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L'alta Asia Buddhista (Tibet, Bhutan E Mongolia)

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L'alta Asia Buddhista (Tibet, Bhutan E Mongolia) Università di Pisa Scuola di Dottorato in Scienze Politiche e Sociali Corso in Geopolitica L’Alta Asia buddhista (Tibet, Bhutan e Mongolia) tra il crepuscolo dell’Impero Ch’ing e la nascita della Repubblica cinese: aspetti geopolitici e diplomatici britannici Settore scientifico disciplinare: SPS/14 Storia e istituzioni dell’Asia Dottorando: Matteo Miele Tutor: Chiar.mo Prof. Maurizio Vernassa 2014 A mio fratello Alessandro, a Namkha, come un fratello e ai miei studenti in Bhutan 2 Gairīshchā afshtachinō yazamaide We praise the mountains from which the waters flow Haftan Yasht, Kardāh VIII (Khordeh Avestā, The Trustees of the Parsi Panchayat Funds and Properties, Bombay, 1993) 3 Sommario Ringraziamenti 7 Traslitterazione e trascrizione dei termini in lingue asiatiche 9 Date 10 Nota sui documenti d’archivio 10 Abbreviazioni 11 Introduzione 12 PROLOGO: IL DHARMA E IL RE 15 Capitolo 1 – Lo spazio politico del buddhismo tibetano: la dimensione religiosa del legame tra Tibet, Bhutan e Mongolia 16 Il buddhismo tibetano 21 Il Dalai Lama 23 PRIMA PARTE: L’AGONIA DELL’IMPERO 31 Capitolo 2 – Il Tibet alla fine del Grande gioco 32 La spedizione russa del 1899-1901 32 Un incontro 34 Alla fine del Grande gioco: Younghusband a Lhasa 37 Antiche paure 45 L’Accordo 53 Capitolo 3 – I Ch’ing, il Dalai Lama e gli inglesi (1906-1908) 57 La “Nuova Politica” in Tibet 62 Il Dalai Lama a Pechino (settembre-dicembre 1908) 63 Il Dalai Lama di nuovo a Lhasa 71 Capitolo 4 – Tra i due imperi: il Regno del Bhutan 73 Una premessa d’attualità geopolitica 74 Il nuovo Bhutan ed il Trattato di Punakha 77 Il Dalai Lama in India 84 4 Spie e minacce cinesi sul Bhutan 89 Il tributo mai pagato: il Nepal e la Cina 98 La Repubblica cinese 114 SECONDA PARTE: LA REPUBBLICA E IL FANTASMA MANCESE 118 Capitolo 5 – L’indipendenza tibetana 119 L’anno bufalo-acqua. La “Dichiarazione d’indipendenza” 120 Riflessioni sulla Dichiarazione d’indipendenza tibetana 123 Capitolo 6 – Londra e l’indipendenza mongola 128 I timori inglesi 128 L’indipendenza mongola 131 I russi 136 Azioni militari mongole (gennaio 1912) 139 L’accordo russo-mongolo del 3 novembre 1912 e la delegazione mongola a San Pietroburgo 142 Il mutuo riconoscimento tibeto-mongolo 145 Urga ai russi, Lhasa agli inglesi 153 L’accordo russo-cinese del 1913 158 La lettera della Missione mongola all’ambasciatore inglese 168 Capitolo 7 – L’Accordo di Simla: la trattativa parallela 172 I primi mesi del 1914 174 Le conversazioni tra Buchanan e Sazanov della primavera del 1914 182 Da Simla e da Londra 209 L’accordo sull’Afghanistan 216 Simla e Sarajevo 224 Capitolo 8 – Gli inglesi e gli Accordi di Kyakhta 227 L’accordo russo-mongolo del 1914 227 L’accordo del 1915 231 Il 1916 238 Conclusioni – Considerazioni e note geopolitiche novecentesche 243 Appendici 253 In Mongolia. Testimonianze conservate presso i National Archives 254 Mr. O. Mamen 254 La relazione dell’attaché militare dell’Ambasciata britannica a Pechino 255 La testimonianza di Frans August Larson 258 Il viaggio del luogotenente Binsteed 259 Appendice documentaria 266 Convenzione anglo-russa del 31 agosto 1907 266 5 Trattato tra la Mongolia ed il Tibet del 29 dicembre 1912 (11 gennaio 1913) 272 Foreign Office to India Office, March 29, 1913 275 Prince Ch’ing to Mr. Max Müller, April 18, 1910 276 Principali nomi in tibetano 277 Lista dei re del Bhutan 280 Fonti e bibliografia 281 6 RINGRAZIAMENTI Desidero ringraziare in primo luogo i miei genitori e mia nonna Maria Piccardo per avermi supportato in questo cammino e aver assecondato sempre i miei interessi culturali, fin da bambino. Grazie al mio tutor, il Prof. Maurizio Vernassa, per essere stato la mia guida nella ricerca di dottorato e nel mio percorso accademico. I suoi numerosi consigli hanno rappresentato per me importanti punti di riferimento in questo cammino fin da quando, non ancora ventenne, ebbi la fortuna di conoscerlo a Pisa. Con lui ringrazio anche tutti gli altri docenti del Consiglio di Dottorato, anche per avermi permesso di interrompere temporaneamente il corso per diventare lecturer in Bhutan. Per circa un anno, infatti, tra il 2011 e il 2012, ho insegnato presso lo Sherubtse College (Kanglung), dell’Università Reale del Bhutan. È chiaro che l’approccio e il risultato finale di questa tesi non sarebbe stato possibile se non ci fosse stata quest’esperienza. L’anno trascorso nel Regno del Bhutan, seppur non legato ufficialmente al percorso di studio del dottorato, è stato un periodo estremamente fruttuoso. Gli incontri con diverse personalità delle istituzioni e della religione, primo fra tutti Sua Maestà Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, quinto re del Bhutan, le lunghe ed interessanti conversazioni con il direttore Singye Namgyel, i colleghi, gli studenti e gli amici del College, le ore di studio passate nella Biblioteca dello Sherubtse College, una tra le più importanti per gli studi bhutanesi, la ricerca condotta presso lo dzong di Trashi Yangtse (Bkra-shis-gyang- tse) con Kawang Chhimi Dorji e Namkha Wangdi, sono stati enormemente proficui per la mia crescita umana ed intellettuale. Grazie dunque a tutti loro, al mio direttore presso lo Sherubtse, Singye Namgyel, a tutti i miei colleghi e amici, ed in particolare a Sarbajeet Mukherjee, del Dipartimento di Scienza Politica, e a sua moglie Madhuchhanda Chakraborty, che oltre a condividere con me la loro grande cultura, si sono presi cura di me come un fratello minore. Grazie all’amico fraterno Namkha Wangdi (di Rizor, Yurung, Pemagatshel) che mi ha aiutato nelle ricerche, nello studio e soprattutto, anche lui, assieme alla sua famiglia, nella vita quotidiana in Bhutan e mi ha permesso di conoscere appieno la dimensione della tradizionale ospitalità e gentilezza del paese. Naturalmente un grande ringraziamento va ai miei studenti. Ad alcuni ho avuto l’onore di insegnare anche Storia politica del Bhutan. Con loro ho potuto confrontarmi ed aprirmi così a nuove logiche di studio e ricerca in un campo ancora poco analizzato in Occidente. Un ringraziamento particolare, per l’aiuto nella comprensione dei testi dzongkha e tibetani, va, oltre che a Namkha, al mio maestro di dzongkha e tibetano classico, Singye Wangdi (di Tshangkha, Trongsa) e al mio studente, presso lo Sherubtse College, Rinchen Dawa (di Khomshar, Zhemgang), ora studente in Corea del Sud. Per i suggerimenti e l’aiuto nella complessa ricerca bibliografica un grazie di cuore a mio zio Armando Delicato (Beverly Hills, MI), al mio carissimo amico Xia Feng e al mio studente presso lo Sherubtse College Inchu Dorji (di Gelephu, Sarpang). 7 Grazie all’amico di lunga data Liu Leilei, per le tante conversazioni, seppure su punti di vista spesso diversi. Grazie a Maitrayee Deka (Università di Milano) per i numerosi e utili suggerimenti sulla stesura, a Roy Smith (Nottingham Trent University), a Erberto Lo Bue (Università di Bologna), a Pier Giorgio Borbone (Università di Pisa), a Bruno Mazzoni (Università di Pisa), a Rino Casella (Università di Pisa), Giuseppe Dell’Agata (Università di Pisa), a Giorgio Belli (Torino) e a Sumiyabazar Choimboroljav (Ulaanbaatar) per i loro preziosi consigli. Grazie alla Professoressa Carmela Sacco, mia insegnante di storia e filosofia al Liceo Classico “Giosuè Carducci” di Cassino. Ringrazio ovviamente il personale delle biblioteche dei diversi dipartimenti dell’Università di Pisa, de The National Archives britannici (Kew), del Tibetan Buddhist Resource Center (Cambridge, MA), in particolare Kelsang Lhamo (Senior Librarian), dell’ISIAO (Roma) e della Biblioteca della Scuola Normale Superiore (Pisa). Un ringraziamento, per aver scritto i libri sui quali ho iniziato a conoscere il Tibet, al Professor Giuseppe Tucci (1894-1984), che rimane un punto di riferimento negli studi buddhisti e di tibetologia, ed a Tiziano Terzani (1938-2004) per i suoi libri ed articoli sull’Asia. Infine grazie a Francesca Bianchini e ai miei cari amici e colleghi Mariangela Barbarito, Francesco Mancuso, Daria Zizzola, Rolando Dromundo, Mauro Vaiani, Eldina Pleho, Volodia Clemente e Andrea Chieffallo. 8 TRASLITTERAZIONE E TRASCRIZIONE DEI TERMINI IN LINGUE ASIATICHE Essendo questo lavoro non destinato esclusivamente alla lettura di tibetologi, linguisti ed orientalisti, ma anche ad asiatisti, storici contemporaneisti e delle relazioni internazionali, ho preferito utilizzare, al fine di rendere più agevole la lettura dei nomi di luogo e persone in tibetano, una trascrizione fonetica dei nomi tibetani e bhutanesi, inserendo tra parentesi anche la traslitterazione scientifica (che è comunque utilizzata per le note bibliografiche, le citazioni ed i termini tecnici). Per quest’ultima ho utilizzato il sistema di traslitterazione del tibetano proposto dal Prof. Turrell V. Wylie (1927- 1984)1: ཀ་ ka ཁ་ kha ག་ ga ང་ nga ཅ་ ca ཆ་ cha ཇ་ ja ཉ་ nya ཏ་ ta ཐ་ tha ད་ da ན་ na པ་ pa ཕ་ pha བ་ ba མ་ ma ཙ་ tsa ཚ་ tsha ཛ་ dza ཝ་ wa ཞ་ zha ཟ་ za འ་ 'a ཡ་ ya ར་ ra ལ་ la ཤ་ sha ས་ sa ha a ཧ་ ཨ་ ཨི་ i ꍴ་ u ཨེ་ e ཨོ་ o In questo modo, ad esempio, il monastero di 'Bras-spungs (traslitterazione scientifica) è trascritto foneticamente come Drepung. Per i principali nomi di persona e di luogo sarà inserita comunque in appendice una tabella con traslitterazione Wylie. Per i nomi di luogo bhutanesi ho utilizzato la trascrizione fonetica in uso nel Regno del Bhutan 2, inserendo tra parentesi la traslitterazione scientifica. Per il nome della dinastia regnante 1 Turrell, Wylie V., A Standard System of Tibetan Transcription, in “Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies”, Vol. 22, 1959, pp. 261-267. 2 Si veda van Driem, George, Guide to Official Dzongkha Romanization, Dzongkha Development Commission, Royal Government of Bhutan, 1991; 'Brug gi sa cha'i ming ro mAn shan sbyar / Samples for Geographical names of Bhutan in dzongkha and roman dzongkha with brief Guidelines, Dzongkha Development Commission, Royal Government of Bhutan, Thimphu, 1997.
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