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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Los Angeles the Tyranny of Tolerance

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UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA Los Angeles the Tyranny of Tolerance UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles The Tyranny of Tolerance: France, Religion, and the Conquest of Algeria, 1830-1870 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Rachel Eva Schley 2015 © Copyright by Rachel Eva Schley 2015 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION The Tyranny of Tolerance: France, Religion, and the Conquest of Algeria, 1830-1870 by Rachel Eva Schley Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2015 Professor Caroline Cole Ford, Co-chair Professor Sarah Abrevaya Stein, Co-chair “The Tyranny of Tolerance” examines France’s brutal entry into North Africa and a foundational yet unexplored tenet of French colonial rule: religious tolerance. By selectively tolerating and thereby emphasizing confessional differences, this colonial strategy was fundamentally about reaffirming French authority. It did so by providing colonial leaders with a pliant, ethical and practical framework to both justify and veil the costs of a violent conquest and by eliding ethnic and regional divisions with simplistic categories of religious belonging. By claiming to protect mosques and synagogues and by lauding their purported respect for venerated figures, military leaders believed they would win the strategic support of local communities—and therefore secure the fate of France on African soil. Scholars have long focused on the latter period of French Empire, offering metropole-centric narratives of imperial development. Those who have ii studied the early conquest have done so only through a singular or, to a lesser extent, comparative lens. French colonial governance did not advance according to the dictates of Paris or by military directive in Algiers. Instead, it was forged on the ground in Algeria through the negotiations of colonial officials, military leaders, autochthonous Muslims and Jews, Catholic missionaries, and European Protestant settlers over questions of religion, rule, and rights. As a colonial principle, tolerance rhetorically and structurally placed religion at the center of the imperial enterprise by identifying, managing, and legally sanctioning notions of difference along religious lines. As such, it fostered a pivotal relationship between religion and empire, a relationship that was challenged and redefined by the entreaties, resistance, and interests of Muslims, Jews, and Christians across the Algerian littoral. By initiating a dialogue between the fields of French, Jewish, colonial, and North African history, this study offers a necessary corrective; both to the history of France and its empire as well as to the history of the different communities that shaped French rule from below. This early colonial history concludes that matters of citizenship, secularism, and national identity—which remain so contentious in France today—can only be understood by looking at the colonial past through a new and broadened lens. iii The dissertation of Rachel Eva Schley is approved. David N. Myers Lia N. Brozgal Caroline Cole Ford, Committee Co-Chair Sarah Abrevaya Stein, Committee Co-Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2015 iv In memory of my father Dennis Schley (1957-1990), and in dedication to my mother Yulia Ryabinova Schley. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements Vita Introduction: The Tyranny of Tolerance and the French Conquest of Algeria 1 Chapter 1: The Conquest of Algiers and a Discourse of Tolerance 33 from Europe to North Africa, 1780-1830 Chapter 2: Occupation and Toleration: Wooing Jewish and Muslim Intermediaries 72 and Mediating Imperial Ambitions and Anxieties, 1830-1831 Chapter 3: Annexation and the Future of French Algeria: Negotiating with Mosques, 122 Marabouts, Moqaddem, Settlers, and Missionaries, 1831-1835 Chapter 4: Forging a Colonial Regime Along Religious Lines, 1835-1848 186 Chapter 5: Redefining French Algeria: Ismaÿl Urbain and the Legislation 255 of Tolerance, Difference, and the Consistoire Musulman, 1848-1870 Conclusion: The Specter of a Colonial Past 289 Bibliography 296 vi Acknowledgements The completion of this dissertation marks the end of a long journey that began in Los Angeles, ended in San Diego, and shifted between California, France, and elsewhere along the way. During this time I have received a profusion of support, from near and far. The seeds of this project were planted during Caroline C. Ford’s two-quarter seminar on France and its “Others” in my first year of graduate study. From the beginning, she has provided advice and support, and has guided me through comprehensive exams, research trips to France, and through this dissertation. Her extensive contribution to the study of French history pushed me to think broadly and critically about France, its colonial past, and its enduring republican tradition. She has been integral to my scholarly development and I am very appreciative that she encouraged me to explore the margins of French history and to expand my interests into the fields of Jewish, colonial, and North African history. Throughout every stage of the research and writing process, Sarah Abrevaya Stein has been an indispensable and kind mentor. Thanks, in no small part, to her spirited encouragement and to the example of her inimitable scholarship, I ended up working in a colonial context, thinking about questions of religion, rule, and cultural difference. Her scholarly curiosity and generosity truly knows no bounds and, for this and so much more, I am very grateful. I am fortunate to have a dedicated dissertation committee. David N. Myers has not only mentored me and provided crucial feedback to many lengthy drafts; he has nurtured my interest in Jewish history and challenged me to think about the craft and its responsibilities. Perhaps most importantly, he welcomed me into an academic community that has enriched me both intellectually and personally. Lia N. Brozgal has shared her excellent scholarship with me and vii this dissertation is that much better because she took such care in reading, commenting, questioning, and encouraging me throughout this process. I want to also thank Professors Muriel C. McClendon, Lynn Hunt, David D. Phillips, and Perry Anderson for their valuable insights, good humor, and support, as well as the UCLA History Department, the EHESS/UCLA Scholar Exchange Program, the Maurice Amado Program in Sephardic Studies, and the Center for European and Eurasian Studies for supporting my work. Over the years, Hadley D. Porter, Director of Student Affairs extraordinaire, and Lindsay Kovner, have ensured my scholarly wellbeing. Without these two individuals, I would likely still be wandering the wilderness of graduate bureaucracy or worse. I am especially grateful to Hadley for her fastidious assistance and for fielding countless emails, calls, and drop- ins with such good cheer. Beyond the stellar faculty at UCLA, a number of individuals were also instructive to this dissertation. I owe a very special word of thanks to Professor Joshua Schreier at Vassar College. There are not many of us who explore Jewish communities in early colonial Algeria and there are certainly not many who would encourage me to disagree with them as graciously as he has. I am very appreciative that he has not only shared his knowledge and experience with me, but that he has—with great dedication and wit—read and offered essential commentary on each chapter. My time as a visiting research scholar at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris was one of the highlights of my graduate studies; Professor Nancy Green was a thoughtful and helpful advisor, Véronique Conuau was a warm and welcoming presence, and Galit Haddad provided me with community both personal and professional. The many seasons that I spent in Paris and Aix-en-Provence were enhanced immeasurably by the friendship, archival companionship, and wildly good conversation of Carrie Sanders, Jacob Collins, Susan Cribbs, viii Tiffany Gleason, Hoda Shakry, Joshua Schreier, Sarah Stein, Naomi Taback, and David Todd. I would also not have been so wonderfully housed had it not been for the hospitality of Joëlle Rousseau. At various occasions and conferences, Benjamin Brower, Ethan Katz, and Elizabeth Foster provided important commentary and insightful advice. I have had the sincere pleasure of cultivating friendships with a diverse and vibrant cohort of friends and colleagues at UCLA. I have shared adventures abroad with some, co-owned a dilapidated biodiesel Mercedes with another, and participated in reading groups, Shabbat dinners, radical schemes, and many escapades in and around Los Angeles with others. I am especially thankful for the camaraderie of Aaron Benanav, Bradley Bernstein, Susan Cribbs, Alexander Zevin, and, chiefly, Carrie Sanders. Beyond my academic cohort, I have been enthusiastically supported by Benjamin Allen, Matthew Beaudette, Kelly and Warren Fogler, Melissa and Roman Gottschalk, Nicole and Thor Gould, Christine and Ryan McDonough, Amanda Mosko, Gianni and Brian Reitter, the Lang family, the Rubinstein clan, the Slaghs, my Trowbridge family, the Wells, and my loyal, childhood friend, Genessa Giorgi. Spread across three continents and counting, my family is my rock and I can think of nothing more joyous, chaotic, or glorious than our reunions. My mother, Yulia Ryabinova Schley, in so many ways defies characterization. She is the pillar of parental love and devotion in my life. She has taught me the true meaning of fortitude, grace, and contribution and she has instilled in me what it means to be part of a community, to be diligent, and to be faithful. In the absence of my late father, she has accomplished all of this and so much more. My brother and lifelong friend, Nathan David Schley and his wife, Alissa Hare, have been creative and extraordinary in their support. Dan Raphael Schley, brother and family glue, and his wife Gwenn Schley have been an endless source of levity and love. And last, but ix certainly never least, I would be lost without my dearest friend and sister, Shoshanah Denise Schley, and the joy, trust, and outrageous texts/calls that our bond entails, not to mention the support of Matthew Gliebe, her infinitely affable and obliging husband.
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