A Sociolinguistic Study of Dotyali

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2019-004

Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Katharina Tupper A Sociolinguistic Study of Dotyali

Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Katharina Tupper

SIL International® 2019

Data and materials collected by researchers in an era before documentation of permission was standardized may be included in this publication. SIL makes diligent efforts to identify and acknowledge sources and to obtain appropriate permissions wherever possible, acting in good faith and on the best information available at the time of publication.

Abstract

This report presents the results of sociolinguistic research conducted among Dotyali communities in west Nepal. Because of the recent ISO designation of Dotyali as an independent language, the presence of various development organizations in the region, and the overall goals of the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN),1 basic sociolinguistic information was sought. The primary goal of this research was to gain a better understanding of the dialects of Dotyali and the level of comprehension between those dialects. Specifically, this research sought to clarify the level of comprehension of the Dotyali spoken in Doti district among speakers in other districts in order to determine their ability to share language-based materials. Language attitudes, ethnolinguistic identity, and language vitality were also addressed in this study in order to ensure a holistic picture of the sociolinguistic situation. This research identified four potential dialects of Dotyali and established that comprehension between these dialects is high. Attitudes expressed towards the Doti variety of Dotyali by speakers from other districts were positive. The findings of this research indicate strong language vitality. The conclusion is that all dialects of Dotyali are able to share language-based materials.

1 LinSuN Proposal 2008

Contents

Tables Maps Acknowledgements Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography 1.2 History and religion 1.3 Language 1.4 Neighboring languages and speech varieties 1.5 Previous research and resources 2 Purpose and goals 3 Methodology 3.1 Instruments 3.1.1 Wordlist comparisons 3.1.2 Recorded text test (RTT) 3.1.3 Knowledgeable insider interview 3.1.4 Questionnaires 3.1.5 Dialect mapping 3.2 Site selection 3.3 Subject selection 3.3.1 Wordlists and RTT story elicitation subject selection 3.3.2 RTT testing subject selection 3.3.3 Knowledgeable insider interviews 3.3.4 Dialect mapping participants 4 Dialects of Dotyali identified 4.1 The four dialects of Dotyali 4.1.1 Dotyali dialect 4.1.2 Baitadeli dialect 4.1.3 Darchuli dialect 4.1.4 Bajhangi Nepali dialect 4.1.5 Dialectal differences 4.2 Lexical similarity 4.3 Comprehension of Doti Dotyali 4.4 Summary of the four dialects of Dotyali 5 Language attitude assessment 6 Ethnolinguistic identity 6.1 Linguistic identity 6.2 Ethnic identity 6.3 Ethnolinguistic identity summary 7 Language vitality 7.1 Domains of language use 7.1.1 Home domain 7.1.2 Other domains 7.2 Intergenerational transfer 7.3 Reading and writing in Dotyali 7.4 Language vitality summary 8 Summary of findings and implications for language-based development Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing Appendix C: Questionnaires

iii iv

Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Interview Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Appendix F: Expanded Graded Disruption Scale References Tables

Table 1. Terms used for language name by district Table 2. Lexical similarities between varieties of Bajhangi Table 3. Sample size for questionnaires in each site, stratified by age and gender Table 4. Gender and education in the overall sample Table 5. Lexical similarity comparison percentages Table 6. RTT results Table 7. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation Table 8. How much of the story did you understand? Table 9. Preferred location for language development Table 10. Languages used most often in the home Table 11. Reported mother tongue use by test site Table 12. Languages used most often at the market Table 13. Word length and lexical similarity Table 14. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation Table 15. EGIDS assessment grid

Maps

Map 1. Research area Map 2. Dotyali and languages of western Nepal Map 3. Major potential dialects of Dotyali Map 4. Doti Map 5. Baitadi Map 6. Darchula Map 7. Bajhang

v Acknowledgements

This sociolinguistic survey of Dotyali was conducted in partnership with the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal. One of the goals of LinSuN is to produce “a sociolinguistic profile for each of the languages of Nepal.” The data collection portion of this survey was carried out during two field trips. The first trip was in February 2014 in Doti district and was conducted with fellow researcher Sara A. Boon. We had the invaluable assistance of two community members. The second fieldwork trip was in March 2014 in Baitadi, Darchula, and Bajhang districts. Kimberly D. Benedict assisted with this field trip, in addition to the help of our guides and community members. Without the assistance of each of them, this research would not have been possible. Likewise, Katharina Tupper added helpful research and editing comments after the report was written, to the extent that she is named co-author. My colleagues Holly Hilty and Klaas de Vries provided extensive guidance in the analysis and writing of this report, for which I am extremely thankful. Loren Maggard offered his expertise in the analysis and editing of the report as well. I also thank Matt Benjamin, SIL cartographer, for his dedication in creating the maps used in this report. I am indebted to the many people who graciously opened their homes to me and my team during fieldwork, as well as the Dotyali people with whom we worked and interacted during our research. It is my hope that this report will be useful for the Dotyali communities as well as any organizations working with Dotyali communities in pursuit of language development.

August 2014 Stephanie R. Eichentopf Kathmandu, Nepal

vi Abbreviations

AD anno domini, year after Christ BC before Christ DM dialect mapping (participatory tool) EGIDS Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale FM frequency modulation, local radio HTT hometown test IPA International Phonetic Alphabet ISO International Standardisation Organisation LinSuN Linguistic Survey of Nepal LWC language of wider communication (trade, or regional language) n number of test takers or research subjects N. P. nagar palika (administrative unit similar to a municipality) p.c. personal communication RTT recorded text test T. U. Tribhuvan University VDC village development committee

vii 1 Introduction

Dotyali has recently been recognized by the Ethnologue as a language of Nepal. It was previously classified as a “dialect” of Nepali, the national language. In the far west, the district name often affects what speakers call their language. The names used by speakers from the research area to describe their language variety were often found to be derived from the name of the district. Table 1 lists the various terms used for the language in each district.

Table 1. Terms used for the language name by district

District Terms used for the language name Doti Dotyali, Doteli Dadeldhura Dotyali, Dadeldhuri Baitadi Baitadi, Baitadeli, Dotyali Darchula Darchuleli, Dotyali Bajhang Bajhangi,a Bajhangi Nepali, Nepali a There are several sub-dialects of Bajhangi that are not listed in table 1.

Nepali is listed as one of the language names in table 1; however, this refers to village Nepali and not the national language. This is further clarified in section 6.1. For the purposes of this report, Dotyali will refer to the varieties of Dotyali in Doti, Dadeldhura, Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang, Kailali, and Kanchanpur districts. When referring to a specific variety within Dotyali, that variety will be identified accordingly.

1.1 Geography

Nepal is divided into 14 administrative zones and subdivided into 75 districts. Dotyali speakers are reported to reside in Baitadi, Dadeldhura, Doti, the southern parts of Bajhang and Darchula, and the northern parts of Kailali and Kanchanpur districts. This research encompassed most of these districts except Kailali and Kanchanpur (map 1, Research area).

1 2

Map 1. Research area2

1.2 History and religion

This section describes the origins and history of the population of western Nepal in order to clarify the linguistic relationship between Dotyali and Nepali. The Indo-Aryan groups of the hill districts of western Nepal are descendants of the Khas ethnic group. The Khas arrived in the area from western Eurasia around 1000 BC (Whelpton 2005:8–11). Between the 11th and 15th centuries AD, they established an empire with its centre in the Karnali basin; the empire extended in the east to the Kali Gandaki basin, in the west to Kumaon (present day Uttarakhand state, India) and parts of Kashmir, in the north to Mustang and western Tibet and in the south to the Chure foothills (Whelpton 2005:22–23; Gurung 2006:7; Bista 2011:25). The Khas language (khas kura) eventually became the language of wider communication (LWC) throughout western Nepal (Masica 1991:439; van Driem 2001:1107). In the early 15th century, the Khas empire disintegrated into many small kingdoms. The kingdoms in the Gandaki river basin (e.g., Gorkha) are known as the twenty-four chaubise, the ones in the Karnali river basin are known as the twenty-two baise (Whelpton 2005:23). Among the latter were Doti, Bajhang, and Bajura. Baitadi was at this time under the control of the Chand dynasty of Kumaon. Between 1787 and 1790, the Gorkhali regent Bahadur Shah conquered Doti and the other kingdoms in the Karnali basin (Whelpton 2005:39). When the Khas empire broke up, the emerging small principalities probably developed their own ethnic identities and speech varieties. Modern Nepali was standardized from the speech variety spoken in Gorkha (Masica 1991:438–439). In regard to religion, the Khas empire was primarily Buddhist, although the state also patronized Hinduism. Following its breakup, the twenty-two and twenty-four states which succeeded it became

2 This survey did not include speakers of Dotyali residing in India.

3 strongly Hindu, and most of the Khas people took on the Hindu high-caste identities of Brahman or Chhetri (Whelpton 2005:30–31). However, a minority retained the name “Khas”; today they are described by many others with the derogatory label “Matwali [alcohol-drinker] Khas/Chhetri” (Whelpton 2005:253:fn 11; Bista 2011:47–48). These people seem to have continued animistic or shamanistic practices that probably pre-dated the rise of the Khas empire. Bista (2004:84) comments, “Khas people continue with their tribal or ethnic Shamanistic deities and are guided and led by their Shamans in their cultural ritual needs.” Nowadays, the most prevalent religion in the area of Dotyali speakers is Hinduism, though, in some areas toward Chainpur in Bajhang district, evidence of Buddhism is still easily seen.

1.3 Language

Until recently, Dotyali was considered a dialect of Nepali [npi], the national language of Nepal. Van Driem notes, “There are various Nepali dialects, particularly in western Nepal, and some of these western dialects are decidedly unfamiliar to Nepalis from eastern and central Nepal who have only been exposed to standard Nepali” (2001:1099). The differences between Nepali and related languages in western Nepal are likely to be the result of the centuries of independent development by the different varieties since the breakup of the Khas empire in the 15th century. In 2012, Dotyali was reclassified by the Ethnologue as a distinct language of Nepal and assigned the ISO code 639-3 [dty]. This reclassification occurred after an ISO request for change was submitted by R. D. Prabhas Chataut, a speaker and lexicographer of Dotyali. The Ethnologue: Languages of Nepal now recognizes Dotyali [dty] and Nepali [npi] as two separate languages that comprise the macro language of Nepali [nep]. Macro languages are defined as “multiple, closely related individual languages that are deemed in some usage contexts to be a single language” (Eppele et al. 2012:7). Dotyali and Nepali are both classified in the Ethnologue as Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northern zone, Eastern Pahari. The classification for Nepali is based on Grierson’s comprehensive Linguistic Survey of India (Grierson 1934). For a compact representation as a tree diagram see Masica (1991:449). Dotyali is not mentioned by Grierson, but the Ethnologue has the same classification as a perceived dialect of Nepali. Sapkota (2013) identified four dialects of Dotyali. This research has confirmed his findings (Section 4). Estimates as to the number of Dotyali speakers vary widely. The 2011 Nepal census reports 787,827 mother-tongue ‘Doteli’ speakers; while the researchers of Tribhuvan University estimate the mother- tongue population of Dotyali to be approximately 250,000 (Eppele et al. 2012:45). However, the latter population estimate does not include speakers identifying themselves as Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Dadeldhuri, or Darchuleli because those are listed as dialects of Nepali [npi] in Ethnologue: Languages of Nepal (Eppele et al 2012:73). The online version of Ethnologue has been updated with the findings of this research. Dotyali is currently classified on the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS)3 as 4, Educational, meaning “The language is in vigorous use, with standardization and literature being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally supported education” (Eppele et al. 2012:9–16). This report will suggest an updated EGIDS Level of 6a in section 7.3. There are a number of languages that compete with Dotyali and could replace it. Most Dotyali speakers are bilingual in at least one other language. The majority of questionnaire respondents speak between two to four languages (45 percent of informal interview respondents speak two languages, 24 percent speak three languages and 20 percent speak four languages). This is consistent with LinSuN research reporting high multilingualism in these districts (Chalise 2013:31, Sapkota 2013:41). The most common languages used in addition to Dotyali include Nepali, Hindi, and English.

3 The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) is often used to classify the level of vitality held in a community or language using a 0–10 scale with 0 representing strong vitality and 10 being extinct (Lewis and Simons 2016).

1.4 Neighboring languages and speech varieties

Dotyali speakers are in contact with neighboring languages4 and speech varieties such as Achhami, Bajureli, Byangsi, Kumaoni, Raji, Rana Tharu, and Raute. As these influence the sociolinguistic situation of Dotyali, they will be mentioned in interviews and dialect mapping sessions. Therefore a brief description of each of these languages follows in alphabetical order. Map 2 shows the geographical location of the languages of Western Nepal, including the four potential dialects of Dotyali, and neighboring languages. The dialects of Dotyali are indicated in purple.

Map 2. Dotyali and languages of Western Nepal

Includes geodata from https://worldgeodatasets.com and Esri. Achhami speakers live primarily in Achham district to the east of the Dotyali-speaking area. Achhami was identified by Dotyali speakers as a separate language and described as unintelligible. Two informal interviews with Achhami speakers confirmed that Dotyali was unintelligible to them as well, and Nepali is reported to be used between the communities. Interaction between Achhami and Dotyali speakers is frequent. Achhami is currently listed in the Ethnologue as a dialect of Nepali. However, comprehension testing between Achhami and Nepali has not been done. Bajurali is listed in the Ethnologue as a dialect of Nepali and is located in Bajura district, east of the Dotyali-speaking areas. This language is sometimes called ‘Bajurali Nepali’ because speakers identified their language as Nepali and their dialect as Bajurali (Chalise 2013:76–77). Bajurali speakers identify

4 Achhami and Bajureli (Bajura) are actually dialects of Nepali [npi] according to the Ethnologue. They are discussed in this section independently of Nepali in order to isolate each variety.

5 closely with Nepali and report that comprehension between Bajurali and Nepali is not a problem. “Bajurali communities have strong feeling of Nepali identity” (Chalise 2013:77). During dialect mapping (DM) facilitations, Dotyali speakers reported Bajurali as being separate from Dotyali and said it is difficult to understand. Byangsi [bee] speakers live in the Byas valley of Darchula district and in India and Tibet. Byangsi is a Sino-Tibetan language, so is totally unrelated to Dotyali, which is Indo-Aryan. Kumaoni [kfy] is related to Dotyali (Eppele et al. 2012:45). Kumaoni speakers reportedly live among the Dotyali speakers in west Nepal, though their primary population of mother-tongue speakers is in India. It is reported that Kumaoni and Dotyali speakers are sometimes mixed in southwestern Darchula district, i.e., close to the Kumaon area across the border in India. Raji [rji] speakers are found in Achham, Bardiya, Dang, Kailali, and Surkhet districts, but their use of the Raji language is declining and they use Dotyali as the language of wider communication (LWC) (Sapkota 2013:2). Raji is a Sino-Tibetan language and linguistically unrelated to Dotyali. Rana Tharu [thr] is located in the Terai in Kailali and Kanchanpur districts (Eppele et al. 2012:90– 91). Dotyali speakers report that the Tharu languages in the Terai plains to the South, including Dangaura and Kathariya Tharu, are completely unintelligible to them. Raute [rau] speakers are located in Jogbuda and Sirsa village development committees (VDCs) of southwest Dadeldhura (Eppele et al. 2012:78). Raute is a Sino-Tibetan language and unrelated to Dotyali.

1.5 Previous research and resources

Sociolinguistic research on the speech varieties of Doti, Dadeldhura, Achham, Darchula and Baitadi districts and of Bajhang and Bajura districts was conducted by two LinSuN research teams in 2012 (Sapkota 2013, Chalise 2013). The draft versions of the reports were available to the researchers of this current survey during the later phases of their research. The final version of those reports are now available on request from the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. The LinSuN research team for Dotyali visited six research sites: Dadeldhura (Dadeldhura district), Budar and Dipayal (Doti district), Mangalsen (Achham district), Mahendranagar (Baitadi district), and Gaddachauki (Darchuleli community in Kanchanpur district). Sapkota computed lexical similarities between the wordlists collected in these sites. They show that Achhami is linguistically different enough from the other varieties to be considered a separate language. Doti varieties have 74 percent lexically similar items, all other similarity percentages lie between 61 percent and 69 percent (Sapkota 2013:19). In dialect mapping sessions, respondents agreed that the varieties spoken in Doti, Dadeldhura, Darchula, and Baitadi are similar and mutually intelligible. In contrast, Achhami is said to be different, but still somewhat intelligible. Opinions differed on the grouping of Bajhang. While Dotyali speakers in Budar called it different from their dialect, respondents in Dadeldhura and Kanchanpur grouped it with their own speech varieties, Doti and Darchuleli (Sapkota 2013:20–27). All respondents reported that they speak their mother tongue. In addition, they reported a high level of multilingualism with Nepali, Hindi, and other languages, especially among men who migrate for work and also among children (Sapkota 2013:44–46). Mother-tongue vitality appears to be high, as all respondents reported excellent or good proficiency in their mother tongue. Use of the mother tongue reportedly predominates in all domains of use, especially in the home and family (Sapkota 2013:47, 57). The mother tongue is transmitted to the children, as it is used widely in the home with all generations of family members (Sapkota 2013:58). Children are reported to usually speak the mother tongue with friends and neighbours. Most respondents think children speak the language as it should be spoken (Sapkota 2013:59, 65). Language attitudes towards the mother tongue are overtly positive (Sapkota 2013:70–71). In Bajhang and Bajura districts, the main goals of the research were to identify the number of Nepali dialects in the area, to assess their vitality and speakers’ attitudes towards the various speech varieties (Chalise 2013:2). In Bajhang district interviewees called their language Bajhangi Nepali. Likewise, respondents in Bajura refer to their language as Bajurali Nepali (Chalise 2013:4–6). For Bajhangi, eight varieties were identified in dialect mapping, depending on the location. Those varieties are: Bungali, Chirali, Simali, Thalari, Chhannali, Barhakote, Chaugaun, and Kanda (Chalise 2013:17, 19).

Table 2 shows the lexical similarities between Chirali (Sunkuda village), Simali (Rayal, Byasi, and Lekgaun villages), and Thalari (Parakatne village).

Table 2. Lexical similarities between varieties of Bajhangi (Chalise 2013:17)

Chirali 42–46 Simali 45 80–92 Thalari

The low degree of lexical similarity of 42 percent to 46 percent between Chirali and other Bajhangi varieties suggests that Chirali is linguistically different from the other Bajhangi varieties (Chalise 2013:18)5. The vitality of Bajhangi appears to be high as use of Bajhangi is high in all domains in all locations, compared with the use of official Nepali (Chalise 2013:21–24). All parents speak Bajhangi with their children, and reportedly children do not understand Nepali very well when they enter school. Most parents said they would prefer Nepali as the medium of instruction as children learn the mother tongue at home (Chalise 2013:28–29). The Bajhangi speakers’ attitude towards both their mother tongue and official Nepali are overtly positive. About 66 percent of the interviewees claimed to like Bajhangi best, and 25 said they liked Nepali best (Chalise 2013:37). Generally the position seems to be that Bajhangi Nepali is the spoken form and “standard” Nepali the written form. The results from Bajura district are not summarized here as they are not relevant for this research.

2 Purpose and goals

The purpose of this survey was to gain a deeper understanding of the sociolinguistic situation of Dotyali in Nepal. Following are the goals and research questions which guided the course of the research.

Goal 1: Dialect areas

Identify the major dialects of Dotyali and the comprehension among the dialects. • What are the major dialects of Dotyali and where are they located? • What is the lexical similarity between these dialects? • How well do speakers of these varieties understand the Dotyali spoken in Doti district?

Goal 2: Language attitudes

Assess the language attitudes speakers of the identified Dotyali varieties have toward each others’ speech varieties to better understand their willingness to share oral and written materials. • What are the language attitudes held by speakers of each variety toward the other varieties? • What are the language attitudes held by speakers of these varieties toward the Dotyali variety spoken in Doti district?

Goal 3: Ethnolinguistic identity

Investigate whether all Dotyali speakers see themselves as a cohesive ethnic community. • How do Dotyali speakers identify themselves? • Do those who speak Dotyali see themselves as a cohesive language community? • Do those who speak Dotyali see themselves as a cohesive people group?

5 This information was not available at the time of the research design.

Goal 4: Language vitality

Investigate the language vitality of Dotyali in each speech community. • What language(s) are used in the home? • What language(s) are used in other domains, such as in school and at markets? • What is the extent of intergenerational transfer? • To what extent do Dotyali speakers read and write in their mother-tongue?

3 Methodology

3.1 Instruments

The following instruments were administered using Nepali. A translator was used when needed. Probes within each of these instruments were translated into Nepali and pilot tested prior to using them in fieldwork.

3.1.1 Wordlist comparisons

Description and Purpose: A comparison of wordlists to estimate the degree of lexical similarity between the speech varieties.

Procedure: Wordlists were elicited in Nepali from mother-tongue Dotyali speakers and were transcribed by the researchers using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). A lexical similarity analysis was carried out on each pairing of wordlists. A full description of the wordlist analysis used for this comparison is in Appendix A, section 3, Wordlist data and similarity grouping.

3.1.2 Recorded text test (RTT)

Description and Purpose: Subjects listen to recorded stories with comprehension questions being asked within the stories. After subjects listen to the stories, questions regarding language attitudes are asked. This helps in the assessment of the subjects’ understanding of and attitudes toward an actual sample of Dotyali as spoken in Doti district.

Procedure: A narrative story was collected from a native Dotyali speaker from the Doti district. It was then played for people in other communities, who were not told the story’s place of origin. As subjects listened to the story, they answered comprehension questions (recorded in their own dialect) about the story. After listening to each story, the subjects answered questions about their understanding of and opinions toward the speech variety used by the storyteller. The test was administered first in Doti, the district the speaker is from, to ensure the speech was representative of that variety. This is referred to as the hometown test (HTT). A full description of the procedures used for the RTT are in Appendix B, section 1, Standard procedure for recorded text testing (RTT).

3.1.3 Knowledgeable insider interview

Description and Purpose: A prepared interview specifically designed for someone the community views as the most knowledgeable regarding information about their language. This tool provides information about the language from a reliable and knowledgeable source.

Procedure: Administered to one person at a time, usually one person per research site. Questions range from specific population estimates and locations to general information about vitality and other

8 languages spoken by the community. The knowledgeable insider interview used in this research is in Appendix D, section 3, Knowledgeable insider interview data.

3.1.4 Questionnaires

Description and Purpose: A prepared questionnaire to gather information regarding language attitudes, ethnolinguistic identity, and language vitality.

Procedure: Administered to one person at a time. The complete questionnaire is given in Appendix C, section 3, Biodata questionnaire data.

3.1.5 Dialect mapping

Description and Purpose: A Participatory Methods tool used to gain perspective from community members regarding what they see happening with their language. This tool creates space for discussion of emic perspectives regarding dialects, their geographic location, and perceived levels of comprehension between speech varieties.

Procedure: Participants are invited to describe where their language is spoken. They then identify how great they perceive the differences to be between their variety and the other varieties, as well as their level of perceived comprehension. They also identify which variety they use in conversation with people from other areas and which variety they believe to be the standard or most broadly understood.

3.2 Site selection

Site selection for the RTT story collection was based on several background interviews. These indicated Doti district as the possible origin and most pure form of Dotyali. For Dotyali speakers, a site in Doti district was selected and none in Dadeldhura, because Dadeldhura and Doti districts’ varieties are very similar (Sapkota 2013:19), and testing in only one of the two districts would be necessary. The remaining three test sites were chosen based on the results of the dialect mapping sessions during the fieldwork. After each research site was selected, the results were evaluated and the itinerary adjusted accordingly. The RTT story collection and HTT were conducted in Ranagaun and Gholtada villages in Doti district, as well as other nearby villages. The RTT test sites were: Dhole in Baitadi district, Dethala in Darchula district, and Chainpur in Bajhang district (see map 1 on page 2).

3.3 Subject selection

Subject quotas for this survey were based on a convenience sample and focused on four demographic groups representing: gender, age, education and geographic location. Individuals in these demographic groups often have varying levels of exposure to other languages. The sampling schedule and its implementation for wordlists and RTT story elicitation will be described in section 3.3.1 and those for questionnaires and RTT subjects in section 3.3.2. The informants interviewed as knowledgeable insiders are provided by the community and do not strictly have screening requirements; however, they are generally leaders in the community and, by default, meet the screening of wordlist and RTT subject selection standards. The characteristics of the knowledgeable insiders interviewed will be presented in section 3.3.3. The participants involved in dialect mapping were not screened. The composition of the groups participating in dialect mapping sessions will be described in section 3.3.4.

3.3.1 Wordlists and RTT story elicitation subject selection

The four requirements for subjects chosen for wordlists and recorded story elicitation are as follows:

1. Subject has grown up in the village under study and currently lives there. (If they have lived elsewhere, it was not for a significant amount of recent time).6 2. Subject has at least one parent from the target mother-tongue. 3. Subject has at least one parent from the village under study and that parent spoke Dotyali with them. 4. Subject speaks Dotyali first and best.

Wordlists were elicited in Dhole (Baitadi district), Chainpur (Bajhang district), Dethala (Darchula district) and Gholtada (Doti district). The four informants were all male, between 30 and 49 years old and well educated (one finished year 7, two year 12 and one had obtained an MA). All informants were born in the village under study and had lived most of their lives there. Their fathers come from the same village, while their mothers were from other villages of the Dotyali-speaking area. All their parents had a variety of Dotyali or Bajhangi as their mother tongue. All informants reported that they speak Dotyali first and best. However, in regard to the question of whether their parents spoke Dotyali with the informants when they were small, no answer was recorded in most cases. For more details see Appendix A, section 3, Wordlist biodata.

3.3.2 RTT testing subject selection

The questionnaire and RTT required that only criteria numbers one and two were met in order for a subject to be eligible. In each test site, a minimum of 12 questionnaires were administered to a sample of Dotyali speakers, stratified by age and gender. In Baitadi, a total of 13 interviews was conducted. Table 3 shows the distribution of the samples.

Table 3. Sample size for questionnaires in each site, stratified by age and gender

Age Sample size by strata Total Young (15–34) Old (35+)

Male 3 3 6 Gender Female 3 3 6

Total 6 6 12

Usually RTTs were administered after each individual interview. However, not every interviewee was able or eligible to take the RTT. For instance, in Doti it became evident during the interview that one interlocutor had spent 16 years of her life in India. Because of the nature of the testing procedure, younger, educated community members (those under the age of 35) seemed better equipped to understand the testing method. However, researchers attempted to administer the RTT to at least 5 men and 5 women as well as both younger and older community members in each test site. In Darchula, 11 RTTs were conducted. In Baitadi, one set of results had to be eliminated from the analysis. One of the five female test takers seemed to be uncomfortable with the testing procedures resulting in abnormally low scores. In Darchula, the researchers could not find five female test takers who had grown up in the village. Three out of five interviewees had lived in Baitadi for the first 10 years of their life. They were included in the analysis for lack of better options. Educational background was also recorded during data collection. For the analysis, literate persons are classified as educated, which generally corresponds with the completion of primary level four. The number of educated interviewees in the overall sample by gender is depicted in table 4.

6 It is difficult to define a specific time period for “a significant amount of recent time”. Thus, this criterion is intentionally subjective as it depends on how long subjects lived elsewhere and how long they have been back in the village relative to their age.

Table 4. Gender and education in the overall sample

Education All districts visited Total No schooling > 4 years

Male 4 21 25 Gender Female 11 13 24

Total 15 34 49

Total (%) 31% 69% 100%

Table 4 illustrates that the sample is biased towards educated interviewees and test takers. It contains 69 percent educated respondents; while the average literacy rates reported for Doti, Bajhang, Baitadi and Darchula lie between 40 and 60 percent (Gurung 2006:101). The influence of the level of education on questionnaire and RTT results has not been analyzed.

3.3.3 Knowledgeable insider interviews

Knowledgeable insiders were interviewed in Dhole (Baitadi district), Chainpur (Bajhang district) and Dethala (Darchula district). They were all male teachers and between 30 and 49 years old.

3.3.4 Dialect mapping participants

Dialect mapping sessions were facilitated in Dipayal (Doti district), Dhole (Baitadi district), Chainpur (Bajhang district) and Dethala (Darchula district). The groups of participants consisted of • Two men and four women in Doti • Fifteen men and two women in Baitadi • Three men and two women in Bajhang • Six men and eight women in Darchula Dialect mapping sessions generally went well. In one location, the researchers overheard the participants saying what a fun game it was.

4 Dialects of Dotyali identified

In order to assess comprehension levels and language attitudes among the dialects of Dotyali, the dialects had first to be identified. Following the identification of the potential major dialects of Dotyali, lexical similarity and the level of comprehension were tested.

4.1 The four dialects of Dotyali

In discovering the boundaries of a language area, it is not only important to identify where people live, but also where they do not live. Communities in all four test sites identify the languages spoken in Achham, Bajura, Kalikot, Dailekh, Jumla, and Humla districts as separate from their own. Dotyali communities reported extreme difficulty in understanding the language used in Achham and Bajura and said Nepali is often used to communicate instead of their mother tongues. Two of the four Dotyali communities believe the languages spoken in Achham and Bajura are similar to each other, but different from Dotyali.

Previous research in the Dotyali-speaking area provided a foundation as to the location of possible major dialects and names for those dialects. In particular, the LinSuN reports of Sapkota (2013) and Chalise (2013) were found to be instrumental in providing a starting point for identifying possible dialects. In addition to the research of others, this survey has used several tools in order to identify and confirm the major dialects of Dotyali. Dialect mapping was facilitated with community members in all four test sites. While varying degrees of differences were reported by participants in the different test locations, combining the data from the facilitations revealed overlap and consistencies among the communities’ ideas of where Dotyali is spoken and its dialect areas. Questionnaires were used to determine the degree of difference in the Dotyali language between the various districts where Dotyali is spoken. Four main dialects (Dotyali, Baitadeli, Darchuli, and Bajhangi Nepali) and two sub-dialects of Bajhangi Nepali (Simali and Chir-Bungal) were identified and are displayed in map 3. These dialects are discussed in detail in the following sections.

Map 3. Major potential dialects of Dotyali

Includes geodata from https://worldgeodatasets.com and Esri.

4.1.1 Dotyali dialect

In all four dialect mapping facilitations, communities grouped the Dotyali spoken in Kailali and Kanchanpur districts as similar. Dadeldhura and Doti districts were often grouped together as having similar speech. Researchers from Tribhuvan University reported similar results from dialect mapping sessions facilitated in Budar (Doti district). Their report states “the language varieties spoken in these areas [Kailali, Kanchanpur, Doti, and Dadeldhura] are mutually intelligible” (Sapkota 2013:22). This is congruent with interviews prior to fieldwork that suggested that the language spoken in Doti and Dadeldhura areas are part of one dialect. Dialect mapping in Doti and Baitadi districts provided more precise information on dialect variations at the Village Development Committee (VDC) level within Dadeldhura and Doti district. Participants in Silgadhi VDC in Doti district reported few speakers of Dotyali along the Bajhang-Doti border in the north of Doti. Similarly, they reported few speakers along the Achham-Doti border in the east. All of this data suggests one dialect, identified on map 3 as Dotyali, which includes the Dotyali spoken in Doti, Dadeldhura, Kailali, and Kanchanpur districts.

4.1.2 Baitadeli dialect

Sapkota (2013:22–23) suggests that, though currently listed in Ethnologue: Languages of Nepal (Eppele et al. 2012) as a dialect of Nepali, Baitadeli is more likely to be a dialect of Dotyali. Dialect mapping facilitated in Doti, Baitadi, Darchula, and Bajhang indicated that the language spoken in Baitadi is part of the Dotyali language. Participants said the dialect is called Baitadi or Baitadeli (identified on map 3 as Baitadeli). The language spoken in Baitadi was reported to encompass all of Baitadi district and extend into the southwest corner of Bajhang. Within Baitadi district, participants of the dialect mapping session in Baitadi reported several small sub-dialects. The general areas of these reported sub-varieties are: (1) Mathairaj and Hat VDCs in the northeast; (2) Sreekot VDC and Dasharathchanda N. P. in the northwest; (3) Raudidewal and Melauli VDCs in the southwest; (4) Rauleswor and Patan VDCs in central Baitadi; and (5) Shikharpur, Chaukham, Gajari, and Thalakanda VDCs in southeast Baitadi and Syandi VDC in Bajhang. The differences in these sub-varieties were said to be minimal and are not included in map 3.

4.1.3 Darchuli dialect

The Darchuli variety reportedly covers the midwestern section of Darchula and extends into the northeast section of Baitadi. Participants of a DM session in Dethala VDC, Darchula, reported that the majority of Darchuli speakers are located in Dethala, Gokuleswor, Ranisikhar, Rithachaupata, Sikhar, and Latinath VDCs along the Darchula-Baitadi border. They also reported speakers living in Brahmadev, Dhari, and Pipalchauri VDCs to the north near the India border. Very little information was provided for the VDCs west of these areas. This could be because of their location being closer to India where Kumaoni is used as the LWC. If Kumaoni has influenced the languages in the Nepalese VDCs along the border, contact and communication may be limited. The name Darchuli has been used for this dialect in previous reports and is logical to use because of the naming convention used by other dialects; however, informants during this research identified their language name only as “Dotyali.” Map 3 uses the name Darchuli to differentiate it from the Dotyali dialect in the south.

4.1.4 Bajhangi Nepali dialect

The language spoken in Bajhang (often referred to as Bajhangi or Bajhangi Nepali) was reported to extend from the Chainpur area to the southern border of Bajhang and across into the southeast corner of Baitadi. This causes some overlap in the reported dialect boundary between Baitadeli and Bajhangi Nepali.

This study has identified Bajhangi Nepali as a dialect of Dotyali. However, there is room to question whether it should instead be considered a dialect of Nepali. The rationale for its inclusion as a dialect of Nepali, as well as the reasons for the naming convention for this dialect, is discussed in section 6.1.

Bajhangi Nepali sub-dialects

Chalise (2013:17, 19) identified several possible sub-dialects within the district of Bajhang shown on map 3. These sub-dialects include Bungli; Chirali, which is reported to be closely related to Baitadeli (consistent with its location near the Baitadi border); Garkhali, which is reported to be closely related to Kumaoni; and Jyabani. Two main sub-dialects were confirmed during this research: Chir-Bungal, also called Bungli, which follows the Kalanga River and highlands, and Simali, sometimes called Churali, which follows the Seti River and mountains. These sub-dialects are identified as Chir-Bungal and Simali in map 3. Because Chir- Bungal and Simali were the only two sub-dialects reported by DM participants during our research and it is consistent with the findings of previous research, they can be considered the main varieties in Bajhang (and thus are the only two sub-dialects displayed on map 3). It should be noted that DM participants labeled Chir-Bungal and Simali as Bajhangi, although they identified them as two separate varieties. Evidence from previous research suggests that Chir-Bungal and Simali are not dialects of the same language, but could be considered separate languages (Chalise 2013, see section 1.5).

4.1.5 Dialectal differences

The differences between Dotyali dialects are reported to be minimal. Questionnaires asked respondents if they have spoken with Dotyali speakers from various districts where Dotyali speakers are known to reside. Informants with positive answers were then asked if the speaker(s) they interacted with spoke “the same, a little different, or very different” from their own way of speaking. The majority of responses (72%) said the speech of others was “a little different” from their own, while “the same” and “very different” received relatively low responses (15% and 13% respectively). Responses were consistent even between districts/dialects geographically most distant from one another. Differences between Dotyali, as recorded for the RTT, and the speech varieties in Bajhang and Baitadi are more marked. The words in the recorded variety are very different to their own way of speaking, according to 30 percent of the RTT test participants in Bajhang and 30 percent in Baitadi. The overall way of speaking was reported to be very different by 50 percent of the respondents in Bajhang and 20 percent of the respondents in Baitadi.

4.2 Lexical similarity

According to Blair (1990:22), lexical similarity percentages below 60 percent indicate that the compared lists represent different languages. Lexical similarity above 60 percent requires intelligibility testing to confirm if the varieties are dialects of the same language or if they are different languages. If inherent intelligibility is above 80 percent, the speech varieties may be considered dialects of the same language. If inherent intelligibility is below 80 percent, the speech varieties may be considered dissimilar dialects of a language or different languages (Blair 1990:23). Because Dotyali is closely related to Nepali and Kumaoni, these were included in the comparison. The Kumaoni wordlist used for this comparison was taken from van Riezen and van Riezen (1999). The Supai variety was used because it is believed to be the dialectal center of Western Kumaoni (van Riezen et al. 1999). Table 5 shows the lexical similarity percentages between the four Dotyali dialects, Nepali, and Kumaoni.

Table 5. Lexical similarity comparison percentages Baitadeli 87% Darchuli 82% 82% Dotyali 81% 78% 75% Bajhangi Nepalia 72% 70% 70% 72% Nepali 61% 58% 60% 54% 53% Kumaoni

a Chainpur was the test village in Bajhang district, which lies within the area of the Simali sub- dialect. Data was not collected from the Chir-Bungal sub-dialect.

The lexical similarity percentages among the Dotyali varieties range between 75 percent and 87 percent. The highest percentage of similarity is between Baitadeli and Darchuli (87%), with the lowest between Dotyali and Bajhangi Nepali (75%). Baitadeli has the highest average lexical similarity among the varieties, while Bajhangi Nepali has the lowest. Comprehension testing is needed to determine the level of understanding between these varieties. Percentages of similarity are lower between the Dotyali varieties and Nepali (70–72%). These percentages are above the 60 percent threshold which means that the Dotyali varieties could be considered dialects of Nepali if inherent intelligibility is above 80 percent. However, intelligibility testing with Nepali was beyond the scope of this research. Lexical similarity of the Dotyali wordlists with Kumaoni7 range between 54 percent and 61 percent, indicating relatively low similarity. This confirms that Dotyali is separate from Kumaoni in spite of its proximity and contact.

4.3 Comprehension of Doti Dotyali

Because Doti district is seen as the possible origin of Dotyali and is located slightly farther away from the transportation hub located in Dadeldhura, Doti was chosen for the recorded text test (RTT) story collection. It appears that comprehension of the Doti dialect is fairly high among speakers of other Dotyali varieties. As explained in section 3.2, the Doti story was tested in Baitadi, Darchula, and Bajhang districts. Table 6 displays the RTT results (the gray sections are results of the hometown test [HTT]).

Table 6. RTT results

Test site

Doti Baitadi Darchula Bajhang

Average score 95% 79% 94% 87% Standard 8.54 23.67 7.28 13.55 deviation n= 10 10 11 10

In order to interpret RTT results correctly, three pieces of information are necessary. The first is the average percentage (shown as average score in table 6), which is the mean or average of all the subjects’ individual scores on a particular story at a particular test site. Another important piece of information is the measurement of how much individual scores vary from the community average, known as standard

7 The Kumaoni wordlist used for this comparison was taken from van Riezen (1999). The Supai variety was used because it is believed to be the dialectal center of Western Kumaoni (van Riezen 1999).

deviation. The third important component of the data is the size of the sample of people tested on each story (shown as n= in table 6). Blair (1990:25) has written about the relationship between test scores and their standard deviation, as seen in table 7.

Table 7. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation

Standard deviation High Low Many people understand the story High Most people understand the story. well, but some have difficulty. Average Many people cannot understand score Few people are able to understand Low the story, but a few are able to the story. answer correctly.

In general, average RTT scores of around 80 percent or higher with accompanying low standard deviations (usually ten and below; high standard deviations are about 15 and above) are taken to indicate that the subjects from the test location display adequate comprehension of the variety represented by the recording. However, RTT average scores lower than 60 percent are interpreted to indicate inadequate comprehension. High standard deviations indicate variation within the group. This indicates that the speech varieties are different enough that they are not inherently intelligible, i.e., speakers have to learn the variety tested to be able to understand it. If the other variety is intelligible through previous contact, we talk of acquired intelligibility. The test scores in the three sites range from 79 percent to 94 percent, with an average score of 87 percent. Darchula respondents had the highest average score (94%) with low standard deviation. This indicates that most people understand the story well. Respondents from Bajhang had an average score of 87 percent with scores ranging between 64–100 percent. Six of the ten test-takers missed one or no questions. Three respondents struggled in answering comprehension questions and two of them reported difficulty in understanding the story. Overall, most respondents understood the story well. However, a relatively high standard deviation of 13.55 indicates high variation within the group. It suggests that only those Bajhangi Nepali speakers understand Dotyali well who have had previous contact with Dotyali. The average test score in Baitadi was 79 percent with a high standard deviation of 23.67. Three subjects reported a high degree of difficulty in understanding the story, which correlates with the three lowest test scores. This data suggests that while many people understand the story well, some have difficulty. Again, if the sample is representative, the high variation within the group points towards differences between Baitadi and Dotyali that require a Baitadi speaker to learn Dotyali to be able to understand it. Post-RTT questions allow test-takers to express how well they felt they understood the story. Results from the three test sites are shown in table 8.

Table 8. How much of the story did you understand?

Test site

Baitadi Darchula Bajhang All 20% 64% 20% Most 30% 36% 50% Half 40% – 10% Less than half 10% – 20% n= 10 11 10

Post-RTT responses were consistent with actual testing results. A greater percentage of Darchula respondents reported understanding “all” of the Doti story than the other test sites (64% compared to 20%). It is interesting to note that Darchula is geographically farthest from Doti, yet every Darchula RTT subject said they understood all or most of the Doti story, suggesting overall high comprehension. Only half of the Baitadi subjects reported understanding all or most of the story, suggesting varying comprehension. Bajhang was between these two with 7 out of 10 subjects saying they understood all or most of the Doti story.

4.4 Summary of the four dialects of Dotyali

Dialect mapping identified four potential dialects of Dotyali: Dotyali, Baitadeli, Darchuli, and Bajhangi Nepali. Respondents noted minimal differences between the dialects. Lexical similarity showed high similarity between wordlists from the four Dotyali dialects, and moderate similarity between the Dotyali and Nepali wordlists. Recorded text tests revealed overall good comprehension of a story from the Dotyali dialect played in the other three dialects; Darchula understood it the best, followed by Bajhang and then Baitadi. Responses of perceived comprehension from post-RTT questions were consistent with test results.

5 Language attitude assessment

The questionnaire asked “Of the languages you speak, which one do you love the most?” The majority of respondents (65%) replied that they love Dotyali the most, followed by Nepali (26%), and then English (9%). Informants were asked what language they think children should learn to speak first and 74 percent replied that Dotyali should be learned first. They said Dotyali should be learned first because it is what the local community speaks and it is easy to understand. Twenty-six percent of respondents reported that Nepali should be learned first. Reasons given for this were that it is the national language, it is easier for traveling, and because it is written. The ranking of Dotyali above Nepali suggests an overall positive attitude toward the use of Dotyali. In order to evaluate the willingness of Dotyali speakers to share oral and/or written materials with Dotyali speakers in other districts, language attitudes were assessed. Assessment was aimed at the language attitudes held by speakers in each district toward the other dialects and especially toward the Dotyali dialect in Doti and Dadeldhura districts. The data collected shows that positive attitudes are held toward the speech varieties in all districts and that Dotyali spoken in Doti district is seen as the most pure. Questionnaire respondents were asked if they had been to a particular district and, if they had, were then asked how the Dotyali spoken in that district makes them feel. The districts inquired about were Kailali, Kanchanpur, Doti, Dadeldhura, Baitadi, Bajhang, and Darchula. Only 2 people (out of 134) reported negative feelings toward the speech in another district. Similar results of positive attitudes were also found by Sapkota and Shahi in their research (Sapkota 2013:69). Following the Doti RTT, participants were asked how the storyteller’s speech made them feel. All 31 respondents said the speech in the story made them feel good or indifferent; no negative attitudes were reported toward the speech used in the story. This suggests favorable attitudes toward the Doti speech variety. Ninety percent of respondents from Darchula recognized differences between their own speech and the Dotyali spoken in Doti district. Despite the identified differences, respondents in Darchula reported that the language in Doti is more pure than their own speech. The respondents at the other test sites (Baitadi and Bajhang) reported Doti as the most pure after their own variety. Doti reported only itself as the most pure. Interestingly, some Dotyali speakers in Doti reported that only older women know the pure form of Dotyali because everyone else mixes Dotyali with Nepali. Overall, Doti district is viewed as having the most pure form of Dotyali.

During dialect mapping sessions, participants were asked to prioritize ideal locations for language development (see Appendix E). Not surprisingly, respondents tended to give high priority to locations in their own district. Their responses are shown in table 9.

Table 9. Preferred location for language development

Respondents in 1st 2nd 3rd

Doti Dipayal, Doti Mudhegau, Doti Sanagau, Doti

Baitadi Not recorded Rauleswor, Baitadi Melauli, Baitadi

Darchula Doti Darchula/Baitadi Kanchanpur/Kailali

Bajhang Luyanta, Bajhang Achham Doti

DM participants in Doti and Baitadi exclusively named locations in their own districts. Respondents in Darchula and Bajhang also named their district as potential locations for a language development project, but also mentioned Doti, as first preference in Darchula and third preference in Bajhang. Therefore, Doti district appears to be an acceptable location for a language development project for respondents in Doti, Darchula and to a lesser degree in Bajhang. In summary, four conclusions related to language attitudes can be made: First, attitudes towards the use of Dotyali are positive. Secondly, speakers of Dotyali generally do not hold negative attitudes toward Dotyali spoken in other districts. Thirdly, Doti district is reportedly recognized as having the purest Dotyali. And fourthly, Doti district appears to be an acceptable location for a language development project for respondents in Doti, Darchula and Bajhang. It is not clear what attitudes speakers in Baitadi have towards Doti as the location for a language development project.

6 Ethnolinguistic identity

“Nepal accommodates an amazing cultural diversity, including linguistic plurality” (Eppele et al. 2012:4). As discussed in section 1, speakers of Dotyali represent a variety of castes. Therefore, one of the goals of this research was to determine whether or not speakers of Dotyali see themselves as one cohesive language and ethnic community. This chapter will first show that Dotyali speakers view themselves as one language community—sharing a linguistic identity. The chapter will then present findings suggesting there is little evidence of ethnic cohesiveness.

6.1 Linguistic identity

Questionnaire respondents would sometimes refer to their language name as ‘Nepali.’ Using follow-up questions for clarification, it became evident that the ‘Nepali’ they referred to was not the same as ‘official Nepali’8 [npi]. The researchers spoke official Nepali during conversation and asked if their language was the same as what is used in the village. Strong negative replies were given and clarification was provided that their language is gauko Nepali (village Nepali) or stanja Nepali (local Nepali) and that the Nepali used in Kathmandu was not intelligible with their own. This was evident to researchers in their difficulty in understanding the local Nepali, while being able to communicate effectively when participants spoke in official Nepali. Informants insisted that official Nepali was not the same as the language they spoke in their village, even if they called the village language Nepali. This is consistent

8 The term ‘official Nepali’ was used by Chalise in his report (Chalise 2013:4). Therefore, this term is used in this report for consistency. During fieldwork, researchers often used the term ‘Kathmandu Nepali.’

with the research of Chalise (2013:58) who reported a distinction between local Nepali and official Nepali. In the ISO request for change,9 R. D. Prabhas Chataut states that Nepali [nep] is only understood by Dotyali speakers after education or extensive contact with speakers of the language. He also states that, since the question about the mother tongue is part of the census (since 1991), Dotyali speakers claim Dotyali as their mother tongue rather than Nepali. In addition, he describes an extensive body of Dotyali literature (written and oral) such as magazines, novels, stories, a dictionary, a grammar and Dotyali broadcasts on FM and Nepali radio stations. It should be noted that, during interviews and conversations with outsiders (non-Dotyali speakers), Dotyali is consistently referred to as a dialect of official Nepali and not an independent language. Outsiders insist that Dotyali speakers understand official Nepali, while the speakers themselves claim that they do not. This suggests that the Dotyali speakers in question see themselves as having an identity separate from official Nepali, regardless of the relationship between the languages. As shown in table 1, speakers of Dotyali sometimes identify their language based upon the district name where they reside. However, when asked where else their language is spoken, they included neighboring districts, even though the language names are different. For example, Baitadi residents identify their own language name as ‘Baitadeli’ and say that ‘Bajhangi’ is spoken in Bajhang district. But they reported that people in Bajhang speak the same language as is spoken in Baitadi, though spoken a little differently. Particularly in Bajhang district, speakers referred to their language as village Nepali or local Nepali (different from official Nepali). Chalise (2013:4) reports that speakers asked them to identify their language as ‘Bajhangi Nepali.’ Lexical similarity percentages of Bajhangi Nepali with Nepali is 71 percent, only 3–9 percent lower than Bajhangi Nepali with the other Dotyali dialects. There are some Bajhangi speakers who report that the westernmost valley of Bajhang, where the sub-dialect has been identified as Chir-Bungal, is Dotyali and that it is similar to the language spoken in southern Darchula (John Eppele, p.c., 2012). Because Bajhangi speakers were often identified as part of Dotyali, both by people residing in Bajhang and outside Bajhang district, this survey suggests that Bajhangi Nepali be included as a dialect of Dotyali. However, in order to acknowledge Bajhangi Nepali speakers’ connection with Nepali, it is recommended that they keep the name Bajhangi Nepali. For a presentation of the dialect mapping data, see Appendix E. In contrast, speakers of Bajurali Nepali in neighboring Bajura district reportedly identify very closely with Nepali. They expressed suspicion that researchers wanted to remove their classification from Nepali and list their language under Dotyali instead (Chalise 2013:77). While discontent was shown toward this idea in Bajura district, there did not appear to be the same opposition in Bajhang district. However, this leaves questions as to whether Bajhangi speakers identify more closely with Dotyali or Nepali.

6.2 Ethnic identity

There is little evidence to show that Dotyali speakers share a common ethnic identity. One marker of ethnic identity in Nepal is a shared caste or group name. During the research, respondents were asked to identify their caste. Responses were congruent with Nepali caste names. High castes include Brahman, Thakuri, Bohora, and Chhetri, while low castes include Dalit and Lohar. Previous research in these districts found the same results (Chalise 2013:6; Sapkota 2013:2). This data is also in agreement with statements made about the history of the Khas (section 1.2), which suggests that Dotyali and mainstream Nepali ethnic identity have roots in the mixed and complex history of the Khas people and region. Researcher observation did not identify any markers of ethnicity, such as styles of homes, ethnic foods, or traits specifically used by Dotyali speakers. However, because they are outsiders, researchers are often unable to identify traits exclusively belonging to one ethnic group.

9 http://www-01.sil.org/iso639-3/cr_files/2011-158.pdf (Accessed 02 Oct 2014).

Marriage patterns were examined in order to determine who Dotyali speakers identify as members of their ethnolinguistic group. Knowledgeable insiders reported that marrying Dotyali speakers from other districts is fairly common, especially between Baitadi and Bajhang districts. In contrast, marrying non-Dotyali speakers reportedly occurs only rarely in Baitadi, Darchula, and Bajhang districts, but more frequently in Doti district. The farther away the district, the less likely intermarriage becomes, but at least some marriages are known between most of the districts where Dotyali is spoken. Despite the lack of cultural markers unifying Dotyali-speakers into one ethnic identity, intermarriage between the residents of the districts visited suggests they view themselves as one group, at least to some extent.

6.3 Ethnolinguistic identity summary

Linguistically, most Dotyali speakers distinguish clearly between Dotyali and Nepali. Ethnically, there appears to be some sense of cohesion, demonstrated by intermarriage of Dotyali speakers across districts. Different names are given to the various potential dialects of Dotyali, and the speakers identify differences between these dialects. However, they appear to share one linguistic identity. Results in Bajhang are less concrete and, while evidence suggests Bajhangi Nepali speakers relate more closely with Dotyali than Nepali, this cannot be said with certainty. Except for intermarriage among the Dotyali community, they exhibit few markers of ethnic cohesiveness.

7 Language vitality

Language vitality is the extent to which a language is being used. The majority of questionnaire respondents (91%) reported that they speak Dotyali best. “Language vitality in Dotyali, …Baitadeli and Darchuleli is found to be high” (Sapkota 2013:64). Chalise (2013:31–35) reported high mother tongue use in Bajhang district as well. This, combined with the factors of domains of language use and intergenerational transfer, suggests high oral language vitality of Dotyali. The extent the language is used for reading and writing is minimal. These factors suggest an EGIDS level of 6a: Vigorous.

7.1 Domains of language use

7.1.1 Home domain

One of the most concrete ways of measuring the vitality of a language is to examine the language used in the home. This is because the language used in the home generally determines the first language a child will learn to speak, which is an indicator of the maintenance of the language. During fieldwork research, questionnaires were used to ask what language subjects use most often in the home with different generations. Answers are shown in table 10.

Table 10. Languages used most often in the home

Dotyali Nepali When talking with your spouse n=40 97.5% 2.5% When talking with a child n=48 90% 10% When telling a story to a child n=48 92% 8%

Dotyali was reported to be used in the home with different generations by 90 percent to 97.5 percent of respondents, while Nepali was reported as being used rarely. The high use of Dotyali in the home was confirmed by researchers in most test sites through observation. In Baitadi, Darchula, and Bajhang, the mother-tongue was observed to be the primary language of communication in the home. In Doti district, however, observation revealed that Nepali is

sometimes used in the home as well, particularly in talking with children. This is seen in the questionnaire results when they are stratified by test site (shown in table 11.)10

Table 11. Reported mother-tongue use by test site

Domain Doti Baitadi Darchula Bajhang Talking with your spouse 100% 90% 100% 100% Talking with a child 75% 92% 92% 100% Telling a story to a child 92% 92% 92% 92%

Despite some Nepali use in the home in Doti district, the reported use of the mother-tongue is very high. The use of Dotyali in the home suggests strong language vitality.

7.1.2 Other domains

Social and cultural domains were inquired about in order to assess the use of Dotyali outside the home. High mother-tongue use was found in the village outside the home. Villages are reportedly homogenous in the sense that residents almost all speak Dotyali. Knowledgeable insider interviews in all sites visited reported that 100 percent of homes in their village are Dotyali-speaking and that Dotyali is used most often among villagers. Ninety-four percent of questionnaire respondents said they hear children using Dotyali most often in the village. Nepali was the only other language reported to be used frequently between children in the village, but to a much lower extent (only 6%). A few respondents reported occasionally hearing English and Hindi between village children, but said these languages were rarely heard and it was only a few words in the sentence or a basic greeting. When community leaders were asked what languages are used regularly in their communities, Nepali and Dotyali were the only answers given. Use of Dotyali was reported more frequently than Nepali in the communities. Community leaders said that Dotyali is the primary language used for both marriage ceremonies and village meetings. Occasionally Nepali is used, but its use is secondary to the mother-tongue and generally only if there are participants present who do not know Dotyali. Sanskrit is sometimes used for prayer during marriage ceremonies. Another question asked during these interviews was “How many people in your village do you think cannot speak Nepali, even though they may understand it?” Village leaders in Doti, Baitadi, and Bajhang estimated that half of their village cannot speak Nepali. In Bajhang, this applies mainly to women and old people. In contrast, the respondent in Darchula reported that only a few cannot speak Nepali. Researchers informally assessed the level of Nepali proficiency while administering the RTT and questionnaires and feel most participants have a high level of ability in Nepali (defined as either ‘literate’ or ‘understands and speaks a lot’). The contrast between reported Nepali speaking proficiency in the population and the observed Nepali proficiency of respondents indicates that research volunteers tend to be more educated than the average villager. This confirms observations on the sampling made in section 3.3. In the market, Dotyali, Nepali, English, Kumaoni, and Hindi were all said to be used, but, as seen in table 12, Dotyali was reported to be used most often in the market. This was confirmed by researcher observation in market and transit areas.

Table 12. Languages used most often at the market

Dotyali Nepali Kumaoni n=47 57% 40% 2%

Stratified by test site, Darchula reported the highest rate of Dotyali use in the market (73%), while Doti reported the lowest (50%).

10 Number of responses between nine and twelve.

7.2 Intergenerational transfer

An important aspect of language vitality is the extent to which the mother tongue is being passed to the next generation, known as intergenerational transfer. This research found that the intergenerational transfer of Dotyali is strong and supports language vitality. The language used in the home is an indicator of what language children will learn to speak first and best. As discussed in the previous section, Dotyali is the language that is predominant in the home domain. Questionnaire responses indicate that 97 percent (33 of 34) of the respondents’ children can speak the language of their parents. In order to assess what language parents are using with their children, respondents were asked what language their parents spoke with them when they were a child. Everyone except one reported that their parents spoke Dotyali with them when they were a child. Likewise, a high proportion of respondents reported speaking Dotyali with children (see table 11). All but one respondent with children affirmed that all their children speak Dotyali. It appears that rates are lowest in Doti district with only 75 percent of the respondents reporting Dotyali use with children. The person with non-Dotyali-speaking children also lives in Doti district.

7.3 Reading and writing in Dotyali

The extent to which a language is used for reading and writing can affect the vitality of that language. Knowledgeable insider interviews were used to clarify that Dotyali is rarely used for reading and writing. This affects the placement of Dotyali on the EGIDS. Dotyali is listed in Ethnologue: Languages of Nepal (Eppele et al. 2012) as level 4 Educational, but this section will provide evidence that the correct EGIDS assignment should be 6a Vigorous: “the language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable.” A level 4 on the EGIDS is assigned to languages that are “being transmitted and standardization promoted through a system of institutionally supported education” (Eppele et al. 2012:13). This means that a level 4 language should be taught in schools or should be the medium used for teaching in schools. Primary schools in all test sites were located in or near the test village. All the schools employ Dotyali mother-tongue speakers and some Nepali mother-tongue speakers as teachers. Instruction is in Nepali, with the exception of the lowest level classes with small children who do not yet understand Nepali. In those instances, Dotyali is used for explanations. In secondary school, Nepali is primarily used and sometimes English, but never Dotyali. Textbooks and teaching materials are solely in Nepali and English. It has been reported that some speakers are trying to prepare multilingual education (MLE) materials in Dotyali, though these materials are not yet used on a widespread basis (Sapkota 2013:29). Therefore Dotyali does not currently fit the requirements of EGIDS Level 4. Level 5 on the EGIDS requires that the language “is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable.” While level 5 is defined as being in the beginning stages of literacy, “the existence of an orthography or the production of beginning literacy materials are not, in themselves, sufficient to qualify a language as having achieved EGIDS level 5” (Lewis and Simons 2016). The definition requires that at least some part of the community is effectively using the language for reading and writing. All knowledgeable insider interview respondents said they have heard of Dotyali materials. However, on questionnaires during a 2012 research trip by Tribhuvan University, very few respondents (11% of male respondents) reported having knowledge of written materials in their mother-tongue (Sapkota 2013:29). Books and magazines in Dotyali are known to be available as well as some songs and newspapers. Newspapers and magazines that have sporadically been printed in Dotyali are not available on a regular basis (Sapkota 2013:29). A Dotyali dictionary, poems and proverbs, cultural literature, and at least one novel have been published in Dotyali.11 However, these materials are not widely available-and evidence shows that no significant

11 A more comprehensive list can be found in R. D. Prabhas Chataut’s Request for Change form.

segment of the language community is using Dotyali for reading and writing, Level 5 should not be assigned. Dotyali is used minimally as a written language but, as demonstrated in the previous sections, has strong vitality as an oral language. Strong oral vitality is seen through various domains of use and intergenerational transfer. As such, an EGIDS Level 6a is appropriate for Dotyali as “the language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language” (Eppele et al. 2012:13).

7.4 Language vitality summary

Overall attitudes toward Dotyali are positive. The majority of respondents report that they love Dotyali the most and they report that children should learn to speak Dotyali first. High use of the mother-tongue is evident in social and cultural events. There is significant use of Dotyali between children in the village, as well as at weddings and village meetings. Dotyali is the most used language in the village and some people are not conversant in Nepali, the second most common language. Overwhelmingly, Dotyali is being passed from parents to children. It is evident that children are speaking the language of their parents and that people think children should speak Dotyali first. A language can be classified as having strong vitality as an oral language, but weak or low vitality as a written language. Dotyali fits this description since there is no widespread use of Dotyali for literacy and no institutional or educational support for learning to read and write in Dotyali. An EGIDS level of 6a is appropriate for Dotyali, which means the language is being spoken by all generations and the language is usually passed onto children in the speech community.

8 Summary of findings and implications for language-based development

This chapter summarizes the findings for each goal of this research project and then discusses the implications of these findings for language-based development.

Goal 1: Dialect areas

Identify the major dialects of Dotyali and the comprehension among the dialects. • There are potentially four major dialects of Dotyali: Dotyali, Baitadeli, Darchuleli, and Bajhangi Nepali. • The four potential dialects of Dotyali share high lexical similarity (75–87%). • Dotyali and Darchuleli are closest with regard to high lexical similarity, high display of comprehension, and high perceived similarity between Darchuleli and the recorded Dotyali text from Doti district. • Questions remain for Baitadeli and Bajhangi Nepali. While speakers from Baitadi and Bajhang districts demonstrated high comprehension of the Dotyali spoken in Doti district, high standard deviations in the RTT test results point towards acquired rather than inherent intelligibility of Doti Dotyali (see section 4.3). As to perceived differences, a third of the interviewees also expressed that the words are very different. A number of interviewees12 said that the Dotyali way of speaking is very different from their own. • Another question refers to varieties of Bajhangi Nepali. The current research only covers data from the Simali variety of Bajhangi Nepali. Research by Chalise (2013) suggests that the Chir- Bungal varieties of Bajhangi could be different enough to be considered linguistically separate languages. Further research is needed (see section 1.5).

12 20% in Baitadi and 50% in Bajhang

Goal 2: Language attitudes

Assess the language attitudes the speakers of the identified Dotyali varieties have toward one another to better understand their willingness to share oral and written materials. • Speakers of the major Dotyali dialects did not express any negative attitudes toward other Dotyali dialects. • Doti district is recognized as having the purest Dotyali.

Goal 3: Ethnolinguistic identity

Investigate whether Dotyali speakers see themselves as a cohesive ethnic community. • Dotyali speakers share a common linguistic identity. • Dotyali speakers do not appear to share a similar common ethnic identity (see section 1.2).

Goal 4: Language vitality

Investigate the language vitality of Dotyali in each speech community. • The oral language vitality of Dotyali is strong.

Implications

Based on overtly expressed attitudes towards Dotyali as spoken in Doti and on RTT results, it appears that the variety of Dotyali spoken in Doti district would be a good reference dialect for language-based development. However, questions remain for Baitadeli speakers whose comprehension of Doti Dotyali seems to be limited. This is indicated by relatively low RTT results, with high variation and low perceived comprehension (see tables 6 and 7). They were the only ones that did not mention Doti as a possible site for a language development project, but preferred locations in Baitadi district. Respondents from Bajhang displayed and reported higher comprehension levels than Baitadeli speakers, but preferred Achham over Doti as the location for a project. These ambiguities may reflect the diverse political history of the area. Because there has not been widespread use of Dotyali as a written language, it is recommended that oral materials be used as a starting point for language development. Due to high language vitality and positive language attitudes, oral materials developed in Dotyali are likely to be well received and shared by all Dotyali-speaking communities. Mass media materials, such as radio advertisements and health- related public service announcements, could be potential starting places for oral materials. Recordings of local folklore stories may also be well accepted. If the community wants to pursue further strengthening of the vitality of the language, expanding the use of reading and writing of Dotyali is recommended. The first step of expanding reading and writing is developing and agreeing upon a standard orthography. Following orthography development, several options for materials development are available. Possibilities include: organizing a local group to translate important documents and stories into Dotyali, producing signs and posters for public announcements related to health and other public domains, and providing community workshops to teach others how to read and write their own oral stories and experiences in Dotyali.

Appendix A: Wordlists

A.1 Lexical similarity comparison procedures

For a lexical similarity count, the wordlists are compared to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1) and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two are rather similar. The criteria applied are:

Category 1

• Consonants (consonant-like) segments which match exactly • Vowels (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature • Phonetically similar consonant segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones, such as difference in only one articulatory feature) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words

Category 2

• All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not, however, supported by at least three pairs of words

Category 3

• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar • A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item

Other criteria used specifically for the analysis of this survey are: • Aspirated and unaspirated sounds are considered as category one • Nasalised vowels considered as similar with nasal consonants (e.g., /ũ/ and /n/) • Double consonants were considered one segment (e.g., /p/ and /pp/) • Retroflex and alveolar sounds that were otherwise the same, were considered similar (e.g., /ɖ/ and /d/) • Dipthongs were counted as one segment • /ɹ/, /ɾ/, and /r/ were all counted as similar due to transcription difficulties with these sounds • Palatalized stops (/kʲ/) were disregarded during comparison • Interconsonental /ə/ was disregarded

An increase in the number of segments in category 3 is permitted if it is compensated for by an increase in the number of segments in category 1 (table 13).

24 25

Table 13. Word length and lexical similarity

Word Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 2 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 7 4 2 1 8 4 2 2 9 5 2 2 10 5 3 2 11 6 3 2 12 6 3 3

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar, according to this criteria, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. The procedure was repeated for each pair of language varieties. When eliciting verbs, two different forms were asked: 3rd person singular simple past and 2nd person singular imperative. This was done to identify a common root morpheme, rather than comparing the words as a whole. The common root morpheme was used for the comparison. During the process of wordlist elicitation, the researcher transcribes the words phonetically by using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Wordlists for this survey were collected by multiple researchers. Some elicited words were excluded from the lexical similarity count. A few items were disqualified because of doubts as to whether people had really given a word with the same meaning. Those entries were disqualified in order to eliminate potential skewing. In the wordlist, they are marked with an ‘x’ instead of the similarity grouping number, see for example the entries 131 ‘baby’ or 142 ‘husband’. The final word count of the comparisons between the Dotyali varieties and Nepali in this report are between 299 and 306 lexical items. The final word count of the Kumaoni comparisons in this report are between 176–179 lexical items.

A.2 Wordlist informed consent script

Two informed consent scripts were read in Nepali to each participant prior to wordlist elicitation in order to obtain informed consent. This Nepali script and the participant’s response were also recorded. The two informed consent scripts are shown in English and Nepali. My name is …. We are from Tribhuvan University, Department of Linguistics. We are here to study your village’s language. We will ask you a few questions about you yourself and about your language. After that, we will ask you to pronounce some words in your own language. We will write your words in our copybook using a special script. We will also record the words that you will speak. We will also give the information you give us and the recordings to other people. Can you help us? Question 33 in wordlist helper biodata for permission to use their name:

We are thinking of listing your name with this information, but if you don’t want your name to be listed, we won’t. Shall we use your name or not?

A.3 Wordlist biodata

Wordlist biodata for the Nepali and Kumaoni wordlists are not provided here. The Kumaoni wordlist was taken from van Riezen’s “Sociolinguistic and Educational Survey of Kumaun”, (1999) and the Nepali wordlist is from the South Asian 210-item wordlist.

Darchula Baitadi District Bajhang District Doti District District Informed consent Given Given Given Given Subject number SB03 CK02 PS01 DS01 Date 20-Mar-2014 27-Mar-2014 24-Mar-2014 18-Feb-2014 Village name Dhole Chainpur Dethala Gholtada Interviewer name Stephanie Stephanie Stephanie Stephanie Language of elicitation Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Language of response Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Interpreter name Not needed Not needed Not needed Not needed Sex Male Male Male Male Name P. S. B. H. P. R. N. B. P. T. S. Age 49 30 49 37 Caste Bohara Brahaman Thakudi Chettri Religion Hindu Hindu Hindu Christian Occupation Teacher Teacher Store owner Teacher Completed Completed year Educational background Completed year 12 Masters level year 7 12 Mother-tongue Dotyali Dotyali Dotyali Dotyali Which Dotyali variety? Baitadeli Bajhangi Doteli Dotyali Which Nepali variety? Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Local name for language Baitadeli Bajhangi Doteli Dotyali Birthplace Dhole Byasi VDC Dethala Sarswoti VDC Dipayal Silghadi Current residence Dhole Byasi VDC Dethala Municipality 7 Rajpur How long at current 49 years 25 years 46 years 37 years residence Kathmandu (for 2 years; 3 years ago) Malaysia (for Past residences (for more None Kanchanpur (for 3 3 years; 6 None than one year) years; 5 or 6 years years ago) ago) Father’s birthplace Dhole Byasi VDC Dethala Sarswoti VDC Father’s mother-tongue Baitadeli Bajhangi Doteli Dotyali Language father spoke Didn’t ask this Didn’t ask this The language with them while growing Dotyali question question of the village up Near Sarswoti Kardel VDC, Mother’s birthplace Bajhang District Doti district VDC (30 Bajhang minutes away) Mother’s mother-tongue Bajhangi Bajhangi Doteli Dotyali Language mother spoke Didn’t ask this Didn’t ask this Didn’t ask this with them while growing Dotyali question question question up

Darchula Baitadi District Bajhang District Doti District District Doteli, Nepali, Nepali, Hindi, Hindi, Dotyali, Nepali, Languages they speak Nepali, Baitadeli English, Bajhangi Kumauni, Hindi, English English Language they speak best Baitadeli Bajhangi Doteli Dotyali Language they speak Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali second best (If MT is not their best language) How well do Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable Not applicable they think they speak Dotyali? Permission to use name Given Given Given Given

A.4 Wordlist data and similarity grouping

The wordlist data is presented in the order of elicitation. Lexical item numbers 197 to 210 have been excluded from this data because they are numerical items not used in the comparison. The English gloss is presented in roman script and the Nepali gloss is presented in Devanagari script. All elicited words are presented in IPA. The similarity grouping is listed to the right of the elicited word. In cases where a lexical item was excluded from the comparison, an ‘x’ is used in place of the similarity grouping number. When eliciting pronouns, the formal use of the pronoun was elicited.

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni 1 body जीउ dʒiu 2 həɾ 1 səril 3 səriʒ / həɾ 1,3 həɾ 1 ɑŋ 4 2 head टाउको ʈɑuko 2 munto 1 munto 1 mundo 1 munʈo 1 kʰor 3 3 hair कपाल kəpɑl 2 roũ 1 roɑ̃ 1 rɑõ 1 rumɑ 1 bɑʋ 3 4 face अनहारु ənuhɑr 1 ənɑr 1 ɑnɑr 1 ɑnɑr 1 ɑnuwɑr 1 mʊkʰ 2 5 eye आखाँ ɑ̃khɑ 1 ɑ̃kɑ 1 ɑ̃khɑ 1 ɑ̃khɑ 1 ɑ̃khɑ 1 ɑ̃kʰ 2 6 ear कान kɑn 1 kɑn 1 kɑn 1 kɑn 1 kɑn 1 kɑn 1 7 nose नाक nɑk 1 nɑk 1 nɑk 1 nɑk 1 nɑk 1 nɑk 1 8 mouth मखु mukʰ 1 muk 1 muk 1 mukʰ 1 mukʰ 1 toʊ̯ 2 9 lips ओठ oʈʰ 1 tʰol 2 tʰol 2 tʰol 2 tʰol / oʈʰ 1,2 - x 10 tooth दातँ dɑ̃t 1 dɑ̃t 1 dɑ̃dɑ 1 dɑ̃t 1 dɑɖɑ / dɑ̃t 1 dãnt 1 11 tongue �जब्रो dʒibɾo 1 dʒibəɾo 1 dʒibəro 1 dʒibəro 1 dʒibəro 1 dʒɪbəɽɪ 1 12 chest छाती tʃʰɑti 1 tʃʰɑti 1 tʃʰɑti 1 tʃʰɑti 1 tʃʰɑti 1 tʃʰɑt 1 13 belly पेट peʈ 1 pet 1 pet 1 ɖʰɑɖ 2 lɑd̪ʰo 3 peʈ 1 कम् 14 waist kəmər 1 kəɳɳə 1 kənnu 1 kəmər 1 kəmmər 1 - x मर 15 whole arm हात hɑt 1 pəkʰuɾɑ 2 hɑt̪ 1 hɑt̪ 1 hɑt̪ 1 hɑtʰ 1 16 elbow कु �हनो kuⁱno 1 kum 1 kum 1 kum 1 kũnu 1 kʊhəni 1 17 palm ह�केला hɑtkelɑ 1 hətkelɑ 1 hətolɑ 1 hɑtkəlɑ 1 hətəlo / hətkelɑ 1 - x 18 finger औलां əᵘlɑ 1 ɑũlɑ 1 ɑŋglo 1 əᵘnlɑ 1 əᵘnlɑ 1 əŋgu 2 19 fingernail नङ nəŋ 1 nəŋ 1 nəŋ 1 nəŋ 1 nəŋ 1 nəŋ 1 20 leg खट्टाु khuʈʈɑ 1 kuʈɑ 1 kʰuttɑ 1 kʰuttɑ 1 dʒəŋɳo 2 kʊt 1 21 knee घडाुँ gʰũɖɑ 1 gũɳɑ̃ 1 gʰuɳɑ 1 gʰũɳɑ 1 gʰudɑ 1 - x 22 skin छाला tʃʰɑlɑ 1 tʃʰɑlɑ 1 tʃʰɑlɑ 1 tʃʰɑlɑ 1 tʃʰɑlɑ 1 kʰɑl 2 23 bone हाड hɑɖ 1 hɑɖ 1 hɑrd 1 hɑrd 1 hɑd 1 həɖək 1 24 heart मटु ु muʈu 1 muʈu 1 muʈu 1 mutu 1 mutu 1 dɪl 2

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni rəgət / 25 blood रगत ɾəgət 1 1 rəgət 1 rəgət 1 rəgət 1 kʰun / lʲu 2 kʰun 26 urine �पसाब pisɑb 1 muʈ̚ 2 mut̚ 2 mutʰ 2 - x mut 2 27 feces �दसा disɑ 1 gu 2 gu 2 gũ 2 gu 2 ʈəʈːi / gu 2 28 village गाउँ gɑũ 1 gɑũ 1 gɑũ 1 gɑũ 1 gɑũ 1 gũ 1 29 house घर gʰər 1 gʰɑr 1 gʰɑr 1 gʰər 1 gʰɑr 1 kuɽɪ 2 30 roof छाना tʃɑnɑ 1 pɑkho 2 pɑkho 2 pɑkho 2 pɑkho 2 pɑx 2 31 door ढोका ɖʰokɑ 1 dwər 3,4 delo 2 d̪elo 2 delo / dwɑr 2,3 doʋɑɾ 1,4 32 firewood दाउरा dɑuɾɑ 1 dərwə̃ 1 dəruŋo 1 dəruwɑ̃ 1 dourɑ 1 lɑkəɽ 2 kʊtʃ / 33 broom कु चो kutso 1 kutʃo 1 kutʃo 1 kutso 1 kutʃo 1 1 tʃʊl 34 stick लट्ठी ləʈʈʰi 1 lɑuro 1 lɑuro 1 lət̚tʰi 1 louɖi 1 - x 35 pestle लोहोरो lohoɾo 1 loro 1 loro 1 loro 1 loɾo 1 muʃoʋ 2 36 spices mortar �सलौटो siləᵘʈo 2 silɑuʈo 2 silo / silɑuto 1,2 ʃilo 1 silo 1 ʊkəʋ 3 37 hammer घन gʰən 1 gʰən 1 gʰən 1 gʰən 1 gʰən 1 tʰoɽ 2 large Nepali 38 खकु ु री kʰukuɾi 1 kʰukuri 1 kʰukuri 1 kʰukuri 1 kʰukuɾi 1 - x knife 39 sickle ह�सयाँ həsijɑ 1 ɑ̃ʃi 2 ɑ̃ʃi 2 ɑ̃ʃi 2 ɑ̃si 2 - x बन् 40 axe bəntsəɾo 1 bəntʃəro 1 bəntʃəro 1 bəntʃəro 1 bəntʃəro 1 rəməʈi 2 चरो 41 rope डोरी ɖoɾi 1 rəsi 2 dʒəᵘro 3 dʒəᵘro 3 ɖor 1 dʒɔɽ 1 42 thread धागो dʰɑgo 1 dʰɑgo 1 dʰɑgo 1 dʰɑgo 1 dʰɑgo 1 dʰɑg 1 43 needle �सयो sijo 1 ʃujo 1 ʃuⁱje 1 ʃuijo 1 sijo 1 sʲuɾ 2 44 cloth कपडा kəpəɖɑ 1 kəpəɾɑ 1 kəpərɑ 1 lət̚tɑ 2 nɑt̚tɑ 2 tikɑʋ 3 45 hat टोपी ʈopi 1 tɑkʰi 1 kulo 2 topi 1 topi 1 - x 46 ring औठ�ं əᵘʈʰi 1 ɑũʈʰi 1 munɑɖo 2 ɑũtʰi 1 mundəɾo 2 mʊnəɽi 2 47 gold सनु sun 1 sun 1 sun 1 sun 1 sun 1 ʃʊn 1 48 sun सज�ु surdʒe 1 surʒʲæ 1 bel 2 surdʒʰə 1 bel 2 gʰɑm 3 49 moon जून dʒun 1 dʒun 1 dʒun 1 dʒun 1 dʒun 1 d̊ʒuɳi 1 50 sky आकाश ɑkɑs 1 sərgə 2 sərku 2 ʃərəgɑ 2 sərək 2 əgɑs 1 51 star तारा tɑɾɑ 1 tɑrɑ 1 tɑrɑ 1 tɑrɑ 1 tɑɾɑ 1 tɑɾ 1 52 rain पानी (प छ셍 ) pɑni 1 meg 2 pɑni 1 mek / pɑni 1,2 bərʃə 3 dʲu 4 53 water पानी pɑni 1 pɑni 1 pɑni 1 pɑni 1 pɑni 1 paɳɪ 1 54 small river खोला kʰolɑ 1 kʰolɑ 1 kʰolɑ 1 kʰolo 1 kʰolɑ 1 gɑɽ x 55 cloud बादल bɑdəl 1 bɑdəl 1 bɑdəl 1 bɑ̃dəl 1 bɑld̪o 1 bɑdəʋ 1

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni bolt of 56 च絍याङ tʃəʈjæŋ 1 tʃilko 2 tʃirəko 2 tʃiɾəko 2 tʃirəko 2 tʃɑl 3 lightning इन् 57 rainbow indɾeɳi 1 indrəini 1 ʃinərɑin 1 ʃinɑrɑin 1 indrɑini 1 ɪneɳi 1 द्रेणी hɑu / 58 wind हावा hɑwɑ 1 bətɑs 2 bətɑs 2 bətɑs 2 bɑĩhɑlo 3 1 bəjɑʋ dʰʊŋ / 59 small stone ढङ्गाु ɖʰuŋgɑ 1 duŋɑ 1 ɖʰũŋɑ 1 ɖuŋɑ 1 ɖʰuŋɑ 1 1 gʰəntəɾ unirrigated 60 बारी bɑɾi 1 bɑri 1 swɑ̃ɖo 2 swɑ̃ɖo 2 sʷɑrdo 2 - x field 61 irrigated field खेत kʰet 1 kʰet 1 gɑɖɑ 2 kʰet 1 kʰet 1 - x 62 road बाटो bɑʈo 1 bɑʈo 1 bɑʈo 1 bɑʈo 1 bɑʈo 1 bɑʈ 1 ɑg / 63 fire आगो ɑgo 1 ɑgo 1 ɑgo 1 ɑgo 1 ɑgo 1 2 bʰɪnɛɾ 64 smoke धवाु ँ dʰuwɑ̃ 2 dʰukəl 1 dʰukɑl 1 dʰũkɑ 1,2 dʰukɑl 1 dʰũ 3 65 ash खरानी kʰərɑni 3 tʃɑɾ 2 ʃɑdʒi 1 ʃɑdʒi 1 ʃɑdʒi 1 tʃɑɾ 2 66 soil/clay माटो mɑʈo 1 mɑʈi 1 məʈi / mɑto 1 mɑto 1 mɑto 1 mɑʈ 1 67 dust धलोु dʰulo 1 dʰulo 1 dʰulo 1 dʰulo 1 dʰulo 1 dʰul 1 boʈ / 68 tree 셂ख rukʰ 1 rukʰ 1 rukʰ 1 rukʰ 1 rukʰ 1 2 ɖɑʋ 69 leaf पात pɑt 1 pɑt 1 pɑt 1 pɑt 1 pɑt 1 pɑt 1 dʒoɽɑ / 70 root जरा dʒəɾɑ 1 dʒəɖɑ 1 dʒəɖɑ 1 dʒəɖɑ 1 dʒəɖɑ 1 1 pʰɑŋ 71 seed बीउ biu 1 bi 2 biu 1 bi 2 biu 1 - x 72 bark बोक्रो bokɾo 1 bokəɖɑ 1 bokoɖo 1 bokoɖo 1 bokəɖɑ 1 - x 73 thorn काडोँ kɑ̃ɖo 1 kɑ̃ɖɑ̃ 1 kɑ̃ɖõ 1 kɑ̃ɖõ 1 kɑ̃do 1 kɑɳ 1 74 flower फु ल pʰul 1 pʰul 1 pʰul 1 pʰul 1 pʰul 1 pʰul 1 75 bamboo tree बासँ bɑ̃s 1 bɑ̃s 1 bɑ̃s 1 bɑ̃s 1 bɑ̃s 1 - x bamboo 76 तामा tɑmɑ 1 kəllɑ 2 tuʃo 3 bʰuto 4 tɑmɑ 1 - x shoot 77 fruit फल फू ल pʰəlpʰul 1 pʰəl pʰul 1 pʰəl pʰul 1 pʰəl pʰul 1 pʰəl pʰul 1 pʰəl 2 78 mango आपँ ɑ̃p 2 ɑm 1 ɑm 1 ɑm 1 ɑm 1 ɑm 1 79 banana के र ा keɾɑ 1 kelɑ 1 kelɑ 1 kelɑ 1 kelɑ 1 kʲɑʋ 2 80 wheat गहू ँ gəũ 1 gõu 1 gõu 1 gõ 1 goũ 1 gjõ 1 uncooked 81 चामल tsɑməl 1 tʃɑməl 1 tʃɑŋəl 1 tʃʰɑmɑl 1 tʃɑməl 1 tʃəŋgo 2 rice

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni unhusked 82 धान dʰɑn 1 dʰɑn 1 dʰɑn 1 dʰɑn 1 dʰɑn 1 - x rice 83 cooked rice भात bʰɑt 1 bʰɑt 1 bʰɑt 1 bʰɑt 1 bʰɑt 1 - x tərkɑri / 84 vegetable तरकारी təɾkɑɾi 1 1,2 sɑg 2 sɑg 2 sɑg 2 - x sɑg 85 potato आल ु ɑlu 1 ɑlu 1 ɑlu 1 ɑlu 1 ɑlu 1 ɑlʊ 1 86 egg plant भ�टा bʰənʈɑ 2 bɑigun 1 bʰɑikən 1 bʰɑigən 1 bʰĩɖo 2 pəʈ 3 87 ground nut बदाम bədɑm 1 məmpʰəli 2 mukʰpəli 2 mumpʰəli 2 məmpʰəli 2 mofəl 3 88 chili खोसा셍नी kʰoɹsɑni 1 ɖɑ 2 ɖɑ 2 korsɑni 1 kursɑni 1 kʰʊsʲɑgi 1 89 tumeric बेसार besɑr 1 həldo 2,3 həlɖu 2,3 həld̪o 2,3 həɖʲəlo 2 həld 3 90 garlic लसनु ləsun 1 lɑʃun 1 ləʃon 1 ləsun 1 ləsun 1 lɑsəɳ 1 91 onion �याज pʲɑdʒ 1 pjædʒ 1 pjædʒ 1 pjædʒ 1 pʲædʒ 1 pʲɑdʒ 1 cauli- 92 काउली kɑuli 1 gopi 2 pʰulgʰobi 3 pʰulgʰobi 3 gop̚pi 2 gobi 2 flower 93 ginger अदवाु əduwɑ 1 ɑɖo 2 ɑdo 2 ɑɖo 2 ɑd̚do 2 - x 94 tomato गोलभेडां golbʰẽɖɑ 1 golbĩɾɑ 1 tæmmiʈər 2 golibʰĩɳɑ 1 golbʰeɖɑ 1 tɪmɑʈər 2 bənd 95 cɑbbage ब�दकोबी bəndəkobi 1 bəndɑgopi 1 bəndɑgobi 1 bəndɑkopi 1 bəndə 2 1 gobʰi 96 cucumber काक्रोँ kɑ̃kɾo 1 kɑ̃kõɖo 1 kɑ̃koɖo 1 kɑ̃kodo 1 kɑ̃kdo 1 - x 97 oil तेल tel 1 tel 1 Tel 1 tel 1 tel 1 tel 1 98 salt नू न nun 1 nun 1 Nun 1 nun 1 nun 1 nuɳ 1 mɑ̃ʃ / 99 meat मास ु mɑsu 1 sikɑr 2 sikɑr 2 sikɑr 2 sikɑr 2 1,2 ʃɪkɑr fat part of 100 बोसो boso 1 boso 1 Boso 1 boso 1 boso 1 bəs 1 flesh 101 fish माछा mɑtʃʰɑ 1 mɑtʃʰɑ 1 mɑtʃʰɑ 1 mɑtʃʰɑ 1 mɑtʃʰɑ 1 matʃ 1 102 chicken कु खराु kukʰurɑ 1 kukurɑ 1 kukʰudɑ 1 kukʰudɑ 1 kukʰudɑ 1 kʊkʊɽ 1 əndɑ / 103 egg फु ल pʰul / əɳɖɑ 1,2 1,2 əndɑ 2 ɑ̃ɳɑ̃ 2 pʰul 1 əɳɖ 2 pʰul 104 cow गाइ gɑi 1 gɑi 1 gɑi 1 goru / gɑi 1 gɑi 1 guɽ 2 105 buffalo भैसीं bʰəisi 1 bʰɑĩso 1 bʰɑiso 1 bʰɑiso 1 bʰɑĩso 1 bʰɛ̃s 1 dəʋ / 106 milk दूध dudʰ 1 dud 1 dud̪ 1 dud 1 dudʰ 1 1 dudʰ 107 horn �सङ siŋ 1 ʃiŋ 1 ʃiŋ 1 siŋ 1 siŋ 1 siŋ 1 पचु ् 108 tail puttʃʰər 1 putʃəɾi 1 putʃɑr 1 putʃɑr 1 putʃʰɑr 1 pitʃoɾi 1 छर

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni 109 goat बाख्रा bɑkʰɾɑ 1 bəkɑrɑ 1 bɑkʰoro 1 bɑkʰərɑ 1 bɑkʰro 1 bəkor 1 110 pig सगुं रु suŋguɾ 1 sumər 1 sũŋə̃r 1 suŋər 1 suŋgɑr 1 - x 111 dog कु कु र kukur 1 kukur 1 kukur 1 kukur 1 kukur 1 kʊkʊɾ 1 112 cat �बरालो biɾɑlo 1 billo 1 billu 1 billo 1 billo 1 - x 113 snake सापँ sɑ̃p 1 ʃjæp 1 ʃjæp 1 ʃʲæp 1 sʲæp 1 sʲɑp 1 114 monkey बादरँ bɑ̃dər 1 bɑnər 1 bɑnər 1 bɑ̃nɑr 1 bɑ̃nɑr 1 bɑnər 1 115 bird चरा tsəɾɑ 1 tʃərɑ 1 tʃəɳo 1 tʃərɑ 1 tʃəɖo 1 - x 116 wings पखेटा pəkʰeʈɑ 1 pəkʰetɑ 1 pɑkʰitɑ 1 pɑ̃k 2 pəkʰetɑ 1 - x प् 117 feather pwɑ̃kʰ 1 pəkʰjɑr 2 pɑk 1 pɑ̃k 1 pɑ̃k 1 - x वाखँ 118 rat/mouse मसाु musɑ 1 musɑ 1 musɑ 1 muso 1 muso 1 - x 119 mosquito लामखट्टेु lɑmkʰuʈe 1 mətʃəɾ 2 mətʃʰəɾ 2 mətʃʰɑr 2 mətʃʰɑɾ 2 mɑ̃tːʃəɾ 2 120 fly �झंगा dʒʰiŋgɑ 1 mɑkʰɑ 2 mækʰɑ 2 mɑkʰɑ 2 mɑkʰo 2 - x 121 honey bee माउरी mɑuɾi 1 mourɑ 1 mɑurɑ 1 mourɑ 1 mourɑ 1 - x 122 ant क�मला kəmilɑ 1 kirmilo 1 kirmulo 1 kirməlɑ 1 kirəmulo 1 kɪrmɑʋ 1 123 spider माकु रा mɑkurɑ 1 bəɖuwɑ 2 bəɖuwɑ 2 bəɖuwɑ 2 bõɖeⁱ 3 bəɖːu 2,3 124 louse जम्राु dʒumrɑ 1 dʒoɽɑ̃ 2 dʒoɽo 2 dʒorɑ 2 dʒũdɑ 1,2 - x 125 bed bug उडुस uɖus 1 uɖus 1 kətməl 2 uɖus / ʃələʃ 1,3 kʰətməl 2 - x 126 flea उ�पया ँ upijɑ̃ 1 upəjæ̃ 1 upɑijẽ 1 upʲɑ 1 upɑijũ 1 - x 127 leech पानी जकाु pɑni dʒʰukɑ 1 dʒugɑ 1 dʒukɑ 1 dʒugɑ 1 dʒukɑ 1 - x मान् 128 person mɑntʃʰe 1 mɑntʒʰe 1 mɑis 2 mɑnse 1,2 mɑⁱʃə 1,2 - x छे bɑikɑn / 129 man प셁षु purus 1 bəikɑn 2 2,3 bɑrse 3 logənɑⁱ 4 mɛ̃ʃ 5 bɑuse woman/ 130 म�हला mɑhilɑ 1 swɑini 2 swɑni 2 putɑri 3 swɑini 2 sʲɛɳi 4 female बच् 131 baby bətsɑ x dʒɑtku x bɑlək x gedɑ x tʃərɑ tʃəri X - x चा 132 boy के ट ा keʈɑ 1 ketɑ 1 tʃelo 2 ketɑ 1 tʃoret̚to 3 tʃəl 2 133 girl के ट ी keʈi 1 keti 1 tʃeli 2 keti 1 tʃoret̚ti 3 tʃʲeli 2 134 father बा / बबाु bɑ / buwɑ 1,2 bɑ 1 buɑ 2 bɑbɑ 3 bɑ 1 bɑbu 3 135 mother आमा ɑmɑ 1 iʒɑ 2 idʒɑ 2 idʒɑ 2 ɑmɑ 1 ɪdʒ 3 136 older brother दाई dɑi 1 dɑi 1 dɑdɑ 2 dɑdɑ 2 dɑdʒu 2 d̪ɑd̪i 1,2 younger bʰɛ / nən 137 भाई bʰɑi 1 bʰɑi 1 bʰɑi 1 bʰɑi 1 bʰɑdʒɑ 2 3 brother dɑdi

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni 138 older sister �ददी didi 1 didi 1 didi 1 didi 1 di 2 dɪdɪ 1 younger 139 ब�हनी bəhini 1 bəhini 1 bəhini 1 bəhini 1 bɑdʒi 2 bɛɳi 1,2 sister 140 son छोरो tʃʰoɾo 1 tʃelo 1,2 tʃelo 1,2 tʃelo 1,2 tʃelo 1,2 tʃəl 2 141 daughter छोरी tʃʰoɾi 1 tʃeli 1 tʃeli 1 tʃeli 1 tʃeli 1 tʃeli 1 142 husband श्रीमान sɾimɑn x bɑikɑn x poi x bɑᵘse x logənʲe x gʰəɾʋɑʋ x 1, sʲeɳɪ / 143 wife श्रीमती sɾiməti 3 swɑⁱni 1,4 dʒoi / swɑni ʃwɑin 1 swɑini 1,4 4 2,4 gʰəɾʋɑi grand- 144 हजरु बा hədʒuɾ bɑ 1 bədʒe 2 bɑdʒe 2 bədʒe 2 bɑdʒʲɑ 2 - x father grand- 145 हजरु आमा hədʒuɾ ɑmɑ 1 bədʒeⁱ 2 ɑmɑ 3 ɑmɑ 3 bədʒʲe 2 - x mother 146 grandson नाती nɑti 1 nɑti 1 nɑti 1 nɑti 1 nɑti 1 - x grand- 147 ना�तनी nɑtini 1 nɑtini 1 nɑtini 1 nɑtini 1 nɑtini 1 - x daughter father’s older 148 ठू लो बाब ु ʈʰulo bɑbu 1 dʒetɑ bɑ 2 dʒetɑ buɑ 2 dʒetɑ bɑbɑ 2 dʒetɑ bɑ 2 - x brother father’s 149 younger साना बाब ु sɑnɑ bɑbu 1 kɑntʃɑ bɑ 2 kɑkɑ 3 kɑkɑ 3 kɑkɑ 3 - x brother father’s older pʰuidʒu / 150 फु पू pʰupu 1 phupʰu 1 phuidʒu 1 1 puidʒu 1 - x sister phupu mother’s 151 मामा mɑmɑ 1 mɑmɑ 1 mɑmɑ 1 mɑmɑ 1 mɑmɑ 1 - x older brother mother’s 152 ठू लो आमा ʈʰulo ɑmɑ 1 dʒeti ɑmɑ 2 dʒeidʒɑ 3 dʒedʒɑ 3 dʒetɑ ɑmɑ 2 - x older sister mother’s kɑntʃi 153 younger साना आमा sɑnɑ ɑmɑ x x kõiʃi x kɑⁱdʒɑ x nɑni x - x ɑmɑ sister 154 friend साथी sɑtʰi 1 sɑtʰi 1 sɑtʰi 1 səŋʲi 1 soᵘɖi 1 - x 155 name नाउँ nɑũ 1 nɑu 1 nɑu 1 nõ 1 nɑũ 1 nɑm / nɔ̃ 1 156 language भाषा bʰɑsɑ 1 bʰɑsɑ 1 bhɑsɑ 1 bhɑsɑ 1 bhɑsɑ 1 - x 157 day �दन din 1 din 1 din 1 din 1 Din 1 dɪn 1 158 night रात ɾɑt 1 rɑt 1 rɑt 1 rɑt 1 rɑt 1 ɾɑt 1 159 morning �बहान bihɑnə 1 bihɑnə 1 pɑrbhɑt 2 pɑrəwɑ̃t 2 tʃəkɑlɑ 3 ɾɑti bʲɑɳ 4

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni tʃɑkəlɑ (12– 160 afternoon �दउँसो diũso x dinə x dopɑri (noon) 1 x dʲopəri 1 ɑdudɪn 2 2pm) 161 evening बेलकाु belukɑ x bəsɑitikə x bɑʃɑ 1 bɑsɑ 1 bɑsɑ 1 bjɑʋ 2 162 today आज ɑdʒə 1 ɑdʒə 1 ɑdʒ 1 ɑdʒ 1 ɑdʒi 1 ɑdʒ 1 163 yesterday �हजो hidʒo 1 beli 2 beli 2 beli 2 beli 2 bʰej 3 164 tomorrow भो�ल bʰoli 1 bʰolɑ 1 bʰolə 1 bʰolə 1 bʰolə 1 bʰoʋ 2 165 week ह�ा həptɑ 1 həptɑ 1 həptɑ 1 həptɑ 1 həptɑ 1 həptɐ 1 166 month म�हना məhinɑ 1 mɑinɑ 1 mɑinɑ 1 mɑⁱnɑ 1 muⁱnɑ 1 məhinɑ 1 bərsɑ / 167 year बष셍 bərsə 1 1,2 bərsɑ / sɑl 1,2 bərsɑ 1 bərʃɑ 1 sɑl / bəɾʃ 1,2 sɑl 168 big ठू लो ʈʰulo 1 bəɖo 2 ʈʰulo 1 tʰulo 1 tʰulo 1 ʈʊl 1 169 small सानो sɑno 1 nɑno 1,2 nɑno 1,2 nɑno 1,2 nɑno 1,2 nɑn 2 170 heavy गह्रुङ्गो gəɾuŋgo 1 bʰɑri 2 gəruɳõ 1 gəruwɑ 1 gəro 3 bʰɑɾɪ 2 həlk / 171 light हलङ्गोु həluŋgo 1 həluko 1,2 həlko 1,2 həluko 1,2 həllo 1,2 2 həu̯k 172 old परानोु puɾɑno 1 purɑno 1 purɑno 1 purɑno 1 purɑnu 1 pʊrɑɳ 1 nəjɑ / 173 new नया ँ nəjɑ̃ 1,2 1,2 nɔ̃je 1,2 nəjɑ̃ 1,2 nolu 1 nəi 2 nõlu niko / bʰəl / 174 good राम्रो ɾɑmɾo 1 rɑməro 1 1,2 niko 2 niko 2 2 rɑməro nɔko nərɑməro nərɑməro / 175 bad नराम्रो nəɾɑmɾo 1 1 1,2 gət̚to 2 kətʃʰəko 3 nək 4 / nəniko gətto 176 wet �भजेको bhidʒeko 1,2 ruʒeko 1 bhidʒeko 1,2 rudʒeⁱko 1 rudʒʲæko 1 bʰɪdʒi 2 177 dry स�खु sukkʰə 1,3 sukeko 1 sukeko 1 əkʰəreɑ 2 sukʲæko 1 ʃuk 3 178 long लामो lɑmo 1 lɑmo 1 lɑmo 1 lɑmo 1 lɑmõ 1 tʰul 2 179 short छोटो tʃʰoʈo 1 tʃʰoto 1 tʃʰoto 1 tʃʰoto 1 tʃoto 1 nɑn 2 दबु ् 180 thin dublo 1 dubəlo 1 dubəlo 1 dubəlo 1 dublo 1 - x लो gərəm / gərəm / gəɾəm / 181 hot (weather) गम� gəɾmi 1 1 gərəm 1 1 gərəm 1 1 ghɑm ghɑm tɑt cold dʒɑɖi / 182 जाडो dʒɑɖo 1 1,2 ʈʰənni 2 tʰənni 2 dʒɑɖi 1 - x (weather) ʈənni 183 hot (water) तातो tɑto 1 tɑto 1 tɑto 1 tɑto 1 tɑto 1 - x ʈʰəɳɖ / 184 cold (water) �चसो tsiso 1 tʰənni 2 tʰənno 2 tʰənnũ 2 tʰənnə 2 3 ʃɑɾdɪ

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni cracked/ 185 फु टेको pʰuʈeko 1 pʰutjæ 2 pʰuteko 1 pʰuteko 1 pʰuteⁱko 1 - x burst broken/ 186 �ब�ग्रएको bigɾieko 1 bigərjæ 1 bigəreko 1 bigəreko 1 bigreⁱko 1 - x damaged 187 broken भाचेकोँ bʰɑtʃeko 1 tutjæ 2,3 bhɑtʃeko 1 tuteko 2 bʰɑtʃeko 1 ʈʊʈi 3 188 empty खा�ल kʰɑli 1 kʰɑli 1 rito / kʰɑli 1,2 kʰɑli 1 kʰɑli 1 - x 189 full भरीभराउ bʰəɾibʰərɑu 1 bʰəri 2 bʰəri 2 bʰəri 2 bʰəri 2 - x 190 few थोरै tʰorəi 1 tokɑi 1 təkɑi 1 tʰokɑⁱ 1 nəmɑi 2 mʊɳi 3 dherɑi / zʲɑdɑ / 191 many धेरै dʰeɾəi 1 dʒikəi 2 1,2 dʒikɑ 2 məstə 3 4 dʒikhɑ ʃɪtːu 192 all सबै səbəi 1 səbɑi 1 sep̚pɑi 1 səbɑi 1 səbwi 1 səb 2 193 equal बराबार bərɑbɑr 1 bərɑbər 1 bɑrɑbər 1 bɑrɑbər 1 səri 2 ɪkːə 3 similar/ उस् 194 ustəi 1 usɑi 1 uʃwɑi 1 uʃwɑi 1 ustɑi 1 - x same तै 195 different फ़रक pʰərək 1 njænjærɑi x bʰinɑ̃i x dʒudui x pʰərək 1 fəɾək 1 �ब�भन् 196 various bibʰinə 1 njænjærɑi x ɑlɑkɑlɑk 2 bibʰinə 1 ɑlɑgɑlɑg 2 - x न ʃukilo / səfed / 211 white सेतो seto 1 dɑulo 2 doulo 2 2,3 sukilo 3 4 doulo səped 212 black कालो kɑlo 1 kɑlo 1 kɑlo 1 kɑlo 1 kɑlo 1 kɑʋ 2 213 red रातो ɾɑto 1 rɑto 1 rɑto 1 rɑto 1 rɑto 1 lɑl 2 214 right दाया ँ dɑjɑ̃ 1 dɑjɑ̃ 1 dɑjɑ̃ 1 dɑⁱne 1 dɑⁱnu 1 dɛɳ 1 215 left बाया ँ bɑjɑ̃ 1 bɑjɑ̃ 1 bɑjɑ̃ 1 boũ 1 bɑũ 1 bɑjɑ̃ 1 216 near न�जक nədʒik 1 ləgə 2 nəgikʰ 1 nədʒik 1 ləgə 2 nəzdik 1 217 far टाढा ʈɑɖʰɑ 1 durə 2 ʈɑɳɑ 1 tɑrɑ 1 tɑɾɑ 1 duɾ / tɑɽ 1,2 218 here यहा ँ yɑhɑ̃ 1 jɑ̃ 2 ɳɑ̃ 3 jehikɑi 4 jiɑ̃ 2 - x त् 219 there tyɑhɑ̃ 1 tjɑ̃ 2 tjɑ̃ 2 wɑkʰɑ̃i 3 tjiɑ̃ 2 - x यहा ँ 220 at -मा -mɑ 1 mɑ 1 mɑ 1 mɑ 1 mĩ 2 - x 221 beside छे उमा tʃomɑ x jɛllɑi x nədʒikʰ x tʃɑlmɑ x ləg̚gɑi x - x 222 inside �भत्र bʰittrɑ 1 bitəɾə 1 bʰitərɑ 1 bʰitərɑ 1 bʰit̚trə 1 - x 223 outside बा�हर bɑhirə 1 bɑiɾə 1 bɑirə 1 bʰɑirə 1 bɑⁱrə 1 - x məi̯li / 224 above मा�थ mɑtʰi 1 mətʰi 1 mɑtʰi 1 mətʰi 1 mutʰi 1 1 məli 225 below तल /म�नु tələ / muni 1,2 təltiɾə 1 təlɑ 1 təli 1 muni 2 tɛli 1

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni jeheɾə 226 around विरपिर wɑripɑri 1 2 wɑripəri 1 itʰə utʰə 3 wərɑpərɑ 1 - x wietə 227 who को ko 1 ko 1 ko 1 ko 1 ko 1 ko 1 228 whose कसको kəsko 1 kɑiko 1 kɑiko 1 kɑiko 1 kɑiko 1 - x 229 what के ke 1 ke 1 ke 1 ke 1 kʲɑ 1 kɪ 1 230 why �कन kinə 1 kelɑi 1 kʲɑki 1 kʲɑⁱki 1 kʲei 1 - x 231 where कहा ँ kəhɑ̃ 1 kɑ̃ 2 kɑ̃ 2 kɑ̃ 2 kɑ̃ 2 kɑ̃ 2 232 when क�हले kəile 1 kɑile 1 kəbə 1 kəbə 1 kɑilɑ 1 kəsət 2 233 which कु न kun 1 ko 2 ko 2 ko 2 ko 2 - x 234 how many क�त kəti 1 kəti 1 kəti 1 kəti 1 kəti 1 koduk 2 how (what is कस् 235 kəsto 1 kəso 1 kəso 1 kəso 1 kəsto 1 - x it like) तो how (to do 236 कसरी kəsəɾi 1 kəsəri 1 kəsəri 1 kɑseɾ 1 kəsəri 1 - x something) 237 this यो jo 1 jo 1 jo 1 jo 1 jo 1 jə 1 त् 238 that tjo 1 tjo 1 tjo 1 tjo 1 tjo 1 u / jəs 2 यो 239 go गयो tələ gɑjo 1 gəjo 1 gəjo 1 gəjo 1 gɑⁱjo 1 gəjɑ 1 240 don’t go नजाऊ tələ nəgɑu 1 dʒən dʒɑ 2 dʒin dʒɑi 1 dʒən dʒɑi 1 dʒən dʒɑu 1 - x ɑo / ẽ 241 आयो ɑjo 1 ɑjo 1 ɑjo 1 ɑjo 1 ɑjo 1 1 come go 242 don’t come नआऊ nəɑu 1 dʒən ɑ 2 dʒin ɑi 3 dʒən ɑi 3 dʒən ɑu 1 - x 243 come down झय� dʒʰəɾjo 1 dʒərjo 1 dʒəɾjo 1 dʒərjo 1 dʒərjo 1 - x don’t come dʒən 244 नझर nədʒʰəɾɑ 1 1 dʒin dʒərɑi 1 dʒən dʒərɑⁱ 1 dʒən dʒəɾ 1 - x down dʒərə 245 climb up च襍यो tʃəɖjo 1 tʃərdjo 1 tʃoɽjo 1 tʃorijo 1 tʃorjo 1 - x don’t climb dʒən 246 नचढ nətʃəɖə 1 1 dʒin tʃoɾɑi 1 dʒən tʃorɑⁱ 1 dʒən tʃəɾə 1 - x up tʃərɖɑ ओल् 247 oɾljo 1 oljo 1 orijo 1 orəljo 1 uljo 1 - x climb down य� don’t climb 248 नओल셍 nəoɾljɑ 1 dʒən ol 2 dʒin orɑi 1 dʒən orəlɑi 1 dʒən uljo 1 - x down ल् 249 ljɑjo 1 lejo 1 ləʃjo 1 lejo 1 ɑnjo 2 - x bring यायो नल् 250 nəljɑu 1 dʒən ljæ 1,3 dʒin ləʃɑi 2 dʒən le 3 dʒən ɑnə 4 - x don’t bring याऊ

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni लग् 251 ləgjo 1 lɑigjo 1 ləigjo 1 ləⁱgjo 1 ləgjo 1 - x take यो 252 don’t take नलग nələgə 1 dʒən ləgə 1 dʒin ləgɑi 1 dʒən ləⁱdʒʰɑⁱ 1 dʒən leⁱ 2 - x �झक् 253 dʒʰikjo 1 nikɑljo 2 nikɑljo 2 gɑdjo 3 dʒʰikjo 1 - x take out यो dʒən 254 don’t take out न�झक nədʒʰikɑ 1 2 dʒin nikɑllɑi 2 dʒən gɑrɑ 3 dʒən dʒʰikə 1 - x nikɑlə राख् 255 rɑkʰjo 1 rɑkjo 1 rɑkʰjo 1 rɑkʰjo 1 rɑkʰjo 1 - x put in यो 256 don’t put in नराख nərɑkʰɑ 1 dʒən rɑkə 1 dʒin rɑkʰɑi 1 dʒən rɑkɑⁱ 1 dʒən rɑkhə 1 - x मर् 257 məɾjo 1 mərjo 1 mərjo 1 mərjo 1 mərjo 1 ni məɾɪn 1 die यो 258 don’t die नमर nəməɾə 1 dʒən mərə 1 dʒin mərɑi 1 dʒən mərɑⁱ 1 dʒən mərə 1 - x 259 be hungry भोक ला�यो bʰok lɑgʲo 1 bok lɑgjo 1 bʰok lɑgjo 1 bʰok lɑgjo 1 bʰok lɑgjo 1 bʰukʰɛ 1 260 be thirsty �तका셍 ला�यो tiɾkɑ lɑgʲo 1 tis lɑgjo 2 tis lɑgjo 2 tis lɑgjo 2 tis lɑgjo 2 tis 2 सतु ् 261 sutjo 1 sijo 1 ʃejo 1 ʃijo 1 sutjo 1 poɾidʒɨ 1 sleep यो 262 don’t sleep नसतु nəsutə 1 dʒən sijə 1,2 dʒin ʃei 2 dʒən ʃei 2 dʒən sutə 1 - x पल् 263 pəlʈjo 1 tertʃjo 2 pɑrjo 1,3 pɑrjo 1,3 pəltjo 1 poridʒi 3 lie down 絍यो don’t lie नपल् dʒən 264 nəpəlʈə 1 2 dʒin pɑrɑi 3 dʒən pɑrɑⁱ 3 dʒən pəltɑ 1 x down 絍 tertʃje बस् bʰɛʈ / 265 bəsjo 1 bəsjo 1 bəsjo 1 bəsjo 1 bəsjo 1 2 sit down यो bʰɛʈʋə don’t sit 266 नबस nəbəsə 1 dʒən bəsə 1 dʒin bəsɑi 1 dʒən bəsɑⁱ 1 dʒən bəsə 1 - x down 267 get up उ腍यो uʈʰjo 1 uʈʰjo 1 uʈʰjo 1 uʈʰjo 1 utʰjo 1 - x 268 don’t get up नउठ nəuʈʰə 1 dʒən uʈʰə 1 dʒin uʈʰɑi 1 dʒən uʈᵗɑⁱ 1 dʒən utʰə 1 - x 269 stand उ�भयो ubʰijo 1 kəlijo 2 kəljo 2 kəlijo 2 ubhjo 1 - x 270 don’t stand नउ�भऊ nəubʰiu 1 dʒən kəliɑ 2 dʒin kəle 2 dʒən kəlie 2 dʒən ubhjo 3 - x hɪʈ / nʰɔ̃ 271 �हं蕍यो hĩɖjo 1 hĩɖjõ 1 hĩʈjo 1 hitjo 1 hĩdjo 1 1 walk go 272 don’t walk न�हंड nəhĩɖə 1 dʒən hĩɖə 1 dʒin hit̚tɑi 1 dʒən hitɑⁱ 1 dʒən hidə 1 - x uɖo / uɖ 273 उ蕍यो uɖjo 1 uɖjo 1 uɖjo 1 uɖjo 1 uɖjo 1 1 fly (verb) go 274 don’t fly नउडा nəuɖə 1 dʒən uɖə 1 dʒin uɖɑi 1 dʒən udɑⁱ 1 dʒən uɖə 1 - x

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni दगरु ् dɔɽ / dɔɽɪ 275 dəguɾjo 1 dourjo 1,4 bisəljo 2 dəgurjo 1 pʰɑljo 3 4 run यो go dʒən dʒən 276 don’t run नदगरु nədəguɾə 1 1 dʒin bisɑlɑi 2 1 dʒən pʰɑljo 3 - x dourə dəgurɑⁱ हासँ ् 277 hɑ̃sjo 1 hɑ̃sjo 1 hɑ̃sjo 1 hɑ̃sjo 1 hɑ̃sjo 1 - x laugh यो 278 don’t laugh नहासँ nəhɑ̃sɑ 1 dʒən hɑ̃sə 1 dʒin hɑsɑi 1 dʒən hɑ̃sɑⁱ 1 dʒən hɑ̃sɑ 1 - x 279 cry रोयो rojo 1 rojo 1 rojo 1 rojo 1 rojo 1 - x 280 don’t cry नरोऊ nərou 1 dʒən ro 2 dʒin roje 1 dʒən roⁱ 2 dʒən rou 1 - x बान् ता ulti gɑrjo / 281 vomit bɑntɑ gərijo 1 ulti gɑrjo 2 2,3 ukɑljo 3 okʰɑljo 3 - x गर् okʰɑljo यो ulti dʒin बान् bɑntɑ ulti dʒən 282 don’t vomit 1 2 gɑrɑi / dʒin 2,3 dʒən okɑlɑⁱ 3 dʒən okʰɑlə 3 - x ता नगर nəgərɑ gərə okʰɑlɑi थकु ् 283 tʰukjo 1 tʰukjo 1 tʰukjo 1 tʰukjo 1 tʰukjo 1 - x spit यो 284 don’t spit नथकु nətʰukɑ 1 dʒən tʰəkə 1 dʒin tʰukɑi 1 dʒən tʰukɑⁱ 1 dʒən tʰukə 1 - x 285 eat खायो kʰɑjo 1 kʰɑjo 1 kʰɑⁱjo 1 kʰɑjo 1 kʰɑⁱjo 1 kʰɑ 1 286 don’t eat नखाऊ nəkʰɑu 1 dʒən kʰɑ 2 dʒin kʰɑi 1 dʒən kʰɑⁱ 1 dʒən kʰɑᵘ 1 - x टोक् kɑʈo / 287 ʈokjo 1 kɑʈjo 2 kɑʈjo 2 kɑtjo 2 kɑtjo 2 2 bite यो kɑʈɑ 288 don’t bite नटोक nəʈokə 1 dʒən kɑʈə 2 dʒin kɑʈɑi 2 dʒən kɑtɑⁱ 2 dʒən tokə 1 - x 289 drink �पयो pijo 1 pijo 1 pijo 1 kʰɑjo 2 kʰɑjo 2 piʋɑ 1 290 don’t drink न�पऊ nəpiu 1 dʒən pe 2 dʒin pie 1 dʒən kʰɑⁱ 3 dʒən kʰɑu 3 - x 291 give �दयो dijo 1 dijo 1 dijo 1 dijoᵘ 1 dijo 1 dɪjo / de 1 292 don’t give नदेऊ nədeu 1 dʒən de 2 dʒin die 3 dʒən deⁱ 1,2 dʒən deu 1 - x 293 burn दाउरा बा�यो dɑurɑ bɑljo 1 səlkɑjo 2 bɑljo 1 bɑljo 1 bɑljo 1 dʒəgɑ 3 dɑurɑ dʒən 294 don’t burn दाउरा नबाल 1 2 dʒin bɑlɑi 1 dʒən bɑlɑⁱ 1 dʒən bɑlə 1 - x nəbɑlɑ səlkɑ 295 bury गा蕍यो gɑɖjo 1 dəbɑrjo 2 kədejo 1 dərejo 2 kədejo 1 - x dʒən 296 नगाड nəgɑɖɑ 1 2 dʒin kədei 3 dʒən dəreⁱ 4 dʒən kədejo 3 - x don’t bury dəbɑrə मार् ni maɾo 297 kill mɑɾjo 1 mɑrjo 1 mɑrjo 1 mɑrjo 1 mɑrjo 1 1 यो / mɑɾ

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni dʒən 298 नमार nəmɑɾə 1 1 dʒin mɑrɑi 1 dʒən mɑrɑⁱ 1 dʒən mɑrə 1 - x don’t kill mɑrə 299 cut का絍यो kɑʈjo 1 kɑʈjo 1 kɑtjo 1 kɑtjo 1 kɑtjo 1 - x 300 don’t cut नकाट nəkɑʈɑ 1 dʒən kɑʈə 1 dʒin kɑtɑi 1 dʒən kɑteⁱ 1 dʒən kɑtə 1 - x फाल् 301 pʰɑljo 1 hɑpʰɑljo 2 hɑpɑlijo 2 kitjo 3 hɑpəljo 2 - x throw यो dʒən 302 don’t throw नफाल nəpʰɑlɑ 1 2 dʒin hɑpɑlɑi 2 dʒən kitɑⁱ 3 dʒən hɑpələ 2 - x hɑpʰələ छलफल tʃəlpʰəl tʃəl pəl kurəri kɑnɑ kurɑ kɑni gɑrjo / 303 talk/chat गर् 1 2 kureri gɑrjo 3 4 1,4 - x gəɾjo ɑrjo gɑrjo tʃəl pʰəl gɑrjo यो kurɑ kɑni dʒən don’t tʃəlpʰəl tʃəl pəl kureri dʒin kurəri kɑnɑ 304 छलफल नगर 1 2 3 4 gɑrə / tʃəl pʰəl 3,4 - x talk/chat nəgəɾɑ dʒən ɑrɑ gɑrɑi dʒən gɑro dʒən gɑrə भन् bol / 305 bʰənjo 1 bɑ̃ɳjo 1 bʰənjo 1 bəɳjo 1 bʰənjo 1 2 say यो bulɑi̯ 306 don’t say नभन nəbʰənə 1 dʒən bə̃nə 1 dʒin bʰəne 1 dʒən bəɳɑⁱ 1 dʒən bənə 1 - x सनु ् 307 sunjo 1 sunjo 1 sunjo 1 suɳjo 1 sunjo 1 sʲuɳo̯ 1 listen यो नसनु ् 308 nəsunə 1 dʒən sunə 1 dʒin sunɑi 1 dʒən suɳɑⁱ 1 dʒən sunə 1 - x don’t listen न देख् dekʰ / 309 watch/see dekʰjo 1 dʰekjo 1 dʰekjo 1 dʰekjo 1 dʰekjo 1 1 यो dekʰi 310 look हेय� heɾjo 1 herjo 1 herjo 1 herjo 1 herjo 1 - x 311 don’t look नहेर nəheɾə 1 dʒən herə 1,2 dʒin herɑi 1 dʒən herɑⁱ 1 dʒən hərə 1 - x 312 wash धोयो dʰojo 1 pəkʰɑljo 2 dʰojo 1 dʰojo 1 dʰojo 1 - x dʒən 313 don’t wash नधो nədʰo 1 2 dʒin dʰoe 1 dʒən dʰoⁱ 1 dʒən dʰo 1 - x pəkʰɑlə 314 my मेरो झोला mero 1 mero 1 mero 1 mero 1 mero 1 - x 315 our हाम्रो झोला həmro 1 həməro 1 həməro 1 həməro 1 hə̃ᵘŋro 1 - x your 316 तपाℂको təpɑĩko 1 təməro 2 təməro 2 təməro 2 tə̃ᵘro 2 - x (singular) (sɑme ɑs 317 तपाℂह셁को təpɑĩhəruko 1 - x x təmərõnko 1 tə̃ᵘmusəbuⁱko 2 - x your (plural) 316) 318 his (singular) उहाकोँ uwɑ̃hɑko 1 unəro 2 unəro 2 unəro 2 tə̃ᵘnuko 3 - x uwɑ̃hɑhəruk 319 उहाह셁कोँ 1 - x - x unərõnko 2 unuko 3 - x their (plural) o

English Nepɑli Nepɑli IPA Doti Bɑitɑdi Dɑrchulɑ Bɑjhɑng Kumaoni 320 I म mə 1 mə̃ 1 mũ 1 mui 2 mũ 1 mɪ / mɛ̃ 1 you 321 तपाℂ təpɑĩ 1 təm 2 təm 2 təm 2 tə̃ᵘmu 2 tʊm 2 (singular) 322 he/she उहा ँ uhɑ̃ 1 un 2 un 2 un 2 tĩ / uwɑ 3 ʊ 4 323 we हामी hɑmi 1 həm 1 həm 1 həmun 1 həmẽ 1 həm 1 324 you (plural) तपाℂह셁 təpɑĩhəɾu 1 təmihəru 1 - x təmun 2 təmihəru 1 - x 325 they उहाह셁ँ wɑhɑhəɾu 1 - x - x unun 2 ũwɑ̃hɑru 1 - x

Appendix B: Recorded Text Testing (RTT)

B.1 Standard procedure for recorded text testing (RTT)

The extent to which speakers of related linguistic varieties understand one another can be studied by means of recorded texts. Such studies investigate whether speakers of one variety understand a narrative text of another variety and are able to answer questions about the content of that text. The accuracy with which subjects answer these questions is taken as an indicator of their comprehension of that speech form. From the percentage of correct answers, the amount of intelligibility between speech forms is inferred.13 The recorded text testing used in this survey is based on the procedures described in Casad (1974) and Blair (1990). Short, personal-experience narratives are deemed to be most suitable for recorded text testing in that the content must be relatively unpredictable and the speech form should be natural. Folklore or other material that is widely known is avoided. A three-to-five-minute story is recorded from a speaker of the regional vernacular, and then checked with a group of speakers from the same region to ensure that the spoken forms are truly representative of that area. The story is then transcribed and a set of comprehension questions is constructed based on various semantic domains covered in the text. Initially, a set of fifteen to twenty questions is prepared. Some of the questions will prove unsuitable because the answer is not clear in the text or because the question is confusing to native speakers of the test variety. Unsuitable questions are then deleted from the preliminary set, leaving a minimum of ten final questions for each RTT. To ensure that measures of comprehension are based on the subjects’ understanding of the text itself and not on a misunderstanding of the test questions, these questions must be recorded in the regional variety of the test subjects. This requires an appropriate dialect version of the questions for each RTT for each test location. In the RTTs, test subjects hear the complete story once, after which the story is repeated with test questions and the opportunities for responses interspersed with necessary pauses in the recorded text. Appropriate and correct responses are directly extractable from the segment of speech immediately preceding the question. Thus the RTT aims to be a close reflection of a subject’s comprehension of the language itself, not of their memory, intelligence, or reasoning. The mean score obtained from subjects at each test location indicates how intelligible the dialect in the recording is for them. In order to ensure that the RTT is a fair test of the intelligibility of the test variety to speakers from the regions tested, the text is first tested with subjects from the region where the text was recorded. This initial testing is referred to as the hometown test (HTT). Once a text has been hometown tested with a minimum of ten subjects who have been able to correctly answer the selected comprehension questions, with an average score of 90 percent or above, the test is considered validated. It is possible that a subject may be unable to answer the test questions correctly because they do not understand what is expected. This is especially true with uneducated subjects or those unacquainted with test-taking. Therefore, a short pre-test story with ten questions is recorded in the local variety before beginning the actual testing. The purpose of the pre-test is to teach the subject what is expected according to the RTT procedures. If the subject is able to answer the pre-test questions, it is assumed that they would serve as a suitable subject. Generally, subjects performing at levels of less than 70 percent on the pre-test are eliminated from further testing. Occasionally, a subject that has passed the pre-test fails to perform adequately on an already validated hometown test. Performances of such subjects are eliminated from the final evaluation, the assumption being that uncontrollable factors unrelated to the intelligibility of speech forms are skewing the test results. When scores vary considerably, this can be due to low inherent intellibility and language contact of some segments of the population. For this reason, it is important to include a measure of dispersion which reflects the extent to which the range of scores varies from the mean—the Standard Deviation. It reflects the degree of learning that has gone on through contact. On a RTT with 100 possible points (100 percent), standard deviations of more than 12 to 15 are considered high. If the standard deviation is

13 The description of recorded text test procedures is adapted from that found in Appendix A of O’Leary (1992).

41 42

relatively low (10 or below) and the mean score for the subjects from the selected test point is high, the implication is that the community as a whole probably understands the test variety rather well. This might occur either because the language being tested has high inherent intelligibility with the speakers’ own language, or because this variety has been acquired rather consistently and uniformly throughout the speech community. If the standard deviation is low and the mean RTT score is also low, the implication is that the community as a whole understands the test variety rather poorly and that regular contact has not facilitated learning of the test variety to any significant extent. If the standard deviation is high, regardless of the mean score, one implication is that some subjects have learned to comprehend the test variety better than others. In this last case, inherent intelligibility between the related varieties may be mixed with acquired proficiency, which results from learning through contact. The relationship between RTT scores and their standard deviation can be seen in table 14.

Table 14. Relationship between test averages and standard deviation

High Low Situation 1 Situation 2 High Many people understand the story on the Most people understand the story on the Average test tape well, but some have difficulty test tape. score Situation 3 Situation 4 Low Many people cannot understand the story, Few people are able to understand the but a few are able to answer correctly. story on the test tape. High standard deviations can result from many causes, such as inconsistencies in the circumstances of test administration and scoring or differences in attentiveness of subjects. Researchers involved in recorded text testing need to be aware of the potential for skewed results due to such factors, and to control for them as much as possible through careful test development and administration. Questionnaires administered at the time of testing can help researchers discover which factors are significant in promoting contact that facilitates acquired intelligibility. Travel to or extended stays in other dialect regions, intermarriage between dialect groups, or contacts with schoolmates from other dialect regions are examples of the types of contact that can occur. Compared to experimentally controlled testing in a laboratory or classroom situation, the results of field-administered methods such as the RTT are more subject to potential biases. Recorded texts and test questions will vary in terms of the clarity of the recording. Comparisons of RTT results from different texts need to be made cautiously. It is therefore recommended that results from RTTs not be interpreted in terms of fixed numerical thresholds, but rather evaluated in light of other indicators of intelligibility such as lexical similarity, dialect opinions, and reported patterns of contact and communication. In general, however, RTT mean scores of around 80 percent or higher with accompanying low standard deviations are usually taken to indicate that representatives of the test point dialect display adequate understanding of the variety represented by the recording. Conversely, RTT means below 60 percent are interpreted to indicate inadequate intelligibility. The results can only be generalized for the whole population if the sample of respondents is representative of the community as a whole. Responses to questions asked after the administration of an RTT can reflect attitudes held toward the test dialect. These opinions, then, can also help the researcher interpret the scores obtained on the tests. All storytellers and participants involved in the recorded text testing gave oral and recorded informed consent before assisting with this research.

B.2 Practice story

म सानो हदाुँ मेरो बबालेु गाई �क�न भु यो। Story part 1 When I was a child, my father bought a cow. उसको बबालेु के � क �न भयोु ? गाई Question 1 What did the father buy? A cow हामीलाई दधु चा�हएकोले गाई � क �न भयो।ु Story part 2 He bought a cow because we needed milk. �कन गाई � क �न भयोु ? दधु चा�हयो Question 2 Why did he buy a cow? They needed milk यसलाई दईु हजार प�यो । Story part 3 He paid Rs 2000 for it. गाईलाई क�त प�यो ? दईु हजार प�यो Question 3 How much did the cow cost? Rs 2000 एक �दन मैले गाईको दधु द�हरहु दाँ एउटा मौरीले गाईलाई टो�यो। Story part 4 One day as I was milking the cow a bee bit the cow. गाईलाई के ल े टो�यो? मौरी Question 4 What bit the cow? Bee गाईले दधकोु बा�टीनलाई ला�ीले हा�यो। Story part 5 The cow kicked the milk pail. गाईले के ग�यो ? ला�ीले हा�यो Question 5 What did the cow do? Kicked the milk pail सबै दधु पो�खयो। Story part 6 All the milk was spilled. दधु के भयो? पो�खयो Question 6 What happened to the milk? It spilled आमा िरसाउनहु �छु भनेर मलाई डर ला�यो। Story part 7 Because my mother would be angry, I was afraid. बो�ने मा�छे लाई क�तो ला�यो? डर ला�यो Question 7 How did the speaker feel? Afraid मैले �छमेक�बाट पैचों �लने को�शष गरे ं तर उनीह셂सग ँ दधु �थएन। Story part 8 I tried to borrow milk from the neighbors, but they had none to spare. �छमेक�ले क�त दधु पैचों �दयो? क�� प�न �दएन Question 8 How much milk did the neighbors give? None जब आमाले दधु पो�खएको कु रा थाहा पाउनभयोु मलाई गाली गन셍भयो।ु Story part 9 When my mother found out about the spilled milk, she scolded me. आमाले के गन셍 ु भयो? गाली गन셍भयोु Question 9 What did the mother do? Scolded सजायकोँ 셂पमा मैले एक ह �त ा स�म दधु खान पाइन।ँ Story part 10 As a punishment, I had to go without milk for one week. Question 10 बो�ने मा�छे ले क�त समयस�म दधु खान पाएन? एक ह �त ा How long did the speaker have to go without One week milk?

B.3 Doti story with comprehension questions

The Doti story and comprehension questions are listed in this section. The comprehension questions have been inserted into the story in the place they were asked during test administration. The word-for-word translation of Dotyali and Nepali is listed, with Nepali highlighted in grey. A free translation (not word-for-word) is provided in English following each segment. Segments are broken at intervals which a mother-tongue Dotyali speaker reported to be natural breaks in the story. The HTT had a total of 20 questions. Only the 11 questions that passed the HTT, which were used during RTT administration are included here.

Dotyali दइजना भहोत �म�ने साथी �यो Nepali दइजनाु धेरै �म�ने साथी �थए Free Eng There were two good friends. Dotyali �तन सङ्गै एक गाउमा बस��यो Nepali �तनी सङ्गै एक गाउमा ब�दथे Free Eng They lived in one village together. Dotyali �यो गाउमा दइु जना साथी बीचमाई एक जना धेरै Nepali �यो गाउमा दइु जना साथी बीचमा एक जना धेरै Dotyali धनी मा�छे �यो Nepali धनी मा�नस �थयो Free Eng The two people lived together and one of the friends was rich. Dotyali एक जना गिरब साथी �यो Nepali एक जना गिरब साथी �थयो Free Eng One of them was poor. Dotyali र ती दइु जना साथी सङ्ग सङ्गै आफना �ज�द जी भिर Nepali र ती दइु जना साथी संगै संगै आ�ना �ज�दगी भिर Dotyali काम अरे

Nepali काम गरे Free Eng And they were together throughout their life and they did their work. Dotyali अनी काम अ饍दे बेला सौकार मा�छे सङ्ग भहोत पैशा Nepali अनी काम गन� बेला धनी मा�नस सङ्गै धेरै पैशा Dotyali �यो उ भौत सोकार �यो Nepali �थयो उ धेरै धनी �थयो Free Eng And at the time of work, the rich man became very rich. Dotyali अ�न गिरब मा�छे सङ्ग के ह ी प�न थेइन Nepali अ�न गिरब मा�नस सङ्ग के ह ी प�न �थएन Free Eng And the poor man had nothing. Dotyali अ�न �यो गिरब मा�छे सङ्ग एक �सप �यो Nepali अ�न �यो गिरब मा�नस सङ्ग एउटा �सप �थयो Free Eng The poor man was an expert in one thing. Dotyali अ�न �यो �सप उ सङ्ग के �यो भणे उइले Nepali अ�न �यो �सप उ सङ्ग के �थयो भने उसले Dotyali खबु �नका �नका घर बनाउ��यो Nepali धेरै राम्रो राम्रो घर बनाउ��यो Free Eng And with this expertise, he built many homes of very good quality. Dotyali उइका ज�त �नका घर कोइ प�न बनाउन स�दैन �यो Nepali उसका ज�त राम्रो घर कोही प�न बनाउन स�दैन �थयो Free Eng No other person could build homes like he could. Dotyali तर �यो सौकार मा�छे उइको साथी जो �यो साथीले

Nepali तर �यो धनी मा�नस उसको साथी जो �थयो साथीले Dotyali उइले घर बनाया पैशा आया ज�त प�न ह�थोु उइले Nepali उसले घर बनाएको पैसा आएको ज�त प�न ह��योु उसले Dotyali स�बै लैजा��यो Nepali सबै लैजा��यो Free Eng The rich man took the money from the houses the poor man built. RTT1 राम्रो घर बनाउने मा�नसको पैसा क�ले लैजा��यो? Nepali English Exact answer in story धनी मा�नसले The rich man सौकार मा�छे ले Dotyali अ�न �यो लै�ये प�छ उइले आफना �ज�दगी भिर भहोत Nepali अ�न �यो �याए प�छ उसले आ�ना �ज�दगी भिर धेरै Dotyali घर बनायो Nepali घर बनायो Free Eng And after he took it, for his whole life he built many houses. RTT2 उ�ले आफनो �ज�दगी भिर कती घर बनायो? Nepali English Exact answer in story How many houses had he built during his lifetime? धेरै घरह셂 Many houses भौत घर Dotyali अ�न �यो भहोत घर बनाई स के पछा ती दइु Nepali अ�न �यो धेरै घर बनाई स के प�छ ती दईु Dotyali जना बढाु -बढाु हनलागेु Nepali जना बढाु -बढाु हनलागेु Free Eng After finishing building all those houses, the two friends became older. Dotyali अ�न बढाु -बढाु भई स के पछयारी छाड्डीबार एक �दन दयैईु Nepali अ�न बढाु -बढाु भई स के प�छ अ��तममा एक �दन दईु Dotyali जना साथी बसे Nepali जना साथी बसे

Free Eng And after becoming old, one day, they sat together. Dotyali अ�न ब�सबर दयैलेु कु रा अरे कु रा आरे के भ�यो Nepali अ�न बसेर दबैलेु कु रा गरे कु रा गरेर के भ�यो Dotyali भणे Nepali भने Free Eng As they sat, they chatted. And as they chatted, here is what they said. RTT3 दबैु जना साथीले बसेर के गरे? Nepali English Exact answer in story What did the two friends do while sitting? कु रा गरे Chatted कु �णी अ� यो Dotyali लौ साथी अब तैले मेरो ला�ग आफना �ज�दगी भिर Nepali लौ साथी अब तैले मेरो ला�ग आफना �ज�दगी भिर Dotyali खबु �नका �नका घर बनाइ Nepali धेरै राम्रो राम्रो घर बनाइ�दयउ Free Eng “Oh, friend, in my lifetime, you have build many good quality houses for me.” Dotyali हैन �यो आया घर बाथइ आया पैशा प�न सब Nepali - �यसबाट आएको घर बाट आऐको पैसा प�न सबै Dotyali मैलाई �द Nepali मलाई �दयौ Free Eng “From those houses, you have given me all the money.” Dotyali ओ �ल स�म सब पैशा मै सङ्ग छ Nepali अ�हले स�म सबै पैसा म सङ्गै छ Free Eng “Until now, I have had all the money.” Dotyali म भौ�े सौकार भए Nepali म धेरै धनी भए

Free Eng “I have become very rich.” RTT4 धेरै पैसा भएर उ के भयो? Nepali English Exact answer in story He became After getting much money, what happened to him? उ धेरै धनी भयो rich उ भौत सौकार भयो Dotyali म ज�त सौकार मा�छे काई आ�थन Nepali म ज�त धनी मा�नस क�ह छै न Free Eng “Nobody is as wealthy as I am.” Dotyali अव त अ��तम बेला बढेशकालकोु बेलामा मेरो ला�ग एक Nepali अव त अ��तम समयमा बढेसकालकोु सामयमा मेरो ला�ग एक Dotyali खबु राम्रो घर बनाइदे Nepali खबु राम्रो घर बानाईदेउ Free Eng “At last, please build one very good house for me.” Dotyali य�त कु रो म तसङ्गु मा�दो भणे पछा उई गिरब Nepali य�त कु रा म �तमीलाई मा�छु भने प�छ उस गिरब Dotyali साथीले �क भ�यो भ�यो ह�छु � ठ कै छ म तेरो ला�ग Nepali साथीले के भ�यो भने ह�छु � ठ कै छ म �तम्रो ला�ग Dotyali खबु �नको घर बनइ �द�छु भणेर भ�यो Nepali खबु राम्रो घर बनाई �द�छु भनेर भ�यो Free Eng “For this, I beg of you.” After saying this, the poor man said, “Okay, okay, I will build you a very good house.” Dotyali सबै कु रणी कानी अरे प�छ सौकार साथीले उइलाई यो Nepali सबै कु रा कानी गरे प�छ धनी साथीले उसलाई यो Dotyali घर बनाउनको ला�ग ज�त पैशा ला�देहो स�बै पैशा �हसाब Nepali घर बनाउनको ला�ग ज�त पैसा ला�ने सबै पैसा �हसाब Dotyali �कताब अ�यो

Nepali �कताब ग�यो Free After saying all of this, the rich friend made an account of the money that would be required for building the house, Eng so that he could pay him for it. Dotyali �यो �हसाब �कताब अरे पछा अ�न प�छ के -के �चज Nepali �यो �हसाब �कताब गरे प�छ अ�न प�छ के -के �चज Dotyali चा�ह�छ �यो प�न सबै लेखा जोखा अ�यो Nepali चा�ह�छ �यो प�न सबै �हसाव ग�यो Free Eng After making this account, he also made an account of what materials would be necessary. Dotyali �यो लेखा जोखा अरे प�छ उइले के भ�यो भणे अब Nepali �यसको लेखा जोखा गरे प�छ उसले के भ�यो भने अब Dotyali त मेरो �नउती खबु रामणो घर बनाइदे अ�न �यो Nepali त मेरो ला�ग खबु राम्रो घर बनाइ अ�न �यो Dotyali घर बनाए पछा मलाई बोलायै Nepali घर बनाए प�छ मलाई बोलाउन ु Free Eng After making the accounts, he said, “Build me a very good house and, after it is built, call on me to let me know.” Dotyali र औले यो स�पै 셁�पे ं पैशा ज�त प�न छन Nepali र अ�हले यो सबै 셁�पया पैसा ज�त प�न छ Dotyali यो सप तै आफु सङ्ग राख Nepali यो सबै �तमी आफु सङ्गै राखौ Free Eng “Now, we have all the money with us.” Dotyali म र मेरा चेला चेली अ�न �वाइनी सबै ं हम Nepali म र मेरा छोरा छोरी अ�न श्रीमती सबै हामी Dotyali अक� ठाउँमा घ�दजानाउु ँ Nepali अक� ठाउँमा घ�नजा�छौु

Free Eng “My son, daughter, wife, and I will be travelling to another place.” Dotyali अ�न हामी घ�दु गए पछा जब घर तयार ह�छु Nepali अ�न हामी घ�नु गए प�छ जब घर तयार ह�छु Dotyali सबै घर रामणो सङ्ग बनाउछौ तैस प�छ हामलाई बोलायै Nepali सबै घर राम्रो संग बनाउछौ �यस प�छ हामीलाई बोलाउन ु Dotyali भणीबर भ�यो Nepali भनेर भ�यो Free Eng “And after we travel, when the house is ready and built well, let me know.” Dotyali �यसपछ� उइले ह�छु म �यसारी घर बनाइबर बीलाउला भणीबर Nepali �यसप�छ उसले ह�छु म �यसप�छ घर बनाएप�छ बोलाउछु भनेर Dotyali भ�यो Nepali भ�यो Free Eng Then the poor man said, “Okay, I will built the house and then let you know.” Dotyali अ�न साथी गए प�छ उइले एक �बचार अ�यो यैले Nepali अ�न साथी गए प�छ उसले एक �बचार ग�यो यसले Dotyali मलाई �ज�दणी भिर �यै पैशा प�न �दएन यैसङ्ग भौत Nepali मलाई �ज�दगी भिर के ह ी पैसा प�न �दएन यससंग धेरै Dotyali काम अरे भौत काम अरे प�छ सबै पैशा लै�यो Nepali काम गरे धेरै काम गरे प�छ सबै पैसा ल�यो Dotyali म सङ्ग �यै प�न आ�थन भणीबर मन मनमाई आफु Nepali म संग के ह ी प�न छै न भनी मन मनै आफु ले Dotyali सो�यो Nepali सा�यो Free After that, he got an idea. He thought to himself, “I have been poor my whole life and have not been given any money Eng even though I have done a lot of work. All the money is not for me and I have not received any.”

Dotyali सोचे पछा उइका मनमा एक नरामणो �बचार आयो Nepali सोचे प�छ उसको मनमा एक नराम्रो �बचार आयो Free Eng After thinking this, a bad idea came into his heart. Dotyali �यो खराब �बचार आया पछा उइले के सो�यो भणे Nepali �यो नराम्रो �बचार आए प�छ उसले के सो�यो भने Dotyali येइले मलाई �यै प�न �दया छै न ओल स�म Nepali यसले मलाई के ह ी प�न �दएको छै न अ�हले स�म Free Eng After he thought about this bad idea, he also thought about how his friend has also not given him any money. RTT5 आ�हले स�म �यो धनी मा�छे ले के �दएको छ? Nepali English Exact answer in story Until now, how much had the rich man given him? के ह ी प�न �दएको छै न Nothing के इ ल ै �दया आथीन Dotyali न�दयाहनालेु यइलाई म घर त बनाइ�द�छु तर यइलाई म �यसको Nepali न�दएकोहदाुँ यसकोला�ग म घर त बनाइ�द�छु तर ला�ग म Dotyali एकदम मरामणो घर बजाई�द�छु Nepali एकदम नराम्रो घर बनाई�दनछु Free Eng Because of not receiving any money, he thought he will build the house, but he will not build it well. Dotyali बाहरबाट धे�देबेला � न कै घर बनाउछु अ�न �भत्र �भत्र एकदम Nepali ब�हरबाट हेदा셍बेला राम्रो घर बनाउछु अ�न �भत्र �भत्रै एकदम Dotyali नरामणो बनाउछु भणेर उइले �बचार ग�यो Nepali नराम्रो बनाउछु भनेर उसले �बचार ग�यो Free Eng “I will make the outside very well. But the inside I will make of poor quality.” Dotyali अ�न �यो �बचार गिरस�यो पछा उइले घर बनाउन स셁ु Nepali अ�न �यो �बचार गरीसको प�छ उसले घर बनाउन स셁ु Dotyali ग�यो

Nepali ग�यो Free Eng And after this bad idea was thought about, he began to build the house. Dotyali स셁ु गरे प�छ घरक� साइ ख�यो Nepali स셁ु गरे प�छ घरको जग ख�यो Free Eng After beginning to build the house, he first build the foundation. RTT6 घर बनाउन स셂ु गरे प�छ के ग�यो ? Nepali English Exact answer in story After beginning the build the house, what did he The build? जग ख�यो foundation साई ख�यो Dotyali अ�न साई खणे प�छ उइले घरमा हा��यो ज�त प�न Nepali अ�न जग खने प�छ उसले घरमा हा�ने ज�त प�न Dotyali सरसामान ह셁 ज�त प�न छन ती सबै सरमानह셁 उइले Nepali सरसामान ह셁 ज�त प�न छन ती सबै सामाग्रीह셁 उसले Dotyali न �क ली �क�समका �लयो Nepali न �क ली �क�समका �यायो Free Eng After the foundation was built, he used all bad materials of poor quality. नरामणा Dotyali खास म�यु म�यु तेहा �नका �नका नइलेईबर नरामणा सामान ह셁 खरीदबर Nepali खास म�यु �य�मा राम्रो राम्रो न�याएर नराम्रा नराम्रा सामान ह셁 �कनेर Dotyali �येयो Nepali �यायो Free Eng For important things of the house, he bought poor quality materials. Dotyali खरीदबर लेयेर �यो साई ख�यो Nepali �कनेर �याएर �यो जग ख�यो Free Eng He brought those things and started the foundation.

Dotyali साई खणे पछा साइलाई म�थ उठायो Nepali जग खने प�छ जगलाई मा�थ उठायो Free Eng After building the foundation, he built upward. Dotyali म�थ उ 腍य ा प�छ चारै �तरका बानन उठायो �दवाल उठाय Nepali म�थ उठाए प�छ चारै �तरका �भ�ा उठायो �भ�ा उठाए Dotyali प�छ घर ब�यो Nepali प�छ घर ब�यो Free Eng After building up, he built four side walls and then the house was built. Dotyali �नका �नका �याल ढोका हा�यो �याल ढोका हाले पछा तैपछा Nepali राम्रा राम्रा �याल ढोका हा�यो �याल ढोका हाले प�छ �यसप�छ Dotyali उइले घरमाई पाखो बनायो घरको Nepali उसले घरमा छानो बनायो घरको Free Eng After building good windows and doors, he built the roof. RTT7 राम्रो राम्रो भ�याल-ढोका हालेप�छ उ�ले के बनायो? Nepali English Exact answer in story After building good windows and door, what did he build? छाना Roof पाखी (पाखो) Dotyali अ�न घरको पाखो बनाए प�छ �यै घरलाई खबु � न के र ी Nepali अ�न घरको छानो बनाए प�छ �यस घरलाई खबु राम्रा संग Dotyali रङ पा�लसलाऐर रामणो सङ्ग बनायो Nepali रङ पे�टलगाएर राम्रो संग बनायो Free Eng After building the roof, he used good quality paint and painted very well. Dotyali र बनाय प�छ उइले �बचार अ�यो मेरो साथीले बनाए Nepali र बनाए प�छ उसले �बचार ग�यो मेरो साथीले बनाए Dotyali प�छ बोलायै भ�याछ भ�णबर �बचार अ�यो

Nepali प�छ बोलाउन ु भनेकोछ भनेर �बचार ग�यो Free Eng After building, he thought, “I will tell my friend that I am finished.” Dotyali �बचार अरे प�छ उइले एक �दन उई आफना साथीलाई Nepali �बचार गरे प�छ उसले एक �दन �यस आ�ना साथीलाई Dotyali खबर पठायो Nepali खबर पठायो Free Eng After thinking this, he called for his friend one day to tell him the news. Dotyali लौ मैले तेरो ला�ग खबु �नको घर बनायाछु त Nepali लौ मैले �तम्रो ला�ग खबु राम्रो घर बनाएकोछु �तमी Dotyali अब आइजा भण�बर उइले खबर पठायो Nepali अब आउन ु भनेर उसले खबर पठायो Free Eng “I have built a good home for you,” he sent this news to his friend. Dotyali खबर पठाये प�छ उ सौकार साथी प�न खशीु भयर Nepali खबर पठाए प�छ उ धनी साथी प�न खशीु भएर Dotyali आयो Nepali आयो Free Eng After receiving the news, the rich friend became happy and came back. RTT8 खबर पाएप�छ कु न साथी खसीु भयो? Nepali English Exact answer in story After receiving the news, which friend was happy? धनी साथी The rich man सौकार साथी Dotyali आऐर उइले आफनो बनाएको घर त�यो Nepali आएर उसले आ�नो बनाएको घर हे�यो Free Eng He came and saw his house. Dotyali यै हण उई हण सबै ठाउ त�यो

Nepali यता उता सबै ठाउ हे�यो Free Eng He looked this way and that way and at the whole house. Dotyali त�तीर म�तीर सब हेरे पछा उ भौतै खशीु भयो Nepali तल मा�थ सबै हेरे प�छ उ धेरै खशीु भयो Free Eng After looking up and down and all around, he became very happy. RTT9 कहा ँ हेरेप�छ धेरै खसीु भयो? Nepali English Exact answer in story After looking where did he become happy? तल-माथी हेरेप�छ Up and down त�तीर म�तीर (त के ) Dotyali लौ साथी अब तैले जी� नक� भिर म सङ्ग लागेर Nepali लौ साथी अब �तमीले जीवन भिर म संग लागेर Dotyali रामणा रामणा घर बनाई Nepali राम्रा राम्रा घर बनायौ Free Eng He said, “Oh, friend, my whole life you have made very good houses.” Dotyali �यो घर बनाया पछा ते�टा आया 셁�पे प�न सब Nepali �यो घर बनाए प�छ �यसबाट आएको पैसा प�न सबै Dotyali मैलाई �दई Nepali मलाई �दयौ Free Eng “After building all the houses, you gave me all the money from those houses.” Dotyali अ�न �यो मैलाई �दया 셁�पे तैले �यै प�न नै Nepali अ�न �यो मलाई �दएको पैसा �तमीले के ह ी प�न Dotyali मागी Nepali मागेनौ Free Eng “From that, you didn’t take any money.” Dotyali औले म बढा�कालु म饍दे बेला खबु �नको घर बनाइदे

Nepali अ�हले म बढोभइु मन� बेला खबु राम्रो घर बनाउ�दन ु Dotyali भ�णबर भणी Nepali भ�न भने Free Eng “Now, I am old and near death, but you still built the house because I asked you.” Dotyali �यो घर बनाए पछा प�न �यो घर बनाउन मैले Nepali �यो घर बनाए प�छ प�न �यो घर बनाउन मैले Dotyali भणे प�छ प�न तैले �यै �द�क नमणीबर म बनाई Nepali भने प�छ प�न �तमीले के ह ी �द�क नमानी म बनाई Dotyali �दनछु ह�छु भ�णबर भ�ण Nepali �द�छु ह�छु भनेर भ�यौ Free Eng “Even after I asked you to build the house for me, you did not feel anything and said you would make the house.” Dotyali औले य�त �नको घर बनाई �द तैले Nepali अ�हले य�त राम्रो घर बनाई �दयौ �तमीले Free Eng “At present, you have build a very good house.” Dotyali म भौत खशीु भए Nepali म धेरै खशीु भए Free Eng “I am very happy.” Dotyali मलाई भौतै खशीु ला�यो Nepali मलाई धेरै खशीु ला�यो Free Eng “I am very happy.” RTT10 उसलाई घर बनाएको देखेर क�ी खशीु ला�यो? Nepali English Exact answer in story After looking at the built house, how happy was he? धेरै (खशीु ला�यो) Very (happy) भौत (खशीु ला�यो) Dotyali अब यो घर तैले बनाइ �द भ�णबर भणे पछा

Nepali अब यो घर �तमीले बनाइ �दयौ भनेर भने प�छ Dotyali �यस प�छ उइले के भ�यो उइका सौकार साथीले भणे Nepali �यस प�छ उसले के भ�यो उसका धनी साथीले भने Dotyali प�छ Nepali प�छ Free Eng “You build the house.” That is what the rich man said. Dotyali आ�ज फे र ी पछा भ�यो भ�यो लै �ज� न�क भिर मेरो Nepali आझ फे र ी प�छ भ�यो भने लै जीवन भिर मेरो Dotyali ला�ग भहोत �नका घर बनाई र मलाई भहोत सौकार Nepali ला�ग धेरै राम्रा घर बनायौ र मलाई धेरै धनी Dotyali बनाई Nepali बनायौ Free Eng “In my life, you have built many good houses and it has made me very rich.” Dotyali मैले �यै प�न �दया आ�थन तलाईु अब यैबेला म Nepali मैले के ह ी प�न �दएको छै न �तमीलाई अब यसबेला म Dotyali के �दन सक�छु र Nepali के �दन स�छु र Free Eng “I haven’t given you anything. Although, what can I afford for you?” Dotyali मैले अ�तीम बेला म�दे बेला प�न रामणो घर बनाइऐ Nepali मैले अ��तम बेला मन� बेलामा प�न राम्रो घर बनाउन ु Dotyali भ�णबर बनाई�द Nepali भ�दा बनाइ�दयौ Free Eng “And in this last time, I had asked you to build me a good house.” Dotyali मैले तलाई �यै प�न �दएन

Nepali मैले �तमीलाई के ह ी प�न �दएन Free Eng “I haven’t given you anything.” Dotyali र औले स�म तलाईु मैले �यै प�न �न�दया हनालेु Nepali र अ�हले स�म �तमीलाई मैले के ह ी प�न न�दएको हदाुँ Dotyali आज यो जो घर तैले बनाई यो घर आज Nepali आज यो जो घर �तमीले बनायौ यो घर आज Dotyali तलाईु �द�छु भ�णबर उइले आफना साथीलाई �दयो Nepali �तमीलाई �द�छु भ�न उसले आ�नो साथीलाई �दयो Free “And until now, I have given you nothing. And you have built this house. And so today I give it to you.” And he gave Eng it to his friend. Dotyali अब तसरी �दय पछा उ साथीलाई एकदम मनमा नरामणो Nepali अब �यसप�छ �दए प�छ उसको साथीलाई एकदम मनमा नराम्रो Dotyali ला�यो Nepali ला�यो Free Eng But, after it was given, the friend felt very bad. न �क ली Dotyali �कनभणे उइले घर बनाउदा खेरी न �क ली चीजह셁 हालीबर घर न �क ली Nepali �कनभने उसले घर बनाउँदा खेरी न �क ली चीजह셁 हालेर घर Dotyali बनाया�यो Nepali बनाएको�थयो Free Eng Because he had used fake materials to build the house. RTT11 �कन उसलाई मनमा नराम्रो ला�यो? Nepali English Exact answer in story Used fake न �क ली चीज Why did he feel unhappy? न �क ली �चजह셂 हालेर materials हा�याहनालेु Dotyali �यो घर जब उइका धनी सौकार साथीले उसैलाई �दए

Nepali �यो घर जब उसका धनी साहकारु साथीले उसलाई �दए Dotyali पछा �यस प�छ उ आ फै ठगीयो Nepali प�छ �यस प�छ उ आ फै ठगीयो Free Eng After the rich man gave the house, he felt he had cheated himself. Dotyali के ल ा ई भणे मा�छे ले यसरी �बचार गरेर काम अ饍दो पड�छ Nepali �कन भने मा�नसले यसरी �बचार गरेर काम गन셍 ु पछ셍 Free Eng People should think positive, then do work. Dotyali �ज�दक� भिर सङ्गै काम गरे प�न आ �न ा साथी सङ्गङ� Nepali जीवन भिर सगैँ काम गरे प�न आ�ना साथी सगीँ Dotyali इ�ट�भत्र स�बेलाई सधै काम गरे प�न लोपमा प 蕍ड ु हनैनु Nepali आफ�त सबैलाई सधै काम गरेर प�न लोभमा पन셍 ु हदैनु Free Eng Best friends who live together should not cheat one another. Dotyali �यसरी नरामणो �बचार राखद ु हनैनु Nepali �यसरी नराम्रो �बचार रा�न ु हदैनु Free Eng Therefore, we should not have bad ideas like this. Dotyali भणीबर यै कथाबाट यै �शक्षा पाइ�छ Nepali भनेर यी कथाबाट यी �शक्षा पाइ�छ Free Eng That is the lesson to learn from this story.

B.4 Post story questions and informed consent

The first 32 screening criteria questions for RTT administration are the same as the questionnaire screening questions in Appendix C and not included separately here.

HTT and RTT informed consent script

My name is ______. We are from Tribhuvan University. We are here to learn about how your language is used for speaking and writing. We will ask you questions about yourself and your language. Then we will listen to a story and ask you a few questions about the story. The information that you give us about your language, we will give to others. Can you give us help? मेरो नाम _____ हो। हामी �त्रभवनु �व� व�वद्यालयबाट आएका हौ।ं हामी तपा℁ह셁को भाषा कसरी बो�लने रहेछ कसरी ले�खने रहेछ भ� ने कु रा जा�न का ला�ग आएका हौ।ं तपाℂ र तपाℂको भाषाका बारेमा हामी केही प्र � न ह셁 सो�छौ ।ं �य सप�छ कथा स�ु छौ ं र �यो कथाको बारेमा केही प्र� नह셁 सो�छौ ।ं तपाℂले �दन ु भएको भाषास� ब�ध ी जानकारी अ셂 मा�नसलाई प�न देखाउन स�छौ।ं तपाℂले हामीलाई सहायता गन셍 स�नहु �छु ?

HTT post-story questions

HTT1 What language did the storyteller use? कथा भ�े मा�छेले कु न भाषा प्रयोग 셍भयोगनु ? HTT2a Did the speaker use only ______? ______भाषा मात्रा बो�नभयोु ? �क अ셁 भाषा प�न Or did you hear other languages? स �ु न भयोु ? HTT2b Which other languages did you hear? तपाℂ अ셁 कु न कु न भाषामाह셁 स�ु नभयोु ? HTT3 Did they speak ______purely? उहालेँ शद्धु ______भाषामा बो�नभयोु ? HTT4 Where do you think the storyteller is from? यो कथा भ�े मा�छेको घर कहा ँ होला? यो कथा क�तको ब�नु भयोु ? HTT5 How much of the story did you understand? पराु / एउटा दईटाु कु राब�नु भएन / आधी / आधीको कम HTT6 Is their way of speaking the same, a little यहा ँ बो�लएको भाषाको बो�ने तरीका कथामा उ�तै छ different, or very different than the language , ? spoken here? �क अ�लअ�ल फरक छ �क धेरै फरक छ HTT7 Are the words that they speak the same, a little यहा ँ उसले कथामा प्रयोग गरेको श�दह셂 उ�तै �कछ different, or very different than the words used , ? here? अ�लअ�ल फरक छ �क धेरै फरक छ HTT8 How did you like their speech? उसले बोलेको भाषा क�तो ला�यो?

RTT post-story questions

यो कथा क�तको ब�नु भयोु ? RTT1 How much of the story did you understand? पराु / एउटा दईटाु कु राब�नु भएन / आधी / आधीको कम RTT2 What language did the storyteller use? कथा भ�े मा�छेले कु न भाषा प्रयोग 셍भयोगनु ? RTT3 Where do you think the storyteller is from? यो कथा भ�े मा�छेको घर कहा ँ होला? RTT4 Is their way of speaking the same, a little different, यहा ँ बो�लएको भाषाको बो�ने तरीका कथामा उ�तै छ or very different than the language spoken here? �क अ�लअ�ल फरक छ, �क धेरै फरक छ? RTT5 Are the words that they speak the same, a little यहा ँ उसले कथामा प्रयोग गरेको श�दह셂 उ�तै छ �क different, or very different than the words used , ? here? अ�लअ�ल फरक छ �क धेरै फरक छ RTT6 How did you like their speech? उसले बोलेको भाषा क�तो ला�यो?

B.5 HTT results

During data analysis, question seven was determined unreliable as the majority of respondents did not give the expected answer. It was therefore eliminated from the analysis. Question seven is not included in the response data in this section, although it was displayed in the RTT story in section 0. You will notice that that question number is missing: The question number has been skipped while all other question numbers remain the same.

Abbreviations used in HTT and RTT answer charts:

Abbreviation Full Text MT Mother-tongue Nep Nepali Eng English Lang Language L1 Language one n/a Not applicable d/k Didn’t know Diff Different

Doti HTT results

Subject Practice Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 number test score DB06 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes DB07 80 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes DB08 70 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No DB09 100 No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes DS11a 80 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes DS12 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes DS13 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes DS14 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes DS15 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes DS16 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Doti post-HTT questions

1 2a 2b 3 4 5 6 7 8 Subject Lang Only Which Pure? Storyteller How much Way of Words Feeling number used L1? ones? home? understood? speaking used Dotyali No Nep No Dadeldhura All A little A little Okay DB06 diff diff Dotyali No Nep, Eng Yes Dadeldhura All A little A little Good DB07 diff diff Dotyali No Dadeldura Yes Dadeldhura All A little A little Good DB08 diff diff Dotyali Yes n/a Yes Dadeldhura All A little A little Good DB09 diff diff Local Yes n/a Yes Doti Most A little A little Okay DS11a lang diff diff

Dotyali Yes n/a No Baitadi All Very diff Very Good DS12 diff Dotyali Yes n/a Yes Baitadi All A little A little Good DS13 diff diff Dotyali Yes n/a Yes Dadeldhura All A little A little Good DS14 diff diff DS15 Dotyali Yes n/a Yes Dadeldhura All Same Same Good MT Yes n/a Yes d/k All Very diff Very Good DS16 diff

B.6 RTT results

Baitadi RTT results and post-RTT questions

Practice Subject test Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 number score KB01 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes KB02 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes KB03 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes KB05 70 Yes No No Yes No Yes No No Yes No SB03 90 Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes SB04 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes SB05 80 Yes No No No No Yes No Yes Yes Yes SB06 90 No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes SB07 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes SB10 100 No No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes Yes

Subject 1 How much 2 Lang used 3 Storyteller 4 Way of 5 Words 6 Feeling number understood? from where? speaking used KB01 Less than half Nep Baitadi Same Very diff Good KB02 Most Baitadeli d/k A little diff A little diff Okay KB03 Most Baitadi Baitadi Same Same Very good KB05 Half Baitadeli Toward Kailali A little diff A little diff Good All Baitadeli Baitadi, toward A little diff A little diff Good SB03 Darchula SB04 Most Dotyali Doti Very diff Very diff Okay Half Nep Baitadi, toward Very diff Very diff Good SB05 Darchula SB06 Half Dadeldhura Dadeldhura A little diff A little diff Good SB07 All Dotyali Doti or Baitadi A little diff A little diff Okay SB10 Half Nep d/k A little diff A little diff Good

Bajhang RTT results and post-RTT questions

Practice Subject test Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 number score CK05 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes CS03 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes CS04 80 No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes CS05 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes CS07 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes CS08 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes CS09 90 No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes CS12a 80 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes CS12b 90 Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Yes Yes Yes CS14 80 Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes Yes

Subject 1 How much 2 Lang used 3 Storyteller from 4 Way of 5 Words 6 Feeling number understood? where? speaking used CK05 Less than half Bajhangi Baitadi/Darchula Very diff A little diff Good Most Dotyali Bajhang A little to A little diff Very good CS03 Very diff CS04 Most Baitadi Baitadi A little diff A little diff Good CS05 Most Dotyali Baitadi Very diff Very diff Okay CS07 Most Bajhangi Bajhang Same Same Good CS08 Most Dotyali Doti Very diff Very diff Okay CS09 All Dotyali Darchula/Bairadi A little diff A little diff Very good CS12a All Bajhangi/Baitadi Bajhang/Baitadi A little diff A little diff Good CS12b Half Baitadi Baitadi Very diff A little diff Okay CS14 Less than half Baitadi Baitadi Very diff Very diff Okay

Darchula RTT results and post-RTT questions

Practice Subject test Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q8 Q9 Q10 Q11 number score PK02 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PK03 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PK04 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PS02 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PS03 100 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PS04 90 Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PS05 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PS06 100 Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No PS07 90 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes PS08 100 No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes PS09 70 Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Subject 1 How much 2 Lang used 3 Storyteller 4 Way of 5 Words 6 Feeling number understood? from where? speaking used PK02 Most Dotyali Doti A little diff A little diff Good PK03 Most Dotyali Darchula Same Same Good PK04 All Dotyali Doti A little diff A little diff Good PS02 All Dotyali Dadeldhura Same Same Good PS03 Most Dotyali Bajhang A little diff Same Good All Dotyali mixed Dadeldhura A little diff A little diff Okay PS04 with Nep PS05 All Dotyali Dadeldhura A little diff A little diff Good All Dotyali mixed d/k A little diff A little diff Good PS06 with Nep PS07 All Dotyali Dadeldhura A little diff Very diff Okay PS08 Most Dotyali Doti A little diff Same Good PS09 All Dotyali Dadeldhura A little diff A little diff Good

Appendix C: Questionnaires

C.1 Questionnaire informed consent

An informed consent script was read in Nepali to each participant prior to administration of the questionnaire in order to obtain informed consent. This Nepali script along with the participant’s response was recorded.

My name is ____. We are from Tribhuvan University. We are here to learn about how your language is used for speaking and writing. We will ask you questions about yourself and your language. The information that you give us about your language, we will give to others. Can you help us with the answers to these questions?

Informed consent: Given:  Not Given: 

C.2 Questionnaire schedule

1 Subject Number 2 Date 3 Village Name 4 Interviewer Name 5 Language of Elicitation 6 Language of Response 7 Interpreter Name (if needed)

Sex: Full Name: Age: Caste: What religion do you practice? What is your occupation? Have you ever been to school? (If yes): Up to which class? What is your mother tongue? (If Dotyali): (If Nepali): Which kind of Dotyali? Which kind of Nepali?

What is the local name for your language? Where were you born? Where do you live now? How long have you been living there/here? Have you lived anywhere else for more than a year? Where? When? How long did you live there? Where is your father from? What is his mother tongue? 8 What language did your father usually speak to you when you were a child? 9 Where is your mother from?

66 67

10 What is her mother tongue? 11 What language did your mother usually speak to you when you were a child? 12 What language(s) can you speak? 13 Which language do you speak best? 14 Which language do you speak second best? 15 Among the languages that you speak which one do you love the most? 16 Are you married? 17 (If yes): What is his/her mother tongue? 18 (If MT is different):Can your spouse speak Dotyali? 19 When you are in your own home, what language do you usually use when chatting with your spouse? 20 When you are in your own home, what language do you usually use when chatting with a child? 21 When you are in your own home, what language do you usually use when telling a story to a child? 22 When you are in the village, what languages do you hear children using with one another? 23 Of those languages, which language do you hear children using with one another most often in the village? 24 Do you have children? (If yes): Do all your children speak Dotyali? 25 In your opinion, what language do you think children should learn to speak first? 26 Why? 27 When you are in the market, which language(s) do you use? 28 Of those languages, which one do you use most often in the market? 29 Kanchanpur 30 Kailali 31 Doti 32 Dadeldhura 33 Baitadi 34 Darchula 35 Bajhang a. Have you spoken with Dotyali speakers from ______district? (If yes): a. Is the way people speak Dotyali who are from ______the same, a little different, or very different from people here? Same A little different Very different b. How does their way of speaking Dotyali make you feel? Happy Indifferent Sad 36 In your opinion, where is Dotyali spoken most purely? 37 In your opinion, where is Dotyali spoken most poorly? 38 Why? 39 Do people that do not speak Dotyali understand you when you speak to them in Dotyali? 40 How well did the participant seem to understand Nepali? None | Understand only | Understand and speak a little | Understand and speak a lot | Literate

C.3 Questionnaire data

Questions in the heading column have been heavily abbreviated in this section. Refer to section 0 for the full questions. Question two (subject number) has been moved to the first column for simplicity in referencing. Sixteen respondents participated in the RTT without completing the full questionnaire. Those participants’ responses are only included through question 32 (biodata only).

Key to terms:

Lang Language Dot Dotyali Nep Nepali Eng English Hin Hindi Kum Kumaoni MT Mother-tongue

Village Development VDC Committee KTM Kathmandu

Little A little different Very Very different n/a Not applicable d/a Didn’t ask d/k Don’t know n/r No response Elic Elicitation Resp Respondent

Biodata (questions 1–8)

2 Subj 1 IC 3 Date 4 Village District 5 Interviewer 6 Lang of elic 7 Lang of resp 8 Interpreter SB01 Given 19-Mar-2014 Kodpe Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB02 Given 19-Mar-2014 Kodpe Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB03 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB04 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB05 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB06 Given 21-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB07 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep RM SB08 Given 21-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep, Baitadeli Baitadeli RM SB10 Given 21-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a SB11 Given 21-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph Nep Nep n/a KB01 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Kim, Steph did RTT Nep Nep n/a KB02 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Steph, Kim Nep Nep n/a KB03 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Kim Nep, Eng Nep, Eng n/a KB04 Given 20-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Kim Nep, Eng Dot GBB KB05 Given 21-Mar-2014 Dhole Baitadi Kim Nep Dot Group CK01 Given 27-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Kim Nep Nep n/a CK02 Given 27-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim Nep Nep n/a CK03 Given 27-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim Nep Nep Hark CK05 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Kim Nep, Eng Nep, Eng n/a CS02 Given 27-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph Nep Nep n/a CS03 Given 27-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a CS04 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph Nep Nep n/a CS05 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a CS07 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a CS08 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a CS09 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a CS11 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph Nep Nep n/a CS12A Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a CS12B Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph Nep Nep n/a CS14 Given 28-Mar-2014 Chainpur Bajhang Steph Nep Nep n/a PS01 Given 24-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph Nep Nep n/a PS02 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a PS03 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a PS04 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a

2 Subj 1 IC 3 Date 4 Village District 5 Interviewer 6 Lang of elic 7 Lang of resp 8 Interpreter PS05 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a PS06 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph, Kim did RTT Nep Nep n/a PS07 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph Nep Nep n/a PS08 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph Nep Nep n/a PS09 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Steph Nep Nep NBP PK01 Given 24-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Kim Nep Nep n/a PK02 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Kim Nep Nep n/a PK03 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Kim Nep Nep n/a PK04 Given 25-Mar-2014 Dethala Darchula Kim Nep Nep n/a DB01 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtada Doti Sara Nep Nep n/a DB02 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ranagaun Doti Sara Nep Nep n/a DB03 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ranagaun Doti Sara Nep Nep TS DB05 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ranagaun Doti Sara Nep Dot TS DB06 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Sara Nep Nep n/a DB07 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Sara Nep Nep n/a DB08 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Sara Nep, Dot Dot TS DB09 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Sara Nep Nep n/a DS01 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtada Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS02 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtada Doti Steph Nep Nep TS DS04 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtada Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS05 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtara Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS06 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtara Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS09 Given 17-Feb-2014 Gholtara Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS10 Given 18-Feb-2014 Granagaun Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS11a Given 18-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS11b Given 18-Feb-2014 Kumalikot Doti Steph Nep Nep TS DS12 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS13 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS14 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS15 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a DS16 Given 21-Feb-2014 Ratuli Doti Steph Nep Nep n/a

Biodata (questions 9–15a)

2 Subj 9 Sex 10 Name 11 Age 12 Caste 13 Religion 14 Work 15 School 15a Level SB01 M BRA 31 Brahaman Hindu Teacher Yes MA SB02 F DA 26 Ayer (Chettri) Hindu Business Yes BA 3rd year SB03 M PSB 49 Bohara Hindu Teacher Yes 12 SB04 M RSB 30 Buhare Hindu Teacher Yes MA SB05 F SKB 18 Bohara Hindu Student Yes 12 SB06 M MB 18 Bohara Hindu construction Yes 9 SB07 M BL 40 Lohar Hindu Metal smith No n/a SB08 F SB 45 Bohara Hindu Farmer No n/a SB10 F KL 22 Lohar Hindu Farmer No 5 SB11 M MSB 43 Bohara Hindu Farmer No 3 KB01 F RKB 20 Bhora Hindu Student Yes 12 KB02 M KB 21 Bohora Hindu Student Yes 12 KB03 M GBB 26 Bohara Hindu Teacher Yes BA KB04 F LB 38 Bohara Hindu Farmer No n/a KB05 F TU 35 Lohar Hindu Farmer No n/a CK01 M HM 18 Milera Hindu Student Yes BA 2nd year CK02 M HPR 30 Brahaman Hindu Teacher Yes MA CK03 F MKB 19 Chettri Hindu Student Yes 10 CK05 F BS 15 Shahi Hindu Student Yes 8 CS02 F IO 26 Brahaman Hindu Teacher Yes BA CS03 M KB 34 Bohora Hindu business No 4 CS04 M DB 18 Chettri Hindu Student Yes 11 CS05 M SB 19 Chettri Hindu Student Yes 11 CS07 F MO 18 Chettri Hindu Student Yes 11 CS08 M GS 45 Chettri Hindu Hotel Yes 10 CS09 M JBD 52 Dhomaini (Dholit) Hindu Sewing Yes 6 CS11 M SLN 55 Dhalit Hindu Sewing No 3, 4 CS12A F KS 40 Singh Thakari Hindu Pasal, Farming No 4 CS12B F CDS 55 Singh (Takude) Hindu Farmer No n/a CS14 F BS 43 Shai Thoukuri Hindu Farmer No n/a PS01 M NBP 49 Thakudi Hindu Pasal owner Yes 7 PS02 M NPJ 38 Brahaman Hindu Teacher Yes MA PS03 M HBP 35 Chakuri Hindu Teacher Yes MA PS04 M PRJ 31 Jashi (Brahaman) Hindu Teacher Yes MA Eng

2 Subj 9 Sex 10 Name 11 Age 12 Caste 13 Religion 14 Work 15 School 15a Level PS05 F HP 35 Pal Hindu Teacher Yes 12 PS06 F DP 36 Pal Hindu Pasal Yes SLC PS07 M JBP 25 Pal Hindu Lineman Yes Intermediate PS08 M MK 15 Kumar Hindu Student Yes 11 PS09 F SDP 45 Pal Thakuri Hindu Farmer No n/a PK01 F UP 20 Pal Hindu Student, farmer Yes BA 2nd year PK02 M DP 44 Togari Hindu Farmer Yes Intermediate PK03 F RP 32 Pal Hindu Housework Yes 10 PK04 F OP 28 Pal Hindu Farmer Yes 8 DB01 M PB 52 Bhandari Hindu businessman Yes SLC DB02 F CR 16 Rana Hindu House Yes 9 DB03 F IM 23 Chetri Hindu Farmer No 4 DB05 F BR 35 Rana Hindu Farmer No n/a DB06 M BRB 28 Bist Hindu Business Yes SLC DB07 M BBO 25 Chettri Hindu Farmer Yes Intermediate DB08 F RB 40 Bista Hindu Farmer No n/a DB09 F DB 18 Bista Hindu Study Yes 8 DS01 M TS 37 Chettri/Saud Christian Teacher Yes 12 DS02 M GB 89 Bhundari/Chettri Hindu Housework, retired Yes 7 DS04 M BBB 32 Bhandari Hindu Farmer Yes 8 DS05 M BB 20 Bhandari Hindu Student Yes 12 DS06 F JB 40 Chettri/Saud Hindu Teacher Yes plus 2 DS09 M MB 16 Bhandari Hindu Student Yes 9 DS10 F GR 20 Rana Hindu Farmer No 2 DS11a M BB 59 Bista Hindu Farmer No 3 DS11b F KD 59 Katait Hindu House/Animals No n/a DS12 M BBB 30 Bhista Hindu None Yes SLC DS13 M DBB 28 Bhista Hindu Nepal Army Yes SLC DS14 F DB 26 Bhista Hindu Farmer Yes SLC DS15 F AB 22 Bhistra Hindu Farmer Yes 10 DS16 F RB 18 Bikar Hindu Farmer Yes 9

Biodata (questions 16–22)

2 Subj 16 MT 17 Dot 18 Nep 19 Local 20 Birthplace 21 Live now 22 How long SB01 Local Baitadi n/a d/a lekali bhasha Kodpe Kodpe 31 SB02 Baitadi n/a d/a n/a Baitadi Baitadi 26 SB03 Baitadeli n/a n/a Baitadeli Dhole Dhole 49 SB04 Baitadeli n/a d/a Baitadeli Dhole Dhole 30 SB05 Baitadeli n/a d/a d/a Dhole Dhole 18 SB06 Nep d/a village Baitadeli Dhole Dhole 18 SB07 Baitadeli n/a d/a d/a Dhole Dhole 40 SB08 Baitadi n/a n/a n/a Bajhang Dhole 20 years SB10 Baitadi n/a n/a n/a Taladule, Baitadi Dhole 22 SB11 Baitadeli n/a d/a d/a Dhole Dhole 43 KB01 Own lang d/a d/a matri bhasa Dhole Dhole 20 KB02 Baitadeli n/a n/a Baitadeli Dhole Dhole 21 KB03 Baitadeli n/a n/a Baitadeli Dhole Dhole 24 years KB04 Baitadeli n/a n/a Baitadeli Jadebata, Baitadeli Dhole 38 years KB05 Dot/Baitadi n/a n/a district Dhole Dhole 35 CK01 Nep n/a local Nep Nep Dobichur, Bajhang Dobichur 18 Bajhangi CK02 n/a n/a n/a Byasi VDC Byasi VDC 25 (dialect) Dot CK03 Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Bhatakhola VDC (3 hr walk) Bhatakhola 19 CK05 Bajhangi n/a n/a Bajhangi Chainpur Chainpur 15 CS02 Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Byansi VDC Matala VDC 26 CS03 Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Dholichar (5 hr walk) Dolichar 34 CS04 Nep n/a Bajhangi n/a Daulichaur VDC, Bajhang Daulichaur VDC 18 CS05 Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Daulichaur VDC, Bajhang Daulichaur VDC 19 CS07 Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Chainpur VDC Chainpur 18 CS08 Nep n/a Bajhangi d/a Kailash VDC (3 hr walk) Chainpur approx 40 CS09 Nep d/a village d/a Chainpur VDC Chainpur 48 CS11 Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Matibata VDC Ward 4 Chainpur 55 CS12A Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Rail VDC (2 hr by bus) Chainpur 15 years CS12B Bajhangi n/a n/a n/a Chainpur VDC Chainpur 54 CS14 Nep n/a Bajhangi d/a Byansi VDC, Bajhang Chainpur 43 Darchula, Dethala VDC PS01 Doteli d/a n/a Doteli Dethala 46 Ward 5 PS02 Nep n/a local local lang Gokule, Baitadi Bokule 30 years

2 Subj 16 MT 17 Dot 18 Nep 19 Local 20 Birthplace 21 Live now 22 How long PS03 Dot d/a d/a d/a Dethala, Darchula Dethala 30 years PS04 Dot d/a d/a d/a Sangkapur VDC, Darchula Dethala 24 PS05 Dot d/a d/a d/a Thalara Roivalakot, Bajhang Dethala 35 PS06 Nep d/a Bahadi Bhahadi Shirkot VDC, Baitadi Dethala 36 PS07 Nep d/a village Nep Dethala Dethala 25 years PS08 Dot d/a d/a d/a Dethala, Darchula Dethala 15 years PS09 Dot d/a d/a d/a Maladi VDC, Baitadi Dethala 45 years PK01 Dot d/a d/a d/a Bangsala, Baitadi (1 day) Dethala 20 years PK02 Dot d/a d/a d/a Dethala Dethala 42 years PK03 Dot n/a n/a Dot Bramdae, Darchula Dethala, Darchula 32 years PK04 Detaula (Dot) n/a n/a Detaula (Dot) Chaupani, Baitadi Dethala 18 years DB01 Dot n/a n/a n/a Doti Gholtada 52 years DB02 Dot n/a n/a n/a Ranagaun Ranagaun 16 years DB03 Dot n/a n/a n/a Bassudevi, Doti Ranagaun 20 years DB05 Dot n/a n/a n/a Bassudevi here 34 years DB06 Dot n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Ratuli 28 years DB07 Dot n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Silghadi 25 years DB08 Dot n/a n/a n/a Ladagada VDC, Doti Silghadi 40 years DB09 Dot n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Ratuli 18 years DS01 Dot n/a n/a No other name Doti Sarswoti VDC Dipayal 37 years DS02 Local lang n/a n/a Doteli Gholtada Gholtada 79 years Dot Nep DS04 Nep n/a n/a Gholtada Gholtada 32 years mix DS05 Dot n/a n/a Dot Gholtada Gholtada 18 years DS06 Dot n/a n/a Dot India Gholtada 24 years DS09 Nep/Dot n/a n/a n/a Gholtada Gholtada 16 years DS10 Dot n/a n/a n/a Silghadi Ranagaun 2 years DS11a Dot Nep n/a n/a Dot Doti Ratuli 59 years DS11b Dot n/a n/a n/a Dipayal Kumalikot 59 years DS12 Nep n/a n/a Nep Ratuli Ratuli 30 years DS13 Dot n/a n/a n/a Doti Ratuli 25 years DS14 Nep n/a n/a Doti Ratuli Ratuli 26 years DS15 Nep local n/a n/a Bajgau (nearby) Ratuli 22 years DS16 Own lang n/a n/a Nep Ratuli Ratuli 18 years

Biodata (questions 23–26)

2 Subj 23 Eslewhere Where When How long 24 Father birthplace 25 Father MT 26 Father spoke SB01 No n/a n/a n/a Khotali, Sankarpur VDC, Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi SB02 No n/a n/a n/a Patan, Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi SB03 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli d/a SB04 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli SB05 No n/a n/a n/a Kirsipesha, Baitadi Baitadeli Baitadeli SB06 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli SB07 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli Bitar (on the border SB08 No n/a n/a n/a Bajhang Baitadeli of Baitadi) SB10 No n/a n/a n/a Taladule, Baitadi Baitadeli Baitadeli SB11 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli KB01 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli KB02 No n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli KB03 Yes Dadeldhura 2065 2 years Dhole Baitadeli Baitadeli KB04 No n/a n/a n/a Jadebata Baitadeli Baitadeli KB05 n/a n/a n/a n/a Dhole Baitadi Baitadi CK01 Yes KTM 2013–2014 2 years Dobichur, Bajhang Nep (local) Nep (local) KTM - 3 years ago – CK02 Yes 2‒3 years Byasi VDC Bajhangi d/a Kanchanpur 5/6 years ago CK03 No n/a n/a n/a Bhatakhola, Bajhang Bajhangi Bajhangi CK05 No n/a n/a n/a Chainpur Bajhangi Bajhangi CS02 No n/a n/a n/a Byansi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS03 No n/a n/a n/a Dolichar Bajhangi gaule CS04 No n/a n/a n/a Daulichaur VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi CS05 No n/a n/a n/a Daulichaur VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi CS07 No n/a n/a n/a Paris, Himanwada VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi back and CS08 Yes India forth for 6 6 years Kailash VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi months CS09 Yes India 30 years ago 4 years Chainpur Bajhangi Bajhangi CS11 No n/a n/a n/a Matibata VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi CS12A Yes KTM 20 years ago 1 year Rail Bajhangi Bajhangi CS12B Yes KTM 2034 1 year Chainpur Bajhangi Bajhangi CS14 No n/a n/a n/a Byansi VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi

2 Subj 23 Eslewhere Where When How long 24 Father birthplace 25 Father MT 26 Father spoke PS01 Yes Malaysia 6 years ago 3 years Dethala here- Doteli local PS02 Yes Kanchanpur 2050‒2058 8 years Gokule Nep (local) d/a PS03 Yes Malaysia 2059‒2064 5 years Dethala Dot Dot PS04 Yes India 12 years ago 7 years Sangkapur VDC, Darchula Dot Dot PS05 No n/a n/a n/a Thalara Dot Dot PS06 No n/a n/a n/a Shirkot, Baitadi Bahadi Bahadi PS07 No n/a n/a n/a Dethala Nep (local) local PS08 No n/a n/a n/a Dethala Dot Dot PS09 No n/a n/a n/a Maladi, Baitadi Dot Dot PK01 No n/a n/a n/a Bangsala, Baitadi Dot Dot PK02 Yes KTM 10 years ago 2 years Dethala Dot d/a PK03 No n/a n/a n/a Bramae, Darchula Dot Dot Birth to 10 PK04 Yes Baitadi 10 years Baitadi Detaula (Dot) Detaula (Dot) years DB01 No n/a n/a n/a Doti Dot Dot DB02 No n/a n/a n/a Ranagaun Dot Dot DB03 Yes India ? 3 years Bassudevi Dot Dot DB05 Yes India 20 years ago 1 year Bassudevi Dot Dot DB06 No n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Dot Dot DB07 No n/a n/a n/a Baglekh Dot Dot DB08 No n/a n/a n/a Ladagada Dot Dot DB09 No n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Dot Dot DS01 No n/a n/a n/a Doti Sarswoti VDC Dot Dot Mumbai, About 60 DS02 Yes 10 years Gholtada Dot Dot India years ago DS04 No n/a n/a n/a Gholtada Dot Dot DS05 Yes Dhangadi 6 months ago 2 years Tikera, Doti Dot Nep birth to 16 DS06 Yes India 16 years Gholtada Dot Dot years DS09 No n/a n/a n/a Gholtada Nep/Dot Dot DS10 No n/a n/a n/a Silghadi Dot Dot DS11a No n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Dot Dot DS11b No n/a n/a n/a Dadaldhura Dot Dot DS12 No n/a n/a n/a Ratuli Dot Dot visiting here 3 years DS13 Yes Surkhet Doti Dot Dot currently (ongoing)

2 Subj 23 Eslewhere Where When How long 24 Father birthplace 25 Father MT 26 Father spoke DS14 No n/a n/a n/a Doti Dot Local Doti DS15 No n/a n/a n/a Bajgau Dot Dot DS16 No n/a n/a n/a Ratuli local Local Doti

Biodata (questions 27–32)

2 Subj 27 Mother birthplace 28 Mother MT 29 Mother spoke 30 Languages 31 Best 32 Second Dot, Baitadi, Bajhang, Nep, Hin, SB01 Kaltadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Nep Eng SB02 Patan, Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi, Nep Baitadi Nep SB03 Bajhang Bajhangi d/a Nep, Baitadeli Baitadeli Nep SB04 Bajhang Bajhangi Baitadeli Eng, Nep, Hin, Baitadeli Baitadeli Eng SB05 Bajhang Bajhang Baitadeli Baitadeli, Nep Baitadeli Nep SB06 Purtadi, Baitadi Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli, Nep Baitadeli Nep SB07 Pursani, Baitadi Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli, Nep Baitadeli Nep SB08 Bajhang Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadi Baitadi n/a SB10 Baitadi Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli n/a SB11 Bajhang Baitadeli Baitadeli Hin, Nep, Baitadeli Baitadeli Hin KB01 Bajhang Bajhang Baitadeli Nep, Baitadeli Nep Baitadeli KB02 Other VDC, Baitadi Baitadeli Baitadeli Nep, Baitadeli, Eng Nep Baitadeli KB03 Bajhang Baghangi Baitadeli Nep, Baitadeli, Hin, Eng Nep Eng KB04 Bajhang Bajhangi Bajhangi Baitadeli Baitadeli n/a KB05 Dhole Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi n/a CK01 Dobichur, Bajhang Local Nep Nep (local) Nep (local), KTM Nep KTM Nep Local Nep CK02 Kardel VDC, Bajhang Bajhangi d/a Nep, Hin, Eng, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep CK03 Masta VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep CK05 Chainpur Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi, Eng, Nep Bajhangi Eng CS02 Byansi Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Nep CS03 Dolichar, Bajhang Bajhangi gaule Nep, gauko Nep local CS04 Naula, Daulichar VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep CS05 Bicharda, Daulichaur VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep CS07 Chhana, Kaloketi VDC Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep, Hin, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep CS08 Humla district Humlako Bajhangi Hin, Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Nep CS09 Chainpur Bajhangi Bajhangi Hin, Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep Channa, Lamatola VDC, CS11 Bajhangi Bajhangi Hin, Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep Bajhang CS12A Swaigar, Baitadi Baitadeli Bajhangi Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Nep CS12B Chainpur Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Nep CS14 Baitadi Baitadi Bajhangi Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Nep PS01 Doti district Doteli d/a Doteli, Nep, Hin, Kum, Eng Doteli Nep PS02 Gokule Nep (local) d/a Eng, Nep, Hin, Dot Dot Nep

2 Subj 27 Mother birthplace 28 Mother MT 29 Mother spoke 30 Languages 31 Best 32 Second PS03 Lathinat VDC, Darchula Dot d/a Eng, Hin, Nep, Malaysian, Dot Dot Nep PS04 Bharat, India Kum Dot Nep, Eng, Hin, Kum, Dot Dot Eng PS05 Baitadi Dot d/a Dot, Nep Dot Nep PS06 Hataraj, Baitadi Bahadi Bahadi Bahadi, Nep Bahadi Nep PS07 Malote VDC, Baitadi Nep (local) gaule Nep (local), Hin, KTM Nep local KTM Nep PS08 Kotpetra, Baitadi Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep PS09 Baitadi Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep PK01 Kailai district Dot Dot Nep, Dot Dot Nep PK02 Doti district Dot d/a Nep, Hin, Dot Dot Nep PK03 Puchowdi, Baitadi Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep PK04 Doti Dot Dot Dot, Nep, Hin Dot Nep DB01 Doti Dot Dot Nep, Dot, Hin Dot Nep DB02 Hattigau, Doti Dot Dot Nep, Dot Dot Nep DB03 Dergaman VDC (8 hr walk) Dot Dot Dot, Nep, Hin Dot Nep DB05 Phursi, Doti Dot Dot Dot, Nep, Hin Dot Nep DB06 Ratuli Dot Dot Dot, Nep, Hin Nep Dot DB07 Baglekh Dot Dot Hin, Nep, Eng, Dot Dot Nep DB08 Dankot Dot Dot Dot only Dot n/a DB09 Lekhthata, Doti Dot Dot Dot, Nep d/a d/a DS01 near Sarswoti VDC (30 mins) Dot Dot Dot, Nep, Hin, Eng Dot Nep DS02 Surgar (2 hr walk) Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep DS04 Doti district Dot Dot Eng, Nep, Dot, Hin Nep Hin - 3rd is Dot DS05 Salina, Doti Dot Dot Hin, Nep, Eng, Dot Nep Hin DS06 Gholtara Dot Dot Dot, Nep, Hin, Eng Dot Nep DS09 Pargari, Doti Dot Dot Nep, Hin, Eng, Dot Nep Dot DS10 Silghadi Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep DS11a Ratuli Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep DS11b Bhajal, Doti Dot Dot Dot, Nep Dot Nep DS12 Lordu Gorda VDC, Doti Dot Dot Nep (KTM), Hin Nep Hin DS13 Doti Dot Dot Nep, Hin, Dot Dot Nep DS14 Ratuli Dot Local Doti Nep, local Local Nep DS15 Doti Dot Dot Nep, Dot Dot Nep DS16 Doti district Nep (local) local Nep, Dot Nep MT

Questionnaire (questions 33–39)

2 Subj 33 Love 34 Married 35 Spouse MT 36 Spouse Dot 37 Chat spouse 38 Chat child 39 Story child SB01 Baitadi Yes Dot n/a Baitadi Baitadi, then Nep Baitadi SB02 Baitadi Yes Baitadi n/a Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi SB03 Eng Yes Baitadi n/a Baitadi Baitadi Baitadi SB04 Baitadeli Yes Bajhangi Yes Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli SB05 Nep No n/a n/a n/a Baitadi Baitadi SB07 Baitadeli Yes Baitadeli n/a Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli SB08 n/a Yes Baitadi n/a n/a n/a n/a SB11 Baitadeli Yes Baitadeli n/a Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli KB01 Nep Yes Baitadeli n/a Baitadeli Baitadeli Baitadeli KB02 Nep No n/a n/a n/a Baitadeli Baitadeli KB03 Eng Yes Baitadeli n/a Nep Nep, Eng Nep KB04 n/a Yes Baitadeli n/a d/a - Baitadi d/a - Baitadi d/a - Baitadi KB05 n/a Yes Baitadi n/a d/a - Baitadi d/a - Baitadi d/a - Baitadi CK01 KTM Nep No n/a n/a n/a local Nep local CK02 MT Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi (Nep, Eng also) Bajhangi (and Nep) CK03 Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS02 Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS03 local Yes local n/a local local local Bajhangi CS07 Nep No n/a n/a n/a Bajhangi Nep CS08 Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi, Nep CS09 MT Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS11 Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS12A Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS12B Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi CS14 Bajhangi Yes Bajhangi n/a Bajhangi Bajhangi Bajhangi PS01 MT Yes Doteli n/a Doteli Doteli Doteli PS02 Eng Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot (then Eng, Nep) Dot PS04 Eng Yes Dot n/a Dot Nep Dot, Nep PS05 Nep Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot PS06 Nep Yes Bahadi n/a Bahadi Bahadi Nep PS07 local Yes local n/a local local local PS08 Dot No n/a n/a n/a Dot Dot PS09 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot PK01 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot

2 Subj 33 Love 34 Married 35 Spouse MT 36 Spouse Dot 37 Chat spouse 38 Chat child 39 Story child PK02 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot PK03 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot PK04 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot DB01 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot DB02 Dot No n/a n/a n/a Dot Dot DB03 Nep Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot DB05 Dot Yes Nep n/a Dot Dot Dot DS01 Nep Yes Dot n/a Dot Nep Nep DS02 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot DS04 Nep Yes Nep Yes Dot Dot Dot DS05 Nep No n/a n/a n/a Nep Dot DS06 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot DS09 Nep No n/a n/a n/a Nep Dot DS10 Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot DS11b Dot Yes Dot n/a Dot Dot Dot

Questionnaire (questions 40–44)

2 Subj 40 Kids use 41 Most often 42 Children 42a All speak 43 Speak first 44 Why SB01 Baitadi, Nep Baitadi Yes Yes local - own Parents know it, it’s used for everything SB02 Baitadi Baitadi Yes Yes own Village families only use MT Because society doesn’t speak Nepali, they SB03 Baitadi Baitadi Yes Yes Baitadi should speak what their mom speaks SB04 Baitadeli only Baitadeli Yes Yes Local They can learn others later SB05 Nep, Baitadi Baitadi n/a n/a Nep I didn’t understand her answer SB07 Baitadeli Baitadeli Yes Yes Baitadeli Spoken by family SB08 local local Yes Yes Baitadi d/a SB11 Baitadeli, Nep Baitadeli Yes Yes Baitadeli Mom and dad know it KB01 Nep, Baitadeli Baitadeli No n/a Baitadeli Village language KB02 Nep, Baitadeli Baitadeli n/a n/a Baitadeli It’s our own village’s language Nep, Eng, KB03 Baitadeli Yes Yes Local language Because is it our local language Baitadeli KB04 Baitadeli Baitadeli Yes Yes Nep We are all Nepali Baitadi, Nep KB05 Baitadi Yes Yes Baitadi d/a every so often CK01 local local No n/a KTM Nep Our national language Bajhangi, some CK02 MT Yes Yes MT Society speaks MT Nep (Someone else CK03 Bajhangi Bajhangi No n/a answered for n/a her.) CS02 Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Yes Yes Bajhangi The language of parents CS03 Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Yes Yes Nep Because we are all Nepali CS07 Bajhangi Bajhangi n/a n/a Bajhangi From birth they have it CS08 Bajhangi, Nep Nep Yes Yes Bajhangi It’s our lang CS09 Bajhangi Bajhangi Yes Yes Bajhangi It’s the parent’s language CS11 Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Yes Yes Bajhangi MT CS12A Bajhangi Bajhangi Yes Yes own lang First MT for easy understanding Nep, Eng, CS12B Bajhangi Yes Yes Bajhangi Because we are in Bajhang Bajhangi, Hin Nep, Eng, CS14 Bajhangi Yes Yes Bajhangi MT is easy Bajhangi PS01 Doteli Doteli Yes Yes Nep National language

2 Subj 40 Kids use 41 Most often 42 Children 42a All speak 43 Speak first 44 Why PS02 Dot Dot Yes Yes Local language MT “Impressive for children” first language PS04 Dot Dot Yes n/a - too small MT must be lovely for them Dot (there PS05 aren’t other Dot Yes Yes MT Language of the house castes here) For understanding, later they can learn PS06 Bahadi Bahadi Yes Yes Bahadi Nep and other languages PS07 local, Nep local No n/a local We don’t speak Nepali here PS08 Dot Dot n/a n/a Dot Our own MT PS09 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Yes Dot They can learn Nepali in school Dot, a few Nep PK01 Dot No n/a MT Whatever parents speak words PK02 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Yes Nep National language PK03 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Yes Dot Learn Nepali later PK04 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Yes Dot MT Need Dotyali for the village, but Nepali for DB01 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Yes Dot, then Nep the country DB02 Dot Dot n/a n/a d/a d/a DB03 Dot Dot Yes n/a Nep d/a DB05 Dot Dot Yes Yes Nep Developing generation needs Nepali Dot, a little DS01 Nep Yes No - only Nep Dot Because it’s easy to understand Nep DS02 Dot Dot Yes Yes Dot It’s ours, kids need it Yes, they are small, DS04 Nep, Dot Dot Yes they don’t speak Nep Nep Because we write in Nepali yet DS05 Dot, Nep Nep n/a n/a Nep Don’t kNow DS06 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Yes Dot We speak it. For culture so we keep it DS09 Dot, Nep Dot n/a n/a Nep Easy for other places DS10 Dot, Nep Dot No n/a Dot d/a DS11b Dot Dot Yes Yes Nep If they learn it, they can go anywhere

Questionnaire (questions 45–47c)

2 Subj 45 Market 46 Most often 47a Kanchanpur 47b Speaking 47c Feeling mine, whatever they SB01 Baitadi Yes Same Happy speak I use SB02 Baitadi, Nep Baitadi No n/a n/a SB03 Baitadi, Nep Baitadi Yes - with Tharus n/a n/a SB04 Nep, Baitadeli, Eng Nep Yes Same Indifferent SB05 Nep Nep d/a n/a n/a SB07 Baitadeli Baitadeli No n/a n/a SB08 Baitadeli d/a d/a n/a n/a SB11 Baitadeli, Nep Baitadeli Yes Little Indifferent KB01 Nep Nep d/a n/a n/a KB02 Nep, Baitadeli Nep Yes Little Indifferent KB03 Nep, Eng Nep Yes Little Happy KB04 local language local language d/a n/a n/a KB05 Baitadi, Nep Baitadi d/a n/a n/a CK01 KTM Nep KTM Nep Yes Little Happy CK02 Nep, Eng, Bajhangi Nep d/a n/a n/a CK03 Bajhangi Bajhangi d/a n/a n/a CS02 Nep, Bajhangi Nep d/a n/a n/a CS03 Nep, Bajhangi Nep Yes Little Indifferent CS07 Nep Nep d/a n/a n/a CS08 Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi Yes Same Happy CS09 Bajhangi, Nep Bajhangi Yes Little Happy CS11 Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi d/a n/a n/a CS12A Bajhangi Bajhangi d/a n/a n/a CS12B Bajhangi Bajhangi d/a n/a n/a CS14 Nep, Bajhangi Bajhangi d/a n/a n/a local bazaar- Doteli Yes - Dot speakers there are from all other PS01 Khalanga bazaar- d/a n/a n/a districts Nep PS02 Hin, Nep, Eng, Dot Dot Yes - they are from all the other districts n/a Indifferent Dot, Nep, Kum, PS04 Kum in India, Dot here Yes - mixed from other places n/a n/a mixed PS05 Nep, Hin Nep Yes Very Happy PS06 Nep Nep No n/a n/a

2 Subj 45 Market 46 Most often 47a Kanchanpur 47b Speaking 47c Feeling PS07 local, KTM Nep local d/a n/a n/a PS08 Nep, Dot Nep d/a n/a n/a PS09 Dot Dot d/a n/a n/a PK01 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Little Indifferent PK02 Dot, Nep Dot Yes Little Happy PK03 Dot Dot No n/a n/a PK04 Nep, Dot, Hin Dot Yes Little Happy DB01 Nep, Dot Dot Yes Little d/a DB02 Nep, Dot Nep No n/a n/a DB03 Nep, Dot Dot No n/a n/a DB05 Nep Nep Yes Little d/a DS01 Nep and a little Dot Nep Yes Little Indifferent DS02 Dot Dot Yes Little Indifferent DS04 Nep, Dot Nep No n/a n/a DS05 Nep Nep No n/a n/a Dot - it’s habit to speak it, Nep DS06 Dot, Nep Yes Words are the same d/a with people from outside DS09 Nep Nep No n/a n/a DS10 Dot Dot No n/a n/a DS11b Dot Dot No n/a n/a

Questionnaire (questions 48a–49c)

2 Subj 48a Kailali 48b Speaking 48c Feeling 49a Doti 49b Speaking 49c Feeling SB01 No n/a n/a Yes Very Happy SB02 No n/a n/a Yes Very Indifferent SB03 Yes - with Tharus n/a n/a Yes Little Happy SB04 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Very Indifferent SB05 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a SB07 No n/a n/a Yes Little Happy SB08 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a SB11 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent KB01 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a KB02 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent KB03 Yes Little Happy Yes Little Happy KB04 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a KB05 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a CK01 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Happy CK02 d/a n/a n/a Yes Same Happy CK03 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a CS02 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a CS03 Yes Same Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent CS07 Yes - Nep Nep n/a Yes Very Happy CS08 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent CS09 Yes Little Happy Yes Little Happy CS11 d/a n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent CS12A d/a n/a n/a Yes Little Happy CS12B d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a CS14 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a Yes - Dot speakers there are from PS01 n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent all other districts Yes - they are from all other PS02 n/a Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent districts PS04 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Happy PS05 Yes Very Happy Yes Little Happy Sad—mixed with PS06 Yes Very Yes Very Happy Nep PS07 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a

2 Subj 48a Kailali 48b Speaking 48c Feeling 49a Doti 49b Speaking 49c Feeling PS08 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a PS09 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a PK01 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent Happy (lang is PK02 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little better than here) PK03 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a PK04 Yes Little Happy Yes Little Happy DB01 Yes Same d/a n/a n/a n/a DB02 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a DB03 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a DB05 Yes Little d/a n/a n/a n/a Little—different from DS01 Yes Indifferent n/a n/a n/a Baitadi DS02 Yes Same d/a n/a n/a n/a DS04 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a DS05 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a DS06 Yes Same d/a n/a n/a n/a DS09 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a DS10 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a DS11b No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a

Questionnaire (questions 50a–51c)

2 Subj 50a Dadeldhura 50b Speaking 50c Feeling 51a Baitadi 51b Speaking 51c Feeling SB01 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a SB02 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a SB03 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a SB04 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a SB05 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a SB07 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a SB08 d/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a SB11 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a KB01 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a KB02 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a KB03 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a KB04 d/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a KB05 d/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a CK01 Yes Little Indifferent Yes same Happy CK02 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent CK03 d/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a CS02 No n/a n/a Yes Little Happy (my own) CS03 Yes Very Happy Yes Little Indifferent CS07 Yes Little Happy Yes Very Indifferent CS08 Yes Little Happy Yes Very Indifferent CS09 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent CS11 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent CS12A Yes Very Happy Yes Little Happy CS12B Yes Little Indifferent Yes Very Indifferent CS14 Yes Very Indifferent Yes Very Indifferent PS01 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a PS02 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a PS04 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a PS05 Yes Little sad n/a n/a n/a PS06 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a PS07 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a PS08 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a PS09 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a PK01 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a

2 Subj 50a Dadeldhura 50b Speaking 50c Feeling 51a Baitadi 51b Speaking 51c Feeling Happy (lang is better PK02 Yes Little n/a n/a n/a than here) PK03 Yes same Happy n/a n/a n/a PK04 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a DB01 Yes Little d/a Yes Very d/a DB02 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DB03 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DB05 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS01 Yes Little Indifferent No n/a n/a DS02 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a Little - don’t understand all, but DS04 Yes Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent most DS05 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS06 Yes same d/a Yes Little - tone Not pure DS09 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS10 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS11b No n/a n/a d/a d/a d/a

Questionnaire (questions 52a–53c)

2 Subj 52a Darchula 52b Speaking 52c Feeling 53a Bajhang 53b Speaking 53c Feeling SB01 Yes Little Happy Yes (nearby only, toward Jumla we use Nep) Little Indifferent SB02 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent SB03 Yes Little Happy Yes Little Happy SB04 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Happy SB05 No n/a n/a Yes same Happy SB07 No n/a n/a Yes Little Happy SB08 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a SB11 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent KB01 No n/a n/a Yes Little Happy KB02 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent KB03 Yes Little Happy Yes Very Happy KB04 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a KB05 d/a n/a n/a d/a n/a n/a CK01 Yes vLittle Happy n/a n/a n/a CK02 Yes Little Indifferent n/a n/a n/a CK03 d/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a CS02 d/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a CS03 Yes Very Indifferent n/a n/a n/a CS07 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a CS08 Yes Very Happy n/a n/a n/a CS09 Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a CS11 No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a CS12A Yes Little Happy n/a n/a n/a CS12B No n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a CS14 Yes Very Indifferent n/a n/a n/a PS01 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent PS02 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Happy PS04 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent PS05 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent PS06 n/a n/a n/a Yes Very Happy PS07 n/a n/a n/a Yes Very Happy PS08 n/a n/a n/a No n/a n/a PS09 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Happy PK01 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Happy

2 Subj 52a Darchula 52b Speaking 52c Feeling 53a Bajhang 53b Speaking 53c Feeling PK02 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent PK03 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Happy PK04 n/a n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent DB01 Yes Very d/a Yes Very d/a DB02 Yes Little d/a No n/a n/a DB03 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DB05 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS01 No n/a n/a Yes Little Indifferent DS02 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS04 Yes Little Indifferent Yes Little Indifferent DS05 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS06 Yes Little - tone and words d/a Yes Little d/a DS09 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS10 No n/a n/a No n/a n/a DS11b d/a d/a d/a d/a d/a d/a

Questionnaire (questions 54–58)

2 Subj 54 Pure 55 Poorly 56 Why 57 Understood 58 Nepali est Close to Nep (Jumla, Humla, Talikot, SB01 Dadeldhura Bajhang Yes Literate Accham) If they go other places they SB02 here - Baitadi n/a No Literate speak it less Baitadi head office SB03 Remote areas n/a Yes Literate (Sadarkokama) SB04 Patan Swagart Far from Patan Yes Literate SB05 Baitadi Where I don’t understand it d/a No Literate SB07 Baitadi (Talisora) d/k n/a Yes Understand and speak a little SB08 d/k d/a d/a No None SB11 Baitadi each village is a little different n/a Yes Understand and speak a little KB01 Baitadi d/k n/a No Literate A little confused by this question. But KB02 Patan, Baitadi Toward Swargat maybe less Baitadi because it’s close to Yes Literate Bajhang KB03 Shilek, Baitadi Ganjari Distance - far away Yes Literate KB04 d/a d/a d/a d/a Understand only KB05 d/a d/a d/a d/a Understand only CK01 Gaitigau, Bajhang Doti Distance Yes Literate Bajhang, Accham, Yes, but they can’t CK02 Doti (understand but All places are good n/a Literate speak it can’t speak it) CK03 Bajhang Accham d/a Yes Literate Dot is spoken poorly here, but Bajhangi is most CS02 Bajhangi is spoken poorly in d/a No Literate pure in Bajhang Doti Yes- only a little CS03 Doti Baitadi Tongue is different Understand and speak a lot different In the village CS07 Chainpur (Bajhangi) It’s a bazaar No Literate (Bajhangi) Bajhang (Bajhangi), CS08 Unclear answer n/a Yes (Bajhangi) Literate Doti (Dot) In the village CS09 It’s all the same (Bajhangi) d/a Yes (Bajhangi) Understand and speak a lot (Bajhangi)

2 Subj 54 Pure 55 Poorly 56 Why 57 Understood 58 Nepali est It’s all one CS11 d/a d/a Yes (Bajhangi) Understand and speak a lot (Bajhangi) Doti (Dot), Bajhang CS12A Unclear answer n/a Yes (Bajhangi) Understand and speak a lot (Bajhangi) CS12B d/a d/a d/a Yes (Bajhangi) Understand and speak a lot CS14 d/a d/a d/a Yes (Bajhangi) Understand and speak a lot Yes - Nep speakers PS01 Doti/Dadeldhura Bajhang It’s a bit different Literate understand a little bit It’s a little different, diff words, each PS02 Dadeldhura Darchula Yes Literate place is different PS04 Doti Bajhang and here It’s mixed Yes Literate PS05 Kanchanpur/Kailali Here It’s a little different in each village Yes Literate PS06 d/k Tharu language d/a Yes Literate PS07 Here - Dethala It’s not spoken in other places n/a No Literate PS08 Doti Baitadi Mixes with other languages No Literate (someone else answered for PS09 Doti n/a Yes Understand and speak a lot her) Yes (Nepali’s PK01 Doti All the same d/a Literate understand a little) It’s the most different from PK02 Doti/Dadeldhura Bajhang Yes Literate Doti/Dadeldhura PK03 Darchula Thorai Distance Yes (a little) Literate PK04 Doti Bajhang d/k Yes Literate DB01 Doti Baitadi, Darchula, Bajhang They mix, don’t understand No literate? DB02 Ranagaun n/a n/a No literate DB03 Ranagaun Kailali n/r No Understand and speak a lot DB05 Ranagaun Achham n/r No Blank Same words, but different way of DS01 Doti is good Baitadi Yes - a little Literate speaking DS02 Doti d/k n/a No Understand and speak a little DS04 d/k Dadeldhura d/k Yes—a little Literate DS05 d/k Dipayal People from outside No—maybe a little Literate DS06 Doti Darchula Tone is different, mix Hin No literate DS09 here—Doti Dhangadi Mixed with Nep Yes Literate DS10 d/k d/k n/a No Understand and speak a little DS11b Kumalikot, Doti d/k d/a Yes Understand and speak a little

Appendix D: Knowledgeable Insider Interview

D.1 KII informed consent

Two informed consent scripts were read in Nepali to each participant prior to administration of the interview in order to obtain informed consent. This Nepali script along with the participant’s response were recorded. The two informed consent scripts are shown here in English and Nepali. My name is ____. What is your name? We are from the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University. We have come to study and research your language. We want to ask you questions about your village and the languages of your village. The information that you give us about your language, we will give to others. Can you give us help?

Question 46 for permission to use their name: We are thinking of listing your name in this information, but if you don’t want your name to be listed, we won’t. Shall we keep your name or not?

Informed consent: Given:  Not Given: 

D.2 KII schedule

Subject Number Date (DDMMYY) Village Name Interviewer Name Ward Number: Language of Elicitation VDC/Municipality: Language of Response District Interpreter Name Zone: 1 Sex: 2 Full Name: 3 Age: 4 Caste: 5 What is your mother tongue? (If Dotyali): (If Nepali): 6 Which kind of Dotyali? 7 Which kind of Nepali? 8 What is the local name for your language? 9 Where were you born? 10 Where do you live now? 11 How long have you been living there? 12 Have you lived anywhere else for more than a year? Where? When? How long? 13 Where is your father from? 14 What is his mother tongue? 15 Where is your mother from? 16 What is her mother tongue?

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17 What do you call your language? 18 What names do non-native speakers give your language? 19 How many homes are located in your village? 20 How many Dotyali homes are located in your village? 21 What languages are spoken in this village? 22 Which language is used the most between all the people in this village? 23 How many people in your village do you think cannot speak Nepali, even though they may understand it? None A few Half Many 24 Where do most children from this village go to primary school? 25 What is the mother tongue(s) of the �शक्षक �श�क्षकाह셁को मातृ भाषा कु न कु न हो? teachers? 26 In this school, what language(s) do teachers use with children in the classroom? 27 In this school, what language(s) do children use with other children? 28 Have you heard of any schools teaching/instructing using Dotyali? Where? 29 To which villages do most of the youths in your village go for marriage? 30 How common is it for people from this village to marry Dotyali speakers from ______? a. Kanchanpur धेरैजसो क�हलेकाही ं अ�लअ�ल क�हलै गद �न c. Kailali Frequently Some Rarely Never d. Doti Frequently Some Rarely Never e. Dadeldhura Frequently Some Rarely Never f. Baitadi Frequently Some Rarely Never g. Darchula Frequently Some Rarely Never h. Bajhang Frequently Some Rarely Never 31 How common is it for Dotyali speakers to marry non-Dotyali speakers? Frequently Sometimes Rarely Never 32 In this village, which language(s) is used for wedding ceremonies? 33 What language(s) is used for village meetings? 34 Do you know of materials that are written in Dotyali? 35 What kind of materials? a. Books i. Textbooks j. Magazines k. Newspaper l. Pamplets m. Other 36 Do you know of any organizations promoting language development of Dotyali? a. What are their names? (Please name those organizations). 37 Contact information: 38 Permission to use name:

D.3 Knowledgeable Insider Interview (KII) data

Abbreviations used in KII data

Abbreviation Full Text MT Mother-tongue MTs Mother-tongues Nep Nepali Eng English Dot Dotyali Lang Language Langs Languages VDC Village Development Committee HQ Headquarter d/a Didn’t ask n/a Not applicable KTM Kathmandu IC Informed consent

In Doti district, two men assisted with the knowledgeable insider interviews (DS07 and DS08). Biodata for both participants are listed here. Beginning with question 17, all answers are included under subject number DS07, though they gave the answers together.

The test site for administering the Darchula interview was in Dilasaini VDC in Baitadi District. However, the heading in the chart is labeled as Darchula. This is because these VDCs are both close to the border and are considered one test site for the purpose of this report. Doti Doti Baitadi Darchula Bajhang Live now - Gholtada Dhole Gokule Byasi VDC How long - 65 years 49 years 30 years 25 years Elsewhere - Yes No Yes Yes a. Where - India n/a Kanchanpur KTM / Kanchanpur b. When 53 years ago n/a 1993–2001 3 years ago / 5 - years ago c. How long 10 years (back and n/a 8 years 2 years / 3 years - forth) Father birthplace - Gholtada Dhole Gokule Byasi VDC Father MT - Dotyali Baitadeli Nepali Bajhangi Mother birthplace Doti district Bajhang Gokule Kardel VDC, - Bajhang Mother MT - Dotyali Bajhangi Nepali Bajhangi Lang - Dotyali d/a Local lang, Dotyali d/a Other names - Village lang No other name Dotyali Bajhangi Number of homes - 60–65 Around 150 70 100 Number of Dot 60–65 (all) All 70 (all) 100 (all) - homes Langs in village - Nep, Dot Baitadeli only Dotyali Nep, Bajhangi Most common Dotyali (all Baitadeli Dotyali Bajhangi - lang understand it) Cannot speak Nep Half Half (about 60% A few Half – women and - can speak it) old people Primary school Dilipeswar Secondary school Sataprakash Higher Santi Higher School and primary Secondary School in this village - school (Nima in this village Dome) in this village MTs of teachers Nep, Dot Baitadeli is their Dotyali Baitadeli, Dot MT, but they (from Doti), - know Nep Bajhangi (most of the teachers), Nep (Dhangari) Langs: teachers Dot for small kids Baitadeli with Nep, Dot Bajhangi in with children and Nep for older small kids primary school / kids because they Nep, Eng, and - don’t know Nep Bajhangi is / Nep with secondary secondary Langs: children Dotyali Baitadeli Local lang MT - with children Instructing in Dot - No No Yes Yes a. Where n/a n/a All the schools – In Doti district - teachers know how to speak Dotyali

The test site for administering the Darchula interview was in Dilasaini VDC in Baitadi District. However, the heading in the chart is labeled as Darchula. This is because these VDCs are both close to the border and are considered one test site for the purpose of this report. Doti Doti Baitadi Darchula Bajhang Marriage Doti, Kailali, Baitadi, Bajhang, Darchula, Baitadi. Bajhang Dadeldhura, others Dadeldhura. No All districts are fine also in Baitadi one from this for marriage village has - married people from Darchula, but people in other neaby villages have a. Marriage: Some Never Frequently Rarely - Kanchanpur 38b. Marriage: Some Never Rarely Rarely - Kailali 38c. Marriage: Frequently Never Rarely Rarely - Doti 38d. Marriage: Rarely Rarely Rarely Rarely - Dadeldhura 38e. Marriage: Some Frequently Frequently (but Rarely Baitadi Baitadi and - Bajhang most often) 38f. Marriage: Some Never, but Frequently Rarely Darchula people from - other nearby VDCs have 38g. Marriage: Some (it’s far Frequently Rarely Frequently - Bajhang away) Marriage: non-Dot - Frequently Never Rarely Sometimes Weddings Dot, if they speak it Baitadeli Local language Sanskrit for prayers - / Nep, if they speak / Nep and Bajhangi it Meetings Dotyali Baitadeli, Local language Bajhangi and Nep - sometimes Nep Dot materials - Yes Yes Yes Yes What kind Books, newspapers Magazines in the Books, magazines Books, songs - district HQ Organizations - Don’t know No Yes Don’t know Contact info - - - - - Permission to Given Given Given Given Given share name

Appendix E: Dialect Mapping

Dialect mapping is one participatory methods tool. Participatory methods tools are ideally led by a trained facilitator and facilitated with the interaction of both men and women of various ages and educational backgrounds. The facilitator poses questions to the community and requests for answers to be written on slips of paper (one answer per paper). These papers are then arranged by the community in various ways requested by the facilitator. The purpose of this tool is to assist speakers of a specific dialect in discussing information they already know about the dialects and levels of comprehension between dialects. Another purpose is to encourage them to think about which varieties of their language could use a single set of written or oral materials. The steps for facilitating dialect mapping are provided here in English, but facilitation was in Nepali. Steps were modified as seen necessary by the researcher at the time of facilitation. What is the name of your language? (If there is more than one name for the language, ask which name they prefer.) Where are the major locations where your language is spoken? Place these papers on the ground to show which places are next to each other. (Use north, south, east, and west to create a map on the ground). What other languages are so similar to your language that when they speak, you can understand at least some words? Write the names of these languages on pieces of paper and add them to the “map” on the ground. Do the people in any of these places speak your language in the same way? If so, place a small loop of string around each such group. Which variety do you understand best? Second best? Place the appropriate number next to each group. Which of these varieties do you understand completely? Which do you understand most? Which do you understand about half? And which do you only understand a little? In which of these villages can you understand the way they speak completely? Using the key showing faces that represent different levels of understanding, please indicate your level of comprehension of each variety. When you speak to people from these other places, do you each speak your own variety? Or do you use your own variety, and they also use your variety? Or do you use their variety? Or do you each use another variety in order for easier understaning? Using the key showing colors that represent different ways of speaking, please indicate how you speak with others. If books, films, pamphlets, or other materials were developed in your language, which place would be the best for development so that all the other places could use the materials? Which place would be second best? Place the appropriate Nepali letter next to each choice to rank where you think is best. This section includes the results of each dialect mapping facilitation.

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Map 4. Doti

Source: Wikipedia map of the districts of Mahakali and Seti Zones in Nepal, by Rarelibra. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seti_districts.png. Public domain. Accessed and adapted for Doti in 2014 by Janel Swenson with data from survey report.

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Map 5. Baitadi

Source: Wikipedia map of the districts of Mahakali and Seti Zones in Nepal, by Rarelibra. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mahakali_districts.png. Public domain. Accessed and adapted for Baitadi in 2014 by Janel Swenson with data from survey report.

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Map 6. Darchula

Source: Wikipedia map of the districts of Mahakali and Seti Zones in Nepal, by Rarelibra. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mahakali_districts.png. Public domain. Accessed and adapted for Darchula in 2014 by Janel Swenson with data from survey report.

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Map 7. Bajhang

Source: Wikipedia map of the districts of Mahakali and Seti Zones in Nepal, by Rarelibra. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Seti_districts.png. Public domain. Accessed and adapted for Bajhang in 2014 by Janel Swenson with data from survey report.

Appendix F: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

Selections taken from ‘Sustaining Language Use: Perspectives on Community-Based Language Development’ by Lewis and Simons (forthcoming). The EGIDS is made up of 13 levels. Table 15 gives the summary definition of each of the levels. The following subsections provides a more detailed description of levels 7 through 5 (the most common levels currently found in Nepal).

Table 15. EGIDS assessment grid

Level Label Description 0 International The language is widely used between nationals in trade, knowledge exchange, and international policy. 1 National The language is used in education, work, mass media, and government at the national level. 2 Provincial The language is used in education, work, mass media, and government within major administrative subdivisions of a nation. 3 Wider Communication The language is used in work and mass media without official status to transcend language differences across a region. 4 Educational The language is in vigorous use, with standardization and literature being sustained through a widespread system of institutionally supported education. 5 Developing The language is in vigorous use, with literature in a standardized form being used by some though this is not yet widespread or sustainable. 6a Vigorous The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable. 6b Threatened The language is used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but it is losing users. 7 Shifting The child-bearing generation can use the language among themselves, but it is not being transmitted to children. 8a Moribund The only remaining active users of the language are members of the grandparent generation and older. 8b Nearly Extinct The only remaining users of the language are members of the grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the language. 9 Dormant The language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency. 10 Extinct The language is no longer used and no one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated with the language.

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EGIDS level 5 (Developing)

This is the level at which literacy is incipient, more often than not through informal educational structures and systems and with only weak or transient societal institutional support as defined above. Although the introduction of literacy can serve powerfully to improve the prestige of a minority language and may increase its prospects for survival in many cases, the stronger institutional support for literacy acquisition and maintenance found at the EGIDS level 4 is required for ongoing transmission of local-language literacy from one generation to the next. The presence of incipient literacy in a speech community is not in itself sufficient to ensure sustainable ongoing use of the language. Furthermore, the existence of an orthography or the production of beginning literacy materials are not, in themselves, sufficient to qualify a language as having achieved EGIDS level 5. Reading and writing must actually be used by some segment, albeit a small one, of the overall population. Many communities where preparations for the introduction of literacy have been initiated are effectively at EGIDS 6a (Vigorous) or lower.

EGIDS level 6a (Vigorous)

At this level, intergenerational transmission of the language is intact and widespread in the community. The language use and transmission situation is stable or gaining strength. At this level, the vast majority of adults, parents, grandparents, and great grandparents are using the language and making it possible for children to acquire and use the language for every day communication. In most cases that intergenerational transmission happens “naturally” in the home and neighborhood and is not dependent on schools or other more formal mechanisms outside of the “home and hearth”. Languages with vigorous face-to-face use and clearly identified functional assignments within a speech community can remain in use for many generations. Stable multilingualism provides the ecological setting for sustainable use.

EGIDS level 6b (Threatened)

This is the level of face-to-face use that indicates the beginnings of erosion in language use (or perhaps the final stages of the re-establishment of full oral use in a revitalization situation as will be discussed further in the next section). This division of Fishman’s GIDS level 6 follows from the observation that level 6 straddles the line of diglossia (King 2001). Level 6a represents a stable diglossic configuration as described in Chapter 4 where informal functions are assigned to the L language and more formal functions are assigned to H. In contrast, Level 6b represents the loss of that stable diglossic arrangement with the informal domains being overtaken by another language or languages. At Level 6b, a large number of parents continue to transmit the language to their children even while a significant number do not, so that intergenerational transmission is weakening. With each new generation there will be fewer speakers or fewer domains of use or both. There may only be barely discernible portents of language shift and few in the community may have any sense of impending danger. EGIDS 6b is the first of the EGIDS levels that corresponds to an endangered category in the UNESCO framework.

EGIDS level 7 (Shifting)

This is the level that identifies clear cases of language shift in progress. The fact that parents are not passing the language on to their children is clearly discernible and has become the norm within the language community. Consequently the number of domains where use of the language is dominant are decreasing. Language revitalization through reestablishing home transmission would still be a possibility at this stage since the language is the first language for most of the parents and could be transmitted to at least some of the children if parents could be made aware of the need to do so.

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