CHAPTER 1 When I Came to the Netherlands in 2012, I Girls” [Insert Karpoozi Emoji]

University of Groningen

The Process of Death Jones, Olivia

DOI: 10.33612/diss.108355327

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Citation for published version (APA): Jones, O. (2019). The Process of Death: a bioarchaeological approach to Mycenaean mortuary traditions in Achaia. https://doi.org/10.33612/diss.108355327

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Download date: 10-10-2021 Introduction 01 I’m thrilled that we are planning to continue suggest you settle in for the long haul be- our collaboration! cause in my mind, we are forever the “Greek CHAPTER 1 When I came to the Netherlands in 2012, I girls” [insert karpoozi emoji]. was convinced that I would “get in and get Penultimate thanks are due to my patient, out” and likely not make any friends be- supportive family. They have been my unfai- cause it was only going to be four years and ling cheerleaders since day one. They never Introduction I honestly thought I would be much older once questioned my passion for archaeology 1.1 Introduction than the other students or too new for them and have been enthusiastic guests in Lon- to want to hang out. I now know those were don, Greece, Groningen, or wherever ar- tain deposits of disarticulated and commingled human remains labeled as ‘se- incredibly naïve assumptions, the truth is chaeology took me. It is to them that I truly This dissertation focuses on two main issues condary burials’ without questioning that those fellow PhDs are your people owe any success since they never pressured within Mycenaean burial traditions: secon- their formation and without utilizing all because they know exactly what you’re me to pursue any other career path. To my dary treatment and burial exclusion. Ap- evidence within the tombs. In Chapter 3 going through. I thank the kind group of brother and sister, I thank you both for proaching these themes with a multi-faceted (Jones 2018a), I stress that the varia- PhDs at Arizona State Univeristy for being (nearly) always answering the phone when bioarchaeological methodology has allowed tion and complexity of Mycenaean mor- welcoming and inviting me to cohort socials I called just to talk. Patrick, thank you for all me to explore Mycenaean burial in a new tuary practices, especially secondary while I was there for a semester. I thank the those times that I crashed at your flat in light. The evidence utilized in this study is a burial, can only be reconstructed using Groningen Institute of Archaeology PhDs for London. Jana, your ability to instantly sample of cemetery sites with various tomb a bioarchaeological framework and in- generally being a daily resource in all things distract me from productive work with non- types from the region of Achaia. This sample terpreted with clear terminology. Dutch or academic. I’m especially thankful stop chatter was the double-edged sword was chosen based on availability and 3) In addition, the study of secondary bu- for the lively discussions and general cama- that I sometimes needed when I was too documentation of the human remains. Al- rial must address the timing of tomb raderie of the “Writing Squad”. Special disconnected from home. Lastly, I dedicate though the documentation of the human reuse, a feature that is not well under- thanks go to Dr. Tanja van Loon and Dr. this thesis to those who did not live to see it remains was not ideal since a bioarchae- stood. Thus, I ask, what is the timing of Sarah Willemsen for always letting me come finished, my grandmother, Zelma Huffman ologist was not present during excavation, tomb reuse in a Mycenaean tholos into your office for tea and conversa- and Max the dog. My grandma was always the quality of documentation was good tomb? Conducting radiocarbon sam- tion/commiseration. Your friendship and eager to hear about my life, be my cheer- enough in some tombs for exploring secon- pling in reused tombs is often the only support made the GIA, and Groningen in leader, or ready for a card game. dary burial and burial exclusion. general, feel like home. method that can accurately date multi- Finally, I must thank the person who was These themes lead to specific research ques- level reuse. In Chapter 4 (Jones et al To my dear paranymphs, Dr. Eleni Panagio- my biggest and more important supporter, tions that correspond to the chapters within 2018) I use the tholos tomb at Petroto topoulou and the newly Dr. Tamara Dijkstra, my husband Zach. Five weeks before we got this thesis. My main questions and aims are: I thank you for all of the feedback, for- married, I was accepted for the PhD position to present a common issue in reused matting, and translating that went into this in Groningen and from that day until now Mycenaean tombs and show how radio- thesis. But more importantly, I thank you for you never once questioned my choice. 1) What is the timeline of introduction and carbon dating can aid in reconstructing your close friendship over the years; you Rather, you made countless trips to and adoption of Mycenaean mortuary prac- the timing of burials. have become like sisters to me over these from the airport, and a few trips to Gro- tices in Achaia? By evaluating the 4) Does burial exclusion exist in Myce- last seven years. I have shared everything ningen and Athens to spend time with me changes through time, my aim in Chap- naean burials? Present research has ne- from apartments to hair straighteners with and learn about my research. Your faithful ter 2 is to explore mortuary variations ver before employed a regional sample you two and I never regretted it for one support will always be the most meaningful in order to reconstruct which practices of skeletal data to address whether or second. You are both lifelong friends, so I gift that you could have ever given me. are one-off actions and which are true not persons interred within Mycenaean local traditions. Here, I employ archae- chamber or tholos tombs were selected ological evidence such as tomb types, based on age or sex. In Chapter 5 (Jones grave goods, and treatment of the body 2018b), I utilize a sample of bioarchae- separated by Pre-Palatial, Palatial, Post- ological data from various sites in Palatial periods. Achaia to evaluate if burial exclusion 2) What is secondary burial in Mycenaean based on age or sex was present. mortuary practice? How can we recon- 5) Finally, what is the demographic com- struct the actions that produced the position of the Mycenaean world? In burial deposits? Mycenaean tombs con- recent decades, bioarchaeological re- xii 1

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 13 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction Table 1.

Bronze Age Chronology in Greece (modified from Shelmerdine 1997: Table 1; Toffolo et al. 2013; Voutsaki 2010: Table 1, and Voutsaki et al. 2013: Table 1).

Time Period Abbreviation Approximate Dates (BC) Mycenaean Period

Middle Helladic I-II MH I-II 2100-1800 ----

Middle Helladic III MH III 1800-1700 Pre-Palatial/ Late Helladic I LH I 1700-1580 Early Mycenaean Late Helladic II LH II 1580-1390

Late Helladic IIIA LH IIIA 1390-1300 Palatial Late Helladic IIIB LH IIIB 1300-1190 ACHAIA Late Helladic IIIC LH IIIC 1190-1065 Post-Palatial

Submycenaean -- 1065-1000 --

aeology an overnight sensation (1978, 16). ments) pits or cists with few grave goods Just a few years shy of 150 years since (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 23–40). However, Schliemann’s ground-breaking discovery, some regional traditions, such as tumuli Mycenaean archaeology continues to fasci- containing multiple burials in Western nate the public, as recently seen in the Grif- Greece (e.g. Papadopoulos 1979, 49-50), fin Warrior found in 2015 in Pylos (Davis show that variation also occurred during and Stocker 2017). Meticulous excavations this period. Recent research by Michael throughout Greece and thorough research Boyd has found evidence that all tombs by Greek and international scholars has types were present late in the Middle Figure 1 produced a tome of Mycenaean archaeolo- Helladic period, in smaller or rudimentary . Map of Mycenaean Greece (adapted from Map 2 in Kelder 2010, 5). gical publications. From the (Tholos) Tomb forms, suggesting that Mycenaean tomb of Atreus at Mycenae to the small, provincial architecture was introduced before the Late tombs of Achaia, Mycenaean archaeology Helladic period (Boyd 2002, 92-95). By the search has contributed data from all oriented osteological studies when applied has benefitted from nearly two centuries of end of the period, in Middle Helladic III, over the Mycenaean world. However, 1.2to Mycenaean The State legacyof the Researchdata. research. Thus, the mortuary sphere of My- changes were occurring; graves became this growing body of data has not been cenaean archaeology stretches far and wide. larger, more complex in construction with combined in a synthetic study. Thus, These investigations have given us a gene- deeper pits, side entrances, and they con- ral, although often incomplete, picture of the tained more interments and greater wealth, there has been no evaluation of age and 1.2.1 Mycenaean Burial Practices sex (gender) on a larger scale. In Chap- graves and burial practices that have cap- with bodies placed more often in an ex- ter 6, I employ a synthesis of data and Since the days of Heinrich Schliemann and tivated both archaeologists and the public tended rather than flexed position statistical rigor in order to reconstruct his quest to find the heroes and palaces of for over a century. (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 23–40; Voutsaki 1998). The simple pit and cist graves Mycenaean age and sex distributions, the Homeric poems, Mycenaean culture has A brief review of mortuary practices during continued in use throughout the Mycenaean and unpack lingering assumptions of been a major focus in Greek archaeology. the preceding Middle Helladic (MH) period period (mainly in intramural contexts for burial exclusion. Sypros Iakovidis, speaking in 1978 on the (see Table 1 for chronology) is necessary to topic of “A Hundred Years of Mycenaean infants and children), and some tombs were contextualize the seemingly explosive and less grand than others or contained few Archaeology” rightly states that Schlie- elaborate Mycenaean burial traditions. This dissertation is comprised of both chap- indications of wealth. By the Late Helladic mann’s discovery of the Shaft Graves at Middle Helladic burials are characterized by ters and articles of research demonstrating period certain aspects, such as the extra- Mycenae (Figure 1) made Mycenaean arch- single or occasionally double, flexed burials the immense potential of detailed question- mural location, monumental tomb types in simple intramural (or nearby settle-

2 3

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 14 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction Table 1. 01 Bronze Age Chronology in Greece (modified from Shelmerdine 1997: Table 1; Toffolo et al. 2013; Voutsaki 2010: Table 1, and Voutsaki et al. 2013: Table 1).

Time Period Abbreviation Approximate Dates (BC) Mycenaean Period

Middle Helladic I-II MH I-II 2100-1800 ----

Middle Helladic III MH III 1800-1700 Pre-Palatial/ Late Helladic I LH I 1700-1580 Early Mycenaean Late Helladic II LH II 1580-1390

Late Helladic IIIA LH IIIA 1390-1300 Palatial Late Helladic IIIB LH IIIB 1300-1190 ACHAIA Late Helladic IIIC LH IIIC 1190-1065 Post-Palatial

Submycenaean -- 1065-1000 --

2 3

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 15 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

(tholoi and chamber tombs), and the reuse The monumental construction of tholoi, rather, they are a unique case reflecting a the Mycenaean period onwards (as outlined koine of tombs with multi-stage burial practices, chambers tombs and tumuli all entailed a specific time and place of conspicuous below). In stark contrast to the normal bu- characterize the Mycenaean mortuary certain level of planning and mobilization of consumption via mortuary display (Shel- rial repertoire of the Middle Helladic period, despite some regional preferences and par- labor (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 78-79, 124). merdine 1997, 561; Voutsaki 1998). After they do bear some similarity with the Early ticularities. The building process itself must have com- this early competitive display in Mycenaean Helladic mortuary practices though there is An important change from Middle Helladic manded a presence in the society as labor- burial practices, there is a typical burial variation during this period as well (Preve- to Mycenaean burial traditions was the loca- intensive facilities for the dead had to be assemblage of artifacts, though with consi- dorou 2015; Prevedorou and Stojanowski tion of graves outside of the settlement. Lo- built, re-used, and maintained over time. derable variations, found in Mycenaean 2017; Weiberg 2013). cation was far from an arbitrary factor when However, tomb type is not always so clear- tombs. More commonly, burials were fur- During the early formative years of Myce- choosing a space for a burial. In the early cut; there are other ambiguous categories nished with drinking vessels, such as kylikes naean mortuary practices, grave reuse in years of the Mycenaean period (pre-LH II) such as large cist or pit graves, built tombs, or storage vessels, such as the characteristic cists and pits precludes secondary and col- most of the mortuary landscape was located shaft graves, and rudimentary tholoi (Papa- stirrup jars. By LH IIB Mycenaean style and lective burial. The Shaft Graves of Mycenae in close proximity to settlements; in Myce- dimitriou 2015). Additionally, the simple repertoire is clearly established and found are a good example; the graves were con- nae, the Prehistoric Cemetery is directly ad- graves declined in use overall, but they were in graves all over the Greek Mainland and structed for initial interment and then jacent to the settlement (though admittedly also incorporated within the monumental even in burials at Knossos (Shelmerdine reopened for multiple dead persons to be the boundaries are not clear – also because forms, as seen in the small cists or pits dug 1997, 561). Occasionally swords, knives, added with the bones of previously buried of the complex excavation history of this into the floor of a large chamber tomb. Shaft and other weapons are found in Mycenaean persons either separated by a layer of gravel area). This closeness in many cases gra- graves are an ambiguous category: some graves during the Palatial Period and espe- and soil or moved to the sides of the tomb dually shifts to tombs and cemeteries away graves referred to as shaft graves are cially during the Post-Palatial Period (Wells 1990, 135; Cavanagh and Mee 1998, from settlements; still within short walking actually large elaborate cist tombs. In ad- (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 50-51, 69, 95). 76). When tholoi and chamber tombs distance, the neighboring hill or slope, but dition, the Shaft Graves in Mycenae required So-called “Warrior Graves” complete with became fully adopted and part of the mor- not just outside the settlement area any- more energy expenditure than a small swords and knives with artistic rendering of tuary program, these more enclosed spaces more (Wells 1990, 128). The shift from in- chamber tomb and some small, poorly built hunting or military scenes are common in with extensive postmortem manipulation tramural to extramural burial has been in- tholoi. However, these intermediate types Achaia during the Post-Palatial Period created the well-recognized secondary and terpreted in various contexts as a change in (and the ensuing typological debates) are (Shelmerdine 1997, 561). collective burial assemblages. Within the ideology towards the dead (see Parker Pear- found mostly in the Prepalatial period. By In conclusion, burial traditions in the Myce- category of secondary burial, a distinction is son 124-141 for more thorough discussion). the Palatial Period, tomb construction was naean world were far from homogeneous. often made between the piles of bones Traditionally, burial types are classified into dominated by two forms designed for reuse: Burial styles changed greatly through time moved to the inner walls of the tomb and and in space during the roughly 500 years of the bones packed into pits cut into the tomb two general categories in Mycenaean stu- the tholos and the chamber tomb (Cavanagh anakomidi and Mee 1998, 41-60). These tomb types Mycenaean cultural influence. Latest re- floor. These deposits of disarticulated hu- dies: the simple graves, including pits, cists, , and pithoi, and the monumental/more ela- were similar in many architectural features search has moved away from the emphasis man remains are both termed in borate tombs: chamber tombs, tholoi, and such as the tripartite lay-out of dromos on status in Mycenaean burials and has Greek archaeology literally meaning “trans- tumuli (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 124-125). (narrow entryway), stomion (door), and turned towards reconstructing the nuances ferred”. Secondary burials, in niches or cists Shaft graves, though sometimes categorized chamber. While the tholos has traditionally of Mycenaean mortuary practices. Recently, cut into the floor, the wall or the dromos of as simple graves (as was done in Chapter 7 been considered to be the “elite” tomb type, various scholars have argued that although these tombs become widespread and the of this dissertation for reasons outlined the lines are blurred for rudimentary tholoi burial was a place to exhibit social differen- scattering of bones in tombs, seen in detail therein), could be placed in an intermediate and large regular, well-cut chamber tombs ces, it was also an opportunity for esta- in Petroto, also becomes more common category together with built tombs. The containing exotic, wealthy grave goods (Ca- blishing and displaying social cohesion and (Wells 1990, 126). Secondary burial was primary difference between the tholos and vanagh and Mee 1998, 125). The chamber identity formation (Boyd 2015b;2016; Pa- merely one, often final, act of the burial chamber tomb is their construction; the tomb is the most common tomb type with padimitriou 2016; Voutsaki 2012; Moutafi program in many mortuary contexts. In tholos is made of cut stones placed in a cor- thousands of examples scattered all over the and Voutsaki 2016). short, secondary burial is a small snapshot belled fashion to create a beehive chamber, known Mycenaean world. of a larger whole in which all actions, both 1.2.2 Mycenaean Secondary Burial whereas the chamber tomb was carved out Turning to grave goods, the lavish objects, natural processes such as decomposition, of soft bedrock. These tombs are considered such as the golden masks and jewelry found The practice of multiple burial and tomb and cultural acts such as the positioning of monumental because a certain amount of in the Shaft Graves are not representative of reuse has been a part of Greek prehistory at the body during primary burial or inten- materials and labor had to be organized. Mycenaean grave goods in general but various times, but these complex mortuary tional or accidental disarticulation of earlier acts are found mostly from the transition to burials, can potentially affect the final burial

4 5

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 16 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01 (tholoi and chamber tombs), and the reuse The monumental construction of tholoi, rather, they are a unique case reflecting a the Mycenaean period onwards (as outlined koine of tombs with multi-stage burial practices, chambers tombs and tumuli all entailed a specific time and place of conspicuous below). In stark contrast to the normal bu- characterize the Mycenaean mortuary certain level of planning and mobilization of consumption via mortuary display (Shel- rial repertoire of the Middle Helladic period, despite some regional preferences and par- labor (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 78-79, 124). merdine 1997, 561; Voutsaki 1998). After they do bear some similarity with the Early ticularities. The building process itself must have com- this early competitive display in Mycenaean Helladic mortuary practices though there is An important change from Middle Helladic manded a presence in the society as labor- burial practices, there is a typical burial variation during this period as well (Preve- to Mycenaean burial traditions was the loca- intensive facilities for the dead had to be assemblage of artifacts, though with consi- dorou 2015; Prevedorou and Stojanowski tion of graves outside of the settlement. Lo- built, re-used, and maintained over time. derable variations, found in Mycenaean 2017; Weiberg 2013). cation was far from an arbitrary factor when However, tomb type is not always so clear- tombs. More commonly, burials were fur- During the early formative years of Myce- choosing a space for a burial. In the early cut; there are other ambiguous categories nished with drinking vessels, such as kylikes naean mortuary practices, grave reuse in years of the Mycenaean period (pre-LH II) such as large cist or pit graves, built tombs, or storage vessels, such as the characteristic cists and pits precludes secondary and col- most of the mortuary landscape was located shaft graves, and rudimentary tholoi (Papa- stirrup jars. By LH IIB Mycenaean style and lective burial. The Shaft Graves of Mycenae in close proximity to settlements; in Myce- dimitriou 2015). Additionally, the simple repertoire is clearly established and found are a good example; the graves were con- nae, the Prehistoric Cemetery is directly ad- graves declined in use overall, but they were in graves all over the Greek Mainland and structed for initial interment and then jacent to the settlement (though admittedly also incorporated within the monumental even in burials at Knossos (Shelmerdine reopened for multiple dead persons to be the boundaries are not clear – also because forms, as seen in the small cists or pits dug 1997, 561). Occasionally swords, knives, added with the bones of previously buried of the complex excavation history of this into the floor of a large chamber tomb. Shaft and other weapons are found in Mycenaean persons either separated by a layer of gravel area). This closeness in many cases gra- graves are an ambiguous category: some graves during the Palatial Period and espe- and soil or moved to the sides of the tomb dually shifts to tombs and cemeteries away graves referred to as shaft graves are cially during the Post-Palatial Period (Wells 1990, 135; Cavanagh and Mee 1998, from settlements; still within short walking actually large elaborate cist tombs. In ad- (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 50-51, 69, 95). 76). When tholoi and chamber tombs distance, the neighboring hill or slope, but dition, the Shaft Graves in Mycenae required So-called “Warrior Graves” complete with became fully adopted and part of the mor- not just outside the settlement area any- more energy expenditure than a small swords and knives with artistic rendering of tuary program, these more enclosed spaces more (Wells 1990, 128). The shift from in- chamber tomb and some small, poorly built hunting or military scenes are common in with extensive postmortem manipulation tramural to extramural burial has been in- tholoi. However, these intermediate types Achaia during the Post-Palatial Period created the well-recognized secondary and terpreted in various contexts as a change in (and the ensuing typological debates) are (Shelmerdine 1997, 561). collective burial assemblages. Within the ideology towards the dead (see Parker Pear- found mostly in the Prepalatial period. By In conclusion, burial traditions in the Myce- category of secondary burial, a distinction is son 124-141 for more thorough discussion). the Palatial Period, tomb construction was naean world were far from homogeneous. often made between the piles of bones Traditionally, burial types are classified into dominated by two forms designed for reuse: Burial styles changed greatly through time moved to the inner walls of the tomb and and in space during the roughly 500 years of the bones packed into pits cut into the tomb two general categories in Mycenaean stu- the tholos and the chamber tomb (Cavanagh anakomidi and Mee 1998, 41-60). These tomb types Mycenaean cultural influence. Latest re- floor. These deposits of disarticulated hu- dies: the simple graves, including pits, cists, , and pithoi, and the monumental/more ela- were similar in many architectural features search has moved away from the emphasis man remains are both termed in borate tombs: chamber tombs, tholoi, and such as the tripartite lay-out of dromos on status in Mycenaean burials and has Greek archaeology literally meaning “trans- tumuli (Cavanagh and Mee 1998, 124-125). (narrow entryway), stomion (door), and turned towards reconstructing the nuances ferred”. Secondary burials, in niches or cists Shaft graves, though sometimes categorized chamber. While the tholos has traditionally of Mycenaean mortuary practices. Recently, cut into the floor, the wall or the dromos of as simple graves (as was done in Chapter 7 been considered to be the “elite” tomb type, various scholars have argued that although these tombs become widespread and the of this dissertation for reasons outlined the lines are blurred for rudimentary tholoi burial was a place to exhibit social differen- scattering of bones in tombs, seen in detail therein), could be placed in an intermediate and large regular, well-cut chamber tombs ces, it was also an opportunity for esta- in Petroto, also becomes more common category together with built tombs. The containing exotic, wealthy grave goods (Ca- blishing and displaying social cohesion and (Wells 1990, 126). Secondary burial was primary difference between the tholos and vanagh and Mee 1998, 125). The chamber identity formation (Boyd 2015b;2016; Pa- merely one, often final, act of the burial chamber tomb is their construction; the tomb is the most common tomb type with padimitriou 2016; Voutsaki 2012; Moutafi program in many mortuary contexts. In tholos is made of cut stones placed in a cor- thousands of examples scattered all over the and Voutsaki 2016). short, secondary burial is a small snapshot belled fashion to create a beehive chamber, known Mycenaean world. of a larger whole in which all actions, both 1.2.2 Mycenaean Secondary Burial whereas the chamber tomb was carved out Turning to grave goods, the lavish objects, natural processes such as decomposition, of soft bedrock. These tombs are considered such as the golden masks and jewelry found The practice of multiple burial and tomb and cultural acts such as the positioning of monumental because a certain amount of in the Shaft Graves are not representative of reuse has been a part of Greek prehistory at the body during primary burial or inten- materials and labor had to be organized. Mycenaean grave goods in general but various times, but these complex mortuary tional or accidental disarticulation of earlier acts are found mostly from the transition to burials, can potentially affect the final burial

4 5

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 17 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

deposit. An example of these types of burial Buikstra and Lagia 2009). From then on, have been a historically neglected field. logists have certainly provided crucial data are found at Dendra, where Tomb 10 pre- Angel engaged with various research However, this has changed dramatically in for reconstructing some aspects of Myce- sents a case of secondary burial in which a themes using Greek skeletal samples, inclu- the last ten years since a noticeable increase naean culture or biology such as mortuary disarticulated skeleton was interred in a ding population movements and mortality in osteological research in Greece has begun practices, demography, and pathology, there small pit accompanied by grave goods. On rates. Angel’s approach focused on esta- by a new generation of Greek bioarchaeo- have been no bioarchaeological analyses the other hand, Tomb 6 at Dendra contains blishing death ratios by age and sex in order logists. Primarily trained in the US and the beyond the site level. However, the overall multiple sets of human remains that have to calculate adult lifespans, female fertility, UK, this group of bioarchaeologists has in- growing enthusiasm for bioarchaeological been 'scattered about in disorder' (Wells and average lengths of generations. His ulti- tegrated innovative archaeological science study in Mycenaean research makes it a 1990, 135). It has been suggested that the mate goal was the reconstruction of popula- techniques, such as isotopic and aDNA good time to add a question-oriented, deceased had become the collective dead so tion and household sizes (Angel 1969, 428– research, in order to usher in a new era of regional and supra-regional study to this that new burials could be introduced (Wells 33). Additionally, his pioneering research of knowledge of the Mycenaean period. For literature. The overall objective of my PhD 1990, 135). the pathological condition known as porotic example, beginning in 2009 a group of re- research is to reconstruct Mycenaean mor- The Mycenaean practice of postmortem ma- hyperostosis is still relevant and cited in searchers went back to the human remains tuary practices using a bioarchaeological nipulation is distinctive within Late Helladic current paleopathological research (Angel from the Shaft Graves and re-examined ma- approach. Therefore, I aim to integrate contexts. While secondary manipulation of 1964; Angel 1966). In particular, Angel’s terial (Papazoglou-Manioudaki et al 2012) human remains with archaeological context skeletal remains is a widespread, common work with Mycenaean human remains in- with new techniques such as isotope ana- in order to reconstruct mortuary practices feature of Mycenaean mortuary practices, it cluded sites such as Asine (Angel 1982), lysis (Prag et al 2009) and aDNA (Brown et and burial demography. For this research, I is a defining characteristic during this pe- Pylos (Bisel and Angel 1985), Athens (Angel al 2000; Bouwman et al 2008). Other site- focused on reconstructing the burial process riod. In addition, postmortem manipulation, 1945, 1946), Mycenae (1973), and Lerna specific studies within the Mycenaean world using taphonomic methods (Chapter 3), ra- although a common occurrence in Mycenae- (Angel 1971). Termed “social biology”, have been undertaken in almost every re- diocarbon to evaluate the timing of burials an graves and tombs, is also a variable Angel’s focus on human remains using gion from the far north to the south. (Chapter 4), and paleodemography to hypo- practice. Deposits of disarticulated human scientific methodology was a certainly a Publications of skeletal studies covering a thesize about patterns of burial exclusion remains may be mixed with animal remains turning point in Greek bioarchaeology that variety of time periods and sites have ex- based on biological age or sex (Chapters 5 (some intrusive, but others likely deposited paved the way for later generations. panded our knowledge of the actual people and 6). Rather than a single site-level study, along with the human bodies), reburied Despite Angel’s scientific rigor in Greek ar- populating these past cultures. Recently, this dissertation analyses multiple sites in within pits or left exposed on the tomb whole volumes are dedicated to the re- the non-palatial, peripheral Mycenaean re- chaeology, some of his methods have been New Directions in the Skeletal floor, found in piles, both orderly or hap- search strides being made in Greece (for gion of Achaia (Chalandritsa, Petroto, and shown to be unreliable and unfortunately Biology of Greece hazard, and they may be accompanied by some of his interpretations have been re- example, Portes), combines this data for a regional grave goods or completely unfurnished. peated without further testing. For example, ). Likewise, many of the study, and then synthesizes data at the This variation within the practice is a par- his sex estimations of children and infants recent bioarchaeological studies often ex- intra-regional level. ticularly puzzling aspect and may relate to and his use of parturition pits for estimating clusively focus on skeletal data in order to In addition, this dissertation utilizes legacy timing of burial, personal preference, social fertility are regarded as unreliable today make inferences about community size, data in order to demonstrate that it can be a status, biological characteristics of the dead, (Buikstra and Lagia 2009). Despite the small health, diet, and social status (Liston 2007; worthwhile dataset for mortuary research. cause of death, etc. Regardless, the so-called sample size of his Mycenaean study of Pylos, Papathanasiou, Richards, and Fox 2015; Rife Although not without challenges, legacy ‘secondary burials’ are a complex and poor- he reported that males were overrepresen- et al. 2007; Schepartz, Miller-Antonio, and data, such as tomb plans and excavation ly understood feature of Mycenaean mortu- ted, a conclusion that was repeated by va- Murphy 2009; Triantaphyllou 2017; Wright notes, provide invaluable insight into the ary practices. rious scholars without further testing until et al. 2008; Voutsaki et al. 2013). This new complicated tomb histories. There exist a recent evidence has shown otherwise (Sche- wave of skeletal studies in Greece creates an large number of skeletal remains awaiting 1.2.3 The History of Mycenaean partz, Miller-Antonio, and Murphy 2009). environment that is more conducive to my study in various storerooms and museums Bioarchaeology Regardless, Angel’s legacy and his pionee- 1.3research. Research Problem and Aims in Greece. This legacy data was often the In the late 1930s when J. Lawrence Angel ring contributions to anthropological study result of rescue excavations and are conducted his dissertation research on hu- in Greece cannot be denied. frequently considered undesirable for man remains from well-known sites, such as While Angel’s work is well-known, bio- Although Angel’s groundbreaking research bioarchaeolo-gical study due to the varying the Athenian Agora (Angel 1945) he truly archaeological study in Greece is less preva- started bioarchaeological inquiry of Myce- excavation methods, uneven documenta- pioneered the use of human remains as a lent than in the United States and much of naean burials, there are still substantial tion, poor preservation, or access to in- source for reconstructing ancient Greek northern Europe; skeletal studies in Greece gaps in the discipline’s application in Greek formation. However legacy data hold un- populations (Jacobson and Cullen 1990; archaeology. The new wave of bioarchaeo- realized potential because they are often

6 7

140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 18 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01 deposit. An example of these types of burial Buikstra and Lagia 2009). From then on, have been a historically neglected field. logists have certainly provided crucial data are found at Dendra, where Tomb 10 pre- Angel engaged with various research However, this has changed dramatically in for reconstructing some aspects of Myce- sents a case of secondary burial in which a themes using Greek skeletal samples, inclu- the last ten years since a noticeable increase naean culture or biology such as mortuary disarticulated skeleton was interred in a ding population movements and mortality in osteological research in Greece has begun practices, demography, and pathology, there small pit accompanied by grave goods. On rates. Angel’s approach focused on esta- by a new generation of Greek bioarchaeo- have been no bioarchaeological analyses the other hand, Tomb 6 at Dendra contains blishing death ratios by age and sex in order logists. Primarily trained in the US and the beyond the site level. However, the overall multiple sets of human remains that have to calculate adult lifespans, female fertility, UK, this group of bioarchaeologists has in- growing enthusiasm for bioarchaeological been 'scattered about in disorder' (Wells and average lengths of generations. His ulti- tegrated innovative archaeological science study in Mycenaean research makes it a 1990, 135). It has been suggested that the mate goal was the reconstruction of popula- techniques, such as isotopic and aDNA good time to add a question-oriented, deceased had become the collective dead so tion and household sizes (Angel 1969, 428– research, in order to usher in a new era of regional and supra-regional study to this that new burials could be introduced (Wells 33). Additionally, his pioneering research of knowledge of the Mycenaean period. For literature. The overall objective of my PhD 1990, 135). the pathological condition known as porotic example, beginning in 2009 a group of re- research is to reconstruct Mycenaean mor- The Mycenaean practice of postmortem ma- hyperostosis is still relevant and cited in searchers went back to the human remains tuary practices using a bioarchaeological nipulation is distinctive within Late Helladic current paleopathological research (Angel from the Shaft Graves and re-examined ma- approach. Therefore, I aim to integrate contexts. While secondary manipulation of 1964; Angel 1966). In particular, Angel’s terial (Papazoglou-Manioudaki et al 2012) human remains with archaeological context skeletal remains is a widespread, common work with Mycenaean human remains in- with new techniques such as isotope ana- in order to reconstruct mortuary practices feature of Mycenaean mortuary practices, it cluded sites such as Asine (Angel 1982), lysis (Prag et al 2009) and aDNA (Brown et and burial demography. For this research, I is a defining characteristic during this pe- Pylos (Bisel and Angel 1985), Athens (Angel al 2000; Bouwman et al 2008). Other site- focused on reconstructing the burial process riod. In addition, postmortem manipulation, 1945, 1946), Mycenae (1973), and Lerna specific studies within the Mycenaean world using taphonomic methods (Chapter 3), ra- although a common occurrence in Mycenae- (Angel 1971). Termed “social biology”, have been undertaken in almost every re- diocarbon to evaluate the timing of burials an graves and tombs, is also a variable Angel’s focus on human remains using gion from the far north to the south. (Chapter 4), and paleodemography to hypo- practice. Deposits of disarticulated human scientific methodology was a certainly a Publications of skeletal studies covering a thesize about patterns of burial exclusion remains may be mixed with animal remains turning point in Greek bioarchaeology that variety of time periods and sites have ex- based on biological age or sex (Chapters 5 (some intrusive, but others likely deposited paved the way for later generations. panded our knowledge of the actual people and 6). Rather than a single site-level study, along with the human bodies), reburied Despite Angel’s scientific rigor in Greek ar- populating these past cultures. Recently, this dissertation analyses multiple sites in within pits or left exposed on the tomb whole volumes are dedicated to the re- the non-palatial, peripheral Mycenaean re- chaeology, some of his methods have been New Directions in the Skeletal floor, found in piles, both orderly or hap- search strides being made in Greece (for gion of Achaia (Chalandritsa, Petroto, and shown to be unreliable and unfortunately Biology of Greece hazard, and they may be accompanied by some of his interpretations have been re- example, Portes), combines this data for a regional grave goods or completely unfurnished. peated without further testing. For example, ). Likewise, many of the study, and then synthesizes data at the This variation within the practice is a par- his sex estimations of children and infants recent bioarchaeological studies often ex- intra-regional level. ticularly puzzling aspect and may relate to and his use of parturition pits for estimating clusively focus on skeletal data in order to In addition, this dissertation utilizes legacy timing of burial, personal preference, social fertility are regarded as unreliable today make inferences about community size, data in order to demonstrate that it can be a status, biological characteristics of the dead, (Buikstra and Lagia 2009). Despite the small health, diet, and social status (Liston 2007; worthwhile dataset for mortuary research. cause of death, etc. Regardless, the so-called sample size of his Mycenaean study of Pylos, Papathanasiou, Richards, and Fox 2015; Rife Although not without challenges, legacy ‘secondary burials’ are a complex and poor- he reported that males were overrepresen- et al. 2007; Schepartz, Miller-Antonio, and data, such as tomb plans and excavation ly understood feature of Mycenaean mortu- ted, a conclusion that was repeated by va- Murphy 2009; Triantaphyllou 2017; Wright notes, provide invaluable insight into the ary practices. rious scholars without further testing until et al. 2008; Voutsaki et al. 2013). This new complicated tomb histories. There exist a recent evidence has shown otherwise (Sche- wave of skeletal studies in Greece creates an large number of skeletal remains awaiting 1.2.3 The History of Mycenaean partz, Miller-Antonio, and Murphy 2009). environment that is more conducive to my study in various storerooms and museums Bioarchaeology Regardless, Angel’s legacy and his pionee- 1.3research. Research Problem and Aims in Greece. This legacy data was often the In the late 1930s when J. Lawrence Angel ring contributions to anthropological study result of rescue excavations and are conducted his dissertation research on hu- in Greece cannot be denied. frequently considered undesirable for man remains from well-known sites, such as While Angel’s work is well-known, bio- Although Angel’s groundbreaking research bioarchaeolo-gical study due to the varying the Athenian Agora (Angel 1945) he truly archaeological study in Greece is less preva- started bioarchaeological inquiry of Myce- excavation methods, uneven documenta- pioneered the use of human remains as a lent than in the United States and much of naean burials, there are still substantial tion, poor preservation, or access to in- source for reconstructing ancient Greek northern Europe; skeletal studies in Greece gaps in the discipline’s application in Greek formation. However legacy data hold un- populations (Jacobson and Cullen 1990; archaeology. The new wave of bioarchaeo- realized potential because they are often

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 19 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

3 accompanied by high quality excavation make informed interpretation without the drawings for Portes were not granted; thus, their commingled and fragmented human notes and are already excavated and ready actual body from the burial; there must be a only a few chamber tombs were used in this remains. Termed “commingled burials”, the to be studied. It is crucial that when using relationship of collaboration and equality. study. issue of multiple individuals in a single legacy data that contextual information, in- Over the decades, bioarchaeologists have mortuary space is challenging but by no cluding excavation notes, photos, plans and produced a great deal of informed, problem- 1.4.3 Anthropological Methodology means unprecedented (e.g. Osterholtz, Bau- any associated publications, be consulted oriented skeletal studies. Generally, skeletal study involves a detailed stain, and Martin 2015). Commingling is not during skeletal data collection and interpre- assessment of osteological characteristics confirmed until a duplicate bone is noted, 1.4.2 Archaeological Context tation. In this study, I chose only certain such as age, sex, stature, and pathology. The such as the presence of two right humeri tombs from the various study sites (outlined Since I was not present at the excavation, a project research design employed standard (Ubelaker 2002, 332). Commingled secon- in the sections below) due to good docu- thorough study of the original notes, draw- osteological method to air recording of the dary burials often also have poor skeletal mentation. This documentation consists of ings and lists of each excavation was con- material. The majority of the burials date to preservation because the bones have been tomb plans and excavation photos. Thus, ducted prior to the skeletal data collection. the Palatial and Post-Palatial pe-riods (LH moved and manipulated, actions that can there is a strong need in Mycenaean re- These careful and meticulously handwritten IIIA-C), and much of the material is from incur damage to the bones. Commingled search to overcome the challenges (and notes made by the lead excavator in the secondary burial contexts because this was graves with varying states of preservation associated stigma) of legacy data by readily field contain vital information for recon- the typical interment practice for this time have characterized human history for mil- including them into bioarcheological ana- structing the burial context for each ceme- period. This sample is ideal for a focus on lennia and, though difficult, many osteo- lyses. In addition, there is a need to use tery, tomb, and grave. Noting the stratigra- secondary burial, but less than ideal and logists and forensic scientists have devised human skeletal legacy data in order to de- phy of the tomb is essential for understan- rather difficult for the skeletal analysis methods for dealing with them. For monstrate the potential of skeletal studies ding the depositional processes of the aspect. example, I use the Minimum number of ele- to ensure that human remains are safely context and for helping delineate the burials Standard bioarchaeological methodology in- ments (MNE) in order to more accurately stored after excavation and available for within their seemingly disorganized piles of cludes estimating the Minimum Number of calculate MNI. Minimum number of ele- 1.4study Methodology: in the future. A Bioarchaeological bones. The plans and drawings of the tombs Individuals (MNI), age, and sex. The MNI is ments is cal-culated in a similar fashion but Approach also depict the original site context con- calculated by sorting bones by element and rather than the full skeleton, the bone taining evidence that is now buried, for side then calculating the overlap within elements are the minimal units (for a example at least one site (Chalandritsa) has sided element groups (White 1953). For discussion of MNE calculations see Marean 1.4.1 Bioarchaeology been covered and is now sheep pasture. The example, if two right humeri are recovered et al. 2001). Once the MNE is estimated, this is then used for an estimation of MNI. original1 excavation notes for the Petroto and identified along with three left humeri, The interdisciplinary framework, in which bioar- tholos were used alongside the already then the bone assemblage represents a Skeletal studies often involve multiple tech- the data of this project are analyzed and chaeology published information as an integral part of minimum of three individuals. Estimating niques for making the best possible esti- interpreted, is commonly termed as mation of age, sex, etc. and dealing with the description and interpretation of the2 age, sex, and MNI for the burial deposits in . Bioarchaeology is a word coined archaeological context. For Chalandritsa , I the tombs is the base of the bioarchae- poor preservation and commingling is no originally as a general purpose term refer- developed a close working relationship with ological assessment in Chapters 3-6. This different. Therefore, a variety of methods ring to any organic remains (human, animal, Konstantina Aktypi, who was in the process basic information is then integrated with are used to analyze this difficult material. plant) in archaeological studies (Clark of studying and has since published an the contextual archaeological record to exa- Methodologies include contextual site infor- 1972). However, it was Jane Buikstra who, archaeological analysis of the Chalandritsa mine features of the population in general mation, processes of taphonomy, osteo- in 1976 at a regional conference in the U.S.A. cemetery (see Aktypi 2017). Unfortunately, and to examine secondary burial actions in metric comparison, and articulation. If defined this term as it is known today: a access to the diary, and some photos and particular. The excavation archive is tho- bioarchaeoogists only ascertained skeletal problem-orientated study of human skeletal sex from the cranial traits, they would be roughly incorporated during the analysis in os coxae remains and their associated archaeological order to reconstruct the context within in missing the more accurate methods for contexts (Buikstra and Beck 2006, xvii). 1 estimation from the ; in this way, I I would like to thank Michalis Petropoulos for each tomb or burial. This discipline aims to integrate the skeletal evaluate various types of information before his kind permission to work on the human Apart from the standard methodology, My- and archaeological researcher as one scien- remains from Petroto and for his wonderful finalTaphonomy interpretation. cenaean burials are a difficult dataset due to tist trained in osteology with an archae- collaboration2 the past five years. ological focus. Osteology cannot be prac- I would like to thank Michalis Petropoulos and 3 ticed in a meaningful way in archaeological Maria Stavropoulou-Gatsi for their kind I would like to thank Lazaros Kolonas for his Archaeologists interpreting disarticulated permission to work on the human remains from kind permission to work on the human remains or commingled burials that may appear to studies without the context of the skeletal Chalandritsa. from Portes. material. Likewise, burial studies cannot be secondary, should keep in mind that “the

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 20 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

3 01 accompanied by high quality excavation make informed interpretation without the drawings for Portes were not granted; thus, their commingled and fragmented human notes and are already excavated and ready actual body from the burial; there must be a only a few chamber tombs were used in this remains. Termed “commingled burials”, the to be studied. It is crucial that when using relationship of collaboration and equality. study. issue of multiple individuals in a single legacy data that contextual information, in- Over the decades, bioarchaeologists have mortuary space is challenging but by no cluding excavation notes, photos, plans and produced a great deal of informed, problem- 1.4.3 Anthropological Methodology means unprecedented (e.g. Osterholtz, Bau- any associated publications, be consulted oriented skeletal studies. Generally, skeletal study involves a detailed stain, and Martin 2015). Commingling is not during skeletal data collection and interpre- assessment of osteological characteristics confirmed until a duplicate bone is noted, 1.4.2 Archaeological Context tation. In this study, I chose only certain such as age, sex, stature, and pathology. The such as the presence of two right humeri tombs from the various study sites (outlined Since I was not present at the excavation, a project research design employed standard (Ubelaker 2002, 332). Commingled secon- in the sections below) due to good docu- thorough study of the original notes, draw- osteological method to air recording of the dary burials often also have poor skeletal mentation. This documentation consists of ings and lists of each excavation was con- material. The majority of the burials date to preservation because the bones have been tomb plans and excavation photos. Thus, ducted prior to the skeletal data collection. the Palatial and Post-Palatial pe-riods (LH moved and manipulated, actions that can there is a strong need in Mycenaean re- These careful and meticulously handwritten IIIA-C), and much of the material is from incur damage to the bones. Commingled search to overcome the challenges (and notes made by the lead excavator in the secondary burial contexts because this was graves with varying states of preservation associated stigma) of legacy data by readily field contain vital information for recon- the typical interment practice for this time have characterized human history for mil- including them into bioarcheological ana- structing the burial context for each ceme- period. This sample is ideal for a focus on lennia and, though difficult, many osteo- lyses. In addition, there is a need to use tery, tomb, and grave. Noting the stratigra- secondary burial, but less than ideal and logists and forensic scientists have devised human skeletal legacy data in order to de- phy of the tomb is essential for understan- rather difficult for the skeletal analysis methods for dealing with them. For monstrate the potential of skeletal studies ding the depositional processes of the aspect. example, I use the Minimum number of ele- to ensure that human remains are safely context and for helping delineate the burials Standard bioarchaeological methodology in- ments (MNE) in order to more accurately stored after excavation and available for within their seemingly disorganized piles of cludes estimating the Minimum Number of calculate MNI. Minimum number of ele- 1.4study Methodology: in the future. A Bioarchaeological bones. The plans and drawings of the tombs Individuals (MNI), age, and sex. The MNI is ments is cal-culated in a similar fashion but Approach also depict the original site context con- calculated by sorting bones by element and rather than the full skeleton, the bone taining evidence that is now buried, for side then calculating the overlap within elements are the minimal units (for a example at least one site (Chalandritsa) has sided element groups (White 1953). For discussion of MNE calculations see Marean 1.4.1 Bioarchaeology been covered and is now sheep pasture. The example, if two right humeri are recovered et al. 2001). Once the MNE is estimated, this is then used for an estimation of MNI. original1 excavation notes for the Petroto and identified along with three left humeri, The interdisciplinary framework, in which bioar- tholos were used alongside the already then the bone assemblage represents a Skeletal studies often involve multiple tech- the data of this project are analyzed and chaeology published information as an integral part of minimum of three individuals. Estimating niques for making the best possible esti- interpreted, is commonly termed as mation of age, sex, etc. and dealing with the description and interpretation of the2 age, sex, and MNI for the burial deposits in . Bioarchaeology is a word coined archaeological context. For Chalandritsa , I the tombs is the base of the bioarchae- poor preservation and commingling is no originally as a general purpose term refer- developed a close working relationship with ological assessment in Chapters 3-6. This different. Therefore, a variety of methods ring to any organic remains (human, animal, Konstantina Aktypi, who was in the process basic information is then integrated with are used to analyze this difficult material. plant) in archaeological studies (Clark of studying and has since published an the contextual archaeological record to exa- Methodologies include contextual site infor- 1972). However, it was Jane Buikstra who, archaeological analysis of the Chalandritsa mine features of the population in general mation, processes of taphonomy, osteo- in 1976 at a regional conference in the U.S.A. cemetery (see Aktypi 2017). Unfortunately, and to examine secondary burial actions in metric comparison, and articulation. If defined this term as it is known today: a access to the diary, and some photos and particular. The excavation archive is tho- bioarchaeoogists only ascertained skeletal problem-orientated study of human skeletal sex from the cranial traits, they would be roughly incorporated during the analysis in os coxae remains and their associated archaeological order to reconstruct the context within in missing the more accurate methods for contexts (Buikstra and Beck 2006, xvii). 1 estimation from the ; in this way, I I would like to thank Michalis Petropoulos for each tomb or burial. This discipline aims to integrate the skeletal evaluate various types of information before his kind permission to work on the human Apart from the standard methodology, My- and archaeological researcher as one scien- remains from Petroto and for his wonderful finalTaphonomy interpretation. cenaean burials are a difficult dataset due to tist trained in osteology with an archae- collaboration2 the past five years. ological focus. Osteology cannot be prac- I would like to thank Michalis Petropoulos and 3 ticed in a meaningful way in archaeological Maria Stavropoulou-Gatsi for their kind I would like to thank Lazaros Kolonas for his Archaeologists interpreting disarticulated permission to work on the human remains from kind permission to work on the human remains or commingled burials that may appear to studies without the context of the skeletal Chalandritsa. from Portes. material. Likewise, burial studies cannot be secondary, should keep in mind that “the

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 21 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction Paleodemography

presence of dislocations, even numerous various scientific researchers to engage use of the X-ray machine, the most impor- and important, do not exclude the primary Population reconstructions in archaeology with, learn from, and generally discuss tant equipment for my research was simply characteristic of the deposit. In other words, (paleodemography) often rely on estima- mutual issues. This intellectual atmosphere space, a comparative skeletal collection, and evident disorder in the organization of the tions of skeletal age and sex and are cha- was important for my research and nearly 1.5bibliographic The Regional resources. Context of Achaia bones does not mean that they have been racterized by a long and complicated history as significant as the physical equipment of handled or moved after death” (Duday and (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982). Archae- the laboratory. Guillon 2006: 128). Thus, taphonomic me- ologists, physical anthropologists, and eco- First, the bones were safely and thoroughly thods are utilized here to reconstruct the nomists have utilized paleodemography to cleaned. Cleaning bone is a fairly straight- ‘I doubt whether there is anything in Greece effects from the natural burial environment reconstruct past populations (Chamberlain forward process involving both wet and dry abounding as it is in enchanting scenery and interesting recollections that can rival the and human actions. 2006) while others have been more critical brushing depending on the preservation of Corinthian Gulf. There is no lake scenery in Taphonomy in osteological and forensic (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982). Age-at- each bone element or fragment. Maximum Europe that can compete with it. Its coasts, contexts refers to a re-establishment of the death estimation that are unable to pre- care has been taken to ensure that little to broken into an infinite variety of outline by the processes of decomposition and decay of a cisely estimate old age and burial samples no damage occurred to the bones in the ever-changing mixture of bold promontory, body as “a relevant source of information on that are biased due to mortuary practices cleaning and packing process. During the gentle slope, and cultivated level, are crowned periburial activity” (Roskandic 2002, 100). have dis- couraged many from engaging in cleaning stage, the bones were often sorted on every side by lofty mountains of the most The aim is to reconstruct both internal fac- paleo demographic studies (Bocquet-Appel into rough anatomical categories such as pleasing and majestic forms; the fine expanse of tors, such as age, sex, body mass, cause of and Masset 1982). However, many others cranial, long bones, os coxae/scapula, and water enclosed in this noble frame…’ death and pathology, and external factors, have seen the value in paleodemography hand/feet. Normally, data collection would such as burial treatment, environment, and when properly and cautiously executed for be completed while the bones were drying W.M. Leake, Travels in the Morea 397-8 time, as a means of understanding the state, reconstructions of regional skeletal samples so that they were handled a minimal num-

location and condition of a body when (e.g. Konigsberg and Buikstra 1995). As ber of times. However, if necessary, the The region of Achaia has many important found. Taphonomic methods used in this opposed to site-based studies, regional material was packed and would later be advantages for a Mycenaean bioarchaeolo- research include direct evidence of anthro- samples are vital for identifying larger accessed for data collection. When packing gical study. There is an abundance of ceme- pogenic manipulation of bones, such as patterns within the archaeological data. A the bones, all identified bones or fragments teries (i.e. large mortuary datasets), much of stone tool cut marks and percussion marks regional evaluation of demographic patterns were placed in conservation-grade bags and the excavation history is recent and there- and indirect evidence, such as fragment size in Mycenaean Achaia is addressed in Chap- punctured with tiny holes for adequate fore, well-documented, and more recently a and dif-ferential representation of anatomi- ter 4, while a supra-regional evaluation of ventilation. Extremely fragile material was surge in research by scholars, both archae- cal elements (per Diez et al. 1999: 623– Mycenaean demography comprises Chapter wrapped in acid-free paper to prevent any ologists and bioarchaeologists. These ad- 624). Taphonomic study possesses a dual 6 of this dissertation. further fragmentation and damage. Each vantages enable a thorough regional synthe- purpose: to identify the inherent biases of bag contained a small Tyvek label with the sis of Achaia to be undertaken. the sample and to make inferences about 1.4.4 Laboratory Procedures: Cleaning, bone ident-ification number (linked to the the processes that created the assemblage. Transportation and Analysis of Material database), context information, and the Achaia is a region within the Modern Greek The aim here, as in any context involving The analysis of the material required a num- bone element and side (e.g. “right scapula”) nation located in the northwest part of the human remains, is “to recreate the past” ber of important logistical stages in which to written on it. Peloponnese pennisula. The borders of the modern region have changed countless exploiting all possible cultural and biolo- prepare, package, transport, and store the The study of the skeletal material included times during antiquity. However, the ge- gical data in order to understand the human material for high quality scientific research. the use of the WL’s human, dental, and neral location and name of the region has actions and natural processes involved in The material was transported from the animal comparative collection in order to persisted through millennia. The capital of the formation of the deposit (e.g. the life storerooms in Patras to the Malcolm H. Wie- identify the frequently fragmented, com- the region is the sprawling port city of history of a tomb) until the moment of ner Laboratory for Archaeological Science mingled skeletal remains. In a few cases use Patras located on the northern coastal excavation (Saul and Saul 2002: 72–73). An (WL) of the American School of Classical of the X-rays provided essential informa- border on the Gulf of Patras (see Figure 2 evaluation of purposeful manipulation Studies at Athens and stored in their cli- tion. In particular, the material from Petroto and 3 for map and overall landscape). To- versus taphonomic damage is crucial for mate-controlled facility during the cleaning contained a cranium and mandible with an day’s modern population is largely centered understanding the sequence of actions or and data collection stages of the project. abnormally shaped occipital possibly in- in Patras, and as of 2001, the region had a events that created the final deposit and will This stage took place September 2013- dicative of cranial modification or a path- population of approximately 300,000 inha- be explicitly addressed in Chapter 3 of this December 2014. The study of the material at ological condition. Radiography helped in bitants. Patras, though thoroughly modern dissertation. the WL was crucial since no such facility these rare cases. Apart from the occasional exists elsewhere in Greece. The WL houses today, has ancient roots as evidenced by the

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 22 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction Paleodemography 01 presence of dislocations, even numerous various scientific researchers to engage use of the X-ray machine, the most impor- and important, do not exclude the primary Population reconstructions in archaeology with, learn from, and generally discuss tant equipment for my research was simply characteristic of the deposit. In other words, (paleodemography) often rely on estima- mutual issues. This intellectual atmosphere space, a comparative skeletal collection, and evident disorder in the organization of the tions of skeletal age and sex and are cha- was important for my research and nearly 1.5bibliographic The Regional resources. Context of Achaia bones does not mean that they have been racterized by a long and complicated history as significant as the physical equipment of handled or moved after death” (Duday and (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982). Archae- the laboratory. Guillon 2006: 128). Thus, taphonomic me- ologists, physical anthropologists, and eco- First, the bones were safely and thoroughly thods are utilized here to reconstruct the nomists have utilized paleodemography to cleaned. Cleaning bone is a fairly straight- ‘I doubt whether there is anything in Greece effects from the natural burial environment reconstruct past populations (Chamberlain forward process involving both wet and dry abounding as it is in enchanting scenery and interesting recollections that can rival the and human actions. 2006) while others have been more critical brushing depending on the preservation of Corinthian Gulf. There is no lake scenery in Taphonomy in osteological and forensic (Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982). Age-at- each bone element or fragment. Maximum Europe that can compete with it. Its coasts, contexts refers to a re-establishment of the death estimation that are unable to pre- care has been taken to ensure that little to broken into an infinite variety of outline by the processes of decomposition and decay of a cisely estimate old age and burial samples no damage occurred to the bones in the ever-changing mixture of bold promontory, body as “a relevant source of information on that are biased due to mortuary practices cleaning and packing process. During the gentle slope, and cultivated level, are crowned periburial activity” (Roskandic 2002, 100). have dis- couraged many from engaging in cleaning stage, the bones were often sorted on every side by lofty mountains of the most The aim is to reconstruct both internal fac- paleo demographic studies (Bocquet-Appel into rough anatomical categories such as pleasing and majestic forms; the fine expanse of tors, such as age, sex, body mass, cause of and Masset 1982). However, many others cranial, long bones, os coxae/scapula, and water enclosed in this noble frame…’ death and pathology, and external factors, have seen the value in paleodemography hand/feet. Normally, data collection would such as burial treatment, environment, and when properly and cautiously executed for be completed while the bones were drying W.M. Leake, Travels in the Morea 397-8 time, as a means of understanding the state, reconstructions of regional skeletal samples so that they were handled a minimal num- location and condition of a body when (e.g. Konigsberg and Buikstra 1995). As ber of times. However, if necessary, the The region of Achaia has many important found. Taphonomic methods used in this opposed to site-based studies, regional material was packed and would later be advantages for a Mycenaean bioarchaeolo- research include direct evidence of anthro- samples are vital for identifying larger accessed for data collection. When packing gical study. There is an abundance of ceme- pogenic manipulation of bones, such as patterns within the archaeological data. A the bones, all identified bones or fragments teries (i.e. large mortuary datasets), much of stone tool cut marks and percussion marks regional evaluation of demographic patterns were placed in conservation-grade bags and the excavation history is recent and there- and indirect evidence, such as fragment size in Mycenaean Achaia is addressed in Chap- punctured with tiny holes for adequate fore, well-documented, and more recently a and dif-ferential representation of anatomi- ter 4, while a supra-regional evaluation of ventilation. Extremely fragile material was surge in research by scholars, both archae- cal elements (per Diez et al. 1999: 623– Mycenaean demography comprises Chapter wrapped in acid-free paper to prevent any ologists and bioarchaeologists. These ad- 624). Taphonomic study possesses a dual 6 of this dissertation. further fragmentation and damage. Each vantages enable a thorough regional synthe- purpose: to identify the inherent biases of bag contained a small Tyvek label with the sis of Achaia to be undertaken. the sample and to make inferences about 1.4.4 Laboratory Procedures: Cleaning, bone ident-ification number (linked to the the processes that created the assemblage. Transportation and Analysis of Material database), context information, and the Achaia is a region within the Modern Greek The aim here, as in any context involving The analysis of the material required a num- bone element and side (e.g. “right scapula”) nation located in the northwest part of the human remains, is “to recreate the past” ber of important logistical stages in which to written on it. Peloponnese pennisula. The borders of the modern region have changed countless exploiting all possible cultural and biolo- prepare, package, transport, and store the The study of the skeletal material included times during antiquity. However, the ge- gical data in order to understand the human material for high quality scientific research. the use of the WL’s human, dental, and neral location and name of the region has actions and natural processes involved in The material was transported from the animal comparative collection in order to persisted through millennia. The capital of the formation of the deposit (e.g. the life storerooms in Patras to the Malcolm H. Wie- identify the frequently fragmented, com- the region is the sprawling port city of history of a tomb) until the moment of ner Laboratory for Archaeological Science mingled skeletal remains. In a few cases use Patras located on the northern coastal excavation (Saul and Saul 2002: 72–73). An (WL) of the American School of Classical of the X-rays provided essential informa- border on the Gulf of Patras (see Figure 2 evaluation of purposeful manipulation Studies at Athens and stored in their cli- tion. In particular, the material from Petroto and 3 for map and overall landscape). To- versus taphonomic damage is crucial for mate-controlled facility during the cleaning contained a cranium and mandible with an day’s modern population is largely centered understanding the sequence of actions or and data collection stages of the project. abnormally shaped occipital possibly in- in Patras, and as of 2001, the region had a events that created the final deposit and will This stage took place September 2013- dicative of cranial modification or a path- population of approximately 300,000 inha- be explicitly addressed in Chapter 3 of this December 2014. The study of the material at ological condition. Radiography helped in bitants. Patras, though thoroughly modern dissertation. the WL was crucial since no such facility these rare cases. Apart from the occasional exists elsewhere in Greece. The WL houses today, has ancient roots as evidenced by the

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 23 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

Figure 2

. Map of Mycenaean sites in Achaia (adapted from Aktypi, Jones, and Gazis forthcoming). Figure 3 Study sites marked with black star. . View from the Mygdalia hill looking northwest towards Patras, the Gulf of Patras, and the distant hills of Central Greece. The western slopes of the neighboring hill (the promontory to the left) contain the Krini and Kallithea cemeteries. Classical Acropolis, Roman theatre and Corinthia in the southeast. The coastal north numerous other archaeological sites visible is characterized by low fertile plains while throughout the city today. the interior of Achaia begins with rolling prehistoric times. The two major plains are foothills. Cultivating vines, fruit trees and foothills that gradually give way to more found along the northern and western grains today most likely reflect the ancient 1.5.1 Geography of Achaia monumental mountain ranges. The south- coasts and include the large and fertile area uses of the land. Achaia possesses a rich diversity of land- west coast of Achaia, from Cape Drepano to outside of Patras just south of the Myce- scapes, making it attractive to ancient and Teichos Dymaion, possesses natural harbors The geography of Achaia was, and still is, an naean settlement of Teichos Dymaion modern peoples alike. Geographically, the that provide a station to the western seas attractive region for settlement due to the (Papadopoulos 1979, 21). Rich agricultural region is naturally divided into three smal- for defensive and trade purposes (Aktypi geographical factors of coastal plains, na- land is also found along the northeast ler areas: western Achaia, the central 2011, 1). However, since the modern outline tural harbors, and secure mountainous border near Corinthia with rivers and mountains, and eastern Achaia. Although of the coast is not identical to its ancient interior. It is this unique and diverse topo- streams running down from the mountains the central mountains are one obvious counterpart, there may be more good moo- graphy of the region that may have ap- to provide vital irrigation for farming (Papa- natural division, the topography paired with ring sites unknown to modern researchers pealed to various peoples throughout dopoulos 1979, 21). The coastal areas the coastline segregates the land into use- (Papadopoulos 1979, 22). Additionally, the prehistoric and historic past of the region. consist of rich alluvial soils adequate for driven micro-regions: coastline, coastal large expanse of coastline of Achaia has Thus, it is no surprise that the landscape farming; the foothills and mountains are plains, and foothills/mountains. provided a familiarity and experience in appears to be crucial for the Mycenaean comprised of soft Neogene marls with dealing with the advantages and risks of the inhabitants’ choices of cemetery and site The northern and western borders are limestone bedrock (Higgins and Higgins sea (Aktypi 2011, 1). location. coastal areas; to the northeast lies the Gulf 1996: 66–69). These plains are crucial of Corinth and to the northwest lies the Gulf Inland from the harbors, the coastal areas of agricultural hubs due to their fertile soil, flat of Patras. The southern boundaries of the province are characterized by low-lying topography and are situated downhill from Achaia border the regions of Elis to the marshlands and fertile grasslands that have seasonal irrigation from the streams in the southwest, Arcadia directly to the south and likely influenced settlement patterns since

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 24 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01

Figure 2

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 25 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

A1.5.2 History Archaeological of Archaeological Activity Research in Achaia Ayios Vasilios and even tholoi, such as the manner. Many of the large projects, such as from the immigrants fleeing the central two at Katarraktis-Rhodia. While Kyparisses the interpretative signage for the public at palatial sites (Vermuele 1960, 21). This was very enthusiastic about Mycenaean Voudeni, were aided by European subsidies. externally focused picture of Achaia is Achaia is a favorable region for assessing excavations in Achaia, many of his original Lastly, the region of Achaia lacks any large- further supported in the persistence of Mycenaean culture because it does not have field notes are missing or lacking in scale surface surveys and there have been Mycenaean culture well into the Submyce- an antiquarian or sensational excavation systematic information. few large foreign research projects in the naean period suggesting that Achaia was history, but rather, more recent and there- After a decade-long hiatus due to World region. Thus, the research history of Achaia, “without real disturbance or real hope. And fore modern investigations. Although, this War II, the second phase is marked by exca- especially the “survey of cemeteries” con- the end of Mycenaean civilization in Achaia past made Achaia inadequately studied for vations under Ephor Professor Yialouris, ducted by Kyparisses before the Second comes, not from any catastrophe or barbaric many decades, the research that has been Ephor of Olympia, and Ephor Zapheiro- World War, have established Mycenaean invasion, but from simple starvation and a conducted has been well-documented. poulos, Ephor of Achaia until 1960. The two Achaia as a landscape of cemeteries with failure of inner resources.” (Vermeule 1960, There have been various phases of archae- Publication History ephors working together excavated a num- only a few investigated settlements. 21). Indeed, she painted a disheartening ological activity in Achaia (Papadopoulos ber of sites utilizing a more modern excava- view of the region based on the early data 1979, 16; Aktypi, Jones, and Gazis forth- tion methodology. Finally, in the second half but with more systematic excavations and coming). In addition, this recent excavation th Achaia has been recognized as a Mycenaean of the 20 century, due to modernization synopses of the material, the picture history has produced a large collection of cultural landscape since the early twentieth and the growth of tourism, more rescue changes. human remains, often with an accompa- century. However, until the last few decades excavations were carried out primarily in After Vermeule’s 1960 article, a few scho- nying ex-cavation archive. This skeletal it had been a neglected region of Mycenaean the Patras area, but also across Achaia. lars touched upon aspects of the Mycenaean legacy data offers a large dataset, the re- research. Additionally, most of the early Under the Archaeological Service, the re- history in Achaia. Ålin (1962) discusses search potential of which often goes excavations in the area have not been sults of these excavations have been Achaia’s role during the end of the Myc- unnoticed. Rather, legacy data is readily systematic but rather selective based on the published, albeit often briefly, in regular cenaean period while Åstrom (1965) deals accessible since they are already excavated research interests of the excavators (Gian- reports in the Archaeologikon Deltion. mainly with Aigion ceramic styles but pro- and they represent multiple sites, thus nopoulos 2008). The first general overview vides a list of the prehistoric sites in Achaia. offering a regional or supra-regional sample Since Papadopoulos was writing his seminal of Mycenaean Achaia was written in 1960 Lastly, Desborough also mentions Achaia for examining archaeological and bioarchae- work in 1979, there has been another wave by Emily Townsend Vermeule in a brief but when discussing theories for the “Last ological patterns. of archaeological excavations primarily as a seminal article. Vermeule succinctly por- result of economic growth and construction, Mycenaeans” in 1964. However, the most The beginning of systematic archaeological trayed Mycenaean influence by describing especially around urban centers and coastal complete study of Mycenaean Achaia came activity in core regions, often at important the Achaian material as, “impressive in areas. The first of these two more recent with the published dissertation by Papado- sites known from literature, occurred at the quantity and peculiar in style” (Vermeule th phases he, himself, outlines in his 1991 poulos in 1979. This systematic treatment turn of the 20 century. However, in more 1960, 1). The artifact data at the time was article as encompassing the early to late of each aspect of Mycenaean material peripheral or less-documented regions sys- based solely on tomb excavations since 1980s in which sites such as Kallithea, culture, including settlements, cemeteries, tematic investigation began a bit later and settlements in Achaia had not been disco- Achaia Klauss, and Chalandritsa were disco- pottery, and artifacts, produced a compre- was limited by the few Greek professional vered yet. While she adequately reviewed vered and excavated (Papadopoulos 1991, hensive picture of Achaia for the first time. archaeologists at the time. The first phase of the pottery stored in the Patras and Aigion 35). The next phase built upon the previous By outlining the evidence, this seminal major archaeological investigation took museums, her main objective was to simply while also conducting research at newly research was able to draw conclusions place roughly between 1919 and 1940 make the information available so that other discovered sites. This period of activity has about the state of Achaia during the Myce- under the primary direction of Ephor N. scholars could build upon the knowledge of produced more Mycenaean Achaian data, naean era. The core goal of Papadopoulos’ Kyparisses and primarily resulted in exca- an underresearched and, in her opinion, especially settlement patterns, than was study was to catalog the data and produce vation reports published in the 1925-1940 underappreciated region. Vermeule did con- ever known before due to systematic and some preliminary conclusions on the state editions of the “Praktika” (Papadopoulos clude that Achaia had very limited external thorough scientific excavation techniques of Achaia through all the fluctuations and 1979, 17; Vermeule 1960, 1). The first site relations, if any at all, and that the region and record-keeping. In addition, in the last changes of the Mycenaean period. Papado- excavated in Achaia was by Kyparisses in was completely dependent on the Argolid few decades work by Lazaros Kolonas, poulos concludes that Achaia contains the 1919 at Rhodia (Katarraktis-Pharai). This (Vermeule 1960, 20-21). In the post-palatial including excavations at some of the most “last stronghold” of Mycenaean lifeways and early phase encompasses much of the periods, Vermeule inferred that the influx of important and promising sites of Achaia was the first to postulate the theory of an archaeological record from the Mycenaean wealth witnessed in tombs with lavish grave (Teichos Dymaion, Voudeni, Portes), has eastern and western divide in Achaia (Papa- period in Achaia, including many chamber goods of gold, amber, and warrior para- been carried out in a systematic detailed dopoulos 1979). tomb cemeteries such as at Chalandritsa- phernalia represent the wealth taken away

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 26 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01 1.5.2A History Archaeological of Archaeological Activity Research in Achaia Ayios Vasilios and even tholoi, such as the manner. Many of the large projects, such as from the immigrants fleeing the central two at Katarraktis-Rhodia. While Kyparisses the interpretative signage for the public at palatial sites (Vermuele 1960, 21). This was very enthusiastic about Mycenaean Voudeni, were aided by European subsidies. externally focused picture of Achaia is Achaia is a favorable region for assessing excavations in Achaia, many of his original Lastly, the region of Achaia lacks any large- further supported in the persistence of Mycenaean culture because it does not have field notes are missing or lacking in scale surface surveys and there have been Mycenaean culture well into the Submyce- an antiquarian or sensational excavation systematic information. few large foreign research projects in the naean period suggesting that Achaia was history, but rather, more recent and there- After a decade-long hiatus due to World region. Thus, the research history of Achaia, “without real disturbance or real hope. And fore modern investigations. Although, this War II, the second phase is marked by exca- especially the “survey of cemeteries” con- the end of Mycenaean civilization in Achaia past made Achaia inadequately studied for vations under Ephor Professor Yialouris, ducted by Kyparisses before the Second comes, not from any catastrophe or barbaric many decades, the research that has been Ephor of Olympia, and Ephor Zapheiro- World War, have established Mycenaean invasion, but from simple starvation and a conducted has been well-documented. poulos, Ephor of Achaia until 1960. The two Achaia as a landscape of cemeteries with failure of inner resources.” (Vermeule 1960, There have been various phases of archae- Publication History ephors working together excavated a num- only a few investigated settlements. 21). Indeed, she painted a disheartening ological activity in Achaia (Papadopoulos ber of sites utilizing a more modern excava- view of the region based on the early data 1979, 16; Aktypi, Jones, and Gazis forth- tion methodology. Finally, in the second half but with more systematic excavations and coming). In addition, this recent excavation th Achaia has been recognized as a Mycenaean of the 20 century, due to modernization synopses of the material, the picture history has produced a large collection of cultural landscape since the early twentieth and the growth of tourism, more rescue changes. human remains, often with an accompa- century. However, until the last few decades excavations were carried out primarily in After Vermeule’s 1960 article, a few scho- nying ex-cavation archive. This skeletal it had been a neglected region of Mycenaean the Patras area, but also across Achaia. lars touched upon aspects of the Mycenaean legacy data offers a large dataset, the re- research. Additionally, most of the early Under the Archaeological Service, the re- history in Achaia. Ålin (1962) discusses search potential of which often goes excavations in the area have not been sults of these excavations have been Achaia’s role during the end of the Myc- unnoticed. Rather, legacy data is readily systematic but rather selective based on the published, albeit often briefly, in regular cenaean period while Åstrom (1965) deals accessible since they are already excavated research interests of the excavators (Gian- reports in the Archaeologikon Deltion. mainly with Aigion ceramic styles but pro- and they represent multiple sites, thus nopoulos 2008). The first general overview vides a list of the prehistoric sites in Achaia. offering a regional or supra-regional sample Since Papadopoulos was writing his seminal of Mycenaean Achaia was written in 1960 Lastly, Desborough also mentions Achaia for examining archaeological and bioarchae- work in 1979, there has been another wave by Emily Townsend Vermeule in a brief but when discussing theories for the “Last ological patterns. of archaeological excavations primarily as a seminal article. Vermeule succinctly por- result of economic growth and construction, Mycenaeans” in 1964. However, the most The beginning of systematic archaeological trayed Mycenaean influence by describing especially around urban centers and coastal complete study of Mycenaean Achaia came activity in core regions, often at important the Achaian material as, “impressive in areas. The first of these two more recent with the published dissertation by Papado- sites known from literature, occurred at the quantity and peculiar in style” (Vermeule th phases he, himself, outlines in his 1991 poulos in 1979. This systematic treatment turn of the 20 century. However, in more 1960, 1). The artifact data at the time was article as encompassing the early to late of each aspect of Mycenaean material peripheral or less-documented regions sys- based solely on tomb excavations since 1980s in which sites such as Kallithea, culture, including settlements, cemeteries, tematic investigation began a bit later and settlements in Achaia had not been disco- Achaia Klauss, and Chalandritsa were disco- pottery, and artifacts, produced a compre- was limited by the few Greek professional vered yet. While she adequately reviewed vered and excavated (Papadopoulos 1991, hensive picture of Achaia for the first time. archaeologists at the time. The first phase of the pottery stored in the Patras and Aigion 35). The next phase built upon the previous By outlining the evidence, this seminal major archaeological investigation took museums, her main objective was to simply while also conducting research at newly research was able to draw conclusions place roughly between 1919 and 1940 make the information available so that other discovered sites. This period of activity has about the state of Achaia during the Myce- under the primary direction of Ephor N. scholars could build upon the knowledge of produced more Mycenaean Achaian data, naean era. The core goal of Papadopoulos’ Kyparisses and primarily resulted in exca- an underresearched and, in her opinion, especially settlement patterns, than was study was to catalog the data and produce vation reports published in the 1925-1940 underappreciated region. Vermeule did con- ever known before due to systematic and some preliminary conclusions on the state editions of the “Praktika” (Papadopoulos clude that Achaia had very limited external thorough scientific excavation techniques of Achaia through all the fluctuations and 1979, 17; Vermeule 1960, 1). The first site relations, if any at all, and that the region and record-keeping. In addition, in the last changes of the Mycenaean period. Papado- excavated in Achaia was by Kyparisses in was completely dependent on the Argolid few decades work by Lazaros Kolonas, poulos concludes that Achaia contains the 1919 at Rhodia (Katarraktis-Pharai). This (Vermeule 1960, 20-21). In the post-palatial including excavations at some of the most “last stronghold” of Mycenaean lifeways and early phase encompasses much of the periods, Vermeule inferred that the influx of important and promising sites of Achaia was the first to postulate the theory of an archaeological record from the Mycenaean wealth witnessed in tombs with lavish grave (Teichos Dymaion, Voudeni, Portes), has eastern and western divide in Achaia (Papa- period in Achaia, including many chamber goods of gold, amber, and warrior para- been carried out in a systematic detailed dopoulos 1979). tomb cemeteries such as at Chalandritsa- phernalia represent the wealth taken away

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 27 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

More recent studies of Mycenaean Achaia continue well into the Submycenaean pe- Achaian ceramics are second-rate as Papa- throughout the Mycenaean period, and the have brought this region to the forefront of riod in Achaia due to location far from the dopoulos reminds readers that, “it is worth second is that many of them were newly Mycenaean peripheries research. For exam- centers of destruction and its influx of stressing the homogeneity of the Achaian founded sites in LH IIIB, a time of relative ple, in his 2008 thesis Giannopoulos’ focuses refugees from the palatial sites (Papa- pottery which is by no means inferior in uncertainty in the rest of the Mycenaean on the warrior burials in the later part of the dopoulos 1979, 184-185). Recent studies technique and draughtsmanship to that of world (Papadopoulos 172-174). To Papado- Mycenaean period, but he also updates the have shown that Achaia was more other, better known Late Helladic districts, poulos, Achaia had become a safe strong- catalog of sites and uses the mortuary populated in the earlier periods than was and there is no sense of dependence on any hold away from the palatial destructions evidence to interpret these unique burials. known to Papadopoulos in the late 1970s; central region” (Papadopoulos 1979, 126). and a place still subscribing to Mycenaean In addition, Kimberly van den Berg (2012; however, the early Mycenaean period in still Again, these preferences for certain styles culture amidst this turmoil and in the 2015; 2018) has approached the material not well documented. Achaia is still consi- and innovations suggest that Achaia, not succeeding periods (Papadopoulos 1979, culture of Mycenaean Achaia to hypothesize dered a peripheral region even though the necessarily because of its ‘periphery' status, 175-176). about the wider network of trade in which population was not as small as previously is distinctive from the central Mycenaean Papadopoulos paints a scenic picture of Achaia certainly took part in, and maybe thought and Mycenaeanization - the adop- world. This question will be addressed in Achaia; settlements were often naturally even partially controlled, during the Myce- tion of Mycenaean practices and material this thesis, in Chapter 2, only in relation to fortified in the mountains, cemeteries were naean to Iron Age transition period. Along a culture, but also development of local mortuary practices: Was there a separate typical with a few local construction varian- similar research theme, Jung and Mehofer traditions - a slow, incremental process Achaian mortuary tradition? How did it ces, pottery had a distinct local flair and in (2013) have explored Achaian connection throughout the Mycenaean period. relate to the western Greek tradition argued general Mycenaean culture flourished late with Italy based on the Naue II swords, Variation is observed in the ceramic me- by Papadopoulos? These questions will be and remained stable in the face of neigh- while Moschos has focused primarily on the dium; regional pottery shapes and decora- explored in Chapter 2 of this thesis. boring upheaval. The archaeological evi- fascinating Post-Palatial period in this tive styles are equally present in Achaian Peculiarities are also noted in the settle- dence appears to show a calm, albeit region (2002, 2007, and 2008). Most tombs and more rarely in the few excavated ment history of the Mycenaean Achaians. correctly labeled ‘peripheral’ region with an relevant to this dissertation4 is the doctoral settlements. Achaian pottery workshops of- The Mycenaean presence in Achaia is not a obvious influx of ideas, goods and people research of Moutafi (2015) who pioneered ten preferred closed shaped vessels, for small and secluded one, as once thought, but while maintaining a strong local identity.5 an integrated bioarchaeological method- example, some of the most common shapes instead it was a culture that gradually filled The lack of destruction in many sites and ology on a sample of human remains from are stirrup jars, alabastra, and small glo- every corner of the region (Papadopoulos the possible immigration of peoples from the chamber tomb cemetery at Voudeni and bular jars (Papadopoulos 1979, 127). Open 1979, 183). Not only was the region inha- central regions accounts for the unbroken Paschalidis, who has recently published a shapes are also present, but the repertoire bited more densely than previously thought, and extended Mycenaean culture in Achaia. complete analysis of the Achaea Klauss used is more restricted than in the more but the area also saw a portion of sites With increased population size and no fear chamber tomb cemetery (2018). central areas of the Mycenaean world. It founded and expanded in the later periods, of disturbance in its strategically placed seems that in many cases, other ideas were roughly from LH IIIB-C, hypothesized to be settle-ments, Mycenaean culture continued 1.5.3 Mycenaean Achaia taken in and adapted for the needs or an effect of immigration from the damaged to flourish well into later periods in Achaia. Achaia is traditionally glossed as a ‘periphe- desires of the Achaians. Regional styles of and tumultuous central sites (Papadopoulos ral’ area of the Mycenaean world because it ceramics include: duck askoi, three-footed 1979, 175-176). Early Mycenaean (LH I-II) 1.5.4 Mortuary Traditions of Mycenaean lacks a palatial center and does not possess shallow cups, the duck askos from Aigion sites are known from eight locations in Achaia the wealth, writing or grand architecture and a one-legged ring vase (Desborough Achaia, a number which drastically rises to Turning to the mortuary record, regional found in palatial regions. Papadopoulos' 1972; Papadopoulos 1979, 127-128). These twenty-four sites by LH IIIA when Myce- variation is seen primarily in tomb con- thorough study of the area led him to point new shapes were possibly a ceramic naean expansion in the region truly esca- struction. The mortuary architecture of the out unique ceramic styles, population response to activities or ideas unique to lates (Papadopoulos 1979, 172). Therefore, region is dominated by chamber tombs, growth after LH IIIB, and variations in tomb Achaia. The ceramic decoration in Achaia during the Early Mycenaean period, the while the current number of other tomb construction and use (Papadopoulos 1979, both has adaptations of traditional styles local population was adopting and adapting

171-184). Additionally, Papadopoulos theo- and regional isolated styles. Decorations to Mycenaean practices. By the LH IIIB there 5 rizes that Mycenaean cultural traditions such as the so-called ‘warts’, vertical parallel are a total of twenty-nine sites and by the Some Achaian settlements do have evidence of chevrons and line and dash motifs on the LH IIIC there are thirty-two sites in the IIIB destruction, such as at Teichos Dymaion, 4 Pagona and Ayia Kyriaki, but these destruction Moutafi’s dissertation cannot be consulted shoulder of stirrup jars are a few examples Achaia region (Papadopoulos 1979, 172). layers are not well-dated and are still in the since it is under embargo at the University of of ceramic decorations seen only in the There are two aspects which make this process of being fully studied and published Sheffield. Achaia region (Papadopoulos 1979, 129- increase unique. The first is that some of (Moschos 2009, 347). 130). This variety is not to elicit ideas that these sites were continually inhabited

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 28 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01 More recent studies of Mycenaean Achaia continue well into the Submycenaean pe- Achaian ceramics are second-rate as Papa- throughout the Mycenaean period, and the have brought this region to the forefront of riod in Achaia due to location far from the dopoulos reminds readers that, “it is worth second is that many of them were newly Mycenaean peripheries research. For exam- centers of destruction and its influx of stressing the homogeneity of the Achaian founded sites in LH IIIB, a time of relative ple, in his 2008 thesis Giannopoulos’ focuses refugees from the palatial sites (Papa- pottery which is by no means inferior in uncertainty in the rest of the Mycenaean on the warrior burials in the later part of the dopoulos 1979, 184-185). Recent studies technique and draughtsmanship to that of world (Papadopoulos 172-174). To Papado- Mycenaean period, but he also updates the have shown that Achaia was more other, better known Late Helladic districts, poulos, Achaia had become a safe strong- catalog of sites and uses the mortuary populated in the earlier periods than was and there is no sense of dependence on any hold away from the palatial destructions evidence to interpret these unique burials. known to Papadopoulos in the late 1970s; central region” (Papadopoulos 1979, 126). and a place still subscribing to Mycenaean In addition, Kimberly van den Berg (2012; however, the early Mycenaean period in still Again, these preferences for certain styles culture amidst this turmoil and in the 2015; 2018) has approached the material not well documented. Achaia is still consi- and innovations suggest that Achaia, not succeeding periods (Papadopoulos 1979, culture of Mycenaean Achaia to hypothesize dered a peripheral region even though the necessarily because of its ‘periphery' status, 175-176). about the wider network of trade in which population was not as small as previously is distinctive from the central Mycenaean Papadopoulos paints a scenic picture of Achaia certainly took part in, and maybe thought and Mycenaeanization - the adop- world. This question will be addressed in Achaia; settlements were often naturally even partially controlled, during the Myce- tion of Mycenaean practices and material this thesis, in Chapter 2, only in relation to fortified in the mountains, cemeteries were naean to Iron Age transition period. Along a culture, but also development of local mortuary practices: Was there a separate typical with a few local construction varian- similar research theme, Jung and Mehofer traditions - a slow, incremental process Achaian mortuary tradition? How did it ces, pottery had a distinct local flair and in (2013) have explored Achaian connection throughout the Mycenaean period. relate to the western Greek tradition argued general Mycenaean culture flourished late with Italy based on the Naue II swords, Variation is observed in the ceramic me- by Papadopoulos? These questions will be and remained stable in the face of neigh- while Moschos has focused primarily on the dium; regional pottery shapes and decora- explored in Chapter 2 of this thesis. boring upheaval. The archaeological evi- fascinating Post-Palatial period in this tive styles are equally present in Achaian Peculiarities are also noted in the settle- dence appears to show a calm, albeit region (2002, 2007, and 2008). Most tombs and more rarely in the few excavated ment history of the Mycenaean Achaians. correctly labeled ‘peripheral’ region with an relevant to this dissertation4 is the doctoral settlements. Achaian pottery workshops of- The Mycenaean presence in Achaia is not a obvious influx of ideas, goods and people research of Moutafi (2015) who pioneered ten preferred closed shaped vessels, for small and secluded one, as once thought, but while maintaining a strong local identity.5 an integrated bioarchaeological method- example, some of the most common shapes instead it was a culture that gradually filled The lack of destruction in many sites and ology on a sample of human remains from are stirrup jars, alabastra, and small glo- every corner of the region (Papadopoulos the possible immigration of peoples from the chamber tomb cemetery at Voudeni and bular jars (Papadopoulos 1979, 127). Open 1979, 183). Not only was the region inha- central regions accounts for the unbroken Paschalidis, who has recently published a shapes are also present, but the repertoire bited more densely than previously thought, and extended Mycenaean culture in Achaia. complete analysis of the Achaea Klauss used is more restricted than in the more but the area also saw a portion of sites With increased population size and no fear chamber tomb cemetery (2018). central areas of the Mycenaean world. It founded and expanded in the later periods, of disturbance in its strategically placed seems that in many cases, other ideas were roughly from LH IIIB-C, hypothesized to be settle-ments, Mycenaean culture continued 1.5.3 Mycenaean Achaia taken in and adapted for the needs or an effect of immigration from the damaged to flourish well into later periods in Achaia. Achaia is traditionally glossed as a ‘periphe- desires of the Achaians. Regional styles of and tumultuous central sites (Papadopoulos ral’ area of the Mycenaean world because it ceramics include: duck askoi, three-footed 1979, 175-176). Early Mycenaean (LH I-II) 1.5.4 Mortuary Traditions of Mycenaean lacks a palatial center and does not possess shallow cups, the duck askos from Aigion sites are known from eight locations in Achaia the wealth, writing or grand architecture and a one-legged ring vase (Desborough Achaia, a number which drastically rises to Turning to the mortuary record, regional found in palatial regions. Papadopoulos' 1972; Papadopoulos 1979, 127-128). These twenty-four sites by LH IIIA when Myce- variation is seen primarily in tomb con- thorough study of the area led him to point new shapes were possibly a ceramic naean expansion in the region truly esca- struction. The mortuary architecture of the out unique ceramic styles, population response to activities or ideas unique to lates (Papadopoulos 1979, 172). Therefore, region is dominated by chamber tombs, growth after LH IIIB, and variations in tomb Achaia. The ceramic decoration in Achaia during the Early Mycenaean period, the while the current number of other tomb construction and use (Papadopoulos 1979, both has adaptations of traditional styles local population was adopting and adapting

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 29 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 1.6 The Study Sites of the Dissertation

types, such as tumuli, tholoi, and built tombs In general, chamber tombs and tholoi in mortuary evidence for Mycenaean Achaia in comprise a very small minority of the mor- Achaia are not as large (some exceptions Chapter 2 of this dissertation. The archaeological scope of the project is tuary contexts in Achaia (Papadopoulos include the large chamber and long dromos diverse; each site contains a variety of grave 1991, 31). Contrasting these with the vast of chamber tombs 4 and 75 at Voudeni) or 1.5.5 An Internal Divide? Eastern versus types ranging from cists, primary and se- number of chamber tombs, the tholoi in well-constructed as their central counter- Western Achaia condary burials within chamber tombs, Achaia are very few in number and only one parts. Despite these exceptions, Achaia has In addition to discussions about the place of tumuli and tholoi, and ranging in time from (Petroto) has been fully studied and par- an overall lack of large, monumental tombs, Achaia within the wider Mycenaean world, approximately the Late Helladic I-IIIC tially published. Tholoi exist at only four such as the ones found in the Argolid and in another debate has centered on the cohe- (1600-1065) (Shelmerdine 1997, 540). The sites: Portes (two tholoi), Kallithea Lagani- other core regions, which is normal for most siveness of Achaia itself. Some scholars have first two sites (Chalandritsa and Petroto) dia, Katarraktis-Rhodia-Pharai (two tholoi) peripheral regions in the Mycenaean world 7 argued that Achaia was made up of two are located just outside of Patras to the east (multiple names are an issue as mentioned (Papadopoulos 1990, 31) . However, some separate political regions during the Myce- and Portes is located in the far southwest by Papazoglou-Manioudaki 1997, 514 and examples of regional variation in tomb 6 naean period. The hypothesis of a Western corner of the region. The general nature of also by Wright 1995, 77-80) and Petroto . construction have been found in Achaia. At Mycenaean Koine was originally proposed each tomb was explored with regard to its Also, all Achaian tholoi are found in the Kallithea, some chamber tombs have rectan- by Papadopoulos (1979, 133, 177) after his construction, size, lay-out, and general so- western portion of the region. Tholoi in gular chambers with gabled roofs (Papado- exhaustive dissertation study of Achaia. His cial status. This spatial and temporal variety Achaia are generally smaller than their poulos 1979, 53–54; Kontorli-Papadopou- evidence relies heavily on the distinctive in the sample is crucial as it corresponds to ‘central’ counterparts and the dromoi enter lou 1987, 147). Lastly, some tombs have ceramic styles and shapes found near a regional burial sample, and allows for a directly into the main chamber without a steps carved into the stomion, possibly to Aigion, and generally throughout the eas- representative Western Achaia picture of built stomion (doorway) (Papazoglou- facilitate a quick descent into the tomb (Pa- tern section (east of the Panachaïkos moun- how the tombs were being used and reused Manioudaki 2010, 507). Another distinction padopoulos 1979, 51). These differences in tains) of Achaia. The pottery from the Aigion within contrasting tomb and burial types is the covered dromos observed in the tomb-building can be attributed to regional area appears more similar to that from the and through time. tholoi at Rhodia (Pharai-Katarraktis), a style preferences, possible contact with other Argolid and Corinthia than what has been that is closer to the West Greek group seen areas exhibiting these adaptations, or even found in western Achaia (Kontorli-Papado- 1.6.1 Chalandritsa more in Aetolia and Epirus (Papadopoulos outsiders coming to Achaia. All of these poulou 2003; Moschos 2008; Petropoulos The settlement and cemetery of Chalan- 1979, 176). A further variation has been explanations are possible and probably 2016). However, not all of the evidence used dritsa-Agios Vasilios are located just south- noted at Rhodia, where the dromoi may indicate that Achaia does not simply imitate to the support East versus West divide is east of the modern city of Patra in the have been partially covered and the dromos central Mycenaean practices, but instead it ceramic. The early development of a Wes- foothills of the mountainous central region of Tholos A has a unique curve into the possessed a distinctive regional tradition tern Mycenaean Koine has also been noted of Achaia (Figure 2). Due to its strategic hillside (Aktypi and Gazis forthcoming). A also seen in regions such as Messenia and in tombs containing features such as co- location and good preservation, the settle- feature that has been noted in Achaian Arcadia. vered dromoi, deep pits dug within the ment has been an important research focus dromoi is a steeply sloping and short chamber floor for interment, and the small In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, I speci- and could be vital for reconstructing life at a dromos (Papadopoulos 1979, 51), such as rudimentary construction of tholoi (Papa- fically focus on evaluating the mortuary Mycenaean settlement (Kolonas 2009, 7). those observed at the Voudeni (Kolonas dopoulos 1995, 203–205). In addition, all of record of Mycenaean Achaia. In particular, I From its high hilltop placement, the people 2009b, Figure 11, 13) and Kallithea cham- the Achaia tholoi are located in Western look at the changes through time, i.e. the 8 of the settlement could monitor the farming ber tombs cemeteries (Papadopoulos 1991). Achaia and 15 out of 16 Naue II swords Mycenaeanization of mortuary practices in fields and streams located in the plateau The Petroto tholos has a dromos that have been found in Western Achaia. This Achaia. I ask do we see local traditions of below (Kolonas 2009, 7). Importantly, the extends across the hillside rather than evidence has led many scholars to hypo- burial practices throughout the Mycenaean settlement contains no traces of fire or directly into the hill as is more common thesize that the western area of Achaia period in Achaia? Do some aspects, such as destruction and it was inhabited through (Petropoulos 1990, 499). developed some cultural independence, tomb type, body treatment, or grave goods, the Sub-Mycenaean period (Moschos 2007, form a local tradition or adhere to the especially in the Post-Palatial Period (Aktypi 6 33). The settlement is dated roughly to the 2017, 9; Papadopoulos 1995; Papazoglou- Papadopoulos mentions two other tholoi sites Mycenaean koine? These questions are ex- Palatial and Post-Palatial periods (Kolonas at Batholomio-near Lomboka and Pournari plicitly discussed in relation to the current Manioudaki 2003, 440–441). (1979, 58), but they were excavated poorly and 2009, 13). dating is uncertain although they are mentioned 8 in the catalogs by Ålin, Åstrom and Cavanagh all 7 One Naue II sword has been found in Eastern who date the tombs to the post-Mycenaean Small tholoi have also been found in central Achaia at the Nikoleika chamber tomb cemetery period. regions, such as Messenia. (Petropoulos 2007, 262).

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 30 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 1.6 The Study Sites of the Dissertation 01 types, such as tumuli, tholoi, and built tombs In general, chamber tombs and tholoi in mortuary evidence for Mycenaean Achaia in comprise a very small minority of the mor- Achaia are not as large (some exceptions Chapter 2 of this dissertation. The archaeological scope of the project is tuary contexts in Achaia (Papadopoulos include the large chamber and long dromos diverse; each site contains a variety of grave 1991, 31). Contrasting these with the vast of chamber tombs 4 and 75 at Voudeni) or 1.5.5 An Internal Divide? Eastern versus types ranging from cists, primary and se- number of chamber tombs, the tholoi in well-constructed as their central counter- Western Achaia condary burials within chamber tombs, Achaia are very few in number and only one parts. Despite these exceptions, Achaia has In addition to discussions about the place of tumuli and tholoi, and ranging in time from (Petroto) has been fully studied and par- an overall lack of large, monumental tombs, Achaia within the wider Mycenaean world, approximately the Late Helladic I-IIIC tially published. Tholoi exist at only four such as the ones found in the Argolid and in another debate has centered on the cohe- (1600-1065) (Shelmerdine 1997, 540). The sites: Portes (two tholoi), Kallithea Lagani- other core regions, which is normal for most siveness of Achaia itself. Some scholars have first two sites (Chalandritsa and Petroto) dia, Katarraktis-Rhodia-Pharai (two tholoi) peripheral regions in the Mycenaean world 7 argued that Achaia was made up of two are located just outside of Patras to the east (multiple names are an issue as mentioned (Papadopoulos 1990, 31) . However, some separate political regions during the Myce- and Portes is located in the far southwest by Papazoglou-Manioudaki 1997, 514 and examples of regional variation in tomb 6 naean period. The hypothesis of a Western corner of the region. The general nature of also by Wright 1995, 77-80) and Petroto . construction have been found in Achaia. At Mycenaean Koine was originally proposed each tomb was explored with regard to its Also, all Achaian tholoi are found in the Kallithea, some chamber tombs have rectan- by Papadopoulos (1979, 133, 177) after his construction, size, lay-out, and general so- western portion of the region. Tholoi in gular chambers with gabled roofs (Papado- exhaustive dissertation study of Achaia. His cial status. This spatial and temporal variety Achaia are generally smaller than their poulos 1979, 53–54; Kontorli-Papadopou- evidence relies heavily on the distinctive in the sample is crucial as it corresponds to ‘central’ counterparts and the dromoi enter lou 1987, 147). Lastly, some tombs have ceramic styles and shapes found near a regional burial sample, and allows for a directly into the main chamber without a steps carved into the stomion, possibly to Aigion, and generally throughout the eas- representative Western Achaia picture of built stomion (doorway) (Papazoglou- facilitate a quick descent into the tomb (Pa- tern section (east of the Panachaïkos moun- how the tombs were being used and reused Manioudaki 2010, 507). Another distinction padopoulos 1979, 51). These differences in tains) of Achaia. The pottery from the Aigion within contrasting tomb and burial types is the covered dromos observed in the tomb-building can be attributed to regional area appears more similar to that from the and through time. tholoi at Rhodia (Pharai-Katarraktis), a style preferences, possible contact with other Argolid and Corinthia than what has been that is closer to the West Greek group seen areas exhibiting these adaptations, or even found in western Achaia (Kontorli-Papado- 1.6.1 Chalandritsa more in Aetolia and Epirus (Papadopoulos outsiders coming to Achaia. All of these poulou 2003; Moschos 2008; Petropoulos The settlement and cemetery of Chalan- 1979, 176). A further variation has been explanations are possible and probably 2016). However, not all of the evidence used dritsa-Agios Vasilios are located just south- noted at Rhodia, where the dromoi may indicate that Achaia does not simply imitate to the support East versus West divide is east of the modern city of Patra in the have been partially covered and the dromos central Mycenaean practices, but instead it ceramic. The early development of a Wes- foothills of the mountainous central region of Tholos A has a unique curve into the possessed a distinctive regional tradition tern Mycenaean Koine has also been noted of Achaia (Figure 2). Due to its strategic hillside (Aktypi and Gazis forthcoming). A also seen in regions such as Messenia and in tombs containing features such as co- location and good preservation, the settle- feature that has been noted in Achaian Arcadia. vered dromoi, deep pits dug within the ment has been an important research focus dromoi is a steeply sloping and short chamber floor for interment, and the small In Chapter 2 of this dissertation, I speci- and could be vital for reconstructing life at a dromos (Papadopoulos 1979, 51), such as rudimentary construction of tholoi (Papa- fically focus on evaluating the mortuary Mycenaean settlement (Kolonas 2009, 7). those observed at the Voudeni (Kolonas dopoulos 1995, 203–205). In addition, all of record of Mycenaean Achaia. In particular, I From its high hilltop placement, the people 2009b, Figure 11, 13) and Kallithea cham- the Achaia tholoi are located in Western look at the changes through time, i.e. the 8 of the settlement could monitor the farming ber tombs cemeteries (Papadopoulos 1991). Achaia and 15 out of 16 Naue II swords Mycenaeanization of mortuary practices in fields and streams located in the plateau The Petroto tholos has a dromos that have been found in Western Achaia. This Achaia. I ask do we see local traditions of below (Kolonas 2009, 7). Importantly, the extends across the hillside rather than evidence has led many scholars to hypo- burial practices throughout the Mycenaean settlement contains no traces of fire or directly into the hill as is more common thesize that the western area of Achaia period in Achaia? Do some aspects, such as destruction and it was inhabited through (Petropoulos 1990, 499). developed some cultural independence, tomb type, body treatment, or grave goods, the Sub-Mycenaean period (Moschos 2007, form a local tradition or adhere to the especially in the Post-Palatial Period (Aktypi 6 33). The settlement is dated roughly to the 2017, 9; Papadopoulos 1995; Papazoglou- Papadopoulos mentions two other tholoi sites Mycenaean koine? These questions are ex- Palatial and Post-Palatial periods (Kolonas at Batholomio-near Lomboka and Pournari Manioudaki 2003, 440–441). plicitly discussed in relation to the current 2009, 13). (1979, 58), but they were excavated poorly and dating is uncertain although they are mentioned 8 in the catalogs by Ålin, Åstrom and Cavanagh all 7 One Naue II sword has been found in Eastern who date the tombs to the post-Mycenaean Small tholoi have also been found in central Achaia at the Nikoleika chamber tomb cemetery period. regions, such as Messenia. (Petropoulos 2007, 262).

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 31 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

Figure 5.

Map of Portes (adapted from Kolonas 2009, fig. 43).

looting and erosion, thus producing little few other exotic items such as a few bronze information and no secure dating, though it knives and small gold pins were also found Figure 4. is presumably contemporary with Early (Papazoglou-Manioudaki 2009, 508). The Map of the cemetery at Chalandritsa-Ayios Vasileios (adapted from Aktypi 2017, fig 9). Mycenaean tumuli and other built tombs skeletal material was found in multiple (Papazoglou-Manioudaki 2009, 503). The burial layers- a feature not common in tholos tomb was excavated in 1989 by Mycenaean tholoi and with only a few orary with the adjacent settlement (Kolonas The cemetery (Figure 4), attributed to the Michalis Petropoulos of the Greek Archae- parallels, such as the chamber tombs at 2009, 13). settlement, is located three kilometers away ological Service, and presented a common Kalkani (Wace 1932) or the tholos at at the site of Chalandritsa. The tombs from 1.6.2 Petroto example of a relatively small tholos with Kazanaki (Adrymi-Sismani and Alexandrou the cemetery have been dated, by the scattered fragmented artifacts and skeletal 2009). In one layer bones covered the floor traditional ceramic chronology, as represen- The site of Petroto is also located southeast material (Petropoulos 1989, 497-498). from edge to edge in a scattered disarray ting every phase from the LH IIIA1-LH IIIC of Patras in the foothills of the Panachaϊkon The tomb has a circular chamber roughly with additional evidence of cleansing fires late (Mountjoy 1999, 401). The tombs were mountain range (Figure 2), only five kilo- 4.30 meters in diameter but with a slight (fumigation). In another level there is one known to Papadopoulos when he conducted meters from the sea, making its location portion of the western side destroyed by a articulated primary burial, while an addi- his research for his 1979 publication, and he ideal for defense and sea trade. The settle- modern road construction (Papazoglou- tional level had piles of bones pushed describes the site as “an extensive Myce- ment is located at the top of Mygdalia hill Manioudaki 2009, 507). The roof was against the eastern wall of the tomb naean necropolis”, of which some excava- (Figure 3) and the Petroto tomb was found a collapsed but had an estimated height of (Papazoglou-Manioudaki 2009, 508-512). tions were carried out in 1928-1930 (Papa- few kilometers downhill on the western 3.75 meters and a very short and small These assemblages and depositional events dopoulos 1979, 29). However, later exca- slope (Papazoglou-Manioudaki 2009, 502). entrance (Papazoglou-Manioudaki 2009, of material indicate a number of possible vations were also conducted in 1989, 1991 The hill is steep and flanked by two seasonal 507). The construction of the tomb is dated scenarios including a period of possible loo- and 1995 and it is the material from these streams (Papazoglou-Manioudaki 2009, approximately to the LH IIB-IIIA based on ting, ossuary use and single burial events. excavation years which will be studied. The 502). the ceramic assemblage. The finds within The multiple and varied burial deposits cemetery contains only chamber tombs cut The tombs of Petroto include a single large the chamber are of a general local variety: make it a good case for studying tomb reuse into the soft rock of the hillsides and tholos and an apsidal built tomb. The apsi- jars, squat jugs, a stirrup jar and open cups and secondary burial. contained a rich variety of ceramics, small dal built grave is located on the northwest are some of the ceramic assemblage while a finds, and a spearhead that are contemp- slope of the hill and was heavily affected by

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 32 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01

Figure 5.

Map of Portes (adapted from Kolonas 2009, fig. 43).

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 33 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

1.6.3 Portes rounding slopes. The pair of tumuli occupy Mycenaean koine aspects and the persist- this thesis. Issues of tomb reuse, burial the highest point of the hill with two tholoi ence of local particularities, is vital research treatment, and demographic patterns of The site of Portes is located in the south- placed at the southern and western edges of for reconstructing the Mycenaeanization of those interred are important factors within west portion of Achaia at the southern base the hill. A total of 30 rock-cut chamber mortuary practices in Achaia. This topic will Mycenaean mortuary research and have led of Mount Skollis, just a few kilometers from tombs are situated all over the remaining be explored in more depth in Chapter 2 of to this doctoral dissertation. In each of the the border of the neighboring region of Elis space of the hill, most placed in clusters next this dissertation. following chapters or articles, I focus on a (Figure 2). The cemetery site is accompa- to the tumuli or a tholos and a variety of specific research aspect culminating in the nied by a settlement just further up the The grave goods found within this wide 9 cists are located in and around all types of range of tombs are equally diverse and final discussion and conclusion chapter slopes close to the natural spring named Chapter 2 tombs (Kolonas 2009, 34-35). (Chapter 7). Kaphalovryso (Moschos 2007, 31 and Kolo- unique. Various types of ceramics (both nas 2009, 33). Tucked up against the moun- Chronologically, the tumuli have been dated domestic and possibly ceremonial) include In I outline the patterns of adop- tain with a flowing spring and arable land, to the earliest period of cemeteryth use, with common Mycenaean stirrup jars and less tion and adaptation of Mycenaean burial the site location in this little mountain mi- both falling within the 17 century B.C. (LH common animal figures. Among this more practices in the region of Achaia. I evaluate crocosm was far from isolated from the I-IIA), but a few of the nearby rectangular expected series of artifacts, a ‘warrior- whether or not the evidence suggests a local outside world. Its unique location was built chamber tombs may also be contemp- grave’ was found in chamber tomb 3, tradition during the Mycenaean period by strategic for accessing the mountain passes orary, and wereth th used in the succeeding excavated into the earlier tumulus, which asking: When were Mycenaean burial prac- and nearby trade routes as evidenced by the centuries (17 -15 , LH I-IIIA) after the use included a multitude of perfectly preserved tices adopted in Achaia, and did they remain wealth and diversity of objects in the of the tumuli (Kolonas 2009, 34). Following bronze objects, including a set of greaves, a constant or change through the Palatial and cemetery. Thus, it is no wonder that the this period, during the LH IIIA-B, small cists bowl, weapons and a ceremonial helmet Post-Palatial periods? Did local practices Mycenaean peoples chose this landscape in were cut into the western tumulus and over (Kolonas 2009, 42-43). continue and do they relate to a single local which to live and bury their dead. a large portion of the cemetery hill; this The skeletal evidence from the tombs is mortuary tradition? By focusing on patterns practice was not the norm for this period of of changes through time in the Achaian Not much research has been conducted at nearly as varied as the tomb types them- Mycenaean culture but could indicate that mortuary record, the discussion concludes the settlement site, but the cemetery site selves. As Kolonas notes in the rock-cut Mycenaeans were attempting to associate that the Pre-Palatial Period in Achaia was has been the scene of excavation and chamber tombs, “the dead were buried on later burials with much earlier ones characterized by experimentation and research since 1991. It is unique because it the ground or, more rarely, in pits dug into (Kolonas 2009, 43-45). On the contrary, this hybridization with local practices or tomb contains a wide range of Mycenaean burial the floor of the chamber… [and] with the integration of tomb forms may be important forms, while the increase in foreign grave types that showcase the adoption and introduction of each new burial, the bones evidence for experimentation and a goods and the ‘Warrior burials’ may be combination of MH and Mycenaean tomb from earlier burials were gathered in a pile transition from MH to Mycenaean tomb evidence for a local, particular mortuary types, including chamber tombs, cists, pits to one side… or were placed in special construction. However, the most common tradition in Achaia during the Post-Palatial and even tumuli (Moschos 2007, 31 and removal pits… or the floor of the dromos” 10 type of burial was in rock-cut chamber Period . In contrast, the Palatial Period in Kolonas 2009, 33) (Figure 5). The site also (Kolonas 2009, 36,38). This burial evidence tombs, which were used without inter- is crucial for understanding the depositional Achaia primarily adheres to the Mycenaean has a long period of use spanning mostth of Chapter 3/Jones 2018a ruption in the cemetery and throughout its koine as seen in other regions. the entire Mycenaean era from the 17 to process and meaning of the piles of bones as th long history of use (Kolonas 2009, 35). The the 11 century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIC) (Kolonas secondary and collective burials. The In I focus on rock cut chamber tombs are found in 2009, 34-35). Archaeologically, Portes is sample of tombs from Portes was chosen for secondary burial and postmortem mani- clusters around the tumuli, the tholoi or in important due to the extended use, diverse study because of the good excavation docu- pulation within the study sites. More isolated groupings on the slope of the hill tomb types, and intact nature of some mentation. I was given access to the tomb specifically, I evaluate the amount of bone (Kolonas 2009, 35). The rarest type of tombs found at the site. It reflects the more plans and photos from chamber tombs 5, 10, fragmentation and disarticulation within Mycenaean tomb, the tholos, is also recent excavation history of the Achaia 1.7and Structure12. of the Thesis the deposits of commingled, fragmented represented at Portes. Two tholoi have been region in which good notes, photographs human remains in orde to reconstruct the found on the edges of the hill, one to the and drawings often were taken. However, as south and one to the far west. These were the site currently under study for As previously noted, this thesis consists of a 9 probably in use in the middle of the The references for Chapter 1 and 7 were publication, it was not possible to include all combination of articles and chapters. Three Mycenaean era (LH II-IIIB) since they were consolidated10 and placed after Chapter 7. tombs in this dissertation. of these chapter/articles are published, However, the provenance of goods in the Pre- already collapsed and out of use by LH IIIC Palatial and Palatial periods is not always clear. The cemetery occupies a low hill just east of whereas others are being adapted for (Kolonas 2009, 35). Outlining the timing A more complex discussion of connectivity can the settlement site with tombs positioned publication at a later time. Each chapter or and characteristics of changes in mortuary be found in van den Berg 2018. on the top of the hill and cut into the sur- article focuses on a crucial issues outlined in practices, including the gradual adoption of

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 34 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01 1.6.3 Portes rounding slopes. The pair of tumuli occupy Mycenaean koine aspects and the persist- this thesis. Issues of tomb reuse, burial the highest point of the hill with two tholoi ence of local particularities, is vital research treatment, and demographic patterns of The site of Portes is located in the south- placed at the southern and western edges of for reconstructing the Mycenaeanization of those interred are important factors within west portion of Achaia at the southern base the hill. A total of 30 rock-cut chamber mortuary practices in Achaia. This topic will Mycenaean mortuary research and have led of Mount Skollis, just a few kilometers from tombs are situated all over the remaining be explored in more depth in Chapter 2 of to this doctoral dissertation. In each of the the border of the neighboring region of Elis space of the hill, most placed in clusters next this dissertation. following chapters or articles, I focus on a (Figure 2). The cemetery site is accompa- to the tumuli or a tholos and a variety of specific research aspect culminating in the nied by a settlement just further up the The grave goods found within this wide 9 cists are located in and around all types of range of tombs are equally diverse and final discussion and conclusion chapter slopes close to the natural spring named Chapter 2 tombs (Kolonas 2009, 34-35). (Chapter 7). Kaphalovryso (Moschos 2007, 31 and Kolo- unique. Various types of ceramics (both nas 2009, 33). Tucked up against the moun- Chronologically, the tumuli have been dated domestic and possibly ceremonial) include In I outline the patterns of adop- tain with a flowing spring and arable land, to the earliest period of cemeteryth use, with common Mycenaean stirrup jars and less tion and adaptation of Mycenaean burial the site location in this little mountain mi- both falling within the 17 century B.C. (LH common animal figures. Among this more practices in the region of Achaia. I evaluate crocosm was far from isolated from the I-IIA), but a few of the nearby rectangular expected series of artifacts, a ‘warrior- whether or not the evidence suggests a local outside world. Its unique location was built chamber tombs may also be contemp- grave’ was found in chamber tomb 3, tradition during the Mycenaean period by strategic for accessing the mountain passes orary, and wereth th used in the succeeding excavated into the earlier tumulus, which asking: When were Mycenaean burial prac- and nearby trade routes as evidenced by the centuries (17 -15 , LH I-IIIA) after the use included a multitude of perfectly preserved tices adopted in Achaia, and did they remain wealth and diversity of objects in the of the tumuli (Kolonas 2009, 34). Following bronze objects, including a set of greaves, a constant or change through the Palatial and cemetery. Thus, it is no wonder that the this period, during the LH IIIA-B, small cists bowl, weapons and a ceremonial helmet Post-Palatial periods? Did local practices Mycenaean peoples chose this landscape in were cut into the western tumulus and over (Kolonas 2009, 42-43). continue and do they relate to a single local which to live and bury their dead. a large portion of the cemetery hill; this The skeletal evidence from the tombs is mortuary tradition? By focusing on patterns practice was not the norm for this period of of changes through time in the Achaian Not much research has been conducted at nearly as varied as the tomb types them- Mycenaean culture but could indicate that mortuary record, the discussion concludes the settlement site, but the cemetery site selves. As Kolonas notes in the rock-cut Mycenaeans were attempting to associate that the Pre-Palatial Period in Achaia was has been the scene of excavation and chamber tombs, “the dead were buried on later burials with much earlier ones characterized by experimentation and research since 1991. It is unique because it the ground or, more rarely, in pits dug into (Kolonas 2009, 43-45). On the contrary, this hybridization with local practices or tomb contains a wide range of Mycenaean burial the floor of the chamber… [and] with the integration of tomb forms may be important forms, while the increase in foreign grave types that showcase the adoption and introduction of each new burial, the bones evidence for experimentation and a goods and the ‘Warrior burials’ may be combination of MH and Mycenaean tomb from earlier burials were gathered in a pile transition from MH to Mycenaean tomb evidence for a local, particular mortuary types, including chamber tombs, cists, pits to one side… or were placed in special construction. However, the most common tradition in Achaia during the Post-Palatial and even tumuli (Moschos 2007, 31 and removal pits… or the floor of the dromos” 10 type of burial was in rock-cut chamber Period . In contrast, the Palatial Period in Kolonas 2009, 33) (Figure 5). The site also (Kolonas 2009, 36,38). This burial evidence tombs, which were used without inter- is crucial for understanding the depositional Achaia primarily adheres to the Mycenaean has a long period of use spanning mostth of Chapter 3/Jones 2018a ruption in the cemetery and throughout its koine as seen in other regions. the entire Mycenaean era from the 17 to process and meaning of the piles of bones as th long history of use (Kolonas 2009, 35). The the 11 century B.C. (LH I-LH IIIC) (Kolonas secondary and collective burials. The In I focus on rock cut chamber tombs are found in 2009, 34-35). Archaeologically, Portes is sample of tombs from Portes was chosen for secondary burial and postmortem mani- clusters around the tumuli, the tholoi or in important due to the extended use, diverse study because of the good excavation docu- pulation within the study sites. More isolated groupings on the slope of the hill tomb types, and intact nature of some mentation. I was given access to the tomb specifically, I evaluate the amount of bone (Kolonas 2009, 35). The rarest type of tombs found at the site. It reflects the more plans and photos from chamber tombs 5, 10, fragmentation and disarticulation within Mycenaean tomb, the tholos, is also recent excavation history of the Achaia 1.7and Structure12. of the Thesis the deposits of commingled, fragmented represented at Portes. Two tholoi have been region in which good notes, photographs human remains in orde to reconstruct the found on the edges of the hill, one to the and drawings often were taken. However, as south and one to the far west. These were the site currently under study for As previously noted, this thesis consists of a 9 probably in use in the middle of the The references for Chapter 1 and 7 were publication, it was not possible to include all combination of articles and chapters. Three Mycenaean era (LH II-IIIB) since they were consolidated10 and placed after Chapter 7. tombs in this dissertation. of these chapter/articles are published, However, the provenance of goods in the Pre- already collapsed and out of use by LH IIIC Palatial and Palatial periods is not always clear. The cemetery occupies a low hill just east of whereas others are being adapted for (Kolonas 2009, 35). Outlining the timing A more complex discussion of connectivity can the settlement site with tombs positioned publication at a later time. Each chapter or and characteristics of changes in mortuary be found in van den Berg 2018. on the top of the hill and cut into the sur- article focuses on a crucial issues outlined in practices, including the gradual adoption of

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 35 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction

nature and timing of the culautral mani- such as radiocarbon dating, when burials Applying statistical rigor to a Mycenaean lation and demographic composition to My- pulation of bodies/bones. I addition, I are unfurnished or when dateable artifacts demographic sample for the first time, cenaean burials. I have shown that legacy discuss the Mycenaean burial terminology are impossible to associate with particular patterns of burial exclusion and inclusion data are a too often neglected, vital resource and how it does not benefit from a straight- burials. The Petroto tholos tomb is only the within categories of biological sex and age- that should be more readily integrated into forward consensual nomenclature due to second Mycenaean tholos tomb to be at-death indicate some unknown mortuary bioarchaeological studies. Finally, this dis- Chapter 7 the variation in the evidence. The burial radiocarbon dated and as such it is difficult practices. sertation stresses the importance of regio- process, including both human and taphon- to place in a wider chronological context; Finally, discusses the research nal and supra-regional bioarchaeological omic agents, has been poorly defined in however, the application of radiocarbon significance of each chapter separately and research. By combining bioarchaeological Mycenaean burial contexts. If a burial form dating permitted a confident association of draws together the main conclusions. This data from multiple sites and regions, I was (or type) cannot be correctly identified, then the burial levels with the Mycenaean time dissertation has various impacts on Myce- able to examine the demographic composi- the actions leading to that deposit cannot be period, a task that was impossible with the naean burial research. First, this study pro- tion of Mycenaean burials and discuss burial Chapter 5/ Jones 2018b properly reconstructed and ultimately, previous data. duced bioarchaeological data that will aid exclusion in a new way. Evaluating data interpretation of the burial deposit is vague Next, evaluates future Mycenaean research. More impor- from various regions allows archaeologists at best, or misinterpreted at worst. When burial exclusion within the region of Achaia tantly, this research demonstrates the need to step back and observe wider cultural pat- conducting this research I realized that using data from the study sites outlined and for a multi-faceted methodology including terns, and reach broader syntheses. prior to addressing general questions of three other sites with published data. I ask, archaeological, osteological, and radiocar- secondary burial, I needed to clearly define did the Mycenaeans exclude certain indivi- bon data to approach postmortem manipu- what “seccondary” represents in the Myce- duals from burial based on age-at-death and naean mortuary record. The process sex? Or, to put it differently, who is eligible includes the first interment in a tomb, for the Mycenaean burial program i.e. for postmortem manipulation, and ultimately extramural burial, specific tomb types, and the final excavation deposit. I employ a specifically for secondary burial (based on multi-faceted methodology for differentia- biological categories of age and sex)? The ting between taphonomic damage and aim of this chapter is to explore if burial anthropogenic actions of Mycenaean post- treatment was reserved for only certain so- mortem manipulation on the basis of legacy cial groups (e.g. only males, or only adults). Chapter 4/ Jones et al 2018 data. In addition, in order to make inferences on focuses upon the basis of burial population (on demogra- the issue of dating burial levels within a phy, health status, etc.), we need to explore heavily reused tholos tomb. This chapter whether a sample is representative, or highlights the problems of dating tombs biased because of either preservation or Chapter 6 with multiple burial deposits. Petroto, al- social exclusion strategies. though exceptional for its multiple burial moves beyond a regional focus layers, is also ideal for radiocarbon analysis. by evaluating the demographic composition Can radiocarbon dating multiple human of all published bioarchaeological data from remains from successive levels help us Mycenaean Greece. In this chapter I empha- reconstruct burial reuse within a tomb? The size the need for not only regional, but also legacy data, from the Petroto tholos tomb supra-regional problem-oriented studies to excavated in 1989 is approached with a address burial exclusion in the Mycenaean systematic sampling of human remains from world. I ask, what is the demographic com- each burial level. The AMS radiocarbon position of burials within the whole of the dating coupled, with a study of the human Mycenaean world? In the first synthesis of remains, facilitates a reconstruction of bioarchaeological data for the Mycenaean Mycenaean mortuary practices through world, I review past assumptions of age and time in this particular case study. In sex/gender in Mycenaean research in light addition, this case study encourages of a combined bioarchaeological dataset. archaeologists to utilize scientific methods,

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 36 03-12-19 13:40 Introduction Introduction 01 nature and timing of the culautral mani- such as radiocarbon dating, when burials Applying statistical rigor to a Mycenaean lation and demographic composition to My- pulation of bodies/bones. I addition, I are unfurnished or when dateable artifacts demographic sample for the first time, cenaean burials. I have shown that legacy discuss the Mycenaean burial terminology are impossible to associate with particular patterns of burial exclusion and inclusion data are a too often neglected, vital resource and how it does not benefit from a straight- burials. The Petroto tholos tomb is only the within categories of biological sex and age- that should be more readily integrated into forward consensual nomenclature due to second Mycenaean tholos tomb to be at-death indicate some unknown mortuary bioarchaeological studies. Finally, this dis- Chapter 7 the variation in the evidence. The burial radiocarbon dated and as such it is difficult practices. sertation stresses the importance of regio- process, including both human and taphon- to place in a wider chronological context; Finally, discusses the research nal and supra-regional bioarchaeological omic agents, has been poorly defined in however, the application of radiocarbon significance of each chapter separately and research. By combining bioarchaeological Mycenaean burial contexts. If a burial form dating permitted a confident association of draws together the main conclusions. This data from multiple sites and regions, I was (or type) cannot be correctly identified, then the burial levels with the Mycenaean time dissertation has various impacts on Myce- able to examine the demographic composi- the actions leading to that deposit cannot be period, a task that was impossible with the naean burial research. First, this study pro- tion of Mycenaean burials and discuss burial Chapter 5/ Jones 2018b properly reconstructed and ultimately, previous data. duced bioarchaeological data that will aid exclusion in a new way. Evaluating data interpretation of the burial deposit is vague Next, evaluates future Mycenaean research. More impor- from various regions allows archaeologists at best, or misinterpreted at worst. When burial exclusion within the region of Achaia tantly, this research demonstrates the need to step back and observe wider cultural pat- conducting this research I realized that using data from the study sites outlined and for a multi-faceted methodology including terns, and reach broader syntheses. prior to addressing general questions of three other sites with published data. I ask, archaeological, osteological, and radiocar- secondary burial, I needed to clearly define did the Mycenaeans exclude certain indivi- bon data to approach postmortem manipu- what “seccondary” represents in the Myce- duals from burial based on age-at-death and naean mortuary record. The process sex? Or, to put it differently, who is eligible includes the first interment in a tomb, for the Mycenaean burial program i.e. for postmortem manipulation, and ultimately extramural burial, specific tomb types, and the final excavation deposit. I employ a specifically for secondary burial (based on multi-faceted methodology for differentia- biological categories of age and sex)? The ting between taphonomic damage and aim of this chapter is to explore if burial anthropogenic actions of Mycenaean post- treatment was reserved for only certain so- mortem manipulation on the basis of legacy cial groups (e.g. only males, or only adults). Chapter 4/ Jones et al 2018 data. In addition, in order to make inferences on focuses upon the basis of burial population (on demogra- the issue of dating burial levels within a phy, health status, etc.), we need to explore heavily reused tholos tomb. This chapter whether a sample is representative, or highlights the problems of dating tombs biased because of either preservation or Chapter 6 with multiple burial deposits. Petroto, al- social exclusion strategies. though exceptional for its multiple burial moves beyond a regional focus layers, is also ideal for radiocarbon analysis. by evaluating the demographic composition Can radiocarbon dating multiple human of all published bioarchaeological data from remains from successive levels help us Mycenaean Greece. In this chapter I empha- reconstruct burial reuse within a tomb? The size the need for not only regional, but also legacy data, from the Petroto tholos tomb supra-regional problem-oriented studies to excavated in 1989 is approached with a address burial exclusion in the Mycenaean systematic sampling of human remains from world. I ask, what is the demographic com- each burial level. The AMS radiocarbon position of burials within the whole of the dating coupled, with a study of the human Mycenaean world? In the first synthesis of remains, facilitates a reconstruction of bioarchaeological data for the Mycenaean Mycenaean mortuary practices through world, I review past assumptions of age and time in this particular case study. In sex/gender in Mycenaean research in light addition, this case study encourages of a combined bioarchaeological dataset. archaeologists to utilize scientific methods,

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140130_Olivia Jones_A4_BNW.indd 37 03-12-19 13:40