Laserinduced Nanobubbles - Interaction of Gold Nanoparticles with Pulsed Laserlight”

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Laserinduced Nanobubbles - Interaction of Gold Nanoparticles with Pulsed Laserlight” Electrical Scanning Probe Microscopy on Organic Optoelectronic Structures Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades Doktor der Naturwissenschaften\ " am Fachbereich Physik, Mathematik und Informatik der Johannes-Gutenberg-Universit¨at in Mainz vorgelegt von Stefan Weber geboren in Trier Mainz, den 26. August 2010 Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde in der Zeit von September 2007 bis August 2010 unter der Betreuung von Dr. Rudiger¨ Berger und Prof. Dr. Hans-Jurgen¨ Butt am Max- Planck-Institut fur¨ Polymerforschung in Mainz durchgefuhrt.¨ Tag der mundlichen¨ Prufung:¨ 3. November 2010 Dekan: Prof. Dr. Manfred Lehn 1. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. H.J. Butt 2. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. T. Palberg 3. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. E. Meyer (Universit¨at Basel, Schweiz) 4. Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr. D.Y. Yoon (Seoul National University, Sudkorea)¨ D77 \I am a firm believer that without speculation there is no good and original observation." Charles R. Darwin in a letter to Alfred R. Wallace, December 22nd, 1857 Zusammenfassung Im Bereich der organischen Optoelektronik hat die mikro- und nanoskopische Struk- tur der Materialien einen großen Einfluss auf die Leistungsf¨ahigkeit der Bauteile. In diesem Bereich gewinnen rasterkraftmikroskopische Methoden (SFM) immer mehr an Bedeutung. Neben topographischer Information k¨onnen zahlreiche andere Ober- fl¨acheneigenschaften wie elektrische Leitf¨ahigkeit (Leitf¨ahigkeits-Rasterkraftmikros- kopie, C-SFM) oder Oberfl¨achenpotentiale (Kelvinsondenmikroskopie, KPFM) mit Aufl¨osungen im Bereich von Nanometern gemessen werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die SFM basierten elektrischen Betriebsmodi ver- wendet um den Zusammenhang zwischen Morphologie und den elektrischen Eigen- schaften in optoelektronischen Hybridstrukturen zu erforschen. Diese Strukturen wurden in der Gruppe von Prof. J. Gutmann (MPI-P Mainz) entwickelt. Konkret wurde ein neuartiges Nanokomposit fur¨ eine integrierte Elektronen-Barriereschicht untersucht. Eine Struktur von elektrisch leitf¨ahigen Pfaden entlang kristalliner TiO2- Partikeln in einer isolierenden Schicht aus einer Keramik wurde gefunden. Daruber¨ hinaus konnten Defektstrukturen identifiziert werden. Um die interne Struktur einer funktionsf¨ahigen Hybridsolarzelle zu untersuchen, wurde eine Bruchkante mit einem fokussierten Ionenstrahl poliert. Mittels C-SFM konnten die funktionalen Schichten identifiziert und die Transporteigenschaften des neuartigen Kompositmaterials in der aktiven Schicht untersucht werden. Durch den Einsatz von C-SFM k¨onnen weiche Oberfl¨achen dauerhaft zerst¨ort wer- den: (i) durch Kr¨afte, die die Spitze ausubt,¨ (ii) hohe elektrische Felder und (iii) hohe Stromdichten im Bereich der Spitze. Aus diesem Grund wurde ein alternati- ver Betriebsmodus basierend auf dem Torsion Mode in Kombination mit lokalen Leitf¨ahigkeitsmessungen eingefuhrt.¨ Im Torsion Mode vibriert die Spitze lateral und befindet sich dabei sehr nahe an der Oberfl¨ache. Auf diese Weise kann ein elektri- scher Kontakt zwischen Spitze und Probe hergestellt werden. In einer Reihe von Referenzexperimenten auf Standardoberfl¨achen wurden grundlegende Aspekte der Leitf¨ahigkeits-Torsionsmikroskopie (SCTMM) untersucht. Daruber¨ hinaus wurden Proben mit Feldern aus freistehenden Nanos¨aulen aus einem halbleitenden Polymer untersucht, die in der Gruppe von Dr. P. Theato (Universit¨at Mainz) entwickelt wurden. Mittels SCTMM konnten die Strukturen zerst¨orungsfrei und hochaufl¨osend abgebildet und die Leitf¨ahigkeit von individuellen Nanos¨aulen gemessen werden. vii Zusammenfassung Zur Untersuchung lichtinduzierter Effekte in Nanostrukturen wurde ein neuer Kraft- mikroskop-Aufbau mit einer Laser-Probenbeleuchtung konstruiert. Mit diesem Pho- toelektrischen SFM wurde die Reaktion funktionalisierter Nanost¨abchen auf Be- leuchtung untersucht. Dazu wurde in der Gruppe von Prof. R. Zentel (Universit¨at Mainz) ein neuartiges Blockcopolymer mit einem Anker- und Farbstoffblock und einem halbleitenden Polymerblock synthetisiert und kovalent an ZnO Nanost¨ab- chen gebunden. Dieses System stellt ein Elektronen Donot/Akzeptorsystem dar und kann daher als ein Modell fur¨ eine Solarzelle auf der Nanoebene angesehen werden. Mittels KPFM auf beleuchteten Proben konnte die lichtinduzierte Ladungstrennung zwischen Stab und Polymer nicht nur visualisiert, sondern auch quantifiziert werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass mittels elektrischer Rasterkraftmikroskopie fundamen- tale Prozesse in optoelektronischen Nanostukturen untersucht werden k¨onnen. Diese Erkenntnisse liefern wertvolle Informationen an die synthetischen Chemiker, die ihre Materialien nach diesen Aspekten weiter optimieren k¨onnen. viii Abstract In the field of organic optoelectronics, the nanoscale structure of the materials has huge impact on the device performance. Here, scanning force microscopy (SFM) techniques become increasingly important. In addition to topographic information, various surface properties can be recorded on a nanometer length scale, such as electrical conductivity (conductive scanning force microscopy, C-SFM) and surface potential (Kelvin probe force microscopy, KPFM). In the context of this work, the electrical SFM modes were applied to study the in- terplay between morphology and electrical properties in hybrid optoelectronic struc- tures, developed in the group of Prof. J. Gutmann (MPI-P Mainz). In particular, I investigated the working principle of a novel integrated electron blocking layer sys- tem. A structure of electrically conducting pathways along crystalline TiO2 particles in an insulating matrix of a polymer derived ceramic was found and insulating defect structures could be identified. In order to get insights into the internal structure of a device I investigated a working hybrid solar cell by preparing a cross cut with focused ion beam polishing. With C-SFM, the functional layers could be identified and the charge transport properties of the novel active layer composite material could be studied. In C-SFM, soft surfaces can be permanently damaged by (i) tip induced forces, (ii) high electric fields and (iii) high current densities close to the SFM-tip. Thus, an al- ternative operation based on torsion mode topography imaging in combination with current mapping was introduced. In torsion mode, the SFM-tip vibrates laterally and in close proximity to the sample surface. Thus, an electrical contact between tip and sample can be established. In a series of reference experiments on standard surfaces, the working mechanism of scanning conductive torsion mode microscopy (SCTMM) was investigated. Moreover, I studied samples covered with free stand- ing semiconducting polymer nano-pillars that were developed in the group of Dr. P. Theato (University Mainz). The application of SCTMM allowed non-destructive imaging of the flexible surface at high resolution while measuring the conductance on individual pillars. In order to study light induced electrical effects on the level of single nanostructures, a new SFM setup was built. It is equipped with a laser sample illumination and placed in inert atmosphere. With this photoelectric SFM, I investigated the light in- duced response in functionalized nanorods that were developed in the group of Prof. ix Abstract R. Zentel (University Mainz). A block-copolymer containing an anchor block and dye moiety and a semiconducting conjugated polymer moiety was synthesized and covalently bound to ZnO nanorods. This system forms an electron donor/acceptor interface and can thus be seen as a model system of a solar cell on the nanoscale. With a KPFM study on the illuminated samples, the light induced charge separation between the nanorod and the polymeric corona could not only be visualized, but also quantified. The results demonstrate that electrical scanning force microscopy can study fun- damental processes in nanostructures and give invaluable feedback to the synthetic chemists for the optimization of functional nanomaterials. x Contents Zusammenfassung vii Abstract ix 1 Introduction1 1.1 Motivation.................................4 1.2 Outline...................................5 2 Fundamentals7 2.1 Charge Conduction............................7 2.1.1 The Drude Model.........................7 2.1.2 Quantum Mechanic Description: Band Model.........8 2.1.3 Charge Conduction in Organic Materials............ 11 2.2 Organic Photovoltaics.......................... 13 2.2.1 Metal - Insulator- and Heterojunctions............. 14 2.2.2 Photo Induced Charge Separation................ 15 2.2.3 Bulk Heterojunction....................... 17 2.2.4 Hybrid Solar Cells........................ 19 3 Scanning Probe Microscopy 21 3.1 Scanning Force Microscopy........................ 21 3.1.1 Static and Dynamic Operation Modes............. 21 3.1.2 Relevant Forces and Length Scales............... 24 3.2 Conductive Scanning Force Microscopy (C-SFM)........... 26 3.2.1 Charge Injection......................... 27 3.2.2 Applications of C-SFM on Organic Electronics......... 30 3.3 Electrostatic Force Microscopy...................... 31 3.3.1 The Kelvin Method........................ 31 3.3.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM)............ 32 3.3.3 Single Pass vs. Dual Pass.................... 34 3.3.4 Applications of KPFM to Organic Electronics......... 35 4 Electrical SPM on Hybrid Solar Cell Structures 37 4.1 Blocking Layer.............................. 38 xi Contents 4.2 SPM Studies on an Integrated Blocking Layer............. 38 4.2.1 Experimental........................... 39 4.2.2 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy................
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