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Heidelberg Papers in South Asian and Comparative Politics The History of Institutional Change in the Kingdom of Bhutan: A Tale of Vision, Resolve, and Power by Marian Gallenkamp Working Paper No. 61 April 2011 South Asia Institute Department of Political Science Heidelberg University HEIDELBERG PAPERS IN SOUTH ASIAN AND COMPARATIVE POLITICS ISSN: 1617-5069 About HPSACP This occasional paper series is run by the Department of Political Science of the South Asia Institute at the University of Heidelberg. The main objective of the series is to publicise ongoing research on South Asian politics in the form of research papers, made accessible to the international community, policy makers and the general public. HPSACP is published only on the Internet. The papers are available in the electronic pdf-format and are designed to be downloaded at no cost to the user. The series draws on the research projects being conducted at the South Asia Institute in Heidelberg, senior seminars by visiting scholars and the world-wide network of South Asia scholarship. The opinions expressed in the series are those of the authors, and do not represent the views of the University of Heidelberg or the Editorial Staff. Potential authors should consult the style sheet and list of already published papers at the end of this article before making a submission. Editor Subrata K. Mitra Deputy Editors Jivanta Schöttli Siegfried O. Wolf Managing Editor Radu Carciumaru Editorial Assistants Dominik Frommherz Kai Fabian Fürstenberg Editorial Advisory Board Mohammed Badrul Alam Barnita Bagchi Dan Banik Harihar Bhattacharyya Mike Enskat Alexander Fischer Karsten Frey Partha S. Ghosh Namrata Goswami Hans Harder Julia Hegewald Stefan Klonner Anja Kluge Karl-Heinz Krämer Apurba Kundu Peter Lehr Malte Pehl Clemens Spiess Christian Wagner Marian Gallenkamp The History of Institutional Change in the Kingdom of Bhutan: A Tale of Vision, Resolve, and Power1 Marian Gallenkamp2 Keywords: Bhutan, democracy, institutional change, monarchy, critical juncture ABSTRACT: The Kingdom of Bhutan is probably the most understudied country in South Asia, and yet its unique history holds plenty of intriguing and scientifically important facts and aspects. In this paper due attention will be given to the development of Bhutanese institutions from the establishment of a Buddhist theocracy in the 17th century, through the establishment of hereditary monarchy at the beginning of the 20th century to the transition to democracy at the turning of the millenniums. Contextualizing the more recent events within the broader continuity of political developments in the world’s last Buddhist kingdom is of crucial importance in understanding the underlying trajectories that account for change. These trajectories, it is argued, are primarily shaped by perceptions of threat to national security, unity, and sovereignty, which manifest themselves in critical junctures upon which Bhutan’s farsighted rulers have repeatedly and deliberately come up with innovative institutional changes while at the same time retaining a crucial link with the nation’s history and tradition. INTRODUCTION The Kingdom of Bhutan, tugged amidst the Himalayas between India and China, has in recent years drawn some limited international attention to itself by joining the club of the world‟s democracies and by advocating and promoting a new approach to development, based on its unique concept of Gross National Happiness (GNH). 1 This paper has been part of the author‟s M.A. thesis entitled „Democracy in Bhutan: A Challenge for Contemporary Theory?‟ I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to Prof. Subrata Mitra and Dr. Jivanta Schöttli for their continued support and help. 2 The author studied Political Science and Politics South Asia at Heidelberg University, Germany, where he specialized in democratization studies and the politics of Bhutan. He is also the author of www.bhutan-research.org, an internet knowledge base for the study of politics and democracy in Bhutan. He can be reached at [email protected]. HEIDELBERG PAPERS IN SOUTH ASIAN AND COMPARATIVE POLITICS http://hpsacp.uni - h d . d e / Working Paper No. 61, April 2011 1 Marian Gallenkamp However, due to its long, self-imposed isolation, its remote location and small size, it has long been treated by scholars with a benign neglect. Alternatively referred to as the last Shangri La, the Land of the Thunder Dragon, or Land of Happiness, these romanticised and mystified views have only seldom produced proper country studies on Bhutan. The lack of scholarly attention is even more astonishing taking into consideration the unique history of that small nation, which started from a Buddhist theocracy, transformed into an absolute monarchy, and slowly, step by step, reduced the absolute character of its monarchy to create a form of democracy that does not only differ from its South Asian neighbours, but also from the rest of the world. Upon its path through the tumultuous and eventful centuries, Bhutan always managed to maintain its sovereignty and independence vis-à-vis Tibet, the British, China, and India. The major ideological currents sweeping the world all-around it left Bhutan untouched. Though the developments and changes that occurred in Bhutan over the decades were substantial, and at times epochal, the overall framework of politics in Bhutan has shown a remarkable continuity, always connecting the past with the present. It is in this light that this paper seeks to draw attention to the development of state institutions starting from the very beginning of unified Bhutan in the 17th century and spanning a bridge right up to the first decade of the new millennium. In doing so, the following pages are to be seen as a necessary historical study without which a concise and satisfying analysis of the more attention-capturing transition of recent years cannot be properly understood. This holds true even more so, as a genuine transition towards democracy has been generally acknowledged, but its result has left many scholars puzzled at best and unconvinced at worst. METHODOLOGY: CONTEXT, PATH DEPENDENCE, AND CRITICAL JUNCTURES This paper aims at contextualizing the more recent events in Bhutan within a broader historical picture. While the author believes this is necessary in order to understand the scope and dimension of recent changes, not all approaches that try to explain them deem such a broad historical context as vital. Certainly, regime changes do not occur in a vacuum, but apart from the long and evolutionary processes of democratization in Western Europe, most transitions in the latter half of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century appear to have taken place rather rapidly and so theory has more and more focused on short term trajectories to explain change (Cf. Capoccia & Ziblatt 2010: 932f.). It should be noted that, while path-dependency certainly is the approach of choice, the paper will not follow a strict and rigorous theoretical model here. It is neither its aim nor in its scope to provide for an encompassing comparative historical analysis, as suggested and elaborately explicated by e.g. Mahoney and Rueschemeyer (Mahoney & Rueschemeyer 2003: 10ff.). Instead the path-dependency is understood in a more flexible way by referring to the continuity of norms and values throughout a changing internal and external environment. However, as such studies always run the risk of getting lost in mere description or exhaustive idiographic explanations, I choose to follow a middle-path between analyzing tale-telling changes and developments in all spheres of Bhutanese life and causal explanations for some exceptional innovations within the political- institutional realm. While the choice of what to include and what to exclude ultimately falls back to the author‟s subjective judgment, my approach has been designed to eventually lead and draw attention to one of South Asia‟s most intriguing and yet so broadly understudied puzzles: Why did Bhutan embark on a transition to democracy at the time it did? Broadly lending from James Mahoney‟s approach to path-dependency (Cf. Mahoney 2001a: 3-29; 2001b: 11ff.), the paper will develop and present the HEIDELBERG PAPERS IN SOUTH ASIAN AND COMPARATIVE POLITICS h t t p : / / h p s a c p . u n i - h d . d e / Working Paper No. 61, April 2011 2 Marian Gallenkamp following argument: critical junctures, that is decisive periods in Bhutanese history with a great potential for change, were repeatedly caused by internal or external threats to its sovereignty. While the first two critical junctures identified (roughly the period between 1865 and 1907 and the period between 1949 and 1962) led to major institutional and political changes, the third one (approximately 1985 to 1993) had the reverse effect. Instead of institutional and political innovation the Bhutanese state reacted by extensively and persistently promoting and enhancing its earlier chosen path. Eventually, major change, i.e. Bhutan‟s transition between 1998 and 2008, occurred again, but this time without the facilitating effect of a critical juncture. BHUTAN THROUGH THE AGES: FROM THE FIRST SHABDRUNG TO THE 5TH DRUK GYALPO Beginning with Bhutan‟s “first great historical figure” (Federal Research Division, L. o. C. 1993b), Ngawang Namgyal, and chronologically following the reigns of the Dragon Kings, the following sections shall provide for an encompassing analysis of institutional change and innovation and guide the reader through the history of Bhutan to enable a better understanding of the particularities that come with this unique case. The Unification of Bhutan and the Establishment of a Buddhist Theocracy The story of a distinct and sovereign Bhutanese nation begins in the 17th century with the arrival of Ngawang Namgyal, who had been the prince abbot of the Drukpa monastery at Ralung in Tibet. Due to internal rivalries and a challenger to his position as the 5th incarnation of the Gyalwang Drukpa, he was forced into exile in 1616 and went south to the erstwhile lands known as Lho Mon (southern land of darkness).

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