker applied these Becker applied ERVING GOFFMAN ERVING THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS — AT A GLANCE — AT THE SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS stage!” “All the world’s a world’s The label of deviant, or conformist for that or conformist of deviant, The label see our behav- when people is applied matter, self-fulfilling to it. This sets up a ior and react seek an iden- for behavior as people prophecy that up to the expectations tity that will match them. others hold of certain behavior when a group with powerful social status labels it deviant. status labels social with powerful when a group behavior certain and responses reactions in the is rooted deviance that He suggests acts. an individual’s of others to ideas to the study of deviant behavior, but of deviant behavior, ideas to the study all labeling theory applies to the idea of sexual including gender, identity issues, personal identity. orientation, and 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 21 Page AM 2:15 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:15AMPage22

Chapter 1 22 paradigm perfectlyfitseverysituation.To getacompletepicture, many league ofminewhoisa“purist”inanything.That’s becauseno single use partsofeachparadigmintheiranalyses.Infact,Iknownocol- be trickytoconfinesociologistssuchatightboxbecausetheymight Comte andfunctionalismgohandinhand.However, sometimesitcan in developing.Forexample,Marxisasymbolofconflicttheory, whereas ate thetheoristwithparadigmthatheorshefavored orhadahand Yankees. You gettheidea.Thesameistrueofsociologists—weassoci- Brady andtheNewEnglandPatriots.Derek JeterandtheNewYork become synonymous.KobeBryantandtheLosAngelesLakers.Tom teams onwhichtheyplay. Theplayer’s nameandtheteam In thesportsarena, wetendtoassociatephenomenalplayerswiththe How AreTheyInterrelate The ThreePara totally different things. in adifferent timeorinadifferent culture, youmighthavebelieved and nationofbirthallinfluencehowyouseethings.Hadbeenborn create themaswegoalong.Asaresult, yourparents, neighborhood, or not.Ifyoutrytoleave,you’llbepunished. slave, itdoesn’t matterwhetherornotyoureject theownership symbol of theindividualtoco-create hisorherworld.If,forexample,you’re a the coercive effects ofsocialstructure, focusingtoomuchonthepower Critics ofsymbolicinteractionismsuggestthatthisperspectiveignores INTERACTIONISM CRITICISMS OFSYMBOLIC Of course, we are all born intoacultureOf course,weare andsocialsetting.We allborn don’t unintended outcome. social worldexists Everything inthe both anintended outcome andan because ithas Functionalism d igm for whomthings (conflict theory) (functionalism). are functional and forwhom often indicate differentials they arenot s Power — Overlapping Theories d ? Conflict Theory Inequality exists groups’ wealth world because of differences in thesocial and power. between different Weber (1864–1920). a singlecategory. ThissentimentisespeciallytrueofsociologistMax orist’s pointofviewcanbesoeclecticthathecan’t bepinneddowninto points ofviewinmakingananalysistheworld.Infact,attimes,athe- symbolic interactionist,thatdoesn’t meanthatheorshewon’t useother because asociologistisclassifiedasfunctionalist,conflicttheorist,or that valueschangeassocietiesbecomemore modern. a societyforDurkheimisrelated towhatitvalues,andheacknowledges unify people,hesoundsabitlikeGeorgeHerbertMead.Thesolidarityof symbolic interactionism?WhenEmileDurkheimsuggeststhatvalues and symbolicinteractionism,butdoesfunctionalismeveroverlapwith started smokingpot,thepracticewouldbecomelegal. people withpowersmokecigarettes, butnotpot.Ifpowerfulpeopleever marijuana isillegal?Labelingtheoristswouldarguethatthisbecause within oursociety. Considerthisquestion:Whyare cigarettes legal,while a conflicttheorist,Beckeracknowledgesthatsystemofinequalityexists people withtheabilitytogetwhattheywantdoneputlabelonus.Like words, thepoweroflabelinfluencesoutcomeindividual,but power determinewhatisandnotlabeledasdeviantorcriminal.Inother conflict theorybecausethelabelingtraditionsuggeststhatthosewith lines betweentheparadigms.Becker’s labelingtheorycanbelinkedto ask, forwhomisthisfunctional?Canyouseeabitofconflicttheoryhere? notion thatintendedandunintendedresults canarise.Thus,weshould manifest consequences.Hetakesafunctionaliststance,butaddstoitthe way itis. interrelated andworktogethertohelpusfigure outwhy societyisthe sociologists useallthree paradigms.Inthisway, thethree paradigmsare The pointforyouasastudentofsociologyistobeware thatjust We’ve seenhowconflicttheoryoverlapswithbothfunctionalism Like Merton,symbolicinteractionistHoward Beckeralsoblursthe Think aboutsociologistRobertMertonandhisconceptoflatent theory), andthese of theindividual labels influence interactionism). assign themto others (conflict the outcomes power create labels and (symbolic People in Interactionism self-fulfilling prophecy as peopletrytomatch this practicesetsupa to certainindividuals; Symbolic Labels areattached their behaviorto their labels. 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 23

THINK SOCIOLOGICALLY n <<< Max Weber — Theorist Why? Because he pointed out how values influence our goals and affect our behaviors. In his book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Who Transcends Categorization Capitalism, Weber clearly linked a person’s religious value to the soci- To me, Max Weber (1864–1920) is the German counterpart of Emile etal creation of a capitalist economy. For him, capitalism arose in the Durkheim because he wrote about a great variety of topics, used data Western world primarily because a religious value system that he called in his analysis, and laid the foundations for high-quality sociological “the Protestant Ethic” emphasizes the accumulation of wealth as a research. In his work, students often see a variety of ideas that seem to marker of God’s favor on a person. blend different schools of thought. Yet, he wrote at a time before many Furthermore, Weber also discussed how values are important to of these “schools” were clearly defined or established. the study of sociology. For example, he understood that sociologists Because Weber wrote partly as a response to some of Karl Marx’s are at risk of approaching their profession with personal values that ideas, many consider him a conflict theorist. Weber accepted that social might influence the outcome of their study. Weber stressed that soci- classes influence our outcomes; however, he felt Marx’s social class ology should be value-free. In other words, sociologists should study system was too simple. He proposed that all people have economic, society as it is, not as they would like it to be. They should put their political, and cultural conflicts that are related to their relative social biases aside when analyzing a topic. He implied that personal values position. As a result, being an owner does not necessarily make you may impact social research, and therefore sociologists must strive to important in society. Wealth is important, but political power and social put such values aside when they make their analyses. standing are also important. So, where does your professor put Weber? The more you read In other ways, Weber appeared to take a more functional approach, about social theorists, the more you will find that most of them blend particularly when he discussed how bureaucracies function in society. ideas from all schools of thought. Bureaucracies, which will be discussed in depth in Chapter 6, are formal organizations that are organized into a hierarchy of smaller departments. You might think of a large corporation or a government agency as a bureaucracy. Weber proposed that rational and ideal bureaucracies naturally occur because we need them. They provide clear lines of authority, divide tasks so that workers can specialize, and clearly define

rules and expectations. Under such a type of leadership, societies and 23 large organizations function smoothly and improve the function of society.

Although Weber was well aware that few perfect bureaucracies existed, Sociology he argued that responsible leadership will tend toward the ideal because Western society is increasingly focused on achieving goals, and a rational bureaucracy is an efficient way to achieve those goals.37 Other colleagues of mine have suggested that Weber’s ideas seem to lay the foundation for the symbolic interactionist school of thought.

>>> Is Max Weber (pronounced VAY- bur) a conflict theorist? A functionalist? A symbolic interactionist? Or is he all three? Sociologists everywhere disagree on how to classify Weber. That’s because his views are so varied that he seems to

defy categorization. <<<

APPLYING SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES the three sociological theories covered in this section. Consider the prob- Now it’s time to think like a sociologist. Thinking like a sociologist means lem of homelessness in a society. How might a functionalist view home- that you understand the topic, and you examine it from one or more of lessness? How might a conflict theorist view it? A symbolic interactionist? 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 24

WRAP YOUR MIND AROUND THE THEORY

Functionalists examine the entire social system to see how it works. Do food banks and homeless shelters solve homelessness or perpetuate it?

FUNCTIONALISM Functionalists suggest society works as an interre- lated system. Communitarians understand that if society is to run smoothly, the government, the local community, and the business sector must all work together for the well-being of all. The root of society is the local community; it anchors this societal tree. The government car- ries the will of the people to the economic system, thereby functioning as the trunk of this tree. The leaves of a tree make the sugar that allows the entire plant to live. Of course, leaves without roots blow over, and roots without leaves die.

CONFLICT SYMBOLIC THEORY INTERACTIONISM Conflict theorists would view Because symbolic interactionists homelessness as a sign of WHAT CAUSES view things on a smaller scale,

24 inequality in society. Conflict HOMELESSNESS IN they would explore how home- theorists focus on social class- A SOCIETY? lessness affects the way individ- es and their drastic differences uals act toward one another. in wealth, power, and prestige. These theorists would ask: How They believe that the upper do individuals behave toward class controls society’s wealth ? one another? What labels do indi- the Theory

d and resources and exploits the viduals assign to homelessness? lower class. If the upper class shared How do non-homeless people interact its wealth, conflict theorists argue, then home- with homeless people? Aroun

d lessness would be cut down dramatically. Wrap Your Min Wrap Your Conflict theorists look at the role of inequality in society. Symbolic Does urban interactionists renewal see social actually interactions as a increase result of how we define Would homelessness by our social interactions. you ignore this person merely eliminating low-cost because she appears homeless? housing while lining the pockets of wealthy developers? 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 25

discover sociology in action: WHY IS COMMUNITY LEARNING IMPORTANT TO A SOCIETY?

Getting Involved in Sociology— COMMUNITY LEARNING occurs when individuals and groups work to Community Learning identify and address issues of public concern. In Tell Them Who I Am: The Lives of Homeless Women, Elliot Liebow discusses how he often “loaned” money to many homeless women who Liebow’s study of the homeless showed him that homelessness is had absolutely none. He was always careful to consider the money a widespread problem, and there is plenty of blame to go around. a “loan” because he knew that simply There are too many people who giving it to them would show that he ACTIVITIES don’t understand the problem, just thought of them as nothing more than ignore it, or both. When I worked panhandlers. Liebow figured he 1. What community learning opportunities are available in your at a local day shelter during my wouldn’t get the money back, but he area? Surf the Web to find local shelters, food banks, or other undergraduate days, I realized I didn’t mind.38 His goal was to treat organizations in your community. Choose an organization and had a lot to learn. One day, while the women with dignity and earn their volunteer there. Write about your experience. serving lunch, I noticed that one of trust. Liebow was practicing commu- 2. Research your local and state governments. Who are the the patrons became quite irritated. nity learning. Community learning important government officials? What roles do they play in the “Hot dogs again!” he screamed. In occurs when individuals and groups government? What policies and issues do they support? shock, I thought that he had no work to identify and address issues of 3. Homelessness is just one of many issues that plague today’s right to complain when he could public concern. society. What other social issues do you think are important be eating nothing for lunch. An It’s easy for people to believe that to address and why? How would you try to solve these older and more experienced social problems are so widespread problems? volunteer must have noticed my that there is nothing we can do about face because she said to me, them. Often, we feel so out of touch “Sometimes, so many people look with the world around us that we do not vote, we do not know our neigh- past them, that they just have to yell so you’ll know they’re there.” bors, and we cannot name our town council members. Community learn- That sobering comment brought me back to my senses. When you 25 ing, however, can help you see things with fresh eyes. Working in the actually take a minute to view the world from someone else’s per- community expands your understanding of sociology and your world. spective, you’ll find it hard to just sit around and do nothing. Sociology

“Homeless people are just talking with them. While at the shelter, he met a At the end of Theo’s volunteer period, he homeless mother who had been the victim of wrote a paper for class revealing how much he a bunch of drug addicts, domestic violence. had learned about the homeless. He even decided aren’t they?” to continue working at the shelter. Volunteering made him feel like he was making a difference in I wasn’t surprised when Theo, one of my first- “When I looked into that the lives of the people he encountered, and he year sociology students, made this comment mother’s face and the face knew they were making a difference in his. Theo’s during a lecture. However, I was disappointed of her children, I realized experiences helped him realize that the people at because I knew that many people around the the shelter were just like him. The only difference world share this view. After a lively debate on how narrow my viewpoint was that they had fallen on some bad luck. the subject, I realized I hadn’t changed Theo’s had been,” Theo remarked to me later. Theo’s story shows how moving out of the mind, so I challenged him to volunteer at a classroom and into the community helps peo- local homeless shelter. “How did I ever think you ple gain a new perspective. They can get out of Day after day, Theo worked with the could label an entire their individual boxes and view the world as a families at the shelter—feeding, clothing, and group of people?” sociologist would. 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/102:15AMPage26

Chapter 1 26 get thetopic: • CONFLICT THEORY • • • • FUNCTIONALISM Emerging Paradigms Emile Durkheim’s TheoryonSuicide Developing aSociologicalImagination Sociology Defined Theory Key Term power, andprestige focuses onsocialclassesandtheirdrasticdifferences inwealth, suggests societywillfindabalancepointofitsown specific function society isfairlystable,whichmeansthatthingsoccurinfora it isimportanttoconsiderthefunctionofanyissue society intact society isasystemofconnectedpartsworkingtogethertokeep altruistic suicides egoistic suicides social control solidarity macro micro sociological imagination sociology .InvitationtoSociology 1. MY SEARCHLAB Copyright byPeterL.Berger, pp.1–24. the sociologicalperspective. In thisclassic1963essay, Bergerexplainstheuniqueaspectsof Invitation toSociology CHAPTER 6 6 01 7 5 7 s 5 7 10 7 , 1963,Anchor/Doubleday&Company, Inc. SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS? WHAT WHAT WHY 11 by PeterL.Berger, reprinted from 6 WHAT ISSOCIOLOGY? 14 7 IS COMMUNITYLEARNINGIMPORTANT TOASOCIETY? social statics social laws symbolic interactionism conflict theory functionalism paradigm anomic suicides fatalistic suicides ARE THECHARACTERISTICSOFTHREEMAJOR IS SOCIOLOGY? 5 lows amicro withtheindividual’s approach becauseitisconcerned role increating society everyday lives;studieshowtheuseof“symbols”influencepeoplecommunicate;fol- symbolic interactionism: withinequalityasitrelates towealthandpower a societytogether;concerned focuses onmacro issuesandsupportstheideathatstruggleforscarce resources holds not onlybyourindividualcharacteristics,butplaceinthesocialworld a scienceguidedbythebasicunderstandingthatsocialmatters:ourlivesare affected your world provides youwithafresh perspectiveandexpandsyourunderstandingofsociology conflict theory: because itfocusesonlarger socialstructures ratherthanindividuals functionalism: www.randomhouse.com Functionalism intheUnitedStates The Functionalist’s Worldview The SymbolicInteractionist’s Worldview The ConflictTheorist’s Worldview 9 11 9 11 9 8 defines societyasasystemofinterrelated parts;primarilyamacro orientation 8 views societyasanunequalsystemthatbringsaboutconflictand 9 5 focuses onhowindividualpeopleinteractwithotherintheir bourgeoisie latent functions manifest functions functions organic solidarity mechanical solidarity social Darwinism social dynamics • • • SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM • • 9 symbols disputes arisewhenpeopledonotshare thesamedefinitionsof because thesymbolsweuseandtheirinterpretations change society isfluid,meaningitalwaysintheprocess ofchange believes theroot ofsocietycomesfrom itssymbols create advantagesforthemselves once agroup haspower, theywanttokeepit,soare likelyto lower class upper classcontrols society’s wealth andresources andexploitsthe 11 .Whatquestionsdosociologists askwhenstudyingsocial 2. Bergercallssociologists“professional peepingToms.” What 1. classroom. phenomena? Usethosequestions todescribeyourcollege 14 does hemeanbythis? 12 13 18 14 13 11 12 12 13 12 Getting InvolvedinSociology—Community The Three Paradigms—How Are They Learning Related? community learning dramaturgy contagion self class consciousness false consciousnes proletariat 25 22 25 19 20 15 18 20 15 25 change; 15 27 Sociology ANSWERS : 1.a;2.d;3.b;4.c;5.d ). www.TheThinkSpot.com and the “public issues of social structure.” What is the relation- structure.” issues of social and the “public the two? ship between time of and uneasiness. At the crisis, indifference, well-being, that it was a time of uneasiness and this writing, Mills believed the public tempera- How would you characterize indifference. Why? ment of society today? http://www.sociolog.com/us_links/ http://www.truthorfiction.com/ The three sociological paradigms often overlap with one another. The three Discuss how his or Choose a sociologist discussed in the chapter. sociological paradigms. her ideas connect to all three a sociological imagina- Why is it important for a sociologist to use or she failed to use this tion? What consequences might arise if he way of thinking? What sort of attitudes concerning homelessness might a symbolic interactionist discourage? Why is suicide a compelling sociological issue? Describe possible manifest and latent functions of a law that would legalize drugs. In this classic 1959 excerpt, C. Wright Mills (1916–1962) intro- Mills (1916–1962) C. Wright excerpt, classic 1959 In this imagination.” of the “sociological the concept duces 1. of milieu” “personal troubles Mills means by the Explain what 2. feelings of temperament as Mills explains public In this excerpt, that will allow you to learnsociologists we’ve dis- about the more will crafted their theories. Of particular interest cussed and how they of Karl Marx, a video of which can be be the short documentary found on the ThinkSpot. The “bigger is better.” It has been said that in the United States, Parsons, not only a same could be said for functionalist Talcott when it came to how “giant” in the field of sociology but a big thinker social systems inter- to think about the human experience and how Merton, set out to connect. A contemporary of Parsons, Robert the study of individual bridge the gap between grand theories and on both Parson and Merton, go to the For more parts of society. ThinkSpot ( ESSAY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. YOUR RESEARCH PAPER WHERE TO START learn about sociology as a scientific discipline, go to more To http://www.asanet.org go to find an in-depth sociology dictionary, To http://www.webref.org/sociology/sociology.htm the United States, information about sociology departments in For more go to find a guide for sociological Internet go to sources, To http://www.socioweb.com/ go to find an online journal of sociology, To http://www.ou.edu/special/freeinq/ site dedicated to finding out the truth about urban myths, find a Web To go to go to information on sociology, for different find an excellent source To http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/theory.html except s What is the ThinkSpot and why What is the ThinkSpot it in this have I chosen to include is a place I text? The ThinkSpot to get more encourage you to go included in information on topics the chapter and to expand your tion s t Que SPOT s by C. Wright Mills, reprinted from The Sociological by C. Wright Mills, reprinted .com NK I Now apply them to a social act. For example, what are the For example, what are them to a social act. Now apply the marriage ceremony? latent functions of manifest and of sociology? important to the discipline thethinkspot functionalism. conflict theory. social Darwinism. symbolic interactionism. The ease in which crops were harvested were The ease in which crops of crops in the growth The increase of African slaves The mistreatment The wealth farmers generated people behave similarly in a variety of situations. in. people change their behavior to fit the setting they are behavior has little to do with others’ perceptions people’s of them. by the behavior of others behavior is not affected people’s them. around Why does inequality exist in society? the races? Why do income disparities occur between smoothly? How do social institutions keep society running behavior? a person’s How does a particular social setting affect It overlooks that fact that many willingly accept society’s rules. society’s It overlooks that fact that many willingly accept classes. between social the differences It does not recognize It fails to acknowledge social inequality. It is unsympathetic to homelessness. Imagination, 1959. Copyright by Oxford University Press. pp. 3–24. Imagination, 1959. Copyright The Promise In this 1957 excerpt, sociologist Robert Merton explains the differ- explains the Merton Robert sociologist 1957 excerpt, In this functions. manifest and latent ence between 1. functions. manifest and latent between difference Explain the 2.manifest and latent functions distinction between Why is the he t TH www. THE THINKSPOT video that will help you critical thinking skills by looking at text and analyze what you have learned. Times to the New York start, you can find a link that will take you To may help you craft a and links to articles that may get you thinking, information or just for more or you may want to read paper, research “fun”? I’ve also included links, for this chapter in particular, I say dare a. b. c. d. a. b. c. d. orientations macro All of the following are a. b. c. d. function of slavery in the a latent Which could be considered United States? a. b. c. d. theory of dramaturgy suggests that Erving Goffman’s Which of the following is a criticism of conflict theory? Which of the following is a criticism of conflict a. b. c. d. interactionist ask Which of the following questions might a symbolic about the social world? 3. 2. Functions and Latent Manifest

5. 4. 3. 1. 2. Sample Te in the test bank that accompanies this textbook. similar to those found questions are These multiple-choice 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd 8/14/10 2:15 AM Page 27 Page AM 2:15 8/14/10 01_TS_2e_CH01(002-027).qxd