ARTES Vol. 12

UNIVERSITY OF ARTS “GEORGE ENESCU” IAŞI FACULTY OF PERFORMING, COMPOSITION AND THEORETICAL MUSIC STUDIES

RESEARCH CENTRE “ŞTIINŢA MUZICII”

ARTES vol. 12

ARTES PUBLISHING HOUSE 2012 RESEARCH CENTRE “ŞTIINŢA MUZICII"

Editor in Chief: Professor PhD Laura Otilia Vasiliu

Editorial Board: Professor PhD Gheorghe Duţică, University of Arts “George Enescu” Iaşi Associate Professor PhD Victoria Melnic, Academy of Music, Theatre and Fine Arts, Chişinău (Republic of Moldova) Professor PhD Maria Alexandru, “Aristotle” University of Thessaloniki, Greece Professor PhD Valentina Sandu Dediu, National University of Music Bucharest

Editorial Team: Professor Liliana Gherman Lecturer PhD Gabriela Vlahopol Lecturer PhD Diana-Beatrice Andron

Cover design: Bogdan Popa

ISSN 2344-3871 ISSN-L 2344-3871

The rights on the present issue belong to Artes Publishing House. Any partial or whole reproduction of the text or the examples will punished according to the legislation in force. C O N T E N T S

A. Research papers presented within the National Musicology Symposium - Stylistic indentity and contexts of Romanian music, 5th edition, 2011

ROMANIAN MUSIC IN THE 20TH CENTURY: HOW? WHERE? WHY? Associate Professor PhD. Carmen Chelaru,”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania……………………………………………………………………….7 THE INFLUENCE OF CENTRAL EUROPEAN MUSICAL CULTURE ON MODERN ROMANIAN COMPOSITION. CASE STUDY: PASCAL BENTOIU Professor PhD. Laura Vasiliu,”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania………………………………………………………………….…….…23 PASCAL BENTOIU – EMINESCIANA III. A “CONCERTO FOR ORCHESTRA” OR THE DISSIMULATION OF A SYMPHONY? Music teacher PhD. Luminiţa Duţică, The National College of Arts “Octav Băncilă”, Iasi, Romania………………………………………………………...... 35 “AN ENCOMIUM TO SYMMETRY”. A VIEW OF THE COMPOSER REMUS GEORGESCU Professor PhD. Gheorghe Duţică”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania……………………………………………………………….…………49 THE MUSIC OF AUREL STROE: LONGING FOR HEAVEN Associate Professor PhD. Petruţa Coroiu, ”Transilvania” University, Braşov, Romania……………………………………………………………………….…69 MODERN APPROACHES OF THE ORPHEUS MYTH IN ROMANIAN MUSIC. TUDOR FERARU: THE LYRE OF ORPHEUS AND ŞERBAN MARCU: ORFEURIDICE Junior lecturer PhD. Tatiana Oltean, The “Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania…………………………………………………….……..73 ASPECTS OF CONTEMPORARY LITURGY MUSIC IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA – THE LITURGY – BY VLADIMIR CIOLAC AND THE HYMNS OF THE SAINT LITURGY OF SAINT JOHN THE CHRYSOSTOM BY TEODOR ZGUREANU Lecturer PhD. Irina Zamfira Dănilă, ”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania…………………………………………………..………………………85

B. Variously themed papers conceived as part of doctoral research CLASSICAL AND ROMANTIC IN SONATA IN A MINOR OP. 164 D 537 BY FRANZ SCHUBERT Junior lecturer PhD. Brînduşa Tudor, ”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania………………………………………………………………………….……...…………105 TRENDS AND TENDENCIES IN THE EUROPEAN MUSIC OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY Lecturer PhD. Mariana Frăţilă, Faculty of Arts of the “Ovidius" University, Constanţa, Romania………………………………………………….………….117 VALENCES OF THE (A)TYPICAL NATURE – ERIK SATIE Roxana-Luiza Moldovan, Bucharest, Romania………………………….…….131 INTERPRETATIVE AND THEORETICAL LANDMARK IN THE MODAL LITURGY BY ACHIM STOIA Student PhD. Daniela Doroşincă, ”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania…………………………………………………………………………147 MUSIC PERFORMANCE ANXIETY Lecturer PhD. Dorina Iuşcă, ”George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi, Romania………………………………………………………...………………165

On the one hand, this volume contains research papers presented within the National Musicology Symposium entitled Stylistic identity and contexs of Romanian music (5th edition, Iaşi 2011), on the other hand papers of various topics written as part of doctoral research. Most authors are Iaşi-based (The „George Enescu” Arts University or the „Octav Băncilă” National College), with collaborators from Bucharest (The National University for Music), Cluj- Napoca (The „Gheorghe Dima” Academy for Music), Braşov (Transylvania University – Music Department) and Constanţa („Ovidius” University – Faculty of Arts). The magazine is published in a bilingual Romanian-English version, with translations ensured through the care of the authors. In order to unify the footnotes and the bibliografic notes, we have made use once again – as in the case of the other published volumes – of the indications provided in the work THE TECHNIQUE OF ACADEMIC WRITIGN (Şergan C. Andronescu), published by the Publishing House of the Foundation „România de Mâine”, Bucureşti 1997.

Romanian Music in the 20th Century: How? Where? Why?

Associate Professor Carmen Chelaru PhD (”George Enescu” University of Arts, Faculty of Musical Performance Iasi)

Abstract The Romanian music does and does not exist in Europe. Among the causes which reduce its’ ”visibility” there are: less or even lack of information; the lack of foreign languages into the specialized database. Comparing Romanian musical genres with similar European ones, we notice a spontaneous correlation in technique and value. Remedies: much larger communication channels from and especially to the Romanian musical culture.

Key words: Romanian music, Composers Union of Romania, BBC, Schönberg, Verklärte Nacht, Enescu, Octet

The present approach isn’t a new or a long one is not a frustration result; as a matter of fact it is a determination, an amount of arguments and points of view.

The First Point of View

A long time ago – maybe forever – there were questions, simple or complex, regarding the Romanian music. Among these: where happens to be our music on the European cultural map, in the 20th and 21st centuries? It is impossible to give a complete answer to this question. Therefore we shall enclose a few suggestions.

The First Suggestion - the Composers Union of Romania web site “a national importance forum, whose purpose is to support and promote the Romanian musical values, to protect the professional, moral, social and material interests of its members”1 – quote from the foreword signed by the President in charge, the composer Adrian Iorgulescu. We do not include or comment the entire text or the ones signed by Valentina Sandu-Dediu and Constantin Secară. What we intend to do is to judge this web site as a foreign musician, who would be interested in new repertoire, in new research areas, new bibliography, biographical and stylistic information regarding the Romanian music and musicians. Well, all these are impossible actually! Why? Because this part of the site is written in Romanian only!

1 http://www.ucmr.org.ro/ 13.02.2012

7 How can we possibly remedy this problem? No, we think it is not a money matter. We believe the solution is the perseverance and the initiative. Whether each composer, each researcher would expose their work both in Romanian and (let's say) in English, they will save a huge amount of effort and money. The solution is an internet database – a sort of WikiROmusica for instance (it’s only a suggestion). Such an encyclopaedia supposed to be administrated by professional musicians and musicologists. In the case such a project does not occur where it is expected to be, it could be initiated by another institution of the kind, like a university of arts. By the way, did you know that actually a project like this already exists? It is the one named MusicWiki2. In the home page, we may read (in Romanian only, of course!): “This Wiki wishes to become a vast encyclopaedia, about Music. By this project, we intend to help everyone. In the case this project becomes successful we intend to translate it in English to inform the foreigners!” Till now the site includes seven items only, among them one of 40 words about… Michael Jackson! What is the target of this sort of web sites? How successful could they be? No comment!

The Second Suggestion Recently we learned of the existence of a site called Encyclopedia of Romania. The home page looks like this:

No foreign language again! We were certainly curious to know what Romanian composers appear3, and here there are:

2 http://ro.muzica.wikia.com/wiki/Pagina_principal%C4%83 3 http://enciclopediaromaniei.ro/wiki/Enciclopedia_Rom%C3%A2niei 10.11.2011

Would be needed further comments?

We don’t think so!

The Third Suggestion concerns a BBC radio channel. It’s useless to justify this choice, as well as the BBC importance in the international media. We have been curious to find out how the Romanian music and musicians are perceived by Radio BBC and then offered to its audience. Using key-words like Romanian Composers and Romanian Musicians we have chosen one of the first links that appeared, BBC Radio 3 – Romania: Discography, which included a CDs list4. The recordings are proposing exclusively traditional music, organized by the main cultural areas in Romania: Transylvania, Wallachia & Moldavia. It could be also found recommended recordings, as well as information about the music and the performers.

As it can be seen above, there is a list of abbreviations and a dictionary helpful to all those who wishes to know what is, in the tenderers opinion, representative and valuable in this kind of music. The dictionary divides the music in two zones: the one of Transylvania and the Lowland Music. For Transylvania, most of the titles are in Hungarian.

4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/world/guideromaniad.shtml 13.02.2012

9 The repertoire proposals include Hungarian, Romanian, Jewish and Gypsy traditional music. Below there are some excerpts of the list:

etc…

Regarding the Lowland – Wallachia & Moldavia – we find remarkable recordings, like Zece Prajiniís Peasant Brass Band and Les Leutari de Clejani, as well as…

etc.

The Second Point of View

It is about a parallel between Romanian music excerpts and similar ones from the Western music. The only observations we want to make are the following: 1. Our intention is not to suggest copying or plagiarism – far from that! 2. On the contrary, we consider as an amazing and irrefutable European spirit the alert rhythm of the Romanian music evolution – in its different genres and styles, especially during the last 200 years or so – and its undisputable concordance with the European culture.

During a verbal exposal, using audio-video resources, we presented several musical excerpts – belonging both to Romanian and Western cultural spaces – including similar or comparable true values. The single attribute which separates them is the relationship known–unknown, favourable of course, to the Western music. Therefore…

Oaş/Maramureş Dance Celtic Dance

Nectarie Protopsaltul – Gregorian Gradual ”Protector noster” Axion mode 8 10-13 Cent. Mid. 19th Cent.

11 Ed. Caudella – Serenade op. 28 No. 2 Dvořák – Slavonic Dance op. 72 No. 2

1895? 1886

Schönberg – Sextet Verklärte Nacht op. Enescu – Octet op. 7, 3rd mvt. 4, 1st mvt. 1905 1899

Enescu – Symphonic Poem Vox Maris Debussy – De l’aube à midi sur la mer op. 31 (The Sea) 1950 1903–1905

Enescu – Oedipus op. 23 Bartok – Count Bluebeard's Castle op. 11

1931 1911–1917

Silvestri – Pesante. Schezando – Britten – Simple Symphony op. 4, 1st mvt. Sostenuto, Piece No. 1 from Three 1934 String Pieces 1933, rev. 1950

P. Constantinescu – Şi auzind Irod Orff – In taberna quando sumus from împăratul…from Christmas Byzantine Carmina burana Oratorio1947 1936

Th. Rogalski – Gaida Mussorgsky-Ravel – Samuel Goldenberg from Three Romanian Dances und Schmuÿle from Pictures in an 1950 exhibition 1922

In a written exposal, the above analogy becomes worthless, so we preferred to compare two excerpts from Schönberg’s Sextet Verklärte Nacht op. 4 and Enescu’s Octet op. 7.

Arnold Schönberg, Strig Sextet Verklärte Nacht, op. 4, Introduction

etc.

13 George Enescu, String Octet op. 7, Third Movement

etc.

14 From the beginning we have to mention that Schönberg’s composition was written during three weeks only, in September 18995 (he was then 25 years old), as a consequence of his affection towards Mathilde von Zemlinsky whom he will later marry (Professor Alexander von Zemlinsky sister). Enescu finished his Octet at the end of May 1900 (the age of 19) at Mihăileni (Botoşani), in his grand parents’ house, the Cosmovich family6. The two of them lived at that time – the first in Vienna, the second in Paris. Neither at that moment, nor another time they did not meet each other. It seems that their creative activity has developed independently, without any of them knew or being influenced by the other7. We therefore have enough reasons to consider that the two compositions have been created independently, during less than a year, by two young musicians, each of them having at least four years of experience8. Both works are part of the late Romantic style. Verklärte Nacht is a programmatic piece, inspired by Richard Dehmel’s poem Zwei Menschen (Two People). In spite of the poetry’s profoundness and exquisite beauty, Schönberg’s music exists and resists by itself. Actually, the author himself confessed: “My work gained such skills that can satisfy the audience, even the program remains unknown; in other words it offers the possibility to be considered as pure music…”9 For the beginning, here there are some general coordinates:

5 Ovidiu Varga, CEI TREI VIENEZI ŞI NOSTALGIA LUI ORFEU / THE THREE VIENNESE AND THE ORPHEUS NOSTALGIA (Bucureşti: Ed. Muzicală, 1983), p.60. 6 We took the information from an internet article entitled “Where disappeared George Enescu’s fortune?” http://rotundu.blogs.jurnalulbtd.ro/2010/06/16/unde-a-disparut-averea-lui-george-enescu-659 7 Concerning young Enescu’s biography between 1899–1900, we know that he had an intense performing activity in Paris and in Romania, as well as a great interest towards composition. GEORGE ENESCU, editing by Academia R.P.R (Bucureşti: Ed. Muzicală, 1964), pp. 140- 143 and 272. 8 According to Ovidiu Varga’s chronology, the first opus signed Schönberg dates 1896 (op. cit. p. 434). In his turn, George Enescu has begun his activity as a composer at the Conservatory of Paris, in 1896-97 (GEORGE ENESCU, op. cit., pp. 140-143). 9 O. Varga, op. cit. p. 60.

15 Schönberg Enescu Sextet op. 4 „Verklärte Nacht” Octet op. 7

The piece includes several movements The piece includes the following chained continuously, having the movements: character of a poem: I. Très modéré Sehr langsam (Very slow, Introduction) II. Très fougueux Etwas bewegter (Agitated) Lebhaft bewegt (Lively in action) III. Lentement Schwer betont (Focal points) IV. Mouvement de valse bien Sehr breit und langsam (Very wide and rythmée slow) Sehr ruhig (Very quiet)

Even it could be listened as pure music, Quote from the Foreword at the first the musical fluid is closely related to edition: Dehmel’s poem; it also reveals a ”This Octet, a cyclic work, has the special dramaturgy justified by the 10 following feature: the four distinct dialog of two characters . classical movements chain in fact in a The dialog subsists by a special unique symphonic structure. In a very distribution of the six instruments: st large plan, they form a symphony first constantly, the 1 Violin with/without movement. the 2nd Violin – dialogues with the 1st st Regarding the performing manner, it is Cello or/and the 1 Viola. not necessary to insist upon certain It is a poem, which means one artifices of counterpoint in order to movement, changing the tempo and the permit emphasizing the thematic musical sense, depending to the elements and the main melodies.” 11 poetry’s episodes.

Duration 30’ Duration 40’

As following we shortly compare the Introduction of the Sextet and the 3rd Movement of the Octet.

10 This is the reason we enclosed Dehmel’ poem both in German and in English. 11 „Cet Octuor, œuvre cyclique, présente de plus la particularité suivante : étant divisé en quatre mouvements distincts, à la manière classique, ces mouvements s’enchaînant entre eux, forment un seul mouvement de symphonie, où les périodes, sur un plan très élargi, se succèdent selon les règles de la construction d’une première partie de symphonie. Il est à noter, pour son exécution, que l’on ne doit pas trop insister sur certains artifices contrapunctiques, afin de permettre la mise en valeur des éléments thématiques et mélodiques essentiels.” George Enescu (from the foreword of the Octet score, published by Enoch&Cie, in 1950)

16 Schönberg Enescu Sehr langsam (Introduction) Lentement (3rd movement)

Augmented Tonality Augmented Tonality intense chromatics

Expressionist trend: Impressionist tint: - Melodic and harmonic density - Transparency - Lots of harmonic dissonances - Main melody, like a lullaby - Dynamics diversity and contrast - The polyphonic character does not crowd the music, on the contrary it - Tense expression emphasizes the clarity and the meditative feature - Missing of the tense expression - Dynamics richness

Accompaniment, viola 2 – cello 2, bars 1-2 Accompaniment, violins 2-3-4, bars 1-4

Theme – viola 1 – cello 1, bars 3-6 Theme – violin 2, bars 5-10

We did not intend here to make a detailed analysis of the two masterpieces. As a conclusion at the above analogy, we quote the composer Pascal Bentoiu – an authority in judging the Enescu’s music. In his book Enescu’s Masterpieces, at the end of the chapter concerning the Octet, he mentions: ‘I would join the piece we are talking about here to a masterpiece of the same period: Verklärte Nacht for string sextet by Schönberg (1899). Listening successively the two of them, written for similar ensembles, seems to be a very instructive experience. Thus reveals the Olympian balance and exuberant vitality of the Romanian composer, as well as the very unusual smoothness the same with restlessness and anxiety at Arnold Schönberg.’ 12

12 Pascal Bentoiu, CAPODOPERE ENESCIENE / ENESCU’S MASTERPIECES (Bucureşti: Ed. Muzicală, 1984), p. 37.

17 We find here the main difference between the two compositions, which comes mostly from the spirit of the authors (including their origin and cultural tradition) rather than their musical training. This explains the Impressionist colour in Enescu’s music as well as Schönberg’s Expressionist atmosphere. What we intended to emphasize are the instruments used by the two of them – in no way superior to one another – having as a result a similarity in melody, dynamics, timbre. We cannot consider this similarity – and those in the table above – as „loans” – far from this! What we have here are two distinct creative processes, profound, consistent and extremely valuable. It is, we think, the similar situation with the existence of the same folk tales in the completely independent spaces and cultures. Modern Romanian music integrated immediately in Western European culture of the same period, though the two of them have had very different developments. So, the Western unitary tradition has received the refreshing Eastern diversity. We notice by this (in spite of all obstacles during the time) the excellent operation on the lines of communication from outside to the Romanian culture. In other words, Romanian musicians have been permanently well informed, mostly interested in the foreign culture, practically and theoretically. Our musical education aims the international global phenomenon. We learned all the time the newest in musical composition, performing arts and research. This uninterrupted informing process was active even during the isolation period. As a result, we find an original and refreshing music, without anachronism and disuse. According to all these, how can we explain the difficult communication from the Romanian culture to outside? The originality, vigour and value of the Romanian music – traditional, religious and classical – are above any doubt. More than that, the modern period in the Romanian music has covered in about one hundred years (considering as the beginning of modern era the first original compositions of the young George Enescu) a route that in Western Europe lasted approx. a millennium. Everybody agrees and is very pleased of this, but everything remains between us! We frequently do not use the opportunities to establish relationships outside, and we do not prove the interest towards this mostly often. By this exposal we do not pretend to develop here any law or government decision; actually we submit again (we did before too) a more practical and useful proposal for the musical academic society of Iaşi: a web site about the Romanian classical music, in two languages. For this it should be necessary as follows:

− Authors agreement – composers and musicologists; − Experienced people in musicology and in one foreign language, who would supervise the uploaded texts.

18 − A link on the University web site

At the possible question how the payment is for this? we should answer: nothing for the moment! At the beginning, the most important is to have a virtual database in a foreign language, with information, comments and analysis about the Romanian composers and repertoire – helpful to all sort of research. Moreover, an important requirement in the academic evaluation consists in the number of quotations of a certain author. Or, such a project could be a first step to achieve this goal. Money? They will come, no doubt, if the project is going to work. After that we will not be so disturbed that the Romanian music − Is unknown in the world, − Is published under different/not Romanian names or titles − Is commented inconsistently, inaccurately, superficially, unilaterally by unimportant researchers − And if such situation continues to exist, the web site could reply consistently and efficiently.

19 Annex

Richard Dehmel13 Zwei Menschen – Two People

Two people are walking through a bare, cold Zwei Menschen gehn durch kahlen, kalten Hain; wood; der Mond läuft mit, sie schaun hinein. the moon keeps pace with them and draws their Der Mond läuft über hohe Eichen; gaze.

kein Wölkchen trübt das Himmelslicht, The moon moves along above tall oak trees, in das die schwarzen Zacken reichen. there is no wisp of cloud to obscure the radiance Die Stimme eines Weibes spricht: to which the black, jagged tips reach up. A woman’s voice speaks: „Ich trag ein Kind, und nit von Dir, “I am carrying a child, and not by you. ich geh in Sünde neben Dir. I am walking here with you in a state of sin. Ich hab mich schwer an mir vergangen. I have offended grievously against myself.

Ich glaubte nicht mehr an ein Glück I despaired of happiness, und hatte doch ein schwer Verlangen and yet I still felt a grievous longing nach Lebensinhalt, nach Mutterglück for life’s fullness, for a mother’s joys und Pflicht; da hab ich mich erfrecht, and duties; and so I sinned, da ließ ich schaudernd mein Geschlecht and so I yielded, shuddering, my sex von einem fremden Mann umfangen, to the embrace of a stranger,

und hab mich noch dafür gesegnet. and even thought myself blessed. Nun hat das Leben sich gerächt: Now life has taken its revenge, nun bin ich Dir, o Dir, begegnet.“ and I have met you, met you.” Sie geht mit ungelenkem Schritt. She walks on, stumbling. Sie schaut empor; der Mond läuft mit. She looks up; the moon keeps pace.

Ihr dunkler Blick ertrinkt in Licht. Her dark gaze drowns in light. Die Stimme eines Mannes spricht: A man’s voice speaks: „Das Kind, das Du empfangen hast, “Do not let the child you have conceived sei Deiner Seele keine Last, be a burden on your soul. o sieh, wie klar das Weltall schimmert! Look, how brightly the universe shines! Es ist ein Glanz um alles her; Splendour falls on everything around, Du treibst mit mir auf kaltem Meer, you are voyaging with me on a cold sea, doch eine eigne Wärme flimmert but there is the glow of an inner warmth von Dir in mich, von mir in Dich. from you in me, from me in you. That warmth will transfigure the stranger’s child, Die wird das fremde Kind verklären, and you bear it me, begot by me. Du wirst es mir, von mir gebären; You have transfused me with splendour, Du hast den Glanz in mich gebracht, you have made a child of me.” Du hast mich selbst zum Kind gemacht.“ He puts an arm about her strong hips. Er faßt sie um die starken Hüften. Their breath embraces in the air. Ihr Atem küßt sich in den Lüften. Two people walk on through the high, bright Zwei Menschen gehn durch hohe, helle Nacht. night.

13 English translation by Mary Whittall http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verkl%C3%A4rte_Nacht 18.04.2012

20 Bibliography Bentoiu, Pascal. CAPODOPERE ENESCIENE. Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1984. Enescu, George, Octuor à cordes op. 7. Paris: Editura Enoch&Cie, 1950. Malcolm, Noel. GEORGE ENESCU, VIAŢA ŞI MUZICA. Bucureşti: Editura Humanitas, 2011. Varga, Ovidiu. CEI TREI VIENEZI ŞI NOSTALGIA LUI ORFEU. Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1983. * * * GEORGE ENESCU, volum editat de Academia R.P.R. Bucureşti: Ed. Muzicală, 1964.

The influence of Central European musical culture on modern Romanian composition. Case study: Pascal Bentoiu

Prof. Laura Vasiliu, PhD (University of Arts „George Enescu” Iaşi)

Abstract The impulse provided by the configuration of modern national styles under the decisive and wide-reaching influence of Bartók’s compositional technique, the dodecaphonical avant-garde with a stylistic universe of uncompromising modernity initiated by the Second Vienna School, the structures of German musical classicism reiterated in the neoclassical/postmodern values of the 20th century – these are the main influences of Central European musical culture on the composition of Bucharest and Romania. An important disciple of master Mihail Jora (whose studies in Germany decisively shaped his creative profile, as well as the content of the composition school he led in Bucharest for several decades), Pascal Bentoiu configures his compositional art on the basis of classical German principles: rigurous musical writing, coherence of form, grand symphonic dramaturgy, universal sources of inspiration, subject-matter and spiritual openness.

Key words: Central Europe, assimilation, Pascal Bentoiu,reformation, authenticity.

In the 1990s, studies debated intensely on the historical, political and artistic issues of Central Europe, unveiling a multitude of sometimes contradictory meanings both as regards geographical boundaries and cultural fundaments. In order to outline a starting point, I will quote the opinion of a well-known researcher, Germanist Jacques Le Rider: „The idea of Mitteleuropa is a terminological artefact and was established as such through history. In the 18th and 19th centuries, what we call Central Europe, that is the teritorry between the Rhyne and Russia, the Adriatic and the North Seas was dominated by two great empires, the German and the Austrian. Thus it is normal to depart from the Germanistic notion on Mitteleuropa”1 Through this notion the author understands a belief in the “messianic character of the German people, the only one capable of putting order into Oriental chaos.” His point of view is complementary and to a certain degree even opposed to an older concept which privileged the culture of nations in the former Habsburg Empire, in all their particular colours – an idea debated in Romania in the project carried out by Adriana Babeţi and Cornel Ungureanu – The Third Europe – finalised in the publication of three volumes of text: cultural research and literature2

1 Jacques Le Rider, ”Identităţile Europei Centrale” (”The Identities of Central Europe”), an interview for Dan Gulea, in Observator cultural (Cultural Observer magasine), no. 16, June 2000. 2 EUROPA CENTRALĂ. NEVROZE, DILEME, UTOPII (CENTRAL EUROPE. NEUROSES, DILEMMAS, UTOPIAS). Polirom publishing house, 1997; EUROPA CENTRALĂ. MEMORIE, PARADIS, APOCALIPSĂ (CENTRAL EUROPE. MEMORY, PARADISE, APOCALYPSE). Polirom publishing house, 1998; EUROPA CENTRALĂ

23 I. Stages in the assimilation of Central European musical culture

The relation of Romanian culture, including the musical, to Central Europe, the assimilation and adoption of a new artistic mentality developed in 4 cultural- historical stages: 1. the 19th century – the influence exercised in the territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empiree; 2. first half of the 20th century – the interest of musicians in Romania for German/Austrian culture, a parallel manifestation to assimilating the values of the French school of music; 3. 2nd half of the 20th century – the formative and cultural role of the European musical avant-garde centered in Darmstadt; 4. continuations, prolongations, adaptations in Romanian schools of composition.

1. In the 19th century (with an even earlier start), the musical life in Transylvania, Banat, Bukovina – provinces of the Autro-Hungarian Empire – were lastingly and beneficially marked by the Central European compositional level – see the trajectories of composers such as Gheorghe Dima, Iacob Mureşianu, Ciprian Porumbescu. 2. After the union of Transylvania and Bukovina with Romania, the Romanian intellectuals/artists from beyond the Carpathians discovered the advanced German/Austrian culture; consequently, a significant number of composers who would later configure the Romanian school started out by specialising in important musical and cultural centres.

Composition studies in Central Europe • Nicolae Bretan (1887) – Cluj-Napoca, Vienna • Ludovic Feldman (1893) – Vienna, Bucharest (Jora) • Sabin Drăgoi (1894) – Iaşi, Cluj-Napoca, Prague • Marţian Negrea (1893) – Sibiu, Vienna • Filip Lazăr (1894) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Leipzig • Franz Xaver Dressler (1898) – Prague, Leipzig • Zeno Vancea (1900) – Cluj-Napoca, Vienna • Matei Socor (1908) – Bucharest, Leipzig • Paul Constantinescu (1909) – Vienna, Bucharest (Jora) • Alfred Mendelsohn (1910) – Vienna, Bucharest (Jora)3

SAU PARADOXUL FRAGILITĂŢII (CENTRAL EUROPE OR THE PARADOX OF FRAGILITY). Polirom publishing house, 2001. 3 The names in bold lettering belong to composers who ended up teaching composition.

24 Romanian musical culture crystallised by assimilating the French (Western European) and German/Austrian (Central European) traditions, with George Enescu’s work as the top achievement of this cultural intersection. In the first decades of the previous century we discover the ongoing interest for the French school, a wider 19th century phenomenon among musicians in the Romanian Old Kingdom.

Composition studies in France • Dimitrie Cuclin (1885) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Paris (Vincent d’Indy) • Ion Nonna Otescu (1888) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Paris (Vincent d’Indy) • Alfred Alessandrescu (1893) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Paris (Vincent d’Indy) • Mihail Andricu (1894) – Bucharest (Castaldi), a career related to French culture • Constantin Georgescu (1895) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Paris (Vincent d’Indy) • Marcel Mihalovici (1898) – Bucharest, Paris (Vincent d’Indy) • Tudor Ciortea (1903) – Braşov, Cluj-Napoca, Paris (Paul Dukas, Nadia Boulanger) • Dinu Lipatti (1917) – Bucharest (Jora), Paris (Paul Dukas, Nadia Boulanger) • Achim Stoia (1910) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Paris (Paul Dukas)

Moreover, several musicians further their studies both in Germany or Austria and in France.

Composition studies in Germany and France • Eduard Caudella (1841) – Iaşi, Berlin, Paris • George Enescu (1881) – Vienna (Robert Fuchs) and Paris (Jules Massenet, Gabriel Fauré) • Mihail Jora (1891) – Iaşi, Berlin (Max Reger) and Paris (Florent Schmitt) • Constantin Nottara (1890) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Paris, Berlin • Mansi Barberis (1899) – Iaşi, Berlin, Paris • Theodor Rogalski (1901) – Bucharest (Castaldi), Leipzig, Paris (Vincent d’Indy)

Obs. There are also particular situations such as Sigismund Toduţă’s, who furthers his education in Rome but composes in Cluj-Napoca and shapes there a school of composition based on the assimilated fundamental values of the Austro-German musical culture, whereby he created a well-defined direction of Romanian neoclassicism.

25 3. After 1950, Darmstadt becomes the European centre of avant-garde, attracting new generations of creators:

Composition studies in Germany after 1950 • Anatol Vieru (1926) – Bucharest, Moscow (Aram Haciaturian), Darmstadt, Berlin • Ştefan Niculescu (1927) – Bucharest (Mihail Andricu), Darmstadt (Stockhausen), München (Mauritio Kagel) • Tiberiu Olah (1928) – Cluj-Napoca, Moscow (Evghenii Messner), Darmstadt (György Ligeti) • Aurel Stroe (1932) – Bucharest (Mihail Andricu), Darmstadt, Berlin (Stockhausen, Mauritio Kagel, György Ligeti) • Doru Popovici (1932) – Bucharest (Jora, Andricu), Darmstadt • Lucian Meţianu (1937) – Bucharest (Alfred Mendelsohn, Tiberiu Olah), Köln

The parallel assimilation of techniques/aesthetics in the two musical hot spots, France and Germany:

Composition studies in Germany and France after 1950 • Carmen Petra-Basacopol (1926) – Bucharest (Mihail Jora), Darmstadt (György Ligeti), Paris • Cornel Ţăranu (1934) – Cluj-Napoca (Toduţă), Paris (Nadia Boulanger, Olivier Messiaen), Darmstadt (György Ligeti) • Gheorghe Costinescu (1934) – Bucharest (Jora), Paris (Henri Dutilleux, Nadia Boulanger), Darmstadt, Köln (Stockhausen), New York • Mihai Mitrea-Celarianu (1935) – Bucharest (Alfred Mendelsohn), Darmstadt, Paris • Alexandru Hrisanide (1936) – Bucharest (Jora), Paris (Nadia Boulanger), Darmstadt

4. The composers who were trained in significant European centres (M. Jora, M. Negrea, S. Toduţă, Şt. Niculescu, A. Vieru, T. Olah, A. Stroe, C. Ţăranu) created schools in Bucharest and Cluj-Napoca, setting a high professional level for Romanian composition as regards the rigour of writing and form in correspondence to profound subject-matter, the originality of inspiration, openness towards universal values, Western and Central European innovation. Composition studies in Romania (the great disciples) • Constantin Silvestri (1913) – Bucharest (Jora) • Alexandru Paşcanu (1920) – Bucharest (Jora, Negrea) • Pascal Bentoiu (1927) – Bucharest (Jora)

26 • Vasile Herman (1929) – Cluj-Napoca (Toduţă) • Dan Constantinescu (1931) – Bucharst (Jora) • Miriam Marbe (1931) – Bucharest (Jora) • Nicolae Brânduş (1935) – Bucharest (Marţian Negrea) • Nicolae Coman (1936) – Bucharest (Jora) • Corneliu Cezar (1937) – Bucharest (Jora, Negrea) • Mihai Moldovan (1937) – Cluj-Napoca (Toduţă), Bucharest (Jora) • Anton Zeman (1937) – Bucharest (Tiberiu Olah) • Corneliu Cezar (1937) – Bucharest (Mihail Jora, Marţian Negrea) • Liviu Glodeanu (1938) – Cluj-Napoca, Bucharest (Marţian Negrea) • Corneliu Dan Georgescu (1938) – Bucharest (Mihail Andricu, Alfred Mendelsohn, Tiberiu Olah) • Vasile Spătărelu (1938) – Bucharest (Alfred Mendelsohn, Anatol Vieru) • Richard Oschanitzky (1939) – Bucharest (Jora)

OBS. This list ends with composers born in 1939, on the one hand because the topic of the study extends its consequences into the ongoing present, on the other because of the different cultural influcens manifested half-way through the 20th century (Anglo-American, Latin, Byzantine, Balkan, Oriental, etc.)

II. Cultural and musical directions and meanings of Central Europe

We return to the topic of Central Europe in order to discern the contents of this influence. Taking into account the two points of view on cultural demarcation, a few major ideas can be detached: A. The significance of accepted multiculturalism, determining: 1. the appearance of transnational, abstract art, based on radical innovation, promoted by Jewish intellectual and artistic communities, with a starting point in the music of the second Vienna school (also reverberating in the Romanian musical culture, mostly, however, as exercises of rigorous modern writing or means of expressing new ares of sensitiveness); 2. the impulse of creation as way of defining national identity in relation to the new languages, a reflection of filtered perception; for Romanian creators, B. Bartók’ music and compositional system was a major milestone for a number of decades. Obs. – much like Ligeti and Kurtag, Romanian composers of the post-Bartók, post-Enescu generation – Vieru, Niculescu, Olah – combine the above mentioned tendencies on the different level, with an intention to sublimate the national mission in the spirit of avant-garde abstraction.

27 B. A respect for universal values and for systemic elaboration, the cultivation of rigour, coherence and the profoundness of German ideas. The supporters of this trend composed in neoclassical/postmodern waves or upheld the spirit of classicist principles, includind modern, European classicism. There are both pure profiles (Z. Vancea, G.W. Berger, N. Beloiu, S. Toduţă) and various dosages of the national-avant-gardist tendency (here the list is too long). The composers in this category rejected the avant-garde of the 60s.

III. Pascal Bentoiu - a European composer

Pascal Bentoiu draws contemporary attention through a particular destiny that led him towards the classical values of European culture and through the difference in his artistic products, dominated by rigour, coherence, grand symphonism, universal subject-matter and an affinity for the classical modernity of language. This preference comes in contrast with the generation he is part of, the second after Enescu, whose members (Anatol Vieru, Ștefan Niculescu, Tiberiu Olah, Miriam Marbe, Aurel Stroe, Cornel Țăranu) had committed themselves to revolutionising the language and aesthetics of music in Romania. Bentoiu’s compositional style can be understood better in the light of his background and education. Born in an intellectual bourgeois family of genuine cultural heritage and preoccupation, he could benefit from an exceptional education, where the German language and literature played a leading role, seconded by the study of painting, violin, piano and musical theory. Between 1950 and 1953, during his military service at the Labour units of Comănești, Bacău (given his political file as son of political prisoner Aurelian Bentoiu, lawyer, former minister of justice), it was not by chance that he was reading Goethe in the original gothic script or Schönberg’s Treatise on harmony. His classical studies, completed at famous Bucharest College of Saint Sava with commendations in Latin and Greek, were complemented by a reading list featuring Saint Augustin, Tacitus and Virgil, while his mastery of the French language came as a matter of fact. This was the outline of a young humanist intellectual, whose level would have even satisfied the standards of the peaking interbellum years. In 1947, his future wife, then his colleague at the Law Faculty, discovers in Pascal Bentoiu “a bountiful inner world ruled by uncharacteristic willpower and discipline for people of our age” 4. Meeting Mihail Jora in 1944 and benefiting for four years from his consistent teachings in all segments of musical writing/creation (harmony, counterpoint, musical forms, orchestration, composition) bore fruit in changing the destiny of an intellectual for whom music had only been a component of his larger literary and historical formation. The 13 fugues and a piano sonata (which

4 Annie Bentoiu, TIMPUL CE NI S-A DAT (THE TIME WE WERE GRANTED), vol. I (Bucharest: Vitruviu publishing house, 2000), p. 198.

28 would become op. no. 1) came to represent his portfolio for admission in the Society of Romanian composers (1948), whereas his first symphony, also written in his student years and partially re-vamped in Concert Ouverture, op. 2, would facilitate his 1953 readmission in the Composers’ Union. His initial success and Jora’s spiritual mentorship cemented his trust in his own creative capacity and the possibility of developing a composer’s career. This happened despite the unfavourable political circumstances, which impeded his official academic graduation, determined his exclusion from Composers’ Union lists in 1949 and his placement in a labour camp (1950-1953). This is how Mihail Jora presented him: “Pascal Bentoiu is the brightest musical creative talent of the 25- year-old generation. […] Intelligent, hard-working, balanced in reasoning, willing to further his knowledge, an adamant peruser of good literature and philosophical systems, Bentoiu educates himself by reading the Latins, learning German and French in order to read the original texts of those peoples’ literature and philosophy. Perfectly modest in what he conceives of and creates, a correct, diligent and completely honest person, this man, who was a member of the old Composers’ Society, deserves the full support of the current Composers’ Union, which he will always oblige”.5 We must underline that Jora’s school and his spiritual kinship to Pascal Bentoiu shaped and activated the young creator towards the profound subject-matter and expression to be found in his rigorous writing and the German post-romantic form, as well as towards a neoclassical/objective renewal in approach and aesthetics. The latter had been assimilated by Jora from Stravinsky and the French connection and capitalized on in creating Romanian academic music.

Pascal Bentoiu - stages of creation

Writing about Pascal Bentoiu entails the risk of restating ideas emitted by the composer himself. Available in the volume “Opt simfonii și un poem” (8 symphonies and a poem) (2007), his most recent self-characterisations and self- analyses have been used and amplified by musicologists; in other words, the risk of a vicious circle is palpable. As a way out of it, I propose a systematic organisation of his compositional production as I have perceived it after analyzing and reflecting on his scores. I will try the outline the evolution of his style from a pool of multiple creative options. His first period of composition, identified as having taken place between 1947 and 1960, was profiled as reclaiming traditional genres and sound architectures and reformulating in the European post-romantic and Romanian neo-classical languages. The entry data is made up of Ravel’s impressionistic harmony, echoes of jazz and tonally integrated chromatic

5 Mihail Jora, STUDII șI DOCUMENTE (STUDIES AND DOCUMENTS) (Bucharest: Muzicală publishing house, 1995), p. 374

29 modalism (Piano sonata, op. 1, 1947/1957). Polyphonic-imitative techniques are applied (Quartet no. 1, 1953), he takes part in the wider generational effort of integrating traditional music with symphonic genres (Concerto no. 1 for piano, 1954, Transylvanian suite, 1955). The post-romantic symphonism comes out both in the post-Enescu variant (Symphonic Poem Morning Star, 1957) and in the Western European-type symphonic concert genres (Concert for violin and orchestra, 1958, Concert no. 2 for piano and orchestra, 1960). The second compositional stage (1962-1979) features new dominating directions: an essencialised expression, the concentration of form, trans- systemic intonational thinking, a reformed stage dramaturgy, the integration of entertainment genres/the return to consonance in a postmodern spirit. This is where the abstraction and/or metamorphosis of folkloric melodies takes place, according to Béla Bartók’s model of the binary contrast (Sonata for violin and piano, 1962). The intonational systems (extended tonality – chromatic modalism – dodecaphony – serialism) are perceived as meta- historical dynamics filtering embodiments of expression or veritable philosophical topics (Symphony no. 1, 1965, Symphony no. 5, 1979). The new neoclassical-modern opera dramaturgy is formed along the connections represented by George Enescu and Alban Berg (opera Hamlet, 1969). Alongside major topics, we witness his post-modernist re-integration of entertainment genres with a parodical or honest attitude (opera Doctor Love, 1964, Quartet no. 2 “of consonances”, 1973, Symphony no. 2, 1974). The 80s are a period of increasing formalization/abstraction of Pascal Bentoiu’s creative thinking and of definitive modernization of his compositional technique. A Sui generis type of modalism, open, non-repetitive forms, a geometrized sound architecture, virtuoso orchestral writing in the spirit of contemporary textural plurivocality, extra-musical correlations such as philosophical pragmatism – these are the styplistic milestones of a third creative period. The psychology of temperaments and the world of sound (Quartets op. 27, 1980-1982), music and related arts (Symphony no. 6 “Colours”, 1985, Symphony no. 7 “Volumes”, 1986, Symphony no. 8 “Images”, 1987) are the concrete topics for creative reflection. Since 1989 Pascal Bentoiu has not composed anymore, yet we can speak of a 4th creative period dedicated to the finalization and orchestration of some of Enescu’s important manuscripts (Symphony no. 4, Symphony no. 5, The Trio in A, Poem “Isis”), an achievement which cemented his professional and moral stature in the Romanian musical and cultural world. The catalogue of his works (see Annex) reveals the dynamics of alternating genres and expressive dominants, commissioned works and own projects, composition and musicology, in other words, the autonomous professional life of a composer with a particular destiny.

30 Some conclusive remarks are due:

1. Pascal Bentoiu’s work – a gradual development from assimilation and recreation to opening and recomposition, eschewing stylistic tears and denial – must be seen as an expression of his personality and the intellectual/social class he represents, ultimately of a philosophic and political stance; it is the option of reform – contrasting to the fundamental tendency of the 20th century, that of revolutionary renewal. 2. This explains his rejection of experimental art as expressed in the vol. “Imagine și sens”, a critique of aleatoric music; furthermore, as Secretary of the Composers‘ Union Department for Symphonic Music, Chamber Music, Opera and Ballet (1968 – 1974), he displayed an equally stern attitude towards some his colleagues‘ dabbling in the tendecies of the new avant-guarde. In his own works, substantial expression has always involved order, precision, completeness and mastery of musical writing. 3. The image of the classical European creator is reassembled through Pascal Bentoiu, who has evolved and lived for and out of composition, the goal of his countinuos cultural development and sensitive decantation of new experiences that render to every new work the authenticity of life. I quote once more from Annie Bentoiu’s volume, a document to her husband’s spiritual determination towards composing: „An existance dedicated to art, striking familiary with general ideas, mobilising all intellectual and affective faculties towards a single goal and especially that mysterious energy center called personality, around which you are tempted to gravitate like a relatively fragile celestial body drawn in by an uncomparably larger density...“6

IV. Central Europe - a cultural landmark of date?

The relationship between Central European culture and the Romanian art of music suffered an essential transformation in the contemporary period. Pascal Betoiu’s generation is probably the last one to have taken the values of this cultural area as reference points. Given the development of musical creation in the last twenty years – the coexistence of modernity and tendencies of recuperating tradition, the mixing of genres, styles, cultures, Romanian composers’ awareness of being a part of world music, we can finally launch Jaques Le Rider’s conclusion as a possible theme for meditation: “…the map of Habsburg Central Europe was shaken by two successive movements: the National Socialism of the 3rd Reich and Soviet imperialism,

6 Annie Bentoiu, TIMPUL CE NI S-A DAT (THE TIME WE WERE GRANTED), op. cit. p. 199.

31 both of which destroyed the Central Europe of Habsburg tradition, in any case, from the start of the 2nd World War until the fall of the Soviet Empire in 1989/1990. That is why the idea of Central Europe is a posthumous, retrospective idea. Today this identity is rediscovered as an archeological reconstruction on the ruins of last century.”7

ANNEX PASCAL BENTOIU – A DIRECTORY OF WORKS

• Op. 1 Sonata for piano, 1947/1957 • Op. 2 Concerto Ouverture, 1948/1959 • Op. 3 Quartet no. 1, 1953 • Op. 4 Four songs (Şt. O. Iosif), 1953 • Op. 5 Concerto no. 1 for piano, 1954 • Op. 6 Transylvanian Suite, 1955 • „The Marriage of Figaro” (Beaumarchais) – stage music • „The Fountain of Blanduzia” (V. Alecsandri) – stage music • „The Taming of the Shrew” (Shakespeare) – stage music • Op. 7 The poem Luceafărul/Morning Star, 1957 • „Cyrano de Bergerac” ( Rostand) – stage music • Op. 8 Three sonnets (M. Eminescu), 1958 • „Hamlet” (Shakespeare”),- theatre music • „Soldier Svejk” – theatre music • Op. 9 Concerto for violin and orchestra, 1959 • Op. 10 Images from Bucharest, 1959 • Op. 11 Five Songs (Nina Cassian), 1959 • Op. 12 Concerto for piano and orchestra no.2, 1960 • „The Bourgeois Gentleman” ( Molière) – stage music • „The Two Gentlemen of Verona” (Shakespeare) – stage music • Op. 13 Four songs (Mihai Beniuc), 1961 • „The ocean” (Alexandr Stein) – stage music

• Op. 14 Sonata for violin and piano, 1962 • „Irkutst story” (V. Arbuzov) – theatre music • „New song” for soprano and orchestra (Ion Horea) • „Jealousy” for bass and piano (George Topârceanu) • „Five people on the road” – film music • „A train has run away” (Ştefan Iureş, Ira Vrabie) – stage music (puppets) - 1963

7 Jacques Le Rider, “Identităţile Europei Centrale” (”The Identities of Central Europe”), an interview for Dan Gulea, in Observator cultural (Cultural Observer magasine), no. 16, June 2000.

32 • Op. 15 The opera Amorul doctor/ Love, the doctor, 1964 • „Orestia” (Eschil) – stage music • „The Winter’s Tale” (Shakespeare) – stage music • „Magellan” (Costel Popovici) – stage music (puppets) • Op. 16 Symphony no. 1, 1965 • „Steel Wonderstruck” ( St.Lenkisch, after Andersen) – stage music (puppets) • „Ifigenia in Aulis” (Euripide) – stage music - 1966 • „The Blizzard” (B.Ştefănescu – Delavrancea) – stage music – 1966 • „The Wizzard of Oz” (Chimet after Franck-Baum) – stage music (puppets) – 1967 • „Romeo and Juliet” (Shakespeare) – stage music – 1967 • „Caligula” (A.Camus), stage music - 1968 • Op. 17 The radio opera The Sacrifice of Iphigenia, 1968 • A Midsummer Night’s Dream (Shakespeare), 1969 – muzică de scenă • Op. 18 The opera Hamlet, 1969 • Vol. “Image and sense”, 1971 • Vol. “An opening towards the world of music”, 1973 • Op. 19 The Quartet “of consonances”, no. 2, 1973 • Op. 20 Symphony no. 2, 1974 • Op. 21 The vocal cycle „Black flames”, 1974 • Vol. “The Musical thinking”, 1975 • Op. 22 Symphony no. 3, 1976 • Op. 23 Eminesciana III Concerto for orchestra, 1976 • Op. 24 The vocal cycle „Incandescences”, 1977 • Op. 25 Symphony no. 4, 1978 • Op. 26 Symphony no. 5, 1979

• Op. 27 String quartets, no. 3-6, 1980-1982 • „Father I worship You”, a cappella choir (text from The Gospel of St. Mathew) - 1981 • Vol. „Masterpieces by Enescu”, 1984 • Op. 28 Syphony no. 6 „Culori”, 1985 • Op. 29 Symphony no. 7 „Volume”, 1986 • Op. 30 Symphony no. 8 „Images”, 1987 • Op. 31 Concerto for cello and orchestra, 1989

ORCHESTRATIONS • “Six songs and a rumba” by Mihail Jora, 1970 • Symphony no. 5 by George Enescu, 1995 • Symphony no. 6 by George Enescu, 1996 • „Sept chansons de Clément Marot” by George Enescu, 1997 • Trio for piano, violin and cello by George Enescu, 1997 • The poem “ISIS” by George Enescu, 1999 • “Andante religioso” for two cellos and organ by Geoge Enescu, 2001

Pascal Bentoiu – Eminesciana III. A “Concerto for orchestra” or the dissimulation of a symphony?

Music teacher Luminiţa Duţică PhD (The National College of Arts “Octav Băncilă”)

Abstract The neoclassical stylistic orientation generated a synthetic compositional concept where the architectonic structures and the musical genres belonging to the Western European tradition merged with the new serial, modal or serial-modal grammars developed during the 20th century. By definition a compositional “hybrid”, the concerto for orchestra – established by Bartók's model as well as by Petrassi's cycle of eight fundamental works – caught quite early the eye of the Romanian composers. In this respect, Pascal Bentoiu was one of those who highlighted the symphonic dimension of the genre from the standpoint of the modal- serial lexis.

Key words: modal-serial matrix, poetic-philosophic rhetoric, symmetry, spectralism, texture, concerto, symphony

Due to a compositional concept of merging various symphonic genres, the place of this opus in Pascal Bentoiu's entire oeuvre is an exceptional one. “I have always said to myself that I do not wish in any way to write a Symphony no 9”, confessed the composer. “/.../ And yet there is such an opus no 9: it is Eminesciana III, op. 23, written at the end of 1976, right after Symphony no 3, which is much like a one movement-symphony in terms of dimensions and problematic (our boldface). /.../ I had initially conceived the work as a symphonic poem, a sort of an older correspondent of my younger Luceafăr (they are two decades apart). /.../ Eventually, it became /.../ a Concerto for orchestra. It is not more a concerto for orchestra than it is a symphonic poem or, à la rigueur, even a symphony (our boldface)1. Chronologically, Eminesciana III appears as the third work related to Eminescu's poetic universe, the first being the symphonic poem Luceafărul, op. 7 (later known as Eminesciana I), and the second being Sonetele op. 8 (later Eminesciana II). The music's semantic area has its source in Mihai Eminescu's Third Epistle (Scrisoarea a III-a). Far from the temptations of a narrow programmatism, dictated by a possible epic trajectory of the sonorous discourse, Bentoiu conceives a music of poetic-philosophic gist, induced by the affective resonances of Eminescu's verse. Such an approach did not mean eluding a certain lyrical-dramatic source; on the contrary, by attracting the general in an area of musical particular, the composer laid out a sui generis dramaturgy, integrating into an infinite sonorous

1 Pascal Bentoiu, OPT SIMFONII ŞI UN POEM (EIGHT SYMPHONIES AND ONE POEM) (Bucharest: UNMB, 2007), p. 135.

35 flow a couple of “forces” corresponding – at the level of the structural-semantic analogies – to the antagonistic binomial Baiazid-Mircea from the famous Third Epistle (Scrisoarea a III-a). Esentially, as Pascal Bentoiu underlines, “the conflict within the literary poem (only the historic part, naturally) was translated into a confrontation between an atonal (serial) world and a modal, or multi-modal one. The serial envisages the invading element, the modal – the peaceful, indigenous one; their clash will lead to the former's elimination from the musical setting, with mere traces of it surviving into the final section”2. In agreement with the composer's vision and in virtue of several lexical and syntactic arguments which we shall develop later on, we plead for a subdivision of the work into four great sections.

SECTION “A” (bars 1-90)

Eminesciana III opens on the background of a tam-tam pedal with a serial monodic formula (A/T, bars 5-19) in the lower register of the double basses. This register displays the total chromatic twice in the relationship original (bars 5-14) – recurrence (bars 15-19).

2 P. Bentoiu – op. cit., p. 135-136.

Fig. no. 1 bars 5-19, Theme

Fig. no. 2 The Structure of the series

In the semantic key of the “invasion” – with which it is symbolically associated –, this sonorous magma will be amplified incessantly according to a principle of polyphonic-imitative accumulation / stratification. The typical means of advancing consists in progressively engaging the instruments in a virtually multivocal canonical stretto whose density has a rarefaction threshold at minimum two (Av/Tv1, bars 19-30) and a congestion threshold at maximum seven (Av5/Tv5+T orig.→Av6, bars 70-81; 82-90). The process of polyphonic accumulation undergoes successive levels of complexity that engage initially (Av/Tv→Av3/Tv3, bars 20-65) the string section (low → high pitch) – with additionally chromatic strettos (entries at the semitone/minor ninth) – and later the brass section having a significant role of structural and colourful counterpoise (Av4/Tv4→Av6/Tv3, bars 64-90). Thus, on the background of agglomerating the sonorous surface by juxtaposing/overlapping the many rhythmical variants of the thematic formula (structures Tv4-Tv17), the trumpets, trombones and tuba will play three times the original formula of the series, while the horns will render simultaneously the recurrence of the series twice (both layouts on the structure Tv3). Let us note that the first section of the work (A) edifies its own dynamism by articulating the processes of polyphonic multi-layering (identifiable on the simultaneity axis) with the transformational processes (able to be integrated to the successiveness axis), intensified once the multivocal density of cardinal 7 (Av5) has been reached. In this respect, the limit density modulo 12 achieved in the last two subsections (Av5, Av6), that dominating “saturation” which the composer speaks of, has a double genesis, of lexis and syntax at the same time. Let us follow several of the original theme's 17 variants:

37 Theme

Tv2

Tv4

Tv7

Tv10

Tv13

Tv15

38 Tv17

Fig. no. 3

SECTION “B” (bars 90-155)

There are poetic-philosophic as well as musical syntactic reasons that demand the exit from the serial obsession of the first section by a shift of emphasis into the area of the polymodal chromaticism. Associated with the woodwinds (left “backstage” up until now), this sonorous surface takes the shape of a textured arborescent mass where the intonational and rhythmical personality of the individual lines is “sacrificed” in favour of an expressive global effect.

Fig. no. 4 bars 100-102

Instituted as a dynamic level, the primordial edifice outlined along a non- linear temporal trajectory, in the manner of parlando-rubato, receives the counterpoise of a static level by constantly associating a complex pedal point dispersed in terms of register within the subdivided group of the violins and the violas. Introduced in the pointillist style, by a diagonal of successive attacks and multi-layered according to the criterion of vertical conjunction of perfect fifths, the structure of this polychord has a density of cardinality 10, very close to the total chromatic (elision G and F sharp / G flat). Once it has been configured, this quasi-evolving sonorous context (woodwinds + high-pitched strings) correlates the dramaturgic functionality of the continuity level to the development of new sonorous events. Thus,

39 subsection B1 (bars 103-114) imposes as a detail phenomenon a modal melody/T3 (doric A, shifting 3rd step, C-C sharp), in harmonic sounds, entrusted to the cello (which has been kept silent up to now).

Fig. no. 5 , bars 103-114

The archetypal gist of the new melodic level is induced by multiple structural features, such as: the mode’s diatonic transparency of a pentatonic substratum, the tulnic3 sonority due to the permutational play of the harmonics, the ample, evoking, narrative rhythm. Besides, the significance of this theme within the general rhetoric of the symphonic discourse is underlined by its (poly)timbral re-dimensioning, the subsection B1v/T3v (bars 115-132) being polarised by the orchestral amplification of the one-voice stage initially rendered by the cello (see the vertical addition of the violas to the octave, of the two flutes to the pitch of the cellos and of a great many violins). According to a principle of architectonic symmetry, the next subsection, Bv (bars 133-144, intimately connected to its antecedents: B1, B1v) reflects analogically the structure of subsection B (bars 90-102). However, the amplitude of the sonorous mass kept obsessively during no less than 138 bars is surprisingly annihilated at bar 139 by an extremely contrasting phenomenon, a quasi-general suspension jammed by a soft pedal in C sharp in the low register of the contrabassoon, horns and tuba. From this moment on, the sonority is diluted, becomes ambiguous, the entire sonorous edifice goes more in the direction of a transition rather than a conclusion. Thus, the pluri-modal texture of the woodwinds is reduced to the mere monody of flute 1 (bars 140-145), and the polychord / five-sound chord of the strings is completely eliminated. To relatively compensate this sudden rarefaction, the accompaniment on C sharp of the brass in low register (bars 138-139) will initiate the first impulse of a new vertical accumulation with a global effect that, by means of a concentrated attack polyphony, will coagulate the total chromatic in a cluster

3 Tulnic: a traditional Romanian wind instrument in the shape of a long cone made from willow or linden bark and used for calls or signals.

40 polychord (bar 145) that has become a pedal point. Reiterating the first section of the work, the building of this isomorphic mass is instantly doubled by the re- occurrence of the series, both direct (T1/A, bars 144-146) as well as recurrent (bars 147-150). In this heavy atmosphere, the far away echo of the flutes that croon bits of melody symbolising that “earthly deity”, subsection B2 (bars 144- 155), acquires the role of a dramaturgic connector and anticipates, at the same time, all the following evolutions.

SECTION “C” (bars 154-377)

An essential argument in favour of the symphonic organicity is the continuity, from one section to the other, of the main elements edifying the sonorous dramaturgy. With all the changes in quality – inherent to the evolving chronology –, we witness the generalisation of a triadic principle (established and perpetuated in the previous sections) of structuring the sonorous levels. From this view point, the most extended section of the entire opus appears as a heterogeneous sonorous surface, structured on the simultaneity of three distinct levels which develop two types of vertical synthesis:

Sonorous Timbral Organisational Syntax Type Level Distribution System I Woodwinds+ Modal Monody alto sax+ (polytimbral) soli: Vl, Vla, Vlc. II Brass Serial Homophony III String Serial Non-imitative Polyphony

Table 1

The sonorous reality of the score, sketched in the table above, reflects the specificity of the merger of the sonorous levels under the impact of a double synthesis: • Synthesis I (lexis) consists in overlapping the modal organisation (Level I) and the serial organisation (Levels II+III); • Synthesis II (syntax) consists in overlapping polytimbral monody (Level I), homophony (Level II) and non-imitative polyphony (Level III);

Moreover, as one can notice, there is a clear will to render the whole structure instrumental, each sonorous level being customised from a timbral view point by constant association with a particular orchestral partition. As we shall see next, the complex image of the sonorous edifice developed in Section C will be governed by the simultaneous evolution of three

41 sonorous “characters” clearly defined, integrated into the dramaturgic discourse along the lines of the prolonged action of the fixed-mobile complementarity (a generic temporal dualism forecast as early as the beginning of the work). Hence, the dynamic trajectory in continuous evolution – seen as the foreground of the entire section – is traversed by a melodic flow of to over 200 bars (a sort of panta rhei in modal key) entrusted to the woodwinds which are joined by an alto saxophone and a group of strings made up of violin, viola and cello. The mobility of the steps, the overlap of the modal features and especially the cadential polarizations along this immense polytimbral monody with a 4 doina -like character marks a total of 17 articulations (C1 – C17) having progressive degrees of complexity. In this context, we note the existence of a monodic segment connecting sections B and C having modal resonances and even cellular-motivic items taken from the Doric theme performed by the cello in the previous section. Although it no longer has the initial subtlety and refinement, this instance (connections C3+C4) epitomizes the phenomenon of continuity of the sonorous matter aforementioned.

Fig. no. 6 R 16→17, bars 189-212

If we were to define in just a few words the immense monodic peroration performed in unison within section C, the appropriate phrases would be: dynamic amplification, timbral accumulation and, last but not least, rhythmical development / congestion. Related to this genuine modal cantus firmus that evolves on the same non- linear temporal co-ordinates in parlando-rubato (launched in the previous sections), levels II and III develop antagonistically, displaying a sonorous matter organised serially. Even though they share this, the two surfaces are individualised at the

4 Doina: A Romanian folk song marked by deep emotions and feelings, especially melancholy and longing.

42 level of the vertical syntax, thus experiencing an obvious contrast. To this purpose, the brass section (sonorous level II, embodying the “invading” character in the composer's view) attaches the static element in the form of an exclusive homophony based upon mainly four-sound structures. The strategy of chord succession implies, according to Bentoiu, the existence of “pre-established paths of exhausting the series' forms and transpositions (24 ascending forms of the series x 3 chords + 24 descending forms of the series x 3 chords)”5.

Fig. no. 7 R 29-4, bars 351-361

This level of the musical discourse generally follows the path of a collective crescendo. Although it is perceived as a continuum, this sonorous level somewhat manages the long durations in the manner of a polyphony of attacks dilated on a macro scale, a phenomenon that generates a subtle play of harmonic densities induced by the alternation sound-rest. A second type of sonorous continuum is built at the strings level in the shape of “sonorous webs” set complementarily as a melodic slant: two ascending and two descending paths. This level III promoting consistently the serial order, attaches the dynamic element in the shape of a polyphonic wave with a figurative profile, generically subordinated to the pianissimo well until the end of section C.

5 P. Bentoiu, op. cit., p. 138.

43 By analogy with level II of the brass, the next excerpt means to clear up a certain “setting” of sculpting the sonorous space, as the mirror symmetry becomes, generically speaking, the active principle of “geometrisation” of the entire multivocal edifice played by the entire string section.

Fig. no. 8 R 20+3, bars 237-246

The final connection – C17 (bars 370-377) – is in semantic order an apotheosis of victory, and in structural order a resolution of the “conflict” between modal and serial. The cantus firmus-melody of level I is sublimated in a trill, the strings' movement in level III withdraws in a pedal point on G, and the brass section (level II) emits “bucium6-like calls” which are actually arpeggiated tetrachords inserted in an imitative micro-polyphony propelled repetitively.

SECTION “D” (bars 380-433)

As we have already demonstrated, Eminesciana III by Pascal Bentoiu – also dubbed Concerto for orchestra – holds genuine symphonic qualities; another argument for the organicity of this work is the ending itself conceived as a synthetic overview of the whole. A first edifying element in this respect is the expressive clarinet solo (subsection D/d-d1, bars 381-396) that is brought back into the foreground, being semantically assimilated to that “earthly divinity” (T2, section B) and played now in the hieratic ambiance of the flageolets and string tremolos with an ample pedal point on D (double basses).

6 Bucium: a traditional Romanian wind instrument resembling the tulnic, made from metal, willow or linden bark and used particularly by shepherds for calls or signals.

Fig. no. 9 R 35, bars 407-411

This plane surface, defined as a modal-gravitational area with a spectral nuance, supports the replay of the clarinet theme by the violins as there is a subtle re-occurrence of that well-known serial opposition formulated in the very beginning of the work (T1/A). Entrusted this time to the muted brass associated to a group of archi soli, the serial theme undergoes a process of deconstruction (by discontinuity), being displayed dispersively at the horizontal as well as the vertical levels (subsection D1/d-d1, bars 397-406). The summarising approach which has become rather predictable culminates with the outburst of the polymodal branchings in section B – intensely evoked in this final stage of the work. However, the reiteration does not refer to the mechanics of copying the previous structures, since one of the major differences is the soloist emancipation of the strings, engaged in a sonorous texture which reminds us of Enescu. The paradox of completing the complex and painstaking symphonic enterprise that is Eminesciana III in an oboe solo vanishes with the reflections on this multifaceted musical opus.

Fig. no. 10 R 36-1, bars 413-426

Indeed, the extent to which various instruments or sections were given solo parts denotes the deliberate concerto character of the music, justifying unequivocally the merger of different genres. On the grounds of the arguments made so far, perhaps the dilemma with respect to the genre identity of this work would be found in the rhetorical interrogation: a sinfonia concertante or a concerto for orchestra? Going back to the incantation of the solo oboe, let us underline the existence of an expression of contemplation and appeasement occurring quite naturally after the tumultuous atmosphere when the tectonic forces clashed in sections A, B and C, by evoking that monodic thread of ancient Romanian origin spun here in the diatonic transparency of a C Lydian kept also as a cadential opportunity for the end of the section and of the work (bars 430-433, R 38+3, p. 92/PG). The concluding segment (D3, bars 413-426) of the work recalls several key moments of the musical discourse in a visionary synthesis that implies the merger of the three generative intonational systems: modal-diatonic (Lydian C, solo oboe doubled by the flute), serial (archi soli/violin, viola, cello) and spectral (harmonics in the background, the entire string sections). Due to its semantic content – given by the acuteness of the composer's poetic-philosophic reflection –, to the originality of the compositional concept – as defined by the prerogatives of the sonorous lexical and syntactical synthesis – to the gist of the sonorous structure – served by the transparency and the refinement of the musical writing and, last but not least, due to the artistry and diversity of the timbral play, Pascal Bentoiu's Eminesciana III remains a touchstone in the Romanian compositional output.

46 Bibliography Anghel, Irinel. ORIENTĂRI, DIRECŢII, CURENTE ALE MUZICII ROMÂNEŞTI DIN A DOUA JUMĂTATE A SECOLULUI XX. Bucureşti: Ed.Muzicală, 1997. Lendvai, Ernö. SYMMETRIES OF MUSIC (AN INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS OF MUSIC). Kecskemét: Kodály Institute, 1993. Terényi, Ede. ARMONIA MUZICII MODERNE (1900-1950). Cluj-Napoca: MediaMusica, 2001. Vieru, Anatol. CARTEA MODURILOR (I), (DE LA MODURI, SPRE UN MODEL AL GÂNDIRII MUZICALE INTERVALICE). Bucureşti: Ed. Muzicală, 1980.

“An Encomium to Symmetry” A View of the Composer Remus Georgescu

Professor Gheorghe Duţică PhD (University of Arts „George Enescu” Iaşi)

Abstract Oftentimes, musical composition follows a predeterminate generative mechanism that takes the shape of an algorithm or matrix having the potential of strategic, macrotemporal coverage. In the Concerto for String Orchestra (Concertul pentru orchestră de coarde), the composer achieves a remarkable feat of composition, generating the entire musical discourse based on the exclusive input of a structure mode whose “placement in time” accurately reflects a series of laborious and refined palindromic symmetries.

Key words: structure mode, matrix, algorithm, symmetry, palindrome.

The year 1965 brings forth on the Romanian compositional stage a new work dedicated to the string ensemble written by the composer and conductor Remus Georgescu - Concerto for String Orchestra. On the background of dynamically unprecedented orientations and stylistic tendencies in the latter half of the 20th century, Remus Georgescu will opt for a neoclassical expression with obvious Bartókian resonances. When we make this (preliminary) assertion we have in view a particular type of organising the sonorous material – whose modalism obeys the principles of palindromic symmetry – but also a specific way of dealing with the macrotemporal processes articulated according to criteria of proportion and balance at the level of the part-whole binomial. If we add to these phenomena a harmonic concept of rendering the (melodic) horizontal vertical, of modal-symmetrical emanation (polychord structures), we shall obtain the edifying picture of a substantial, coherent and expressive musical discourse. The 1st movement, Intrada (Molto lento), is a concentrated section with a barform structure (AA1B, bars 1-27) appropriate to the algorithmic function of synthetically exposing the sonorous material and the main morphological structures of the entire concerto. The enterprise is significant for the composer's neoclassical orientation who has an obvious penchant for a dialectic discursiveness where all the elements stem (are derived) from an original thematic matrix. The formative principles that govern the strategy of the 1st movt. are symmetry, transposition and complementarity, contextually active but later extrapolated to the level of the entire work.

49 The concerto's opening sonorous gesture consists in a diagonal sonorous accumulation with a pointillist gradation and a double intervallic determination.

Fig. no. 1 1st movt., bars 1-4, p. 3

Consequently, the oblique motion of advancing consistently and ascendingly (low-high) engages the double-section translation of the periodic group 6:7 (P5/d5), coagulating it cadentially in the harmonic-palindrome block with the structure [6,7,6/7/6,7,6] that glides in a mixed-divergent manner towards a transitory pedal-stage. After this first culminating moment, the respective geometric stratification – synthetically expressed by the symmetrical mode of cardinality 8 [1,1,3,1/1,1,3,1] – will disintegrate after an opposing procedure (the gradual elimination of the voices), but not before being replied to by a brief monodic intervention (motif α, Vl. solo). The occurrence, though meteoric, is decisive – thanks to the complementary contribution of the symmetrical mode [1,5,1], cardinal 4 – to the attaining of the total chromatic (modulo 12). We have to point out the fact that this laconic expositional formulation follows an evolving trajectory whose sonorous density is marked in a tripod manner by the succession: rarefaction-congestion (climax)-rarefaction (see Fig. 2).

Fig. no. 2 1st movt., bars 1-8, p. 3

The next segment (A1, bars 9-19) represents a macro-projection of the symmetry principle, mirroring the processes previously described. Apart from the varied profile of the monodic incision (motif αv, Vla. solo), the only major difference consists in amplifying the timbral apparatus by the multiple division of each orchestral compartment (see Fig. 3). The final segment of the Intrada (B, bars 20-27) – débuting with the same divergent scordatura of the palindrome-harmonic block – brings forth, by means of the intervention of the entire viola section, a precipitated monodic plane having a double contextual significance: closure – a cadential- conclusive character and opening – a nucleic-anticipative character for certain thematic structures in the following movements (especially the 2nd and the 4th). Overall, the concerto's introductory section emanates an austere expression mainly due to the serial “cut” of the sonorous blocks out of the unique matter of the total chromatic, these blocks being materialised into dense polychord structures (cardinal 8) based on the translational symmetry of the diminished fifth (the perfect fifth being merely the consequence of rendering vertical the chain of diminished fifths with their roots disjunct at the semitone B-F→C-G flat→C sharp-G natural→ etc.). The 2nd movement (Allegro giocoso) has a dynamic, striking character (like a toccata), with thematic structures engaged in the construction of a sonata form whose elaborative enterprise is supported by heterogeneous imitative and free polyphonic techniques. The main criterion in edifying the sonorous architecture is the unity of the thematic material derived from the expository entity of the Intrada. Consequently, the first section of the sonata will circumscribe two themes distinct as concerns their melodic profile but consistent with the same generative sonorous magma.

Fig. no. 3 1st movt., bars 9-12, p. 4

Theme I (T1, bars 6-10) occurs after a brief introduction and has an anacrustic-repetitive aspect (bars 1-5) that foretells the evolution of an ostinato with a macrotemporal extension.

Fig. no. 4 2nd movt., bars 1-3, p. 8

In resonance with this rhythmically-harmonically incisive background (polychords combined with pre-cluster structures in staccato), the motif αv1 (anticipated in the Intrada) becomes a generative basis, determining the primordial thematic space by means of a permutational-circular movement. The modal reference to which this formulation belongs (triple juxtaposition of A4/d5, disjunct at m2) is a symmetrical structure organised on two equidistant chromatic trichords with a M3 axis interval: [1,1/4/1,1]

Fig. no. 5a 2nd movt., bars 6-10, p. 8-9

Fig. no. 5b The modal scheme

The re-occurrence of the thematic section by transposition at ↓M2 (T1v, bars 11-15) followed by a brief re-transition (bars 21-23) ends the first expository paragraph whose rhetorical determinations are founded (in the spirit of the neoclassical turnaround) on the expectation of the second theme's occurrence. However, the composer would rather double the exposition time of theme I by repeating in integrum the incipit segment [this device is also adopted by other composers contemporary of Remus Georgescu, one of these being Ion Dumitrescu; see the 1st movt. of the Concerto for string orchestra], keeping the original chronology and proportions: Introduction (bars 21-23) –

53 T1 (bars 24-28) – T1v (bars 29-33) – Transition (bars 34-38). This gesture may well make up for the lack of a proper bridge. Theme II (bars 39-47) preserves the anacrustic pattern and the asymmetrical rhythmical drawing in T1, but it is different in that it replaces the offbeat with syncopation, the latter exercising its contrast function by cumulating several dilated units.

Fig. no. 6 2nd movt., bars 39-47, p. 12-13

While cultivating structural connectors, the quasi-serial modal orientation imposes as well the extraction of the thematic material from the same intonational matrix with the palindromic structure: [1,1/4/1,1]. On the syntactical level, however, the ostinato context will experience a change in quality, going from isomorphic group to linear counterpoint with a well- individualised profile (motif γ).

Fig. no. 7 2nd movt., bars 39-40, p. 12

The development (bars 47-133) outlines a temporal segment significant in terms of extension and sonorous substance, making use intensely of the structural and rhetorical virtues of the two themes. The elaborative process – divided into six minutely determined-phases – does not occur only by transformation but mainly by recontextualisation, a phenomenon that is utmost reducible to the imitative stretto and the simultaneousness of the original-inversion variants. Phase I (bars 47-63) is characterised by the overlap of the variants T2i/ T2 on violins I+II (symmetry axis A sharp/B flat) on an ostinato background whose complexity stems from combining mixtural counterpoint with elements of imitative stretto.

Fig. no. 8 2nd movt., mark C-1, bars (46)47-51, p. 13

Within the same phase, T2's counterpoint complement will be given an autonomous status, thus becoming a polyphonic foreground (proposta) in a quadri-vocal imitative stretto section, while the actual theme will be allotted the integrated status of cantus firmus.

Fig. no. 9 2nd movt., bars 55-57, p. 14

55 Phase II (bars 63-68) is a re-editing of the beginning of Phase I, except that the simultaneous variants (Vl. I/Vlc.) are subject to the reversible device of double counterpoint (T2i/T2→T2/T2i), the intermediate layer being limited, this time, to an isorhythmic-isochronous mixtural stereotype (quavers). Phase III (bars 79-103) is set in deep contrast by toning down the motor continuity imposed by the previous phases and it even marks a spontaneous rarefaction of the sonorous density. Thus, after the monodic display of a possible motif δ (bars 79-82) – unconfirmed, however, by later evolutions – there comes a minimal stretto on the incipit T1 and a global surface reduced to figurative-repetitive insertions. Towards the end of this phase though, the sonorous density will be reconstructed by updating the ostinato context in the Exposition. Phases IV and V follow a cumulative trajectory mainly focused on generalising and amplifying the phenomena of mixture and ostination in the direction of the progressive evolution from rarefaction to congestion. Hence, Phase IV (bars 104-109) débuts in the violas with a minimally- repetitive line (trichord-tribrach) and will continue with a first stage of amplification by paraphonies of augmented fourths/diminished fifths (Vle. divisi) that remind us of the original modal-symmetrical matrix exhibited in the Intrada. This doubling is not a chance occurrence; it represents the landmark that identifies the beginning of a more complex stratification at a higher level, namely the double-mixtural-divergent simultaneousness, on isorhythmic impulses, of the couple T2/T2i (Vl. I+Vl. II).

Fig. no. 10 2nd movt., mark F, bars 105-107, p. 18

56 Phase V (bars 110-122) begins with a superstructure similar to the one in the previous phase, only the thematic substance is subjected to a process of enhanced de-symmetrisation (a variant labour based on metro-rhythmically “conflicting” elements). This new isorhythmic tandem (T2v/T2vi, bars 110- 113) will mark the way to reaching the climax of the entire accumulation, materialised by the polychord mixture of T2 (Vl.+Vlc.+Cb.) on an ostinato background with a triple paraphonic fasciculation (Vle.). Nevertheless, Phases IV+V are significant from another point of view as well, namely the modal strategy defined by the ensemble organisation of the submodes allotted to each layer, that, by union, make an overall result with a density of cardinality 10 and 12 (the total chromatic), respectively.

Fig. no. 11 2nd movt., bars 114-116, p. 20

The synoptic table below displays the three stages of the modal labour, having as reference point the matrix structure of the entire concerto: [1,5,1]. We can observe that the first two stages (bars 104-109; 110-112) lie in the density of a card. 10-palindrome – [1,1,1,1/2/1,1,1,1] resulting from the union of other two palindromes: one of card. 4 [1,5,1] and the other of card. 6 [1,1/4/1,1], whilst the third stage (bars 114-116) reaches the density modulo 12 by the union of two symmetrically-recurrent submodes of card. 7: [1,1/4/1,1,1] U [1,1,1/4/1,1].

Fig. no. 12 R. Georgescu – The modal scheme

Finally, Phase VI (bars 123-133) presents itself as a generalised ostinato that alternates some isorhythmic areas with other complementarily- imitative ones, serving as a conclusion to the entire Development of the sonata form. The Reprise (bars 134-159), the final section of the 2nd movement, folds up the fragments in the Exposition with the T2 elision that is replaced by a Coda (bars 160-182). The final segment is by no means in contradiction with the fundamental structural data: Phase I of the Coda (bars 158-165, Fig. 13) – an area with a polyphonic-imitative “texture” – evolves consistently with the symmetrical mode [1,1/4/1,1/E-F-G flat-A#-B-C] of card. 6 (bars 161-165) resulting from the union of the submodes [1,5,1/F-G flat-B-C] U [1,5,1/E-F-A#-B]. The consistency in deriving the sonorous material from the anticipant unity of the Intrada, the typology of the ostinato structures and the diversity of the thematic recontextualisations are language constants that occur throughout the entire concerto.

Fig. no. 13 2nd movt., bars 158-162, p. 25

The 3rd movement, Interludium (Lento), moulded into a ternary lied form (ABC), is a new instance of the above-mentioned. From the very first measures we notice a significant link to the concerto's first section, segment A (bars 1-11) recalling the atmosphere of the Intrada in terms of its monodic aspect and rubato character of the thematic display.

Fig. no. 14 3rd movt., bars 1-4, p. 28

The filiation is almost self-evident in the context of conveying certain intonations focused on the intervals of diminished fifth/augmented fourth – generative components of the matrix structure.

59 The common denominator of this segment is given by the serial configuration of the melodic line (underlined in the “consistent” phase – bars 5-11 – which answers to the introductory “antecedent”) and the symmetry of the modal availabilities analogous to the previous sections. Although it is a minimal space, the modal density quickly shifts from card. 8 [1,3,1/1/1,3,1 root C] in card. 12 (the total chromatic). In the spirit of this anticipating moment, segment A1 (bars 12-23), continuing by dynamisation in A2 (bars 24-32), brings back to the foreground the motif αv1 which is actually a quotation from the Intrada performed identically by the solo viola. The ostinato-like perpetuation of the respective thematic micro- structure will be accompanied by harmonic or contrapuntal layers of a mixtural nature. In this respect, Fig. 15 presents the structure of a pre-cluster entity obtained by overlapping two diminished fifths.

Fig. no. 15 3rd movt., bars 12-15, p. 28

According to a device frequently used by the composer in this concerto, each sonorous plane is allotted a certain modal structure, actually a submode that, by union with another, provides the intonational unity of the respective area. In our case, both the theme and the harmonic pedal unfold a symmetrical structure of card. 4 [1,5,1], the union (of void intersection) summing up the periodic scale of the 1:2 mode, card. 8, with two contextual transpositions: on C# (bars 12-16) and on D (bars 17-20).

Fig. no. 16 3rd movt., bars 12-20, p. 28-29

Section B (bars 33-47) is fully contrasting by means of rendering the writing linear/personal due to the polyphonic engagement of the sonorous planes whose thematic substance is entailed by combining the originally- inverting variants of the motifs α (B, bars 33-40) and αv (B1, bars 40-47). However, the general motion kept by the imitative dynamism is halted cadentially by means of a climax projected in a polychord-geometric manner, more precisely, a panchromatic structure resulting from the complementarity of three symmetrical segments (palindromes: 1,5,1) of card. 4. The “serial” genesis of the total chromatic's segmentation is quite obvious: [E-F-B flat-B natural/Vlc.+Cb.] U [C-C#-F#-G/Vl.II/2+Vle.] U [D-E flat-A flat-A natural/ Vl. I+ Vl.II/1].

Fig. no. 17 , 3rd movt., bars 43-46, p. 31

The final section, C (bars 48-57), is a conclusion elaborated in the rhetorical key of the previous imitative polyphonic linearity, passing from

61 rarefaction (Piu mosso, bars 48-50) to congestion by stretto (Tempo I, bars 51-54). The final harmonic cadence is similar to the one at the end of section B, with the difference that the polychord's structure, excelling in second overlaps, has a density reduced to card. 6, being the vertical expression of the symmetrical mode [1,1/4/1,1]. The unfolding of the concerto's first three movements has demonstrated, by the indisputable power of the sonorous argument, that the composer Remus Georgescu fully adheres to a concept of edifying the macrostructure of the music opus out of a unique thematic magma. The 4th movement (Allegro vivo ed energico, dubbed The fugue – although this architectonic segment occurs merely as a median section of a complex ternary form: ABA) will be no exception to the rule and will take shape from the substance of two minimal syntagms clearly outlined: the former – a striking rhythmical figure of four semiquavers (x), the latter – the motif α (previously β in the Intrada).

Fig. no. 18 4th movt., bars 2-3, p. 33

These two microstructures that have an isorhythmic-isochronous profile (semiquavers) will be integrated to the morphological unit generating the 4th movement – including the fugue subject –, establishing a new lineage with the original thematic material exhibited in the 1st movement.

Fig. no. 19 4th movt., bars 1-3, p. 33

The segment A/a+a1+a2+a3 (bars 1-29, Fig. 19) begins in fortissimo by the incisive attack of the low-pitched strings with the well-known geometric polychord (quintachord) affirmed in the previous movements.

62 From the viewpoint of the global strategy, the moment proves to be defining for the generic condition of the respective timbral compartment that is changed – for all the ostinato moments of the 4th movt. – into a genuine “percussion” ensemble. Evidently, this rhetorical incipit in the background evolves in tandem with the previously-described thematic syntagm. The presentation of the generative algorithm of the 4th movement cannot overlook the references pertaining to the modal matrix (the unique intonational reservoir of the entire concerto) which is now made available for the edification of the new sonorous context. The emancipation of motif α (αv) within a morphological unit amplified by juxtaposing the originally-inverting variants is actually the structure of the matrix palindrome of card. 6 projected on a melodic plane with an axis-interval [1,1/4/1,1], having two derivatives/palindrome submodes with reversed extremes [1,5/1/5,1]. The new morphological entity will dominate the entire sonorous evolution, being engaged in macro-ostinations with polyphonic-imitative determinations or with mixtural ramifications.

Fig. no. 20 The modal scheme

The mentioned phenomenon becomes strategically important in the inner structuring of the architectonic form – rendered ambiguous by a motorial kineticism “improved” only by the heterogeneous alternation of the metric frames. Thus, the segment Av1/av+av1+av2+av3 (bars 30-63) will bear the mark of integrated simultaneousness (successive+simultaneous) of the variant pair original-inversion (Fig. 20), while the segment Av2/a+av (bars 64-68) will identify itself by means of ample mixtural stratifications in a maximal-tetrachord stage. In fact, the paraphonic fasciculation (begun ever since A/av3) of motif α is consubstantial to the phenomenon of (macro-)ostination that also engages the repetitive figure x – an immense rhetorical demonstration

63 developed in the key of heterogeneous, non-imitative polyphony by means of a process of progressive accumulation in five congruent stages, from mono- to quadri-vocal.

Morpho Stage I Stage II Stage III Stage IV Stage V logical Mark Content Mark Content Mark Content Mark Content Mark Content entities motif α bars Mono- bars Bi- bars Tri- bars Quadri- bars Mixtu- 56 vocal 60 vocal 64 vocal 68 vocal 73-75 ral stage stage; stage; stage; bi-vocal mixture mixtures mixtures stretto s of d5 of d5 and Orig.-Inv. of and p4 p4 d5/A4 Figure x bars Single bars Double bars Triple bars Quadruple bars Quadruple 52 pedal 59 pedal 63 pedal 67 pedal point 73-75 pedal point point point point D-G#-C#- D-G#-C#- on D D-G # D-G#- G natural G natural C#

Tabel no. 1

Fig. no. 21 4th movt., bars 52-60, p. 39-40

64 However, the essence of the advancing strategy lies in the (re)generative potential of the matrix mode [1,1/4/1,1] – a systemic entity subjected to a generalised process of symmetrical translation at m2/semitone (scordatura-like). The effect of this laborious formative enterprise can be found in the structure of the modal areas covering the total chromatic, as happens throughout the extension between bars 1-50. The entire section A is developed in virtue of edifying a form of synthesis with a prerogative character that combines structural-semantic features of the prelude with elements of toccata and variation. The level of sonorous complexity acquired within this temporal interval does not remain suspended as the composer opts for a line of rhetorical continuity between the sections of the 4th movement. Thus, on the background of preserving the elements of harmonic ostination (climactically marked in the final cadence of the 1st movt.) débuts – by means of a genuine “syntax modulation” – a Fugue in four voices (section B, bars 79-105), a contrasting temporal plane due to its imitative polyphonic specifics distinct from the previous heterogeneous stratifications. In this context (although it is not exposed monodically!) the subject – analogous to a cantus firmus – clearly stands out, promoting a rather static image through the large, permutational-circular motion applied to the same minimal modal availabilities [1,1/4/1,1].

Fig. no. 22 4th movt., bars 79-84, p. 42

The relationship Subject→Answer (S→A) cultivates the salience of the tritone (F→B), and the countersubject (CS) is substituted by a very close derivative placed in stretto at the same interval. Moreover, the expositional segment displays all the data of the fugue's virtual strategy, the reiteration of the pair S(A)→CS being constantly doubled by the action of the ostinato plane (isorhythmic-isochronous) having a contrapuntal function and being meant to perpetuate, as pointed out, the image of the generative morphological entities in the preceding sections. The phenomenon is confirmed even in the instances of subject modelling or the vertical relating of the original to its different variants. The following excerpt perfectly illustrates the simultaneous rendering of the pair Sinv. (Vl. I)→S (Vle.+Vlc.), on the one hand, and the pair Av (Vl.II)→Avi (Cb. I), on the other hand.

Fig. no. 23 4th movt., bars 100-101, p. 44

In a rhetorical key, this complexity affiliated to the fugue's concluding segment acquires an apotheotic meaning (culminatio), and this moment, in the composer's opinion, calls for an answer from the symmetrically - re- expositional section Av (bars 106-145). This one, though more concentrated, débuts in full resonance with the edifying premises of section A, but there is also a significant exception related to the succinct insertion of a fugato that reiterates, on a varied thematic incipit, the fugue's expositional trajectory in the median section. The dynamising device consists in the triple juxtaposition with progressive diminution of the thematic incipit – enhanced polyphonically by a bi-vocal canonic stretto (↓P8) –, in a temporal trajectory defined by the asymmetrical metric alternation of the binary (4/4) and the ternary (3/4). The entire evolution preserves both the axis tension (A4) of the pair S→A, and the isorhythmic-isochronous pattern of the ostinato layer redefined as early as the fugue's main stage as a species counterpoint.

Fig. no. 24 4th movt., mark L, bars 122-124, p. 48

The Concerto for string orchestra by Remus Georgescu stands out due to its rigorous architectonic construction whose predeterminations lie on the plane of a generative modal matrix based on mirror symmetry. This unique thematic magma will direct all the processes of the sonorous evolution, subordinating in a “neoclassical” manner the entire arsenal of elaborative means and devices, of compositional techniques. We note the prevalence of multi-plane macro-ostination areas, of several polyphonic-imitative contexts as well as of a harmonic background entailed by the symmetry of certain chord layer structures where the fourth and the fifth are often the formative elements. The concerto's dominant expression is the overwhelming, Bartókian vitality, the fruit of a robust, striking orchestration, perfectly moulded on the quasi-geometric structurality of the musical discourse. Overall, the Concerto for string orchestra by Remus Georgescu represents a major work in the music literature of the genre and, at the same time, is a valuable item in the Romanian musical output from the latter half of the 20th century.

The music of Aurel Stroe: Longing for heaven

Associate Professor Petruţa Coroiu PhD (”Transilvania” University Braşov)

„I'm looking for the form that I always escapes through fingers”. (Constantin Brâncuşi) Abstract For more than a decade, I have had the privilege of beeing subjective with regard to the personality of the master Aurel Stroe. Without forgetting the musical analysis, I always tried to capture – just in ephemeral words - the complexity of his soul, as I had the opportunity to know him over the past 15 years of life. The soul of an artist is just as important as his music, because art only reflects the inner creative resources of the human personality. Aurel Stroe was the artist who made gifts: his soul, his visions, his compositions, his thoughts. Aurel Store gifted himself, not only his own things. His main concern on onthology was the essence of his thinking. That’s why all these memories faced time and continues to live today in our hearts.

Key words: Aurel Stroe, concerto, saxophone, symphony-concerto, dramatic musical discourse, palimpsest, paradigm

For more than a decade, I have had the privilege of beeing subjective with regard to the personality of the master Aurel Stroe. Without forgetting the musical analysis, I always tried to capture – just in ephemeral words - the complexity of his soul, as I had the opportunity to know him over the past 15 years of life. The soul of an artist is just as important as his music, because art only reflects the inner creative resources of the human personality. Testimony of its maturity, the last three concerts of Aurel Stroe fit into the concertant genre, even if the Saxophone-concerto has dramatic profile that is more like a Symphony-concerto. Therefore, the comparison and evolution can be better seen when we can preserve one of the important parameters of the three musical creations: the genre. Also, the fact that these concerts belong to the latter years of the great composer’s life, makes this three concerts an evidence of a career summary, having spiritual dimensions, difficult to approximate and assimilate. For a deep understanding of that complex work, we are interested in the evolution of the dramatic musical discourse, of the ideea that fundaments all the work. Aurel Stroe developed some great musical scenarios, a typology of componistic archetypes that animate in a unique way every work of art. We can establish, in the end, the principal models of the musical discourse of Aurel Stroe, and the fundaments of becoming communicative. We are proposing an analysis of the symphonic language from the stylistical and dramaturgical point of view, an analysis of Stroe’s specific symphonic thinking. This analysis should be based on revolutionary concepts in

69 the history of creative musical art: for example, composition with more incommensurable paradigms and the cultural poliphonic levels of the work. This dramaturgical-discoursive diagram is a general framework that we’ll allow us the consolidation of all analytical data of the research. Aurel Stroe approached new prospects of the composing art in European music, so we intend to analyse the structure coordinates. Before the analysis itself, we add some references on artistic and scientific arguments that support the significance of the concertante works of Aurel Stroe: in the artistic and metaphisical section we can analyze the philosophical, visual, theological and linguistic arguments. In the field of the scientific arguments, we can analyse the parallelism between the ideatic profile of Aurel Stroe's concerts and the following fields: mathematics, physics and biology. Considering the artistic manifestations of other centuries, the modern art is distinguished precisely, by individualizing aesthetic guidelines. In the contemporary context, it’s very difficult to maintain the traditional form of culture as a "form of loving the world and hoping for the best"; Aurel Stroe promotes such profound and generous idea about his art. Aurel Stroe is among the most valuable composers of Romania of the last half-century, but falls into a stream of thought which gives the value of a complex vision: the modern thinking with spiritual amplitude. In the contemporary art, the ways of knowledge are those that have contributed to the degradation of the artistic mentality, many artists have ignored the fact that the profound knowledge cannot be taught and promoted. The main source of errors of modernity was the removal of the transcendent, which protects the spiritual values of humanity. Aurel Stroe falls in this context by the inflection of meta-stylistic visions in his works L'enfant et le diable, Bach Sound Introspections, Mozart Sound Introspections, Concerto for saxophone and orchestra, Orestia and Das Weltkonzil; in these cases, the ideea of the palimpsest suggests the temporal multiplicity, the composition with multiple paradigms. We consider the unique way in which the national feeling is reflected in the musical works of Aurel Stroe. He introduces the dimension of the profound romanian spiritualitly: "every person in the depths contains the the memory of the collective experience, the archetypes of humanity", said Father prof. Constantin Galeriu1. The value of the music composed by Aurel Stroe is attributed not only to the valuable thinking approach which the composer creates before effectively composing the sonorous work of art, but especially to the ideational constellation left behind by every musical work composed by him. In the last three concerts composed in the last decade, Aurel Stroe developed a composition which crucially oversteps the borders of music, amplifying the soloist-metaphor beyond the limits of the XXth century.

1 Pr. Prof. C.Galeriu, A.Pleşu, G.Liiceanu, DIALOGURI DE SEARĂ (EVENING DIALOGUES) (Bucharest: Harisma, 1992), p. 58. 70 The Concert for violin and ensemble of soloists contains incommensurable elements alternating in the macro-structure of six sections: Paganiniana (the musical exponent of traditional musical culture) and Ecoute fine (the prototype of the oriental music). Aurel Stroe created the meeting between two worlds, like did Eminescu in his poetry (Luceafărul): the mistycal- eternal world, the real-ephemeral world. The relationship between the two universes cannot be real; the stylistic contamination finally goes to the collapse of the expressive plan (through a conscious and continuous degradation of sound plans)2. The most acute philosophical problems are located in the five parts of the Concerto for saxophone and orchestra: the melodic archetypes (Multimobile), the "secret harmony", the "Carnival", ”the rest” incorporated into the concept of "open opera". The Concerto for accordion and ensemble of soloists contains the deepest componistic problems, beeing the last in the chronological serie of his concertant works. The four parties are proposing a series of five chorals (”hommage a Erik Satie”) – interrupted by an ”inventio” and a ”disipative fugue", an ”accord-matrice” and a polyphonic final. Aurel Stroe redefines some archetypes accredited by the music history of Baroque (the choral, the inventio, the fugue), a neoclassical gesture with strong constructivist tendencies. Thinking about the artistic personality of master Aurel Stroe, I've remembered him as I often saw him: his greatest joy was to spend a few minutes listening, in silence, a masterpiece. He shared the silences like no other, more than we usually do. He didn't expect gratitude, he knew how to be happy for the others: I saw him capable of admiring the beauty of everything (the ability to admire is a gift, especially today). Admiring means to give something of yourself, to put yourself in the shadow of what you admire. I saw him enjoying the music with the simplicity of a child and suddenly becoming very complex when he thinked about the ontological problemes of Parmenides and other great thinkers. I saw him having the power not to blame anybody when he was forgotten. I saw him glad to share ideas, to communicate and to be part of the communion. I saw him beeing the man who had the courage to be human, rather than just a teacher, asking about us, about our destiny, then concerned about the evolution of our compositions. I saw him interested in our lives, as much as our careers. I saw him as the man who took the full details of his life: the affirmation of his faith and spirituality, with much discretion, but with big power. I heard him telling us about beeing around ”RUGUL APRINS” at Antim Monasterie in Bucharest, after that beeing hidden, living with the fear of being caught and

2 ”The effort of interpretation shows the intent to defeat a cultural distance” in P.Ricoeur, CONFLICTUL INTERPRETĂRILOR (THE CONFLICT OF INTERPRETATIONS) (Cluj- Napoca: Echinox, 1999), p. 8. 71 jailed. He is probably the only one who has not paid with the death his membership in this great cultural-religious motion. Aurel Stroe was the man who was not proud of itself, the man who does not talk for hours about his thinking, he didn’t wasted time with words, he went directly to the essence, to the ontology. He was the teacher able to enjoy the success of his students more than his own success. He was the great artist completely devoid of vanity: something rare, something reminding us about Enesco and saints. Aurel Stroe was the artist accessible to any discussion, for any question, a man who could always get to. Aurel Stroe was the man who, in the few quiet evenings, admired the sunset after the Caraiman mountain, with the untold melancholy; climbing the mountains was, for Aurel Stroe, self discovery. I didn’t see him climbing the Bucegi heights, but I saw him fully-expressing his longing for heaven. He was the man who made gifts: his soul, his visions, his compositions, his thoughts. Aurel Store gifted himself, not only his own things. His main concern on onthology was the essence of his thinking. That’s why all these memories faced time and continues to live today in our hearts. Master Aurel Stroe had no real appreciation of material things, because his spiritual, creative interests were always intense. He saw only the beautiful part of the world, although he had the power to see everything. Maybe in his soul everything became beautiful and simple. I didn’t see him judging, I felt just he was often covered with a bitterness which he tried to dig out quickly from the soul, when it happened to be from the closest collaborators. He was a gentle man, but he became careful when he was in the musical situation of hearing his works. He was a great composer, with a powerful sense of his strong personality, in the time of imitating the great ideas. He left us like his ascendent melody of the Saxophone Concerto, like a humble rise in the eternity. His beautiful memory reminds me the poem The Way signed by Marin Sorescu, which reflects the mentality of the Romanian musician: Deeply thinking, I go on the railway, the shortest possible path. Behind me, comes a train which didn’t hear anything about me. This train will never get me, because I will always have an advance toward things that are not thinking. Or even if brutally it will pass over me, I will always find a man who can walk in the front, full of thoughts… just like me now, in the face of the black monster approaching with terrifying speed… .

72 Modern Approaches of the Orpheus Myth in Romanian Music. Tudor Feraru: The Lyre of Orpheus and Şerban Marcu: orfeuridice1

Junior lecturer Tatiana Oltean Ph.D (The “Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy, Cluj-Napoca)

Abstract The present research brings into light two musical scores recently composed – orfeuridice2, ballet for chorus and chamber ensemble written by Şerban Marcu and The Lyre of Orpheus, choreographic poem written by Tudor Feraru. The two composers are young members of the Transylvanian contemporary composition school, both disciples of Cornel Ţăranu. The analytical and comparative approach highlights the particularities of musical language, structure and creative view towards the Ancient myth of Orpheus in the two works mentioned above. The research also focuses on the staging of the two works, comparing the choreographic perspectives of Melinda Jakab, who choreographed the two works, the particular use and significance of symbols and message involved both in music and dance.

Key words: ballet, Orpheus, mythology, musical language, choreographic perspective

The mythological hero Orpheus is linked to the history of classical music since the Renaissance. Composers have chosen this character as hero in musical works covering most of the genres, among them opera being the most preeminent. The birth of first operas (due to Peri, Caccini and Monteverdi, at the beginning of the 17th Century), Christoph Willibald Gluck and Ranieri de’ Calzabigi’s reform of the genre (1762, Orfeo ed Euridice), the first operetta (Jacques Offenbach, Orpheus in der Unterwelt, 1858), the first electronic music opera (Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry, Orpheus ’53, 1953) are peak moments in the history of the genre that are linked to the myth; Even a rock-opera bares his name: Orpheus and Eurydice by Alexander Zhurbin (1975), as well as musical films (The Orphic Trilogy, 1950, directed by Jean Cocteau and Orfeo negro, 1959, directed by Marcel Camus). The myth of Orpheus is widely spread in cantatas (Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Jean-Philippe Rameau, Hector Berlioz, Gioacchino Rossini), tone-poems (Franz Liszt) and even lieder (Franz Schubert). Regarding the history of dance, the Renaissance period hosts the myth in its first documented dance staged production: The Celebration of Orpheus (Milano, 1489)3. Great composers4 have been inspired by it in their ballet works:

1 This work was supported by CNCSIS-UEFISCSU, project number PN II-RU 511/2010, as part of the postdoctoral research grant entitled The avatars of the Orpheus myth in music history (grant director: Tatiana Oltean). 2 The particular use of small caps in the title and subtitles of the work is due to the literary source of Elena Maria Şorban’s poems. The composer assumes the exact spelling of the literary source. 3 see also Tilde Urseanu and collab., ISTORIA BALETULUI (THE HISTORY OF BALLET) (Bucharest: Muzicală, 1967), p. 38.

73 Heinrich Schütz (the score was lost), Igor Stravinski, Henk Badings, Hans Werner Henze. Moreover, a revival of the myth has been taking place during the 20th Century, especially in the output of Igor Stravinsky. His ballets Apollon musagète, Persephona and Orpheus bear testimony to his fascination for Ancient Greek mythology. At the same time, Romanian composers have highly valued the myth of Orpheus. There are few musical works based on the myth in the Romanian musical output, and nevertheless, they are of major impact and interest. One possible explanation could be the fact that Romanian composers are deeply bound to the Romanian folk mythology, centered upon fundamental myths as Miorita and Manole, the Craftsman. There have been some remarkable masterworks composed on Orpheus myth in the Romanian output: a comic opera by Marcel Mihalovici (L'intransigeant Pluton ou Orphée aux Enfers, 1928) and an opera by Gheorghe Dumitrescu (Orpheus, 1977-’78), a cantata by Cornel Ţăranu, based on lyrics by Romanian poet Cezar Baltag (Orpheus, for baritone and orchestra, 1984-’85). As for the ballet Romanian works, the two scores that are subject to analysis in this paper are the first ones based on the myth5.

4 Here is a chronological list of ballet works based on the Orpheus myth: B. Grassi, Orfeo, 1631, H. Schütz, Orfeo (the score is now lost), 1638, Fr. Deller, Orfeo und Eurydike, 1763, J-G. Noverre, Orfeo und Eurydike, music by J. Starzer, 1763, L. Henry, Orfeo, 1821, music by W.R. Gallenberg, F. de Bourguignon, La mort d’Orphée, 1928, H. Badings – Orpheus und Eurydike, 1941, I. Stravinski, Orpheus, 1947, P. Henry, Orphée, 1959, A. v. Miloss, Orpheus verliert Eurydike, 1965, H.W. Henze, Orpheus, 1976. See Herbert Hunger, LEXIKON DER GRIECHISCHEN UND ROEMISCHEN MYHOLOGIE: mit Hinweisen auf d. Fortwirken antiker Stoffe u. Motive in d. Bildenden Kunst, Literatur u. Musik d. Abendlandes bis zur Gegenwart, 8. Erweiterte Auflage (Wien: Verlag Brueder Hollinek, 1988), p. 377. 5 Both works have been composed as part of a postdoctoral research grant entitled Avatars of the Orpheus Myth in the History of Music, funded by the Romanian National Council of Scientific Research in Universities (CNCSIS; grant director: Tatiana Oltean). The music scores have been published by the MediaMusica Publishing House in Cluj-Napoca and staged at the „Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy Studio Concert Hall on the 23rd of November 2011. The staging in one singular performance is also the reason for the similar instrumentation of the two ballets: flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, strings quartet and percussion. The artists involved were students at the „Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy and dancers from the Hungarian Opera House in Cluj-Napoca, as well as members of the Jubilate Choir of St. Joseph Greek-Catholic Church conducted by Rodica Trandafir. The choreography of the performance was signed by Jakab Melinda. Tudor Feraru conducted the performance of both works.

74 The two composers, Tudor Feraru6 and Şerban Marcu7, are already well-known to the public ever since the last decade, each manifesting himself differently when it comes to expressing their creativity, although they are both disciples of Cornel Ţăranu (preeminent leader of the Romanian school of composition and disciple of Sigismund Toduţă): Tudor Feraru seems to show a deep interest in chamber instrumental genres, generally non-programmatic, while Şerban Marcu feels attracted to the vocal genres: choral, vocal and vocal- instrumental, as well as opera. Tudor Feraru finds himself at his first encounter, as a composer, to the ballet genre, being at the same time the author of a chamber opera – The Piano Teacher (2008), based on a short-story by the Romanian novelist and great historian of religions Mircea Eliade. Conversely, Şerban Marcu has written ballet music before: the chamber ballet Arahneea (2006), witnessing a profound involvement into Greek mythology across his output (a vocal-instrumental tone- poem entitled Filemon and Baucis, 2001, and a chamber symphony, Acteon, 2007). The following analysis will focus on comparative features concerning the two musical works mentioned above and, nonetheless, the two choreographic views: being completely free in their creative approach to the myth, the two composers chose different and highly original paths. For Tudor Feraru, the Lyre embodies Eurydice, Music and Creativeness at the same time. As central character, the Lyre is stolen by satyrs and kept captive in the Underworld, as well as the artist’s reason to live and create. On the contrary, in Şerban Marcu’s view, the Ancient myth is not fundamentally changed or aborted, but presented

6 The young Romanian composer Tudor Feraru graduated Composition and Orchestra Conducting at the „Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy in 2001 under the guidance of Cornel Ţăranu and Petre Sbârcea. In 2003, he finalized a Masters Degree in Music at the University of Western Ontario, Canada, where he studied Composition under Omar Daniel. During 2004-2008 he has undertaken doctoral studies at the University of British Columbia, under the tutorship of Stephen Chatman. During these years, he taught Theory of Music, Harmony, Composition and Chamber music at the Universities mentioned above. At the same time he directed the Contemporary Music Ensembles at UWO and UBC. Since 2009, he teaches at the « Gheorghe Dima » Music Academy. See the Preface (written by Tatiana Oltean) of the general score The Lyre of Orpheus by Tudor Feraru, MediaMusica Publishing House, Cluj, 2011, p. IV. 7 Born in 1977 in Braşov (Romania), Şerban Marcu graduated the „Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy in Cluj-Napoca in 2001. During 1999-2000 he was participant at the Composition Courses in Český Krumlov (Czech Republic) under Marek Kopelent, Osvaldas Balakauskas, Vinko Globokar, Petr Kotik. He completed his doctoral studies in 2006 under the tutorship of Cornel Ţăranu, with a thesis named Some features of contemporary musical writing in vocal- instrumental works. His output consists in songs, choral works, tone-poems, a miniopera, a chamber ballet and a chamber symphony. Şerban Marcu teaches Harmony at the “Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy in Cluj-Napoca. See Tatiana Oltean: Preface to orfeuridice, general score, MediaMusica Publishing House, Cluj, 2011, pp. IV-V.

75 in successive episodes that are „cut” and interpolated with a cappella choral interludes. The ethos of the Ancient Greek Tragedy choir is not the only feature of this kind that the composer employs: significant in this regard are also the sonorities of Ancient Greek instruments as the lyre or the kithara (in the score it is the harp who embodies them) and aulos (the flute and the clarinet, which are at the same time personifications of the main characters –Eurydice and Orpheus, respectively), as well as modal constructions in horizontal, vertical and oblique postures based on perfect intervals as fourth and fifth, taking as a model the presumed structure of the Ancient phorminx tuning (e-a-h-e). Concerning the architectural structure of the two works, one can identify features that both composers use and some particularities that are bound to the unfolding of the myth in each work. The bold subtitles of several episodes in the following table show the common parts of the myth that appear in both musical works:

The Lyre of Orpheus – Tudor Feraru orfeuridice – Şerban Marcu 1. Sunrise over the Olympian Forest 1. preludio (choral) 2. i am orpheus, i am euridyce... (choral)

2. Orpheus and his Lyre 3. orpheus and eurydice 3. The stealing of the Lyre 4. if you were to come in hell... (choral) 4. Orpheus’ Descent to the Underworld 5. orpheus in the Underworld 5. Before the throne of Hades (dance of

Hypnos and Thanatos)

6. The Charming of Persephone (Orpheus’

Plea)

7. Return and Punishment (the vanishing of 6. i do not know whether i belong to you the Lyre) (choral) 8. The silent wandering 7. orpheus’ death

After having observed the unfolding of the episodes of both works, it may be concluded that in the first one, The Lyre of Orpheus by Tudor Feraru, there is a rather epic view of the story in which, excepting the first and the last episode, there is a „purple line” holding the action focused on the Underworld part of the myth (episodes 4 to7). In orfeuridice by Şerban Marcu, there is a more lyrical and poetic approach to the myth and, although one can undersee the focal points of the unfolding of the story, in episodes 3, 5 and 7, they are always interrupted by a cappella static moments of the choir. In spite of these particularities, the essential moments of the myth are to be found in both works: they are the love duet between the two lovers, the descent to the Underworld, Eurydice’s death and the wandering/death of Orpheus. As a personification of Music itself, the Lyre of Orpheus in Tudor Feraru’s work is suggested by the sonorities of the harp, whereas Orpheus has

76 his own timbrality suggestion: the clarinet. In this way, the composer gives life to a love story through musical suggestion in the second episode of his ballet, using stretto imitation between the two instruments, as well as mirrored superpositions:

Ex. No. 1, Tudor Feraru, The Lyre of Orpheus, Episode 2: Orpheus and his Lyre, bars 37-42 (cl., hp.)

The journey of Orpheus from the happiest love story ever told up to his wandering in search of his lost inspiration and final death is musically expressed through the transgression from clarinet to cello and finally to bassoon. Şerban Marcu’s orfeuridice is based on two literary sources: Ovid’s Metamorphoses (Books X and XI) and four poems by Elena Maria Şorban8. Moreover, the title and subtitles of his work are suggested by this last source. His genre option – ballet for choir and instrumental ensemble – reminds of the syncretic Ancient Greek Tragedy, as well as the spectacular French Baroque musical-theatrical performances, where voice, instruments, verse and movement were equally contributing to the artistic phenomenon. In his musical- dramaturgical approach, the composer prefers a much more poetic and static atmosphere, except the episode of Orpheus’ slaughter by the hands of the maenads – a frantic dance based on a lydic scale, in rush tempo, featuring the

8 Elena Maria Şorban (n. 1960) is a musicologist, university professor at the Theoretical Faculty of the „Gheorghe Dima” Music Academy in Cluj-Napoca, where she teaches History of music and Gregorian paleography. Her main subject of interest is the Western liturgic music of medieval Transylvania, with published research in Germany and Poland. Since high- school period, she has a constant activity of writing poems, which were never published ever since. See Tatiana Oltean, Preface to orfeuridice by Şerban Marcu, general score, MediaMusica Publishing House, Cluj, 2011, p. V.

77 piccolo flute solo. The highlight of the grotesque element in this moment of the action, using the acute, rasping and in some extent wild sonority of the piccolo flute – an instrument from the family of flutes that embody Eurydice, draws an abrupt antithesis between Eurydice and the maenads, creating a sharp contradiction between the kindness of the first and the insane cruelty of the latters:

Ex. No. 2, Şerban Marcu, orfeuridice, orpheus’ death, bars 308-309

Both works are structured according to a fine-tuned inner dramaturgy, based on musical principles like gradation and contrast, that guide the musical flow according to the epic unfolding of the myth. În Tudor Feraru’s view, this particular use of gradation is rather in accordance to the meter growth and ungrowth of the meter and scale complexity, the latter being a succession of evergrowing harmonic fields that are at the root of the scales involved in the musical language of each episode. Naturally, after the fifth episode, the most

78 chromatic of all, follows the reversed succession of the same harmonic fields in the next four episodes, as it can be easily seen in the next table:

Ex. No. 3, Tudor Feraru, The Lyre of Orpheus, the gradation of harmonic fields of each episode

This kind of structure leads to a balanced architecture of the whole, having as symmetry axis the fifth episode (Before the throne of Hades), the main climax point of the work. It is a macabre dance filled with grotesque elements, energetic and spasmodic, and having the most chromatic musical structure:

Ex. No. 4, Tudor Feraru, The Lyre of Orpheus, Ep. 5: Before the throne of Hades, bars 97-101

As observed above, Şerban Marcu’s orfeuridice is configured as an alternation of static choral episodes and lyric, poetic danced episodes. In other

79 words, vocal and instrumental sound are never superposed – this is the main contrast that stands at the roots of the work’s inner dramaturgy. There are two separate, distinct worlds – that of voice, of chanted word, and that of pure instrumental sound, of musical metalanguage. Regarding the vocal – particularly choral – episodes, one can obviously see the symmetrical construction of chords, based on the same type of intervals – especially perfect fourths and fifths, in various chordal combinations:

Ex. No. 5, Şerban Marcu, orfeuridice, ep. 2, i am orpheus, i am euridice..., bars 1-5

As in Tudor Feraru’s work, the chromatic parameter is subject to contrast and structuring element in orfeuridice. Diatonic and chromatic language are valued symbolically. But, conversely to the former’s work, the chromaticism is not used as formal effect of gradation, having as main effect symmetry, but used as symbol of the Underworld, especially in the Underworld episode (there is also recognisable the use of the low range of the clarinet, large melodic intervals, tracing a sharp contrast to the high range of strings, that unfold in „chromatic clusters” that lead directly to the maenad’s dance:

Ex. No. 6, Şerban Marcu, orfeuridice, ep. 5, orpheus in the underworld, bars 167-169

80 Another element of contrast in Şerban Marcu’s work is the constant balance between giusto and rubato that can be traced along the whole work. One final remark upon the particularity of musical language in orfeuridice: the use of monody and unisono in the choral parts, which divides progressively developing in dense – sometimes chromatic – chords, which depict a specific use of gradation. As it concerns the two choreographic approaches of the ballets, it is worth observing that they are inscribed in the experimental area by the provocation assigned to choreographer Jakab Melinda itself: the one to produce two distinct choreographic views based on the same myth, starting from the expressive suggestion of each score. The two choreographies were put together in parallel, and the result is displayed both on the level of the stylistic and ideational identity of each ballet, as well as on the level of a homogeneity of the expressive solutions, on a unity in diversity-type of principle for the overall show. The decision to present them within the framework of the same show led choreographer Jakab Melinda to putting the two works in balance – a perfect equilibrium between the particularity of the gestural expression, shaped on the sonorous expression of each distinct work, on one hand, and the unity of movement, message and construction of the artistic image in its complete whole, on the other hand. To put it differently, having at her disposal the students of the choreography class of the Cluj’s Academy of Music and collaborators from the Hungarian Opera of the same city, Jakab Melinda created a unified show and integrated the two works within a homogeneous artistic act. The two ideas functioning as a starting point in the revaluation of the myth are further presented. The Lyre of Orpheus choreographic poem by Tudor Feraru exploits the musical expression directly according to the visual expression. The metaphor of the lyre as a symbol for Eurydice and eventually, of inspiration itself that provides meaning to the creator’s existence, contains in itself the virtuality of the gestural expression necessary for the visually contextualised imagining of the myth: Eurydice IS the lyre. On the other hand, the quasi-cyclical structure of Şerban Marcu’s ballet is to be located also in its choreographic stance: according to Melinda Jakab’s vision and starting from the title of the ballet – orfeuridice, Orpheus and Eurydice are represented as the statue of an embraced couple, enlivened by the Sculptor through the help of the lyre. Orpheus is heartbroken for the irreversible loss of Eurydice and dies, torn apart by the bacchante, but She returns from eternity in order to reunite with Orpheus, forever, in the realm of myth. The two lovers, driven by the sounds of the lyre kept in the Sculptor’s hands, return to the initial image of the statue of the embraced couple. The choir fulfills an important stage role within the choreographic vision of Şerban Marcu’s ballet: in the picture of Eurydice’s death, where she, according to the myth, is bitten to death by a snake, the chorists gradually

81 surround her, through wavelike motions of their arms – a gestural symbol for the snake. The moment of the fatal attack against the heroine is gesturally illustrated simultaneously with the musical gesture through the movement of each chorist’s right arm oriented upwards, describing an incisive and ”sharp” gesture of biting, stretchted and united fingers, oriented downwards. The choir is similarly used as an enlivened background. Around the chorists, placed on the entire surface of the stage, a moment of confrontation between Orpheus and The Sculptor takes place. The use of the human body as enlivened decor, in movement, is employed as a function of a gestural alliance for the show. In The Lyre of Orpheus, the same device is used through the dancers, in the episode where, after losing Eurydice, Orpheus desperately searches for her among shadows, evenly unveiling the head of each dancer. The death of Eurydice is symbolized in the orfeuridice ballet by the gesture of The Sculptor who places a white veil on Eurydice’s head (the overall outfit of the two protagonists is in white – a symbol of their love’s purity). The final death of the nymph is similarly represented by the sudden pull of this veil off her head. However, in Tudor Feraru’s ballet, the seeming death of Eurydice takes the shape of her being kidnapped by the satyrs. Here, the choreographer made use of a ballerina’s body position resembling the instrument. The long hair of the Lyre represents its strings. In the love duet between Orpheus and The Lyre – a moment of maximum poetic weight of choreography – Orpheus ”plays” his Lyre, in stylized movements of caressing the strings. The final death of The Lyre, which precedes the end of the ballet, is an episode of great dramatic intensity, since Orpheus is looking for her among the shadows, but is unable to find her. The choreographic execution is exceptionally made: the two lovers are always visible on the stage, looking for each other, but their ”journeys” are thus conceived such as their gazes never meet. By contrast to the choreographic approach in Şerban Marcu’s ballet, where Orpheus is brought back to life – at least to a life in the realm of myth – by Eurydice, after he was torn apart by the bacchantes, in the visual conversion of Tudor Feraru’s ballet, Orpheus is torn apart by the bacchantes in incisive and synchronic gestures in the direction of Orpheus (meaning, the bacchantes torn apart Orpheus without literally touching him). Orpheus breaks down with each ”attack”, encountering greater difficulty in rising up again. The end of the ballet exhibits the bacchantes in an act of ”sucking”, through regressive gestures, the vital breath from the hero’s chest. While in Tudor Feraru’s The Lyre of Orpheus one can identify a choreographic vision closer to the epic concreteness of the myth, full of symbols and gestural expressiveness, in Şerban Marcu’s orfeuridice, the choreographic concept tends more to abstracting, stylizing and lyrical poetry.

82 Bibliography Acsan, Ion. ORFEU ŞI EURIDICE ÎN LITERATURA UNIVERSALĂ (ORPHEUS AND EURIDICE IN UNIVERSAL LITERATURE). Bucharest: Albatros, 1981. Hunger, Herbert. LEXIKON DER GRIECHISCHEN UND ROEMISCHEN MYHOLOGIE: mit Hinweisen auf d. Fortwirken antiker Stoffe u. Motive in d. Bildenden Kunst, Literatur u. Musik d. Abendlandes bis zur Gegenwart, 8. Erweiterte Auflage. Wien: Verlag Brueder Hollinek, 1988. Kapp, Reinhard. CHRONOLOGISCHES VERZEICHNIS (in progress) der auf Orpheus (und/oder Eurydike) bezogenen oder zu beziehenden Opern, Kantaten, Instrumentalmusiken, literarischen Texte, Theaterstücke, Filme und historiographischen Arbeiten (http://www.musikgeschichte.at/kapp-orpheus.pdf , updated 22.06.2011) Urseanu, Tilde, Ianegic, Ion, Ionescu, Liviu. ISTORIA BALETULUI (THE HISTORY OF BALLET). Bucharest: Muzicală, 1967.

Music scores Tudor Feraru, Lira lui Orfeu (The Lyre of Orpheus), choreographic poem. Cluj-Napoca: MediaMusica, 2011. Şerban Marcu, orfeuridice, ballet for choir and chamber ensemble, lyrics by Elena Maria Şorban. Cluj-Napoca: MediaMusica, 2011.

Aspects of contemporary liturgy music in the Republic of Moldova – The Liturgy by Vladimir Ciolac and The Hymns of the Saint Liturgy of Saint John the Chrysostom by Teodor Zgureanu

Lecturer Irina Zamfira Dănilă PhD (University of Arts “George Enescu”, Iasi)

Abstract. The present paper focuses on two choral liturgy pieces which are representative of the music composed in the Republic of Moldova, The Liturgy by Vladimir Ciolac and the Hymns of the Saint Liturgy of Saint John the Chrysostom by Teodor Zgureanu. Through the complex musical analysis the paper aims at: 1. identifying possible intonation sources inspired from psaltic music which are used as a melody profile in these liturgies; 2. emphasizing the specific musical methods used by the two authors to adapt it.

Key words: the Republic of Moldova, Vladimir Ciolac, Teodor Zgureanu, choir liturgy, psaltic style melody invention.

After the year 1812 when Moldova was incorporated in the Russian Empire, in the part of this region beyond the river Prut (currently the Republic of Moldova) religious music was performed in Russian, which then became the official language in administration, education and religion; religious music thus followed the Russian - Ukrainian model of church choir singing, especially in the cathedrals in the large cities. In the rural areas, however, as well as in the Romanian monasteries located in Bessarabia, the religious service was still performed in Romanian, while traditional Romanian psaltic music of Byzantine origin was being used in the service. After the union of Bessarabia with Romania (1928) and its subsequent separation (1940), Romanian became once again the official language of the religious service; this stimulated the creation of a new liturgy repertoire in Romanian. One of the major musical personalities of the period between the two wars was Mihail Berezovschi; he is considered to be one of the founders of the Bessarabian musical school of composition and conducting. After World War II, as the communist atheistic regime took over the power in Romania, both the creation and performance of religious music were prohibited. Overt inspiration from religious music and themes was acceptable only after 1990, when in Romania a new climate was obvious, which brought about political, social, cultural and religious changes. Many composers of the time created pieces belonging to choir religious music, such as Serafim Buzilă1,

1 He composed Liturghia N1 and Liturghia N2/ The Liturgy. Larisa Balaban, Genurile muzicii corale religioase în creaţia compozitorilor din R. Moldova, PhD dissertation - abstract (Chişinău, 2005), p. 8.

85 Vladimir Ciolac, Teodor Zgureanu2 and Nicolae Ciolac3. Some of them also created vocal-dramatic religious pieces intended for the concert hall: Teodor Zgureanu (the oratorio Noaptea Sfântului Andrei/Saint Andrew’s Night), Vladimir Ciolac (Requiem for a female Choir, soloists and organ, 1995, Stabat mater for a female choir and string orchestra, 1997), Magnificat (2003)4. Of the material of religious musical inspiration created in the Republic of Moldova after the year 1990, we have selected for this paper the liturgies by Vl. Ciolac and T. Zgureanu, as they are recent pieces using various musical sources and compositional methods. The aim of the paper is to discover possible intonation sources inspired from psaltic music in the pieces of the two composers and to point at the musical methods to adapt these sources.

I. Vladimir Ciolac – The Liturgy

Vladimir Ciolac is a reputed composer and conductor from the Republic of Moldova, currently teaching at the “Gavriil Musicescu” Music, Theatre and Arts Academy of Chişinău. His work consists of vocal and instrumental music; he is mainly interested in choir music, both sacred and lay. The former includes the hymns of the Saint Liturgy of John Chrysostom for a female choir of equal voices5 (1993), which has been recently adapted for a mixed choir with the title The Liturgy6. The piece contains the main elements of the liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom, with a second version of the choir One Born, The Mercy of Peace and We Are Praising You added for each. Both the melody and the adaptation of the Liturgy are inspired from choir music of Russian tradition; the piece is illustrative in this respect of the trend in choir music in Bessarabia. With this piece, Vladimir Ciolac continues the tradition inaugurated by Gavriil Musicescu at the end of the 19th century and by Mihail Berezovschi in the period between the wars7. If Mihail Berezovschi in his main works approached traditional psaltic singing and even the quotation

2 Academia de Ştiinţe a Moldovei. Institutul Patrimoniul Cultural. Centrul Studiul Artelor, ARTA MUZICALĂ ÎN REPUBLICA MOLDOVA. ISTORIE ŞI MODERNITATE (Chişinău: Grafema Libris SRL, 2009), pp. 524-525. 3 He composed Liturghia/The Liturgy (2001). Larisa Balaban, op. cit. p. 12. 4 Academia de Ştiinţe a Moldovei. Institutul Patrimoniul Cultural. Centrul Studiul Artelor, op.cit., p. 520. 5 Larisa Balaban, op.cit., p. 9. 6 Vladimir Ciolac, Liturghia: Cu binecuvântarea ÎPS Vladimir Mitropolitului Chişinăului şi întregii Moldove/Under the benediction of his Holiness the Metropolitan Bishop of Chişinău and the entire Moldova, Pontos, Chişinău, 2004. 7 As a teacher at the theology school and of the Choir of the Chişinău Cathedral, to meet the repertoire needs of his choir, Mihail Berezovschi composed The Hymns of the Saint Liturgy (1922) and The Hymns for the evening and morning (1927); these pieces were greatly appreciated and were highly popular, especially in the churches in the urban areas of Bessarabia.

86 from psaltic chanting, which he adapted using tonal instruments, in his Liturgy, Vl. Ciolac created an original melody line, highly appropriate for singing, inspired from the Russian traditional melodies, sometimes even from the Slavonic psaltic musaic, with no melisma ornaments and therefore with an obvious harmonic function; Vl. Ciolac also makes an adequate selection of the modal-tonal planes and of each voice parts. The harmonized melody recitativo, which is a means of expression typical of Russian religious choir music, is also present in some of the choir pieces of the Liturgy (Holy God, The threefold ektenis, The Creed). In other pieces (Unto Your Kingdom, One Born, The Heruvikon), the melody is related to the monody of Orthodox psaltic music, as it is still practiced in Bessarabia, especially in the churches in the rural areas.

1) Unto Your Kingdom This piece is actually the third Antiphon of the Holy Liturgy illustrating the text The Beatitudes delivered by Jesus Christ in His sermon on the Mountain (Matthew, ch. 6 to 7). In this piece, the composer creates a musical atmosphere similar to that in the psalms by using a melody invention in the psaltic fashion adapted with appropriate musical instruments: the musical discourse is not placed between bars. In terms of musical architecture, the Antiphon consists of eleven stanzas; the first is introductory and the final is conclusive, each stanza contains two musical sentences. In the first stanzas, the composer distributes the melody of the first sentence of the text to one of the two groups of singers, usually to the female voices; the second sentence is supported in chords by the other group of singers (male voices) on an ison pedal. In the last part of The Beatitudes, the musical discourse is supported by all the singing voices mainly in an isorhythmic chord style. In the introduction (stanza 1), the female group of singers intones the melody in the first psaltic mode on pa (D) in unison; the text is “Unto Your Kingdom, remember us, oh, Lord”; there are several cadenza required by the text at the first step of the mode (D) through the subtonic C and on the 4th degree (G), with cadences which have obvious modal elements:

87 After the conclusion of the first sentence on the first step of the mode (D), the group of female singers holds this sound which serves as an ison, while the melody is continued by the tenor and supported harmonically by the divided bass group of singers; thus, the chord structure is created on both the main and the secondary steps of D minor (which would be the scale of the echo I on D in a tempered rendition):

The first beatitude (the 2nd stanza of the piece) with the text “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs will be the Kingdom of Heaven” brings to the fore a musical motif representative of the ondulatio type – motif a, that will be reiterated in various guises along the entire piece:

The melody of this stanza was created on the basis of a generating motif; with a modal quality, it evolves along a pentachord with a subtonic, starting from G (at the end of the first sentence) on D. In the second sentence, it moves towards the low register of the scale, under pa (D) up to ke (A), as it is sung by the tenor, similarly as in the introductory part, and it is adapted harmonically in a similar manner to that in the first stanza:

The next two Beatitudes (stanzas 3 and 4) do not bring any crucial changes in the manner of adaptation or of the final cadences of the sentences as compared to those presented previously. However, the melodic contour and the incipits of the melodies are altered through movement by one step lower (on F) as compared to the generating motif in the second stanza (in the 3rd stanza) and the return to G (in the 4th stanza):

In the fourth Beatitude (the 5th stanza), the melody, sung by the high pitch voices (soprano and tenor) in a high register and supported by the eighth ison of the other two voices (on the sound pa-re), modulates in the tetraphonic scale on ke (A) of the 5th echo; the cadence of the first sentence is not placed at the basis of the scale ke as the theory of the 5th echo stipulates, but on the second degree, zo (B); the ison in the second sentence is also placed here. The harmonic plane is also adjusted from D minor to E minor through diatonic modulation:

The fifth Beatitude (the 6th stanza) with the text “Blessed are the merciful, for they shall find mercy” initially repeats the motif which is present in the previous stanza, but the melody no longer follows the patterns of the psaltic modes used so far (the tetraphonic on ke, or that of the 1st echo, on pa), with a final cadence on G. the composer prefers a style which is mainly chordic, with short pedal interpositions of the soprano and bass; in the second sentence, a chromatic modulation from E minor to G minor is used.

The following two Beatitudes (stanzas 7th and 8th ) is remarkable through the contrast between the intonation in the unison with a pedal of the first sentence and the chordic and isorhythmic style of the second sentence. In terms of the melody, both stanzas begin by a lowering of the incipit of the generating motif by one step (from D’ to C’); in a vertical chordic plane it occurs the maintaining of the harmonic plane in G minor (in the 7th stanza) and the chromatic modulation from G minor to F major (in the end of the 8th stanza). Stanzas 9th and 10th bring to the fore, as the main instrument of musical expression, the harmonized melody recitativo sung in tutti, in an isorhythmic manner on the chords of the main and secondary steps and of the initial tonality D minor. The generating motif is present in these last beatitudes, yet it is diversified and altered and it is sung not by the soprano, but by the bass. The last part of the Beatitudes is found in the last stanza (the 11th), which has a conclusive role in this ample piece; it sets the harmonic plane of D minor

90 with both plagal and authentic chord relations. The following are the relations in 6 6 6 the second sentence, also in the final cadence: G VI-I 4-VI- I 4-IV_6-II6-I 4-V7-I:

Through its melodic contour inspired from psaltic singing and the musical methods appropriately used (the simple and double ison, the unison, the light harmonic style, the complementary nature of the voice planes), The Beatitudes by Vl. Ciolac can be considered a valuable and original choir composition for the liturgy.

2) The Heruvikon It is a choral piece created by using simple yet efficient musical methods. The structure of the first part of the Heruvikon Hymn is a large tristrophic structure: A A’ A’’, a repetition with a different text of the first stanza A which consists of a sequence of sentences: A – “Which the Cherubim”, B “Which the Cherubim” and C – “mysteriously impersonating.” The piece is created in E minor and the measure is not mentioned, as the autor considered that it is not the meter that counts, but the melodic sentence subordinated to the religious text. It is interesting to note that the melodic contour is distributed to the tenor voice and not to the soprano, as is customary, probably with the aim of creating a warmer sound. The melody is appropriate for singing and memorable; it relies

91 on a gradual and undulating melody scalar profile, which is specific of Slavic traditional religious music, and uses a comfortable compass, which applies to all voice groups. To adapt the melodic contour, the composer uses harmonic support; here are the relations used in stanza A, which are repeated identically in the other two stanzas: in the sentence A, the unison of the voices and the cadence on F# V6; sentence B: F# I-IV-VII-V7-III6_2-IV6; sentence C: F# I_IV- VII-V7_III6-I. Except for the cadences, the same chordic relations of the main steps, and also of the secondary steps, the 7th and the 3rd, are used. The final cadence is tonal, authentic: F# V7-III6-I:

The second part of the Heruvik Hymn “As the Lord of all” begins with Con moto, first in unison, then in a harmonic style; the soprano leads the melody, which is based on a set of motifs similar to that in “Which the Cherubim” and with similar chord relations returning to the perfect tonal authentic cadence at the “angelic” words. The final sentence of the second part of the Heruvikon consists of a musical repetition of the word “Hallelujah“ and brings back the initial motif of the Hymn, which is eventually sequenced to a diminishing third in a vertical plane, thus creating a short modulatory inflection to B minor. The final cadence displays the harmonic tonal relations: V7-III6-V7-I.

3) The Axion “It is truly meet” The Axion “It is Truly Meet” is also created in the style of the Russian choir music, as set by the classics of Russian choir music (Bortneanski, Lamakin ş.a.), characterized through easily sung melodies, simplity and the clarity of the harmonic style, the combination of the melody recitativo with the harmonic pedals, modulations in the close tones. The structure is A B Avar., with the following tonal plances: Bb (m. 1-3); g (m. 3-23); Bb (m. 23-31); g (m. 31-34); Bb (m. 35-36), therefore the major tone Sib is associated with its minor relative.

92 This piece is worth mentioning for its economical and masterful use of voices, as well as for the fact that it constantly provides a comfortable voice compass for each voice group.

4) Our Father One of the best known choir pieces of the Liturgy by Vladimir Ciolac is the prayer Our Father, which has recently become part of the repertoire of the church choirs of Iaşi. It is created for a mixed choir with a soprano soloist, as it is performed mainly within festive services held at important holidays. It is impressive through its melodies with Slavic influences. A version of the prayer Our Father that can be found in Romanian churches reveals the connections and the junction point between the Orthodox psaltic music performed on either bank of the river Prut:

In terms of musical architecture, Our Father consists of three large stanzas, A (m. 1-22), B (m. 23-35) and C (m. 36-48), and each stanza in turn consists of chains of sentences: Stanza A B C Sentences A Avar B C Cvar D E F G H Bars 1-5 6-10 10-15 15-18 18-22 23-26 27-30 30-35 36-41 42-48

As in the other sections of the Liturgy, the composer adopts the principles of classic-romantic harmony and uses chords of the main steps and especially the chordic combinations based on the secondary steps the 2nd, 6th, and 3rd in various inversions. The final cadences of these sections are authentic: VI2-III6-I 4 6 6 (m. 18), II 3-III6-I (m. 22), I 4-VI2 (m. 30); II7-V-I (m. 34-35); VI2-II 5-III6-I (the final cadence, m. 46-48):

As an accessible, easy to perform and expressive piece, The Liturgy by Vl. Ciolac is a valuable addition to the repertoire of the church choirs and it

94 continues, from a modern standpoint, the tradition of religious choir singing from Bessarabia.

II. Teodor Zgureanu - The Hymns of the Saint Liturgy of Saint John the Chrysostom8

A personality of contemporary music in the Republic of Moldova, Teodor Zgureanu (born in 1938)9 was a conductor, professor and composer; he specialzed in particular in lay choir creation (folklore adaptations); after 1990 he also composed religious, choir and vocal-symphonic music. One of his major choir liturgy creations is The Hymns of the Holy Liturgy by Saint John the Chrysostomos10 [6]. This piece is intended to be performed mainly in the concert hall; it is written for a male choir of equal voices (tenor I and II, bass I and II), but it also contains solo parts for the soprano and bass, as well as parts for a children’s choir (in one section only). The composer selects only the most important parts of the Orthodox Liturgy11. In this piece (completed on August 28th 2009, as the composer himself mentioned on the last page of the manuscript), Teodor Zgureanu aimed – as he recently stated in an interview in a TV show12) – at recreating the oriental atmosphere, of Byzantine influence, characteristic of Orthodox liturgy music. Thus, he created his own special, highly original, musical universe. In certain pieces (Come worship, One Holy, In the Name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, A Mercy of Peace, He Is Blessed) he makes use of a melodic invention based on musical motifs

8 This part of the present study on The Hymns of the Saint Liturgy of John Chrysostom by Teodor Zgureanu was published under the title ‘The creative adaptation of the psaltic monody in the present day choir creation for the liturgy in the Republic of Moldova – Teodor Zgureanu – The Hymns of the Holy Liturgy by Saint John the Chrysostomos’, in the volume Latest Advances in Acoustics and Music, Proceedings of the 13th WSEAS International Conference on Acoustics and Music: Theory and Applications (Amta ’12), G. Enescu University of Arts, Iasi, Romania, published by WSEAS Press with Adrian Sîrbu as a coauthor. 9 Choir master; profesor and composer, The People’s Artist in the Republic of Moldova (1983). Member of the Musicians’ Union of Moldova. Serafim Buzilă, INTERPREŢI DIN MOLDOVA. LEXICON ENCICLOPEDIC (1460-1960) (Chişinău: Ed. Arc, 1996), p. 468. 10 Teodor Zgureanu, Imnurile Sfintei Liturghii a lui Ioan Gură de Aur, Chişinău, Ed. Pontos, 2010. 11 Veniţi să ne închinăm/Come let us worship, Doamne miluieşte/Lord have mercy, Sfinte Dumnezeule/Holy God, Aliluia/Halleluja!, Unul Sfânt/One Holy, Mărire Ţie/We praise Thee, Doamne miluieşte/ Lord have mercy ( the second version), Imnul Heruvic/Heruvikon, Pre Tatăl, pre Fiul şi pre Sfântul Duh/Unto the Father, the Son and the Holy Ghost, Mila păcii/A mercy of peace, Bine este cuvântat/Blessed is He, Pre Tine Te lăudăm/We praise Thee, Cade-se cu adevăra/It is truly meet, Tatăl nostru/Our Father, chinonicul Lăudaţi pre Domnul din ceruri/the koinonikon Praise the Lord in the highest, Şi s-a arătat nouă [Bine este cuvântat, n.n.]/ And was revealed unto us [Blessed is he], Lumină lină/Tender light, Întru numele Domnului, [Fie numele Domnului, n.n.]/In the name of the Lord [Blessed the name of the Lord, [Apolisul, n.n.] and Mulţi ani trăiască/ May he live long. Teodor Zgureanu, Imnurile Sfintei Liturghii a lui Ioan Gură de Aur, Chişinău, Ed. Pontos, 2010. 12 The TV show Templul muzical/Musical Temple, broadcast on November 2009 on the TV channel of the Republic of Moldova.

95 containing specific intervals, such as the augmented second, or a specific gradual and undulating profile, which lend the musical discourse an oriental flavour to be found also in the music of Byzantine influence. In other pieces (Holy God, The Heruvikon Hymn, God Have Mercy, We Praise Thee), the composer creates a melody with no direct relation to the psaltic tradition; it is characterized by dissonant (diminished fifth, augmented fourth) or large (augmented sixth) interval jumps, which, however, are related to modal music. In this piece several choir songs can be recognized, where the Byzantine monody is faithfully recreated in terms of both intervallic structure and melodic profile (It Is Truly Meet, Our Father, Hallelujah!). Only one piece (Praise the Lord) seems to bear more influence from Russian choir church music, in terms of both melody and harmonic adaptation, which are both tonal in nature, and of the type of dialogue between the male choir, the children’s choir and the solo recitativo parts of a basso profondo.

1) Come Let Us Worship In this choir piece, the composer distributes the melody to the soloist soprano, whose part is harmonically sustained by, or is in a dialogue with, the male voice goups. In terms of form, Come Let Us Worship consists of a sequence of four phrases (A, B, C, D); it opens with the answer Amen! (m. 1 -2) sustained a on G minor dominant and tonic chords, in the next part, the last chord is sustained by the tenors (m. 2-4) and basses (m. 2-7) as a harmonic pedal. At m. 2 the soloist soprano begins singing on the text ”Come let us worship” (phrase A, m. 2-6), on a musical motif starting from D (m.2), followed by a major sixth leap, then a diminished second, perfect diminished fifth (dotted quarter note and quaver) and ends with a gradual ascent to G, on a chromatic profile which reminds of the second plagal mode on Pa (D). The motif sung by the soloist is immitated (m. 4-5) by the tenors’ group, with certain variations and in sequence:

The tenors continue to sing the ison (m. 6-7), while the basses begin the next phrase, B (m. 7-14), with the text ”And let us fall unto Christ”. From m.8

96 on up to m. 12, the musical discourse is distributed in turns between the soloist soprano and the two male voice groups in a manner reminiscent of antiphonal singing specific to psaltic music:

Phrase B concludes through the reunion of the voices and of the soloist in an harmonic isorhythm on the text ”unto Christ” which is repeated (m. 13-16):

The use of large consonant interval jumps: the third, perfect fourth, as well as of dissonant intervals (diminished fifth), gives the musical flow a sound which is more dramatic than its usual expression in the melodies specific to church music of either Western of psaltic origin. On a vertical chord level, phrase A (”Come let us worship”) maintains its position in the G minor tonality – the harmonic version, while in phrase B (”And let us fall unto Christ”) the chords are freely concatenated, with no restriction from the principles of classic harmony. Also, the composer resorts to chords in which he introduces sounds which are alien to the chord (usually the augmented sixth, for example at m. 9, first beat, at other times it is the second or the fourth etc.). The chords are no longer conceived of as built on the various steps of a certain tonality; they should be considered as three chordal units bassed on the respective sound (with the thirds or added sounds as its basis), presented in their direct form or in

97 various inversions. Taking this into account, this is how phrase B proceeds in its vertical chord level:

Chord on G Ab Bb Ab Gb Eb Bb Gb F the pitch Measure 7-8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

From the relations between these chords, it can be seen that the composer does not aim to create a succession based on the principle of the fifths or of modulation (associated to tonality) or any other principle related to modalism. In the following phrase, C (m. 17-22, see figure 3), ”Son of God, redeem us”, the melodic conductus intoned only by the soloist now uses an expression of intense prayer; it progresses along four measures in a rhetoric of the type ascensio-descensio, starting from A through Db1 and then back to A. The composer supports this expressive generous melodic conductus through chordal alternation of the male voices between the three chordal units on the sound A and Gb; these sounds can be also found in the melodic conductus or are close to them (as a harmony of three chordal units). The phrase D (m. 22-27), ”You Who have risen from the dead”, reproduces the melody of the preceding phrase C; this time it is intoned by the tenors (the ascensio motif); the basses answer (with the descensio motif) on the vertical level and so the chords of A and Gb are formed again. The repetition of the text ”You Who have risen from the dead” is done in a different manner, in an isorhythm, on the chords Eb-Ab-Gb:

In phrase E (m. 27-42) ”to those who sing to You Halleluja!”, the musical discourse moves towards the melodic climax by the male choir, which is chordic, isorhythmic, prolonged on the corona (m. 30):

The exultation ”Hallelujah!” follows, in a manner similar to the dialogue of voices between the soloist and the male voice groups (as it happens in the antiphonal singing), sustained through chords either on the harmonic pedal (m. 31-32, 38-39), or on the chords A and Gb in alternating successions:

Besides the deep feelings of the main melody, the surprising element in this initial choir piece of the Hymns of the Holy Liturgy by Saint John the Chrysostomos is the treatment of the chords of the harmonic chord relations as independent harmonic entities, whose values is more in terms of sonority than of chordal function. Also, the dissonances are left unresolved, which is in contradiction with the principles of classical harmony. One argument in favour of this idea is the fact that, although the key signature would indicate Bb or G minor, the piece begins in G minor and yet it ends in F major; as we have seen, along the piece, chords on other pitches are also used (Gb, Ab, Bb). Come let us worship is representative of T. Zgureanu’s view on Bessarabian contemporary choir music for the liturgy through both the originality of the melodic conductus of modal influence and the harmonic- polyphonic devices that are suggestive of the practices of psalm chanting (ison, the dialogue between the soloist and the choir in an antiphonal manner).

99 2) The Heruvikon Hymn In the Heruvikon only the male voices are used; however, they are not used in the manner of classic harmonic choirs in Russia, but in a manner that alternates the instances of vocal tutti with the unison and the antiphonal performance of the voice groups. The melody, which begins in Molto adagio, is the composer’s creation; thus, he wished to express convincingly the religious feeling through a gradual melody profile (sometimes an augmented second is used, a sound reminiscent of oriental psaltic music at m. 5, 7-8, 10-11, 23):

Alternately, interval jumps are used (for example, an unexpected descending augmented fourth, m. 8), in order to emphasize certain important words or ideas. This focus on the religious text is accomplished through various methods, either related to tone colour, or sheerly melodic, or of a combined – melodic and harmonic – nature. On a vertical chord level, the composer resorts to a free juxtaposition of chord relations, without any restrictions such as those set by the classic resolve of dissonances. The important element here is the sound resulting from chord relations and their ethos. This idea will be illustrated through the presentation of chord relations in the last two phrases (m. 25-31 and 31-33 respectively):

Chords on Eb Cb-Gb Ab-Cb Ab-Cb Gb-Db Db pitches Measure 25-26 27 28 29 30 31-33

On the first presentation of the phrase “Who mystically the Cherubim represent” (m. 1-6), the melody is sung by the 1st tenor and sustained through chords by the 2nd tenor and the bass voice group; the melodic conductus is mainly ascending. To introduce a novel element, on the second repetition of the text “Who secretly the Cherubs represent” (m. 7-13), the composer leaves the melody to be performed only by the bass voice group, in a unison of eighths inspired from the motifs used previously; however, the motifs are not repeated identically (as on m. 7-8 we can recognize the sound structure of the first

100 chromatic mode on C, specific to folk Romanian music). On m. 11-12 , a sequence of the earlier chromatic motifs is used on a fifth interval. The meaning of the text is emphasized through the use of illustrative chords, for instance that in the end of the first part of the heruvikon, in the phrase ”all the wordly cares” (m. 27), where major three chordal units are used on the sounds Cb and Gb in an authentic relation of a descending fifth, which creates a brighter more balanced sound in comparison with the darker dissonant sound at the beginning of the phrase (m. 25-26), when minor chords were used. The melodic climax occurs with the words ”let us cast” (m. 31-33), with a predominantly ascending melodic conductus performed by the basses in a zig- zag profile; the motifs are then taken over by the tenors in a similar manner; the phrase has a final cadence on a dissonant chord in Db with an added second extended through a corona (m. 33). The answer ”Amen!” is also interesting due to its plagal cadence Eb-Db (similar to that used in some folk songs in Banat). The Heruvikon by Teodor Zgureanu is a modern liturgy creation where an original melodic invention is apparent; the melody was adapted by using modern harmonic methods, which do not fit into the Western classical system.

3) It Is Truly Meet, Our Father, Halleluja! In these prayers of great importance in any Orthodox liturgy, the composer aims at creating a musical atmosphere which is closer to the singing of Byzantine tradition and different from that in the Russian Orthodox churches, which had come to permeate church singing in Moldavia and Bessarabia as early as the times of abbot Paisie Velicicovski (end of the 18th century). To achieve this, the composer Teodor Zgureanu resorts to a melody of psaltic influence which he adapts by using specific methods. In the Axion It Is Truly Meet, the bass sustains a simple harmonic pedal on A serving as the ison, while the soloist intones the melody, which is of a modal type with a sound structure similar to the first authentic mode.

The modal centre of the scale is on pa (D) which, for reasons of vocal register is transposed on the sound A. The melody uses the ondulatory profile of a psaltic type belonging to the stikhera style, characterized by melismas, which in this piece are accomplished through exceptional rhythmic formulas (triplets,

101 m. 6-7, 42). In the end, the composer repeats the first musical idea of the Axion (m. 2-6), slightly altered, on the text ”You, True Mother of God” as a form of reprise, a device method frequently used in psaltic pieces of this type. For expressive purposes, the final phrase “We praise Thee” is repeated twice as a coda; in the second repetition, the ambitus of the scale is extended to the low pitches (from pa to low di, which in this case means from A to D, through the transposition by a fifth) on the prolonged ison of the low bass voice:

The psaltic origin of the melody, belonging to the first authentic mode (as in the Axion), transposed from pa (D) to vu (E), can be recognized in the choir piece “Our Father”, too. The ison is used again, sustained by the divided bass group and performed in parallel eighths on the base E or the subtonic D of the mode. The highly expressive and suggestive melody construction is of a psaltic type, in the stikhera style, with relatively short melismas. The composer uses ornaments specific to the music of Byzantine inspiration, such as the double appoggiatura (with its origin in the transcription of the consonant neume omalon):

102

In Hallelujah! which follows the reading from The Apostles, the composer succeeds in suggesting the Orthodox church monody by using a melody based on a motif of the ondulatio type which uses the diminished second interval (m. 2, 3, 4):

This initial motif is then transformed and adapted and set in sequences on various steps (from an ascending fifth, m. 6, to an ascending third, m. 10):

103

As the main method for harmonic adaptation of the monody, the composer also uses the ison, however, this time it is a double ison, at the interval of a fourth, intoned by the divided group of basses. With respect to the manner of leading the voices, the composer uses the antiphonal singing, as the melody is taken over from one voice group to the other, accompanied by the ison. Through his creation The Hymns of the Holy Liturgy by Saint John the Chrysostomos, the Bessarabian composer Teodor Zgureanu has managed to substantiate the meritorious initiative of revaluating and employing originally the expressive potential of the source he used, namely psaltic monody, by using modern musical methods (non-functional free harmonic concatenations, a simple and a double ison, motif sequencing a.s.o.). This musical potential has been less used as a source of inspiration in the musical creation of the composers from the Republic of Moldova in the latter half of the 20th century.

104 Classical and Romantic in Sonata in A minor op. 164 D 537 by Franz Schubert

Junior Lecturer Brînduşa Tudor PhD (The University of Arts “George Enescu” Iaşi)

Abstract: In this paper, we tried to highlight the complexity and value of the sonata in A minor op. 164 D 537 by Franz Schubert, from two perspectives: structural and semiotic - of musical discourse analysis, emphasizing the connection to tradition (classical elements) and the novelties introduced by the composer (romantic elements). Sonata in A minor op. 164 D 537 reveals the composer's own clearly defined conception on the sonata genre, as well as on the sonata form, Schubert proving his deep knowledge of the traditional patterns, but that he adjusts them according to his own thinking, of romantic conduct.

Key words: Franz Schubert, classical, romantic, sonata, piano

On the threshold between the 18th and the 19th centuries, the European musical culture was marked by the passage from one great musical current to another – the Classicism and the Romanticism. It was in this environment that emerged the one who will embody the essence of the Viennese spirit, the composer Franz Schubert (1797 – 1828). He will be the paragon of his age, standing not only on the threshold of two centuries, but also at the pass between the full-fledged Classical aesthetics and the budding aesthetics of Romanticism. Franz Schubert was attracted very early on by the sonata genre, and started to write his first works in 1815 (at 18 years old) until 1828. In 13 years of creation, each musical element suffered transformations as a result of the composer’s permanent search.

Sonata in A minor op. 164 D 537, composed in March 1817, was published posthumously in 1852 in Vienna under the name Siebente Sonate für piano componiert von Franz Schubert 1 . It is made up of three parts: Allegro ma non troppo, Allegretto quasi Andantino şi Allegro vivace. Part I, Allegro ma non troppo is in A minor in 6/8 metre, as a matter of fact, it is the only sonata in which Schubert uses this time signature in the first part. Although it follows every formal standard of a classical sonata, the composer brings various innovations on both the structural and the sonorous level, replacing the classical structure principles with the romantic ones, and thus language acquires a new freedom of expression. The exposition contains all the elements specific to the traditional pattern, each of them carrying a new aspect.

1 The seventh piano sonata composed by Franz Schubert

105 The main theme A has reduced dimensions (m. 1 - 5) and an atypical structure, as it is not marked by an explicit cadence which would separate it from the rest of the discourse. The strong character of the beginning comes from the forte nuance, the upbeat and the dotted rhythm . ; the melodic line is given by the superior level of the chords. The sudden change to piano is followed by a dynamic accumulation towards forte, which underlines the E major dominant:

Ex. 1, m. 1-5

Apparently, the main theme can be extended, but the second presentation of the main idea, together with the arpeggio figures at the end, bring a modulation towards the relative tonality (C major), becoming thus the first stage of the bridge. The second bridge segment is dynamic in nature, due to the repetitive treatment of a motive deriving from the thematic motive (. → ):

Ex. 2, m. 16-19

Numerous ascending transpositions bring new tonalities in an unusual order, which clearly suggests the tonal freedom of romanticism – E flat major, f minor, F major, D flat major. This tonal shift ends with the affirmation of the F major tonality, in the subdominant area of the initial tone, which is an unusual approach for classical composers (who had established the dominant or relative relation between themes). The secondary theme B (m. 28 - 52) is not structurally elaborate, as it consists in a single melodic idea, repeated variously in the form of a double period and is less individualized melodically, due to the fragmented nature of the articulation. Its beginning contrasts with the main theme by the cantabile character conferred by the low piano nuance, by legato and by the simple melody which is based on a repeated four-sound cell, on large and equal rhythmic values ( . ), and which goes with an multiple pedal accompaniment on F and a mobile median plane (note the descending second D Flat – C from the left hand tenor), thus bringing a few harmonic color elements:

106

Ex. 3, m. 28-29

The repeat of the thematic idea gains in complexity by the variation of the right hand melodic line in pianissimo, by multiple sequencing and by a sonorous culmination consisting in the insertion of a homophonic-chord segment in fortissimo (măsura 49). The second theme becomes extremely important later in the musical discourse, because it is also present in the conclusion and in the middle section of the sonata form, the development. The conclusion (m. 53 - 65), in pianissimo, is based on an ostinato pedal on the new tonality key note (F major), doubled by a melodic line built on the descending second cell form the second theme which brings, through chromatic elements, inflections of the tonality melodic variant:

Ex. 4, m. 53-56

The development has an unusual beginning, its first part being a modulating extension of the conclusion in pianissimo and pianississimo, which apparently makes the transition from the F major tonality to G flat major. The beginning of the following segment in fortissimo is, at the same time, uncertain from a tonal point of view, but also contrasting to the previous discourse:

Ex. 5, m. 65-74

107 The direct approach of the G flat major – E major modulation is specific to the romantic tonal-harmonic thinking. From a melodic point of view, the content of the second segment of the development (m. 73 - 95) is new, but its treatment, based on the descending sequential transposition, represents the element of continuity with the previous sections. The dynamic, robust character of this segment, contrasting with the previous one, is determined by the large nuance – fortissimo and by the unison writing, applied both to the homophonous-chord moments and to the melodic ones. Towards the end, the sequential treatment is maintained only for the left hand, while the right hand discourse is made of chord structures. From a tonal point of view, we can notice the succession of major tonalities E – D – C, and in the second part of this stage, the relation of the tonal centers occurs at a descending fifth interval – D – G – C:

Ex. 6, m. 75-89

The last part of the development is the widest (m. 96 - 121). It is built on an episode theme with a clear melodic profile, based on the repeat of a descending scalar motive in an unusual rhythmic configuration ( ) that cancels the second accent of the ternary pulsation:

Ex. 7, m. 98-106

108

The cantabile nature is given by the figural accompaniment, first of an arpeggio type and then harmonic, which suggests the waltz rhythm. The romantic language is visible in the insertion of ascending figural arpeggio formulas (exceptional division – septolet), with an ornamental function, into the simple melodic discourse. The second segment of this section, which represents the amplification of the previous segment, implies the tensioning of the expression by obsessive repetitions of the motive doubled by the amplification of the dynamics towards fortissimo (m. 120), but also a modulating progression towards the D minor tonality, where the reprise begins. The composer approaches the subdominant area, maintaining however the ascending fifth relation between the two thematic ideas – D minor - A major. This deviation from the classical tonal principles is the sole difference of the reprise from the exposition; the structure and content of the bridge, of the secondary theme and of the conclusion do not change. Moreover, starting from the B theme to the end, the tonality of the sonorous discourse is in A major tonality, Schubert’s obviously intention to comply with the traditional rules. The coda (m. 183 - final) of this part has also an unusual structure, as it is, in fact, the presentation of the A theme in the basic tonality (A minor). The composer proves thus his familiarity with the subtleties of the sonata form, but also with the possibilities of extending and renewing it:

Ex. 8, m. 187-191

In Part II, Allegretto quasi Andantino in E major (in 2/4 metre), the composer approaches a form of monothematic rondo: A B Av1 C Av2 coda. The entire part has a fragmented character by the numerous repetition signs indicated on the score, both between the sections making up the rondo form and within them. The refrain A (m. 1-16), with a cantabile nature in piano, is made up of two symmetrical square periods, with a quasi-related sonorous background,

109 where melody and harmony combine in a unitary whole representative for Schubert’s compositional style:

Ex. 9, m. 1-16

The first couplet (B m. 17-42) brings a contrast by the sudden change towards the C major tonality (the third relation between the tonal centers involved in the modulating process is specific to romantic thinking), by the high nuances used (mezzoforte, forte), by the mainly arpeggio-type writing, accompanied by a melodic plane placed in the inferior register with sequential character:

Ex. 10, m. 17-21

In the end of the couplet, Schubert brings the first element of novelty by the modulation towards another tonality, different from the initial one: F major. Thus, the second occurrence of the refrain is in a different tonal context. Another unusual element for the rondo form is the varying treatment of the refrain, which keeps its melodic profile, but is given another type of accompaniment that confers melody to the discourse, with typically romantic sonority and expressivity:

Ex. 11, m. 43-47

110 Despite all these innovations, the composer does not change the structure of the refrain, but keeps all the formal parameters. The second couplet (C m. 59-114), in D minor, has a marching character, given by the ostinato rhythm of the chord accompaniment, but also by the rhythmic homogeneity of the main line, made up of fourths, alternating with dotted formulas. The melodic line is very simple, made up of melodic oscillations followed by leaps or repetitive cells:

Ex. 12, m. 59-65

The last refrain (m. 115-130) in the initial tonality brings a new sonorous version of the main melody. This time, the accompaniment carries on the dynamic character of the couplet by using rhythmically divided figures, as well as by transposing the main melody in the superior octave. The complex writting, implying four melodic levels, is taken by Schubert from the structure of the string quartet:

Ex. 13, m. 114-118

The coda reiterates the initial sonority by using the same type of accompaniment, the superior plan exploiting motives derived from the ones in the refrain.

Part III, Allegro vivace in the basic tonality (in 3/8 metre), is a slow movement sonata, where we can find the same tonal exceptions seen in Part I, together with other original constitutive elements. It has a tense character due to the numerous pause times that create suspense moments. The main theme A (m. 1-30) has an unusual structure, which combines symmetry with exceptional elements. It is made up of three phrases, each segment having a common debut, characterized by the unison writting (specific to Schubert) and the ascending scalar tendency with a rhythm that changes its configuration every time. The distinguishing element is the open cadence that

111 ends each phrase: on the dominant, on the modulating (B flat major V) and on the homonym (A major):

Ex. 14, m. 1-30

The bridge is ample (m. 31-94), each phase having its own individualized melody. The first section begins in the A major tonality and includes figural, dynamic fragments, based on melodic oscillations or gradual progress, as well as segments in which the superior melodic outline, although fragmented as cells treated by repetition, stands out due to the ostinato sharp chord accompaniment:

Ex. 15, m. 31-44

Towards the end of the section, the tonal plane becomes ambiguous, mobile, ending in an F sharp major cadence. The second part of the bridge starts in D major tonality (the homonym of the basic tonality subdominant) and presents a lyrical thematic idea, with figural arpeggio accompaniment, whose melodic nature is emphasized by the presence of numerous ornamental elements (appoggiatura):

112 Ex. 16, m. 59-72

The treatment of this melodic line by motive fragmentation becomes the means by which the composer evolves tonally towards the E major tonality, which is in the dominant area of the basic tonality. The secondary thematic group B is made up of three segments: the first (B1) consists in the transposition of an alternative motive in different registers in the two tonality variants (major-minor2) and its accompaniment is ostinato harmonic; the second segment (B2) is virtuosity-oriented, as it is based on the alternation of chords and figural structures; the last thematic idea (B3) takes over motive elements from the second part of the bridge, transposed in the E major tonality, which, in the framework of the rapid succession of the figures in B2, represents an expressive contrast element:

Ex. 17, B1, m. 95-102

Ex. 18, B2, m. 115-121

Ex. 19, B3, m. 130-138

2 One of the characteristics of Schubert’s composition style is the oscillation between major and minor.

113 The reprise (m. 164-311) starts in the E minor tonality, the basic tonality dominant, which is unusual, given the subdominant approach in the first part. The main theme is reproduced in full, as well as the first part of the bridge, which is extended towards the G major tonality in the end for modulation purposes. In this tonal context, the composer introduces the second part of the bridge, making thus a correlation between the sonorous centers and the corresponding segment in the exposition: D major ~ E major / G major ~ A major. The presentation of the secondary thematic group is varied by concentrating the three thematic elements in a single occurrence (in the exposition, B2 is played two times). Instead of a conclusion, the composer presents the main theme A in the basic tonality (A minor):

Ex. 20, m. 310-318

In the next part, Schubert treats by motive segmentation a melodic unit obtained from the synthesis of the melodic elements in A and in the bridge, and places it under different tonalities, transforming it in a conclusive formula. In the end, the composer surprises us by inserting the A major tonality in pianissimo and the sonata ends triumphantly in fortissimo:

Ex. 21, m. 358-final

Sonata in A minor op. 164 D 537 reveals the composer's own clearly defined conception on the sonata genre, as well as on the sonata form, Schubert proving his deep knowledge of the traditional patterns, but that he adjusts them according to his own thinking, of romantic conduct.

114 Selected Bibliography Berger, Wilhelm Georg.ESTETICA SONATEI CLASICE. Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1981. Berger, Wilhelm Georg. ESTETICA SONATEI ROMANTICE, Bucureşti, Editura Muzicală, 1983 Brendel, Alfred. ON MUSIC. HIS COLLECTED ESSAYS. London: J.R. Books, 2007. Krause, Andreas. DIE KLAVIERSONATEN FRANZ SCHUBERT, FORM-GATTUNG- ÄSTHETIK. Kassel: Bärenreiter Verlag, 1996. Porter, Ernest G. SCHUBERT’S PIANO WORKS. London: Dennis Dobson, 1980. Vasiliu, Laura. ÎNTREPĂTRUNDEREA PRINCIPIILOR DE FORMĂ - Curs de analiză Muzicală. Iaşi: Editura Artes, 2007.

115

Trends and Tendencies in the European Music of the First Half of the 20th Century

Lecturer Mariana Frăţilă Ph.D (Faculty of Arts of the “Ovidius" University in Constanţa)

Abstract The present paper panoramically describes European music of the first half of the 20th century. In order to easily understand the musical tableau of the respective period of time in its entire complexity it was necessary to consider the evolution premises existent at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the following one. The content of this paper is the result of a documentary research activity on the evolution of music during Post-Romanticism and Modernism. From the bibliography, musical scores and audio materials we extracted data that enabled us to shape/recompose the multifaceted image of the musical phenomenon of a period of time of more than a half of a century which was extremely fertile from the point of view of both diversity of accomplishing means and variety of stylistic expression. The multitude ways of composing and the limited space of the present paper did not allow us to exhaustively cover all procedures composers employed in creating music during the above- mentioned period of time, nevertheless we succeeded in presenting an exact overview of those trends and tendencies which - simultaneously or consequently - not only deeply hallmarked the music of the first half of the 20th century, but also opened interesting and multiple perspectives for the subsequent evolution in music.

Key words: Post-Romanticism, Modernism, 20th century, chromatics, expansion of tonality, Impressionism, Debussy, Skriabin, atonality, Schönberg, dodecaphonism. Bartók, Futurism, Neoclassicism, Satie, Stravinski, Enescu.

At the end of the 19th century, the movement called Post-Romanticism overlaps a period of great changes in all the European cultural and artistic fields. The great works of Wagner, starting with Tristan and Isolde (1865), open the path to new expressive possibilities by the use of chromatics and the expansion of tonality. The label of post-romantics refers mainly to the composers strongly influenced by Wagner’s music, who create works under the canons of romanticism in an age when several cultural and artistic movements with innovative character such as Impressionism, Futurism, Expressionism etc, manifest themselves together. The freedom of writing is displayed in the new treatment of melody and harmony in Debussy’s work, in the sensuality of the orchestral coloring in Stravinsky’s ballet music and in the disintegration process, first of tonality and then of melody, harmony and texture, initiated by Schoenberg starting with the second decade of the 20th century. Still, the more conservative music, preferred by ample sectors of the aristocracy and bourgeoisie, continues to gather its admirers around such composers as the Strauss family. Alongside Brahms, Mahler and Schoenberg, they maintain Vienna one of the main musical centers, while Paris registers a large concentration of musicians, among which Debussy, Massenet and Stravinsky.

117 In order to understand the music of the 20th century, it is necessary to first appreciate the music of the 19th century and especially the impressionist trend. Impressionism is born as an authentic rebellion against the mannerisms and customs of the moment, as a necessity of the artist to express the world as he sees it and not constricted by canons. His esthetics implies an authentic liberation; the tendency is towards a more individual music, more personal, which involves an escape from the preordained norms. The impressionist music claims to highlight the impact of the work on the listener. For this purpose, the melody will convert into something fragmentary and hazy, it will evoke the essential, creating an imprecise sounding atmosphere, somewhat confused. There is a break from traditional harmonies; new tunes and colors, thus sonorities, are used. For this purpose, the starting point is unconventional scales, such as the whole tones one, the acoustic scale, the pentatonic scales etc. The soul of this music will be the sound, independent and without personality, which imposes itself creating various effects and colors. The most important musician of this movement was Claude Debussy (1826-1918), one of the most efficient and relevant innovators of the history of western music. His talent allowed him to generate completely new ideas in terms of form and orchestration, beyond the aerated use of sounds and timbre. His work, original and diverse, resorts to an innovating harmony for that age. The piano “discovers” a completely new role for itself, where the truly innovating timbre and sounding resonating effects are essential and most often obtained by unique pedal plays. Debussy’s innovations in the use of the piano have never been forgotten, as they were an example and a guide for the composers of the following ages. In his piano creation, the forms are diverse: ballads, arabesques, suits, preludes, images… Debussy did not concern himself less with the orchestra. In Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun, he distanced himself from the classical schemes with expositions and developments, in order to offer us a species of improvised form, generated from a unique theme. The melody, which appears in the traverse flute several times, is intensely chromatic and has a veritable oriental air, creating a dreamy atmosphere, in a unique harmonic ambiance. The beginning of the prelude for piano The Sunken Cathedral (1910) is a good example of impressionist piano music. Considering that it is a real melody, it does not begin until the seventh bar, where it appears in an almost imperceptible form, beyond the reminiscences of the harmonic complexes of the beginning, after they have been reduced to an E and its octave. This fragment too illustrates one of the characteristics of the new harmonic tonal language. There is no alteration in the first introductive bars; seven long notes combine to form a static harmonic field inside which totally free combinations sound. The augmented fifth from the first part of the first bar combines with a number of parallel tunes (which are also fifths and augmented fifths) that move along a

118 pentatonic scale. The notes kept with the pedal (indicated by a semi-legato) form a complex harmonic mass which, though dissonant according to the traditional canons, is treated as a consonance. Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin (1872-1915), essentially impressionist Russian composer and pianist, studied at the Moscow Conservatory and then began an outstanding pianist career. He went on tours in Russia, Switzerland, France and the Netherlands. He was a professor at the Moscow Conservatory (1898-1903) and then moved abroad – first to Switzerland and then to Belgium – where he dedicated himself mostly to composition, though he never stopped performing concerts. After a tour in the United States, Scriabin returned to Moscow in 1910 and dedicated his last years to the elaboration of a work that reunited – in his vision – music, poetry, dance, light projections and perfumes. His beginnings as composer were influenced by Chopin, a period known for his piano pieces up to op. 29, the first two symphonies and the piano concerto. Meanwhile, the search for an ecstatic and contemplative expression which corresponds to his religious and mystic conception about art distanced him from his contemporaries. That was when he composed the fourth sonata and third symphony. Starting with 1906, the messianic idea of the music’s delivering role is most obvious and that is how the following works are born: The Poem of Ecstasy – with an imposing orchestration, the last six sonatas and Prometheus, where he brings an unprecedented sound by the use of his invention: C F-sharp B-flat E A D. If there is something that characterizes fundamentally the music of the 20th century, that is the break with tonality, or atonality. It consists in the creation of a completely different music which ignores the rules that reigned for centuries in terms of tonality. The hearing sensation is completely new, the sounds liberate one from the other. First the break is with harmony, then with melody and rhythm and thus with everything that had been steadily established previously by tonal laws. It was time for other rules, just as strict, but which belonged to a completely different sound world. The Austrian Arnold Schoenberg (1874-1951) will be one of the precursors of this trend, with works such as Pierrot Lunaire (1912) or Three Pieces for Piano, op. 11. At first, Schoenberg was an autodidact and studied the violin, the cello and the piano. He was influenced by Brahms and Wagner and began by composing completely tonal pieces. Atonalism will open the way to a new system invented by him – the dodecaphonism and the serial technique. This system consists in the composing of musing starting from the 12 sounds of the chromatic scale and ordered in a series. This series will undergo three modifications called recurrence, inversion and the recurrence of inversion. This gives the created music a melodic character, which is very unusual for the ear. Opus 23 for Piano (1923) is the first piece Schoenberg composes on this line.

119 The beginning of the war has a detrimental effect on Schoenberg who enters a period of uncertainty in his composition also due to his skepticism about the “intuitive” music he had composed up to that point, about the free, atonal, non-systematic methods, hence, his need to reconnect with the past. In a way, he was trying to put an order in the dissonant melodies and the avant-garde harmony of the beginning of the 20th century. This way, a new system was born after seven years of work (1916-1923): the dodecaphonism. It is a manner of controlling the freedom that his music had. The basic principles of this method were: - Each composer extracts his melodic material from a unique sequence chosen from among the 12 notes of the chromatic scale, what he calls “series”; - This first series (the original form) is complemented by three others: retrograde, inversion, retrograde inversion; - Each of these four series can be transposed to begin another sound. The transposition is indicated conventionally by Arabian numbers which follow the design of the series, indicating the number of ascending semitones that occur starting from the original form. Thus, the indicator P-0 designates the original series, P-5 shows that the series is transposed to the perfect ascending fourth (namely at five semitones), R1 signifies that the original series moves to ascending small second; - The four forms of the series, multiplied by the 12 possible transpositions give a total of 48 possible versions of the original series. Normally, not all the versions are used in a single piece, but depending on the type of the desired work, some or other of the versions are chosen. Even though the series determines the succession of the notes used in the work, it does not indicate the registers or the durations. It even less indicates the disposition of the texture or the musical form. This system divided the composers into two groups: some who, following Stravinsky, favored the preservation of a certain type of tonality and others who, like Schoenberg, adopted the dodecaphonic system. The new method had a strong impact on the musical thinking of the age, though few composers accepted it as a work form. During his exile in America (from 1934), Schoenberg continued to evolve as a composer, manifesting again interest for tonality and even composing some tonal pieces. Schoenberg will also create, in expressionistic manner, a music in which the European man shouts to the society that heads for the chaos of the First World War. The expressionist trend is based on a desperate language which allows the composer to distort reality in order to express the profound agony and desperate fear. Charles Munch’s “The Scream” is the painting that expresses perfectly the essence of expressionism. The Second Viennese School, established by Schoenberg and his disciples Alban Berg (1885-1935) and Anton Webern (1883-1945), will follow

120 the system of dodecaphony and will keep a close connection with the painters and architects of the time, acting for their shared ides. One of the musicians that will have the greatest influence on the music of the 20th century was the Hungarian Béla Bartók (1881-1945). Together with Zoltan Kodaly, he travelled to various countries and collected folklore. As a consequence, he discovered completely new pentatonic scales and rhythms. His work, Mikrokosmos, is a collection of 156 pieces for piano, vital for the music of the 20th century, while his Concerto for Strings and Celesta represents the ideal model of sublimation of the folkloric elements. In fact, Bartók combines the modern language with the traditional one, creating a new language. Simultaneously with the changes promoted by the Viennese School, a number of Italian composers incorporate in their music new sound “objects” such as the noise. This trend known as Futurism comprised both music and literature, and visual arts. The futuristic movement is not so important through the works that represent it but through what they involve, the starting point being the noise and not the sound. Russolo and Pratella create this kind of music and attempt to orchestrate crowds that trample, factories, railway stations, war noises etc. In 1913 they perform their first concert with the pieces Reunion de automoviles and El despertar de la ciudad. Noise as an unprecedented manner of creation is speculated by such musicians as Edgar Varese (1885-1965), who, starting from noise, composes works of great artistic value such as Ionisation – 13 percussionists and Desert, heading towards the concept of “concrete music”, effectively born out of Pierre Schaeffer’s hands on October 5, 1949. The term “bruitism” occurs in France and it is connected to the new sound phenomenon. Among the great names related to this trend, the most prominent ones are the Mexican Carillo and the Czech Alois Haba, which also excelled in the use of quarter tone. At the end of 1918, Europe is destroyed by war, the Austro-Hungarian empire crumbles. Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Yugoslavia declare their independence while Germany is forced to cede Alsace and Lorraine to France, and to pay war damages to other countries. Russia declares itself the first communist state in the world. In this framework, the culture reorients itself. In the first moments of the war, some intellectuals, artists and musicians believed that the creation of a new social order would have a positive effect and adopted a militant attitude, but were soon disappointed. The first anti-war artistic reaction was Dadaism; it appeared in Switzerland and in 1916 it had already beed known. The Dadaists manifested repulsion towards the war and believed that the only possible art was the anti-art which promoted disorder, irrationality and the anti-esthetic. During the last years of the war, a new attitude manifests itself and it will dominate the artistic world for the next two decades. Its characteristics are

121 clarity, objectivity and order as need for consolidation. This new attitude was manifested in various groups. The first group was De Stijl in the Netherlands. Mondrian was among its members. The next one was Bauhaus, an art school established by Walter Gropius in 1919. It includes artists such as Klee and Kandinsky and proposes plastic works by the use of modern industrial materials and by trying to respond to the individual’s needs of both beauty and practicality. A third group is formed by the purists who militate in France and are led by the architect Le Corbusier. They were searching for simplicity accomplished by the use of industrial materials. The importance and significance of these materials further influenced the decisions about design. These three movements manifested in the visual arts but they also influenced music whose new characteristics had to be efficiency, the clarity of composition and economy of means, after a period of many and marked experimentations. There is a desire to avoid the excesses of the late Romanticism or Post-Romanticism. Towards 1920, Neoclassicism appears as a reaction to Romanticism, Impressionism and Expressionism. The anti-romantic attitude breaks with the past immediately and feels familiar with the concepts previous to Romanticism, especially with those of the 18th century. New interpretation manners, forms and genres of the Baroque and Pre-Classicism are adopted, such as the suite, concerto, symphony and sonata. The composers of this movement use for their compositions information from the entire history of music with its various styles (including the entire 19th century, understanding here the criterion of distance as in the other cases), as well as the non-European culture and jazz. Similarly to literature, the purpose is the destruction of routine both in creation and in hearing by effects of differentiation and parody. Neo-Classicism is tonal and, beginning with the 1930s, it accentuates the tendency towards a rational ordering of the forms and genres. The movement ends between 1950 and 1960. The first example for this kind of music is offered by Erik Satie (1966- 1925) who was considered an unimportant composer but eventually became a model for artists. He studied at the Paris Conservatory with Decombes, Taudou and Mathias. In 1891 he composed three important works: Sarabandes, Gymnopédies and Gnossiennes. At this time he met Debussy, with whom he shared a strong friendship. Between 1891 and 1895 he composed mystic music on texts by Peladan, Mazel, Bois and Contamine de la Tour. Between 1895 and 1905 he composed for the cabaret. During those years, his production reduced to Trois morceaux en forme de poire (1903), a small anthology of cabaret music where he included some fragments of the Gnossiennes and Pieces froides (1897). Between 1905 and 1915, he studied with d’Indy, Roussel and Serieux at Schola Canorum. He wrote little during these years. In only three years Satie composed most of his works, including all the “humoristic” piano pieces, among

122 others. Between 1915 and 1925 he became popular and a symbol of the avant- garde. He was also the most important representative of the Groupe des six and of the Arcueil School. During these years, among other works, he composed Parade (1917) and Socrates (1919). In 1920 he began to study the fugue. Many contemporary authors accused him of lack of technique. His works have a repetitive character and use few sounds, creating a completely new ambiance. Starting from the break Impressionism implied, the European artistic panorama – the same in visual arts and in music – will change enormously. The difference can be summarized in a term that historians use – the disaggregation of the artistic phenomenon. In other words, if great periods like Baroque or Romanticism had existed up until then, in which all artists of all arts had integrated, from now on no one movement will include everybody, as long as there are many who live at the same time and succeed fast. Each musician tends to create his independent art, the styles are many, diverse and do not last much in the musical economy of the time, which makes it very difficult to study the age. On the other hand, the parallelism between music and visual arts is already impossible to establish. Satie’s music is characterized as full of life, informal and cheerful, with repetitive melodic figures, and humoristic when it imitates the sound of a wheel, of a typewriter or of a revolver. The most extreme example that demonstrates Satie’s rejection reaction against the “classical” composition is Musica de mobiliario, which he composed together with Milhaud in 1920. It was designed to be interpreted during an opera intermission and it represents the intention of negation of any kind of artistic ambition. During the war years, Satie converted to a kind of musical hero for a number of French writers, among which six were very good friends (Groupe des six): Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Arthur Honegger, Georges Auric, Germaine Taillefere and Louis Durey. In 1917 they began to perform concerts together, but the differences between their musical visions soon led to the dismembering of the group. The changes in French music also affected Igor Stravinsky (1882- 1917), one of the most important figures of the 20th century who, before it even occurred, was already heading for a simpler compositional language, without ornaments and ample orchestrations. In his work, Stravinsky approached the most diverse styles and made evolve the rhythm, sound, instrumentation etc. The profound knowledge of his country’s folklore made possible the creation of his brilliant work Le Sacre du printemps, presented in premiere in Paris on May 29, 1913. This premiere caused a great scandal due to its agitated rhythm and aggressive sound. In 1920 Stravinsky moved to Paris where he remained for 20 years. Here he begins one of the three great periods of his creation called the “Russian” or “Neo-Classical” period. This period is characterized by the simplicity of texture

123 with a certain Russian savour, but also by Stravinsky’s orientation towards the fundamental principles of late Baroque which, reformulated, offered him a base for his works (Pulcinella, Octet). The idea was not a return to the past, but a revitalization of the compositional conceptions of the past with a contemporary harmony and rhythm. At the end of his life, he adopted dodecaphonism (in Canticum sacrum). At the end of the First World War, Germany knew a period of great changes, beginning with the fall of the monarchy and instauration of the republic which rejuvenated the souls of the moment bringing new artistic and intellectual impulses. There was a strong rejection of the past, of Romanticism. The search was for a simpler and more objective art. Berlin was the cultural center of Germany, but art was not restricted to this city and enveloped other nucleuses like Frankfurt or Baden-Baden where there was an intense cultural life. With Hitler’s ascension to power, this image changed, German art was crushed and the culmination point was the breaking of this great cultural moment felt in Germany. Many of the artistic figures of the moment left and the cultural activity diminished considerably, which is why Germany was left far away from the new creation trends. Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) was the first important German composer after the war. He began his studies in Frankfurt at age 13, his most famous side being that of violinist. In 1915 he was named concertmaster at the Frankfurt Opera. In 1927 he was professor of composition at the Music Academy in Berlin. His preference for instruments such as the clarinet, piano, violin and viola facilitated his approach of the composition field. His first pieces have the style of late Romanticism, with multiple chromatics and triadic harmony. Between 1920 and 1930 he broke with tradition and became one of the most radical members of the post-war generation. Truly important is Hindemith’s conception regarding composition: according to this conception, music must serve to be interpreted both by professionals and by amateurs, being considered a social activity to which all citizens must participate. The music that Hindemith set out to write according to this idea is a popular music, without many esthetic concerns. This idea, shared by other composers, is reduced to the term “Gerbrauchmusik” or “music to use”. At the end of 1920 and beginning of 1930, Hindemith composed only pieces for nonprofessional musicians and dedicated them to the cultivation of amateurs’ taste. The case of Kurt Weill (1900-1950) is in many ways similar to that of Hindemith. In the decade 1930-1940, he began to be concerned with the social situation of Germany and decided to use his music as an “exchange agent” of social nature. In this regard, we can speak about his music as a utilitarian music. But while Hindemith aspired to the renewal of music by composing works for amateur interpreters, Weill considered music a means to wake up the political consciousness. To this purpose, he will resort to the opera.

124 His most important work in the sense mentioned above was Mahagonny- Songspiel because it enjoyed the collaboration of the important poet and playwright Bertold Brecht. In Russia, the changes brought by the October 1917 revolution had notable consequences on all the aspects of the cultural life, on music as well. Many musicians left the country immediately after the revolution (the cases of Stravinsky and Rachmaninov), the remaining ones having to obey the demands of the new government. Lenin, the main architect of the revolution, claimed that art must be popular, accessible to all and, so that everyone should understand it, art must be educational. This is why, between 1929 and 1930, the government favored the development of music and the contact with contemporary European artists. Still, there was not a common point of view regarding the most appropriate type of art, which is why two distinct composition schools appeared: “The Association for Contemporary Music” – which claimed that the most advanced musical tendencies must be followed – and “The Russian Association of Proletarian Music” – which believed music must be simple and lacking in any artistic pretense. After Lenin’s death in 1924, Stalin came to power and the two associations were replaced by the Union of Soviet Composers, which took the role of decision factor in regards to what was acceptable from the musical point of view. The demand was for music to have political and social content, to praise the virtues of the new society. Thus, the composers’ creative field was restricted to the maximum. Shostakovich’s opera Lady Macbeth was censured and the composers of international value such as Prokofiev, Shostakovich or Khachaturian were attacked for not having obeyed the government exigencies. Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953), an exceptional musical talent, began his studies at age 11 when he also started writing his first pieces. For his developed musical language he was soon catalogued by critics as ultra-Modernist. From the composition point of view, he adhered to Neoclassicism and many of his works manifest clear references to the style of the 18th century and to Haydn. This style appears in all its clarity in the Classical Symphony composed in 1917. A year after the Russian revolution, he was already an internationally famous composer and left the country with the intention to return as soon as the political situation had calmed down. First, he settled in the United States where he remained till 1922 and then he moved to Paris. His contact with the West made his music evolve even more. Prokofiev returned to Russia in 1936 and his problems started soon, as the government of the time qualified his works composed abroad as undesirable. Thus, he had to become more conservative and more popular in his music. From that moment and till his death he composed works that were acceptable officially, trying however to maintain his own revolutionary language. Dmitri Shostakovich’s situation (1900-1975) was similar. He began his musical studies after the Russian revolution, in 1919. He conceived music as a

125 social phenomenon and was convinced of its duty to attract the most audience possible and of its ideological role. Without a doubt, in spite of the fact that his relation with the state was good, he had his share of problems with the regime because he did not agree that music should have the most appropriate form in order to be accessible to the common man. This was the reason why he was always censured. The most obvious case of censure was his opera Lady Macbeth (1932) which enjoyed unusual success, being performed 97 times. After that, it was censured and banned. Little before Lady Macbeth, Shostakovich used a simpler compositional language and thus less “compromising”, as it is easy to notice in The Fifth Symphony. Despite this fact, he was permanently pressured by the dictatorial regime. As we could see, the influence of the totalitarian regimes in Russia and Germany was strong. A similar situation was in other countries like Italy and Spain where, because of the fascist regimes, music and the cultural life were generally affected by the politics of the time. Never before had politics played such a decisive role in music configuration. The German composers that did not feel obligated to leave their country during the third Reich had two choices: either continue to write according to their taste in complete isolation and with no hope for their music to be known or adopt a conservative style that should not offend the ones in power. Carl Orff (1895-1982) decided for the second option and adopted a sufficiently simple style, which was at the same time original and liked by the authorities. His most famous work in which his characteristic style appears for the first time is Carmina Burana (1937) – a scenic cantata based on the musical arrangement of medieval lyrics composed in Latin and old German. One of the most important aspects of Orff’s career is his activity as educator. He created his own method, Orff-Schulwerk, which allows children with no musical background to educate themselves musically by taking part in improvised instrumental ensembles with simple melodic and harmonic patterns. Due to the development of this method, Orff was and is known internationally. Until the end of the First World War, Poland was under Russian political and cultural domination. With a musical heritage monopolized by Chopin, there were few possibilities for new composers to manifest themselves. In spite of this fact, the presence of Karol Szymanowski (1882-1937) in public musical life manifested fully. In his first works, there are influences from Scriabin, Wagner, Strauss and also from exotic musical cultures such as Arabian and Persian. However, his music is often too complicated, demanding excellent virtuosity technique from musicians. In spite of his talent as a composer, Szymanowski was not appreciated in Poland because of his European stylistic orientation.

126 After Poland’s independence, the distance between his works and the public diminishes, as Szymanowski adopts a more nationalistic style he will use till his death. Among his works, the most noteworthy are: Concerto for violin no. 1 (1916), Sonata for piano no. 3 (1917) and Stabat Mater (1926). The English composer Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) was one of the most talented of his time. He developed a style characterized by clear eclecticism, with a very sure and expressive technique, each piece seemingly being composed according to the demands of concertos. He had notable success especially with opera, being remarked for titles such as Peter Grimes (1945), La violacion de Lucrecia (1946), La vuelta al tornillo (1954) and La muerte en Venecia (1974) among others, even though his most famous piece was the so- called Orchestra Guide for the Young. For Romania, the first half of the 20th century brought to the attention of the European musical world the brilliant personality of George Enescu, the one that paved the way that the Romanian creators would have to follow, in a complex and remarkable manner. With the exception of a few pieces with great attraction to the public, Enescu wrote music that unfortunately was not performed too much, mostly due to the writing and technical difficulties, but also to its emotional and ideational load. The indubitable difficulty of Enescu’s style is mostly due not to a type of esoteric hermeticism, but to an extraordinary inner richness. Enescu, a person of phenomenal erudition, studied and assimilated rapidly the great works of the western repertoire, whose excellent performer he also was. As composer, he had the capacity to enrich this centennial heritage with his own experience as connoisseur of folkloric music. The musicologist Harry Halbreich expressed in a very adequate manner the impression produced by the pieces sprung from this double source, on the occasion of participating in the International Symposium of Musicology “George Enescu” in Bucharest, 9-10 september 2005. Enescu was impregnated with Romanian music, as well as with true gypsy music from a very early age and he knew better than anyone how to extract all its ancestral profundity which mixes – in his opinion – from the night of times, its Indian and Egyptian origins. Thus, there is in Enescu a profoundly oriental inspiration. However, the composer makes a clear distinction between Romanian folk music and gypsy music, a distinction he acknowledges in one of the interviews he gave during his last years. In terms of the essential characteristic of the Romanian folk music, he believes that: Le rêve - est, même dans les mouvements rapides, un retour vers la mélancolie. The relatively small number of his creations is an expression of his perfectionism which stems from a high respect for the music and for the audience. Enescu never fell pray to the facile, but followed a natural evolution expressed by a complexity that was not always understood. He did not recreate

127 brilliant and popular Romanian rhapsodies to please the public. On the contrary, he took his art in-depth, reflected on the origins of Romanian folkloric music and its connections to gypsy music. Thus, he reached a synthesis of folkloric music and savant forms, for which Violin and piano sonata in Romanian Folkloric Style (1926) is an excellent example. That superior entity which is the alliance between savant and folklore led Eminescu to his most emotional and amazing achievement. Enescu never broke with the past, but knew how to transfigure it by adapting it to the modern world. He proposed to the western world an alternative to traditional polyphony: heterophony, inherited from the Byzantines. By adding these great poles of inspiration to the Romanian roots, Enescu became the universal musician that made the connection between eastern Europe, the Islamic world and the musical center of western Europe – Paris.

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128 INTERBELICĂ A SECOLULUI AL XX-LEA (1900-1940). Bucureşti: Ed. Fundaţiei culturale române, 2002. Firca, Clemansa. „Rezonanţe ale esteticii expresionismului în creaţia muzicală românească”, I, II în SCIATMC, tom 17, nr. 2, Bucureşti, 1973. Firca, Gheorghe. DIRECŢII ÎN MUZICA ROMÂNEASCĂ (1900-1930). Bucureşti: Ed. Academiei R.S.R., 1974. Goléa, Antoine. ESTHÉTIQUE DE LA MUSIQUE CONTEMPORAINE. Paris, 1954. Haba, Alois. „Probleme actuale ale creaţiei şi unele referiri la muzica românească”în Muzica, Bucureşti, 1957. Herman, Vasile. FORMĂ ŞI STIL ÎN NOUA CREAŢIE MUZICALĂ ROMÂNEASCĂ. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 1977. Hutcheon, Linda. POLITICA POSTMODERNISMULUI (trad. Mircea Deac), Bucureşti: Univers, 1997. Iliuţ, Vasile. DE LA WAGNER LA CONTEMPORANI. Bucureşti: Ed.Muzicală a UCMR, 2001 Machlis, Joseph. INTRODUCTION TO CONTEMPORARY MUSIC. W.W. New York: Norton & Company, 1961. Marino, Adrian. MODERN, MODERNISM, MODERNITATE. Bucureşti: Editura pentru Literatură Universală, 1969. Messiaen, Olivier. TEHNIQUE DE MON LANGAGE MUSICAL, 2 vol. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1944. Messing, Scott. NEOCLASSICISM IN MUSIC:FROM THE GENESIS OF THE CONCEPT THROUGHT THE SCHOENBERG / STRAVINSKY POLEMIc, Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1996. Milhaud, Darius. „Polytonalite et atonalite” în La revue Musicale, IV, Paris, 1923. Munteanu, Viorel. „Roman Vlad, exeget al operei stravinskiene”, în ROMAN VLAD, RECITIND SĂRBATOAREA PRIMĂVERII DE STRAVINSKI. Bucureşti: Naţional, 1998. Munteanu, Viorel. ROMAN VLAD – MODERNITATE ŞI TRADIŢIE. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 2001. Niculescu, Ştefan. REFLECŢII DESPE MUZICĂ. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 1980. Niculescu, Ştefan. „Un nou ‘spirit al timpului’ în muzică” în Caiete critice 1-2, Bucureşti, 1986. Ortega Y Gasset, Josè. DEZUMANIZAREA ARTEI ŞI ALTE ESEURI DE ESTETICĂ (1925), Bucureşti, 2000. Pascu, George, Boţocan, Melania. CARTE DE ISTORIE A MUZICII VOL. I-II, Iaşi: Vasiliana ’98, 2003. Popovici, Doru. MUZICA ROMÂNEASCĂ CONTEMPORANĂ Bucureşti: Albatros,1970. Raţiu, Adrian. „Sistemul armonic al lui Skriabin” în Muzica 2/1972, Bucureşti. Rădulescu, Speranţa. „Microstructuri melodice enesciene subordonate principiului sonată” în Studii de Muzicologie, XX. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 1987. Sandu-Dediu, Valentina., MUZICA NOUĂ ÎNTRE MODERN ŞI POSTMODERN. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 2004. Sandu-Dediu, Valentina. MUZICA ROMÂNEASCĂ ÎNTRE 1944-2000 Bucureşti: Muzicală, 2002. Schaeffer, Pierre. LA MUSIQUE CONCRÈTE. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1967. Stravinski, Igor. POETICA MUZICALĂ. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 1967. Stroe, Aurel. „Un aspect al problemei limbajului în muzica contemporană” în Muzica, . 6/1966, Bucureşti. Ştefănescu, Ioana. O ISTORIE A MUZICII UNIVERSALE. Bucureşti: Editura Fundaţiei

129 Culturale Române, 1998. Terényi, Ede. ARMONIA MUZICII MODERNE (1900 – 1950) Cluj-Napoca: MediaMusica, 2001. Timaru, Valentin. „O evoluţie a organizărilor sonore din prima jumătate a secolului al XX- lea”, în Lucrări de muzicologie, 10-11, Cluj – Napoca: Conservatorul „Gh.Dima”, 1979. Ţăranu, Cornel. „Obsesia simetriei la Webern” în Lucrări de muzicologie, 17-18, Cluj- Napoca: Conservatorul „Gh.Dima”, 1985. Varga, Ovidiu. „Fenomenul Stravinski” în Muzica, 7/1971, Bucureşti. Varga, Ovidiu. ORFEUL MOLDAV ŞI ALŢI ŞASE MARI AI SECOLULUI XX (QUO VADIS MUSICA? II). Bucureşti: Muzicală, 1981. Vasiliu, Laura. „Structură şi formă în muzica atonală”, în vol. STRUCTURĂ. FUNCŢIONALITATE. FORMĂ (Perspective contemporane în analiza fenomenului muzical), de Gh. Duţică şi Laura Vasiliu. Iaşi: Artes, Universitatea de Arte „G. Enescu”, 1999 Vasiliu, Laura. „Rolul funcţionalităţii tonal – armonice în structurarea formei postromantice” în Muzica, 1/2001, Bucureşti. Vasiliu, Laura. ARTICULAŢIA ŞI DRAMATURGIA FORMEI MUZICALE ÎN EPOCA MODERNĂ. Iaşi: Artes, 2002. Vieru, Anatol. „Câteva consideraţiuni asupra minimalismului repetativ (Post – scriptum la studiul ‘Palindroame muzicale’)” în Muzica, 2/1992, Bucureşti. Vlad, Roman. STORIA DELLA DODECAFONIA. Milano:Suvini – Zerboni; 1958 (traducere de Irina Passa şi Viorel Munteanu; ediţie îngrijită şi adăugită, studiu, note şi comentarii de Viorel Munteanu). Bucureşti: Naţional, 1998. Webern, Anton. CALEA SPRE MUZICA NOUĂ. Bucureşti: Muzicală, 1988. Xenakis, Iannis. MUSIQUE FORMELLES. Paris: Richard-Masse, 1963. Xenakis, Iannis. „La crise de la musique sérielle” în Musique, Arhitecture, Casterman, Paris, 1971.

*** DICŢIONAR DE MARI MUZICIENI. Bucureşti: Univers enciclopedic, 2000. *** DICTIONAIRE ENCYCLOPÉDIQUE DE LA MUSIQUE. Sous la direction de Denis Arnold (1983). Paris: Robert Laffont, S.A., 1988. *** DICTIONARY OF CONTEMPORARY MUSIC. New York, 1974. *** A DICTIONARY OF TWENTIETH CENTURY COMPOSERS, Londra, 1973. *** DICTIONARY OF MUSIC AND MUSICIANS. New York: Grove George, The Macmillan Company, 1945. *** HISTOIRE DE LA MUSIQUE, SOUS LA DIRECTION DE ROLAND MANUEL, vol. I-II. Paris: Librarie Gallimard, 1963. *** THE NEW OXFORD HISTORY OF MUSIC, vol. I-X. London: Oxford University Press, 1957-1974.

130 Valences of the (a)typical nature – Erik Satie Roxana-Luiza Moldovan (Bucharest) ”Je suis venu au monde très jeune dans un temps très vieux”1 Erik Satie

Abstract The study contains two parts: I. Valences of the atypical nature - Erik Satie; II. Satie and his personal vocation: procedural type constants. I. Valences of the atypical nature - Erik Satie is a componistical portrait.Among other things, I talk about the way in which his personal nature exercise the influence at the level of musical parameters. II. ” Satie and his personal vocation: procedural type constants” presents the parameters repeatedly used in the compositions of Erik Satie: disonnances, metric freedom, the agogica parody, the segments technique.

Key words: sold, fragile, trapped, existential, escape, ivory tower, imagination, I, hypersensitive, the melanchloyc satyr, precursor, paradox, procedural type constants, the segments technique.

I. Valences of the (a)typical nature – Erik Satie

A fragile soul trapped in existential, marked by the imminent destruction at the lowest daily contact with pragmatism hardness. Here’s Erik Satie destiny, whose escape in the ivory tower of imagination, as the universe prefabricated dwelling likeness and image of the sovereign I, shows thus sine qua non imperatives. Hypersensitive par excellence, Erik Satie has forged his own existential manner, engaging his withdrawing from the competition of bitter rules (socio- materials). Enemy of frivoulous ostentation, he chose a solitary life, removed from the turmoil of the big-events. A small room served him as universe. A universe in which all objects were meticulously arranged, practice so common in the situation of unmarried persons. In the same time, domestic obsessions occupied a place of honor: the cult of handkerchiefs, and the acquisition of similar suits, made at the same velvet, also, the unhampered passion of illustrations - by his death was discovered around about 4000 papers o business card size (perfectly ordered, in turn), loaded with strange drawings and extravagant inscriptions. This was the world of Satie. A tiny and strange world, but at the same time, serene and cozy, wearing bright reflection of the individuality that forget it. An optimal environment for the compositional activity – the ”melanchloyc

1 Vasile Iliuţ, DE LA WAGNER LA CONTEMPORANI, vol. V (Bucureşti: Ed. U.N.M.B., 2001), p. 13.

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satyr” creed of his all existing, Erik the controversial, placed just in epicenter of the abstract paradoxes. Testimony in this regard? His whole creation for piano, bearing the seal of pluralism inspired, targeting both mystical and melancholy living, alongside childhood history ingenue, a cavalcade of frolics covered each time with a roguish smile. Satie opposed trends in vogue – that actually evolves in parallel – a singular manner of composition, as a reflection of his special character. The ”melancholyc satyr” will enrich the palette of sounds specifically for his period – seductive, by the ethereal Impressionist print, traditionalist, by the effusions of Postromantic ivory inspiring, but also, a powerful investigation and introspection, aiming the probing on the thicket by misterious fantasies of self (defining the Expressionist preocupation) – with a creative offer that will be contain in nuce a number of definitory elements for the beginning of some artistic movements by later date: a. repetitive minimalism, advance through sound segments, the proper manner of construction (see Ogives, Gymnopèdii, Gnossiennes, Pièces froides, Chapitres tournès en tous sens); b. intersectional art, Sports et divertissements by, strategically called ”ear and eye composition”2, the score shelters a number of texts and illustrations preceding 4 years the Calligrames by Apollinaire; c. concrete music: Erik Satie is the first composer who appeals extramusicals resources (see ballet Parade), such as sirens, bottles granted, firecrackers, lottery wheel, gun, and last but not least, typewriter. d. precursor to ambient music, which is so-called ”musique d’amableument”. Stagnation in the germ of the said guidelines, irrevocable and suddently abbandoned, gives a new track in detectind atypical nature of the artist who conceived them. Continuing – like a Conquistador – the exploitation of sound territories that were already in his own possesion, Satie would have ensured a ”place of honor in” pantheon of universal composition. But yielding to posterity the greatest honor, he decided to limit his contribution to the entire state of ”simple precursor”, because, artist par excellence, Erik the paradoxical had only one creed, which he followed - religiously - up at the end: the desire to build by his music, the proper Land for his special nature – the brilliant achievement of finding glory were placed outside of his own concerns or aspirations. Hence the aversion to strict rules of composition, as a result, imposing to promote the unlimited freedom of sound inspiration. Satie is declared as such for the emancipation of dissonance, counting on inheritance provided by the chords succesions of 7 (or 9 + 7) unresolved (for exemple, Sarabandes or Gymnopèdies), often grounded in a sound framework

2 http://lett.ubb.cluj.ro/echinox/arhivo/2000 - 123/07 html: Întâlnire cu excentricitatea teoretică.

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for modal type (or bimodal), devoid of any metric classification, without excluding the rule of powerful pulses (though there are works with claim their membership metric, see the case of Passacaglia, Menuet, Nocturnes or Sarabande). And the list goes on with other compositional obsessions, configuration works revealing their propensity for harmonic agregates, and also, the cult for arpeggio and ternary pulsation, agogica parody with a symbolist tint, manifested in atypical profile of indications (see ”en y regardant à deux fois”, ”être visible un moment”, ”conseillez-vous soigneusement”), fixation of figure 3 (many of piano works are characterized by this numerical group, but they are located outside any kind of symbolic connotation, according to the composer himself), not finally, the predilection for some sound construction methods: • the elimination of development and contrasts → sound profile with a flowing, monolih essence; • abolition of classical form, not infrequently so-called analysis technique works reveal the ”composition of segments”, defined by means of melodical-rhytmic stoning basic configurations, which alternate – in directly or processed manner – the entire musical speech; • quasistereotype distribution of matter sound (see the works for piano): harmonic or arpegiate extras (mainly, left hand) vs. leader trajectory (right hand); Overall impression? A shortage of some inspiring horizon, the source of virulent and caustic assertions: ”Petit geniè de second ordre, à court souffle...3 According to my own views (with all respect for previous comentators), the limitation is expressed in procedural arsenal of psychological reasons, reflecting (in fact) the proposed means for the creation of the illusory Land (that I’ve already mentioned) – sound personification of the compatibles factors with a human nature so special. And because the compatibility requires affiliation, stability, but also, an implicitly monotony – that manner which is resulting from keeping authentic links (regardless of the character and nature of ”exponents”) – than it is natural that music of Satie, expression of his protector ivory tower, can be placed into the sign of procedural reiteration. But, a melancholyc sadness surrounds the sound landscape. Here again a paradox, judging by the status of antidote aforementioned, which seems not to have fulfilled its mission full, his inventor having thus unable to ignore his human limits. Neutralized in a perpetual bustle of city, Erik Satie, obscure and vulnerable transient, contemplate the kinetic rush of Cronos. Implacable leak raises him a strong melancholy, his paradoxically nature – the biological, mature, and the spiritual, imbued (still) with purity of innocence – manifesting and thereby, his deep and irrevocable split. This is the mobile of his so-called funny melodies, defined by the simplicity of basic lines, which sound converge as songs for

3 Paul Landormy, LA MUSIQUE FRANÇAISE APRÈS DEBUSSY (Paris, Gallimard, 1943).

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children), whose satirical paradoxical substrate is not nothing but a mirror image of psychological individualities perfectly distincts: ingenuos / cumming, melancholyc / satyric, innocent / malicious, or in other words, the perfect (mental-bodily) symbiosis of the ignorant, wanton and cheerful child, and the misfit and melancholyc adult, full of metaphysical reflections. In support of this, seems to come his last compositional stage, when we witness the birth of so- called ”furniture music”, conceived of consciousness (not devoid of regret) of the continous flow of time, and implicitly, the human destiny - the only possibility that remains in this respect being the resigned acceptance, like the reception of furniture music, of which we are asked to make complete abstraction. This was Erik Satie. So cherish it to his just and true value, that shows, as all we know, ”the valences of the (a)typical nature”.

II. Satie and his personal vocation: procedural type constants

Supporter of semantic permanence, Erik Satie builds his entire musical trajectory by the coordonates of a trivalent ”affect” – mystical, melancholy or satirycal –, option which finds its compositional equivalent, by involving a relatively small share of the staff procedure used. Here’s how the paradoxical musician manages to construct a ”chameleonic” creative vocation, revealed through various color suggestions, afferent by the releated pillar-parameters of the building sound. Therefore proposes to continue, pointing out some compositional constants, and their variants detected during the processing of piano works.

1. Dissonance, expression factor

Located outside of the traditional approach, the compositional arsenal by ”master from Arcueil” can be characterized by the supremacy of his own suggestions and creative reasoning. Thus, without ignoring the prodigious dowry of tono-modal, the artist reinterprets – from a very personal perspective – the classical procedural core, giving him an ingenuos and unusual alternative. Specific sound structures roughness usually dissonant (emboided on his creations by the frequencie of sequences given by chords of 7 or 9 + 7), now receive the metamorphosis of sweet affects, materializes (for example) by a sharp melodicity, impregnated with a strong nostalgic flavour. Made (except the last melody, which has a mixed structure: arpegiate- chord) through the inheritance granted by chords of 7 or 9 + 7 (often chained after the principle of functional conversion), ex:

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: the triptych of Sarabandes (”voici 3 courtes pièces issues d’une esthetique toute nouvelle, instaurant une atmosphere particulière, un magie sonore absolutement originale”4) can be characterised by a melodic virtuosity of harmonic parameter, the sequence of dissonance thus dissolved in the fluidic sound of building complex. First song by the Gymnopèdie cycle illustrates – during the first 19 measures – the alternance of two following chords of 7:

& In this case, the alleviate of dissonance may be explained by a double method, which consists in: A. functional conversion apply at the first interval of 7 (fa#) → equivalent of the 3 by following chord; B. resolution ↑ of the second interval of 7 (do#), by the return of the originally chord sequence (sol-si-re-fa#). Far from being monotonous, the chordic ballance of iambic structure, favors the development theme, likely a binomial expressive semantic: the nostalgy of passing time (see right hand) vs. his impassive drain (see left hand). Depiction of a new chain of dissonance used this time in a hilarious and playful context, firmly anchored by the entire semantic consensus, takes place during the triptych of Embryons dessèchès. Invested with an initiatic function, dissonances (together with other components of musical speech) are designed to introduce us to the universe of parody, inexhaustible source of musical ”narrations”, full of joy and ... real cause.

2. Metric freedom – real or appearance?

With a quasiimprovisatoric character, subordinated of the psihedelic type sensations determined by the miraculous action of creation, the music of Erik Satie often suggestes the anihilation of the metric framework, without excluding thereby the prescriptions of the pulsating nature, which continues to enjoy a well-defined shape, or alternatively, as if the first part from the Ogives cycle, subordinate – altough in absence by an actual measure – of 3+3+4 metric

4 Paul Collaere, LA MUSIQUE MODERNE (Paris/Bruxelles: Elsevier, 1955), p. 155.

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scheme stroke, ex.:

, or constantly, such as Idylle (first pice from Avant-dernières pensèes), marking the permanent pulsing of 2-stroke, ex.:

or ”d’Edriophtalma” (second piece from ”Embryons Dessèchès” cycle), defined by a pulse of 4/4. ex.:

3. The agogica parody

Detached from the conventional field, the agogic profile reveals agogic satirical intentions of the eccentric creator, oriented of the symbolist era beliefs. In the plan of discourse, parody finds its equivalent into a range of expression indices. Their defining attribute, determined by the oscillations of the correspondence: ”agogica syntagma – validity in interpretative plan”, give rise of following division: A. Compatibles indices with sound expression; B. Abstract character of indices, impossible to reveal into interpretation plan:

A Compatibles indices with sound expression ”Questionnez” Gnossienne I ”Avec une lègère intimitè”, ”Sans orgueil” Gnossienne II ”Plus intimement” Gnossienne II ”Tres perdu” Gnossienne III

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Avec conviction et avec une tristesse rigoreuse, Gnossienne VI ”Savamment” ”D’une manière très particulière”, ”Fatigue” Pièces froides: Airs à faire fuir I ”Important ”, ”Se fixer”, ”Pur”, ”Enigmatique” Airs à faire fuir I

”Ne pas se tourmenter” Idem ”Dans le profund silence”, ”Modestement” Airs à faire fuir II ”Cumulativement” Airs à faire fuir III ”Blanc” Danses de travers I ”Sans bruit”, ”Très loin” Danses de travers III

”Retenez, je vous prie” Aperçus dèsagrèables: I Pastorale ”Large de vue” Aperçus dèsagrèables: II Choral

”Très chantè” – ”Mieux” – ”Encore” Idem

”Non vite”, ”Avec plaisir”, ”Naturellement” Aperçus dèsagrèables: III Fugue ”Droit”, ”Sans mèchancetè” Idem

”Modèrè, je vous prie” Avant-dernières pensèes: I Idylle ”La basse lièe, n’est-ce pas?” Idem

”Pas vite”, ”Lèger, mais decent” Avant-dernières pensèes: II Aubade

”Lèger, comme devant” Idem ”Chantez serieusement. Très terre à terre: sans Idem luisant” ”En blanc et immobile”, ”Pâle et hieratique” Les fils des ètoiles-Prelude du 1er Acte

”Comme une douce demande” Idem ”Haut”, ”Sans s’irriter”, ”De même” Idem – Prelude du 3er Acte ”Calme et profondement doux”, ”Sans orgueil” Prèlude de la Porte hèröique du Ciel ”Avec dèfèrence”, ”En une timide piètè” Idem ”Très sincerement silencieux” Idem

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B. Abstract character of indices, impossible to reveal into interpretation plan ”Du bout de la pensèe”, Gnossienne I ”Sur la langue” ”Postulez en vous-même”, ”Pas à pas” Idem ”Ne sortez pas”, ”Dans une grand bonze” Gnossienne II

”Ouvrez la tête” Idem

”Conseillez-vous soigneusement”, ”Seul pendant Gnossienne III un instant” ”Munissez-vous de clarvoyance” Idem ”Dans une saine supèrioritè”,”Hâve de corps” Gnossienne VI ”Allez” Gnossienne VII ”Obeir”, ”Tout entier”, ”Descendre”, ”Dans le Pièces froides: Airs à faire fuir I fond” ”A sucer” Idem: Airs à faire fuir II ”S’inviter”, ”Ne pas trop manger”, Idem: Airs à faire fuir III ”Voyez”,”Dernièrement”, ”Bien” ”En y regardant à deux fois”, ”Se le dire”, Danses de travers I ”Toujours”, ”Seul” ”Passer”, ”Etre visible un moment” Danses de travers II ”Encore”, ”Très bien”, ”Parfait”, Danses de travers III ”Merveilleusement” ”Voyez” Aperçus dèsagrèables: I Pastorale ”Grattez”, ”Ne tournez pas” Idem: II Choral ”Souriez”, ”Depuis”, ”Veritable”, ”Ne parlez Idem: III Fugue pas”, ”Regardez”, ”A voir”,”En face”,”Visible” ”Dans la tête”, ”Montant”, ”Toujours”, ”Tomber Les fils des ètoiles – Prèlude du 2e Acte jusqu’à l’affaiblissement” ”Ignorer sa propre presence”, ”Montant”, ”Finir Idem – Prèlude du 3er Acte pour soi”, ”Sans trop fremir”, ”Etre plus près” ”Superstitieusement”, ”Rideau”, Prèlude de la Porte hèröique du Ciel ”Obligeamment” ”Peniblement et par à coups”, ”Entraînant les Chapitres tournes en tous sens – II. Le Porteur

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jambes” De Grosses Pierres ”Apparent”, ”Dehors” Idem – III. Regrets Des Enfermès

Sometimes, agogica-parody is correlated to the traditional agogica (see Aperçus dèsagrèables, Avant-dernières pensèes, Gnossiene, Airs à faire fuir). Also we are noted the case of melodies exclusively characterised by the traditional agogica, such as - for exemple -, the 4 Ogives, the triptychs of Gymnopèdies or Sarabandes, Menuet, Passacaglia, Nocturne, En habit de cheval, Poudre d’Or).

4. The segments technique

Sound material division in lapidary segments – alternating in directly or processed way over the entire musical speech – reflects the favourite compositional option of the controversial Erik. Pre-minimalist compositional technique, this method also carries a number of repercurssions on the traditional type of formal joint, Satie’s creations borrowing thereby the ”similarity” and ”face” of the fluidic monoliths. Progressively (see the meaning of trajectory procedure, with a simple-complex origin), vs. chameleon (see the specific combinatorial multitude of complex organisations) – this are the key-parameters of the procedural type that will result, in further analytical approach, the selection of 7 at the variants of the composer models used on this occasion, as follows:

4.1 Simplicity

Defining sample - Ogives I (marked a perfect similarity of procedural parameters over the entire cycle): sound construction made by a double segment, with a ”question & answer” character, ex.: A + B

subsequently subjected to a horizontal development (with a chord structure), the route of melody always keeping the same (except the 2 opposite transpositions, targeting intervals of 8p↑, and double 8p↓). Also, the exploatation of the horizontal plan determine the augmentation of the sound mass, the beginning unison thus converted in horizontal structures by 8 (2 or 4 system), respectively 5+6 sounds (3 system).

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4.2 Repetition and alternation

Defining sample - Gnossienne I, begin with 3 segments, with the same melodycal-rhytmic roots:

A2: marking an interrogative-conclusive type structure: A (question) + A1 (answer) → A2, rhetorical conclusion, because the ↓ continuity of A, played almost entirely (see the absence of the fifth note - si1 -).

B segment: is by itself, while the duo

C: & D: reveals a new question and answer structure.

The full sequence of segments A A1 A2 A A1 A2 B B C D C D B B

A A1 A A1 B B C D C D B B

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Carried out without any processing, the full sequence of segments determines the composition of the following 2 structures: A, A1, A2 – the triad onset + the abreviated version: A,A1; BB-CD, CD-BB (by recurring invoice), A,A1, A,A1, BB-CD, CD-BB → alternated and repeated sequence type (because the reiteration of A,A1 couple).

4.3 Model+working in couple

Defining sample – Gnossienne II - 4 basic segments from the same trunck sound:

A: +

A1: ,;

C: The full sequence of segments 1 1 1 A A B B C C B B1a A

Here is a sample for the propensity of ”couple-concatenation”, processing segments being preceded by its generator, for example: B (basic segment) – B1 (its processing); C – C1; B – B1a, with 2 exceptions: A – A1 (A1 → part of the group of basic segments); B – B1a (B1a → derived from B, representating by its turn, the processing of the initial B version). A segment placed at the beginning and end of both chaining, assign it a symmetrical character. Also noted at the same time, the using of variational process, as a mean of generating segments processing.

4.4 Tandem of repeated segments Defining sample: Gnossienne IV - 3 basic segments:

A: ; B: ; C:

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The full sequence of segments A A B B C C1 A C1a C1a

Largely, segments are showing a reiterated sequencial type (see A – A, B – B, C1a – C1a). In terms of processing model, variation still has the primacy.

4.5 Double section Defining sample - Gnossienne VI: This time, the material sound is divided into 9 basic segments:

A B ; C: ;

D: ; E: ;

F: ; G: ; H: I: , processed only in trasnspository manner.

The full sequence of segments A B C D E F G H I A A tr. B tr. H tr. C tr. D tr. A tr.1 B tr.1 F tr.1 H tr.1 G tr. D tr.1 C tr.1

Segments reveals a double string section: I. the section of the basic segment (symmetric, because A’s return at the end of the sequence) → directly proportional with the order of appearence; II. the processing section (with a character exclusively based on transposition), randomly ordered (we mention the absence of E and I segments, removed thereby, any type of processing).

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4.6 Succesion and diversity

Defining sample - Airs á faire fuir, no. 1 - Considerably augmented, the number of segments is extended to 17.

A: ; B:

C: ; D:

E: ; F:

G: ; H:

I: ;

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J: ; K: ;

L: ;

M: ; N:

O: ; P:

Q: On par with the number of basic segments, complex processing is configured via the 2 options (type transposition or varied) used by the composer.

The full sequence of segments

A B A tr. B tr. C D E C tr. D tr. F G H G F G tr. I

J H tr. G tr. K L M N O O1 N1 O O2 P Q I J

E tr. F tr. G tr. H tr. G tr. M tr. N2 G

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Full listing of segments propose the combination of the random or aleatory chains, as follows: I. Succesively (with 3 modes of presentation): a. basic segments & processing: - A, B, A tr, B tr; - C, D, E, C tr, D tr; b. only basic segments: - F, G, H; - I, J - K, L, M, N, O; - P,Q; c. only processing: - E tr, F tr, G tr, H tr.

II. Random & sequence: → P,Q – I,J (random order appers between Q – I segments).

III. Random: - G tr, M tr, N2, G; - O1, N1, O.

4.7 (Re)exposing:

Defining sample - Gymnopèdie III: 3 basic segments

C: The full sequence of segments A B C A1 B C

After a first exposure, the basic segments (A, B, C) are repeated again, with the exception of A, reiterated in processed version.

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We record for the final, the cohabitation of sound segments with stoning free form structures, developed in 2 ways: A. or by the arpegiate harmonies, see: - the beginning and the ending of Gymnopèdies; - the ending of the second piece of Airs à faire fuir tripthyc; B. or by the type of alternations ”segment – free zone with the pedal function”: see Gymnopèdie I: segment A → free zone under the 4 measures → segment A1 → free zone under the 3 measures; this type of alternating can be also detected in other pieces, like Gnossienne IV, or Gnossienne VII.

Reference Collaere, Paul. LA MUSIQUE MODERNE. Paris/Bruxelles: Elsevier, 1955. Cortot, Alfred. MUZICA FRANCEZĂ PENTRU PIAN, Bucureşti: Editura Uniunii Compozitorilor, 1966 (traducere de Vladimir Popescu-Deveselu după LA MUSIQUE FRANÇAISE DE PIANO, Paris, 1948). Iliuț, Vasile. DE LA WAGNER LA CONTEMPORANI, vol. V Bucureşti: Editura U.N.M.B, 2001. Landormy, Paul. LA MUSIQUE FRANÇAISE APRÈS DEBUSSY.Paris:Gallimard, 1943. Georgescu, orneliu Dan. ”Modern şi tradiţional. O posibilă perspectivă a compozitorului Contemporan”, în Muzica, 2/2007, Bucureşti Milhaud, Darius. ”Notes sans musique”, Dêpôt Lègal 2e Trimestre. Paris: Julliard, 1949. Papandonatu, Monica. ”Aspecte comune ale muzicii cu artele plastice în a doua jumătate a secolului XX” în Muzica, 2/2007, Bucureşti . Râpă, Constantin. ”Muzica secolului XX, expresie a unor multiple crize” în” Muzica, 3/2007, Bucureşti. http://lett.ubb.cluj.ro/~echinox/arhivo/2000 - 123/07.html: Stefana Pop-Curşeu. ”Întâlnire cu excentricitatea teoretică”, rev. Echinox, 1-2-3/ 2000, Cluj-Napoca. http://no.14 plusminus.ro: Despina Petecel Theodoru. ”În căutarea sensului”, numărul 7/2010, Bucureşti.

146 Interpretative and theoretical landmark in the Modal Liturgy by Achim Stoia

Daniela Doroşincă PhD student (Filarmonica “Moldova” Iasi)

Abstract In march 1937, Achim Stoia is writing a Liturgy for mixed choir, monumental by it’s construction and it’s complex vocal appliance, with a diatonic tono-modal harmony with major-minor intonations and a harmonic - polyphonic writing that presents the imitations and stretto entrances, the pedals and the accompaniment taken from the byzantine music, and also a metric that combines the binary structures with the third ones. The popular modal universe that crates the expressive Liturgy, combined with an expressive and complex harmonic feeling that gives its uniqueness and the own value only to those creations meant to persist all over the ages. A particularity of the composer Achim Stoia that help him create monumental sound compositions is that the Liturgy treats the vocal lines similar to the instrumental ones, and the melodic speech result from the harmonic blend and not from the horizontal development on the melody, as it happens in the liturgical compositions of other authors of religious choral music, and the endings are always composed expansive on major arrangements. The musical language complexity comes around the interpretative creation act requires various execution techniques, starting from the legato sung manner in the seraphic canticles (The Cherubic Hymn), reaching subtle sonorities by poco staccato or cvasi-recitative (Holly God) and ending with a detachee suppleness split from the baroque music scene in complex canticles ( We may receive the King of all, Holy, holy, holy, Lord Sabaoth). The Modal Liturgy of Achim Stoia is in the Romanian musical consciousness a perfection model regarding the harmonic and modal language richness but also as mode of sound construction based on polyphonic principle take from the great Dutch polyphonists technique.

Key words: Achim Stoia, Liturgy, religious choral music, modal music, choral music, polyphonic music, Romanian composers, Modal Liturgy, byzantine music.

The composer, the teacher and the conductor Achim Stoia was born in 1910 at Sibiu. He graduated the Conservatoire in Bucharest and Paris and established in Iasi between 1943 and 1973 when he passed to eternity. He became teacher of theory – solfeggios and tune, and after a while Rector of Iasi Conservatoire. The composer conducted the "Moldova" Philharmonic Orchestra Iasi between 1948 and 1961 and was its director between 1950 an 1959. Among his most important choral compositions we can remember: Zece colinde (Ten carols) for mixed choir (1937), Trei cântece de nuntă (Three wedding songs) (1955), Triptic coral (Choral triptych) (1968) and others. He wrote lieder, the most of them by popular lyrics and symphonic as Trei jocuri din Ardeal (Three dances from Ardeal) (1947), six suites such as Suita a II-a şi Suita a III-a (Second and Third Symphonic Suite), Suita a IV-a Sibiana (The

147 Fourth Sibean Suite), Suita a VI-a Ardelenească ( the Sixth Transylvanian Suite) and Rapsodia I Moldovenească (The Moldavian Rhapsody)1. Among his religious compositions, the author wrote in March 1973 a Liturgy for mixed choir composition is monumental by its construction and its vocal appliance on four to eight voices. It is special by its diatonic modal-tune, its major-minor intonations and its polyphonic-tune writing that presents the reproductions and the entrances in stretto, the pedals and the accompaniment taken from the byzantine music and also a metric that combines the binary with the ternary in deployments of 2/4, 3/4, 4/4 and 5/4. A composer's important peculiarity is that in this writing treats the vocal lines similar to the instrumental ones. Also, the melodically speech results from the harmonic connections and not from the horizontal deployment of the melody, as it happens in the liturgical compositions of other composers of religious choral music. The endings are expansive built on major intonations. The liturgy contains a Ectenia mare (Big Litany) where the harmonic writing is omnipresent and the melodic lines have a real recitative character.

In Antifoanele I şi II (the first and the secondary Antiphons), the composer uses a harmonic-counterpoint language, with imitations and stretto entrances and also a modal harmony with the ending in both cases on Sol major, albeit the beginning speech is, in the first case on Re minor and in the second case on Mi minor.

1 http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achim_Stoia 148 Sfinte Dumnezeule (Holy God), Heruvicul (the Cherubic Hymn) and Ca pre împăratul (As the emperor) are compositions with strong sonorities for seven voices, with polyphonic melodic lines undertaken from one voice to another, with canon evolution and stretto imitations. The canticle Sfinte Dumnezeule, Sfinte tare, Sfinte făr de moarte miluieşte-ne pre noi (Holy God, Holy Mighty, Holy Immortal, have mercy on us) is sung in the Liturgy before the Holy Gospel’s reading and it is intoned three times in a row. Thereupon is sang the Apolis Glory… and now, and then resume the end of the canticle Holy Immortal, bless us. After a short intervention of the priest on the Powerful text is resuming once again the canticle da capo al fine. In the Liturgy written by Achm Stoia, the canticle Holy God remains the same, except that every repetition is thought by the composer in a different way, keeping every time the same melodic line. The canticle’s pattern is structured as follows: A (Do – Mi) - B (Sol - Sol) - A (Sol - Si) a(m.1-9) – a1(m.9-17) – a2(m.17-25) b(m.26) – a1v(27-31) a2v(m. 32- 40)

Written for seven mixed voices, the composition reveal an expansive harmony, very expressive, with inflections starting from the ionic mode on Do in the first musical phrase a, and reaching Sol key note in the second phrase a1, Mi in the third phrase a2, again in Sol in section B and in the last phrase a2v, cadence at the end, Si. Although the tempo is not indicated by the author in the score, at the beginning of the canticle, it must be placed, similar to an Andante, in order that the low values be easily sung and the speech be cursively led. The metric is binary, framed in the beginning in a 2/4 beat and in a 4/4 beat towards the end, excepting the apolis that is not framed in beat to keep the rhythm and the speech accents, the singing technique used being quasi- recitative. The composition is not adopted from the Byzantine music practice and neither is written in this style. It has a laic style with classical sonority, very expressive and possible to be song by its melodic current. The first phrase a is intonated at the female voices, alto, sopran II and sopran I, starting from Do tonic, to a gradual entrance every two measures of each voice on Do’s arppegio, starting from alto voice and reaching the end of the phrase on Sol tonic.

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The melody contains two melodic motifs (m1 & m2). The first one is intonated at alto in the first four beats and the second continued at the soprano in the next four beats. The entrance of the second soprano in the third beat of the third mi makes nothing else than conferring overall an expansive sonority to the melodic speech and creating the pass to the motif intoning from soprano I. The rhythm is mostly structured in eighth and quarter values, with a general quarter pulsation that records to the musical speech a kind of necessary fluency to express the vocal ensemble. Due to the musicality of the melodic line and to the upward modulation from do to sol, the general sonority acquires a brightness and transparent color that must be revealed in the musical phrase interpretation. The second phrase is distributed for the male voices, bass, first and second tenor, identical to the one for female voices, only that the tonal plan consists here on Sol tonic and the interpretation manner is nothing different than the previous phrase.

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The third musical phrase a2 is written for all the seven voices distributing the melody for female voices like in the first phrase, but keeping the musical speech in sol with cadence this time on mi and accompaniment at the male voices. Every vocal part is divided in two voices, first and second tenor and baritone-bass.

The difference between the previous phrases consist in the expansive dynamic that can be thought as a culmination of the first A period and the rhythm’s change in the firsts syllables of the expression bless us, that are transformed from eights to sixties. In the interpretation, those low values should not change the character of the phrase. There must be performed soft, with air attack, in legato and with much delicacy and musical pressure to the following eighth values. The dynamic of the musical speech it’s realizing both by adding all the four male voices in accompaniment and by realizing a dynamic in steps starting by the mp tone, in the same time with the gradual entrance from the female voices. The second section B is divided in two musical phrases. The first one, b, is metrically free with a modal harmonic speech on the mixolidic sol, and the second a1v is the arguing of the second musical motif m2 accompanied at the male voices with an harmonic speech that continues to the sol tonic but changing the ionian mode and an recitative character accompaniment at the female voices. In the interpretation, all this musical development must be intoned on legato in a slightly tone of mf conducing the voices on suspended and soft emission cursively in the musical expression of the b phrase given by the

151 syllable articulation similar to the current speaking and supporting on the pronounced syllable from the words Sla-vă Ta-tă-lui, Fi-u-lui, Sfân-tu-lui Duh, ve-cii ve-ci-lor (Glory to the Father and to the Son and to the Holy Spirit). Besides, those aspects are indicated by the composer using accents, but there are not exactly accentuations than underlies of the sound and syllable.

The execution rhythm should not be rigid but elastic and tight on the speech’s rhythm, with a slow accent on the first syllable of the word Glory and following a cursively execution. The emission and the sound color must be as natural as possible, with impost sounds on round and suspended position, placing the vocals in the same vertical opening of the mouth. In the first phrase a1v the principal voice that affirms the melody is the first tenor, all the others being accompaniment voices.

The choral speech is two planes structured, the first homophonous with the melody from the firs tenor harmonic accompanied of the three male voices, second tenor, the baritone and the bass, and the second, in counterpoint to the

152 first un, where the female voices develop an modal harmonic speech in sound blocs with recitative character. It’s very important that in the general male voices speech the descendent line of the bass be very well heard, completing the first tenor ascending line, realizing this way an range choral speech with an expansive sound that crowns the whole representation in a emotionally expressive culmination. For this reason it’s necessary that the bass descendent way from sol to mi be sung in a big sustaining in the same tone with the one from the fist tenor. The female choir’s musical plan is totally different of the male voices one by it’s harmonic writing that evolve in sound blocs in a recitative character structure on constant values of eights and with a different song manner by it’s execution in poco staccato of the eights values, in contrast to the quarters that have to be sung on support. To the general overlap of the two sound planes to not confuse each other must be kept a clear dynamic, and the tone rigorous, without fluctuations, except the end that must be executed in the same way for all the choral voices. The last section of the present composition A (a2v) is the resumption of the send phrase a2 but argued, in another tempo – poco Adagio e Maestoso, with a metric framed in a measure of 4/4 and an enriched harmony and a Si tonic cadence in the end.

The interpretation problems are similar to the third phrase and that they rest valid also for this last section of the canticle Holly God. Imnul Heruvic (The Cherubic), written also for a seven voices choir is structured on a Lydian manner with a mi tonic, a melodic that results from the modal connections and the baroque melodic lines blend, with a harmonic-

153 polyphonic treatment of the choral speech, items of accompaniment and pedals, imitations and stretto entrances and also according blocks in the end with a binary metric in 4/4 measures and an Adagio placed tempo, similar to the on from the ecclesiastical practice. The composition has a two-party form with successions of phrases defined by cadences, as follows:

A (Mi –Sol #) : Av (Mi – Mi) a (m.1-9)-a1(m.9-14) –a2(m.15-23)-a3(m.23-35) : av(m.36-45)-a1v(m.45-50)-a4(m.51- 63)

Melodically, the canticle consists in large scale lines similar to baroque melodic lines with different kind of vocalizations, starting from the big value ones of quarters and half to slow values of eights that appear all over the composition. The construction manner of the choral speech is based on a combination between the harmonic treatment and the polyphonic one. The modal diatonic harmony, very complete overall, shows from the vertical connections of the musical arrangements where on a Lydian manner written on mi tonic, the composer weaves a real scourge connection avalanche where the secondary steps are prevailing, in full arrangements of seventh and none, with frequent delays that result from the seventh and none extension, in moving steps an chromatic sections that bring color and make deeper the expressivity of some words from the canticle lyrics. Also, the harmony’s beauty consists in the enrichment of the section notes, of the superior, inferior or even double embroidery in the musical phrases ending cadences. Every second, third or quarter connections are very often but also the major-minor intonations and the enharmonice. The free polyphonic writing consists in the melodic vocal lines overlap that are blending in a melodic-rhythmic complementary that produces dialogues on similar or not melodic motifs, stretto entrances, melodic scenes and imitations taken from a voice to another. The modal polyphony result from the melodic lines horizontal speech and from its overlap but also from imitation of the motif heads on perfect quarter interval (measures 17-19, 23-26). Rhythmically, the composition is structured in eight, quarter, half and large notes values, without exceptional formulae that can make problems, but hard realizing in terms of support especially than the tempo is slow, even at times enlarged. The execution manner being on legato with well sustained sounds, all the notes values must be song on all their time, sometimes even longer, depending of the interpretative requirements. Regarding the tempo, the canticle is song usually in a slow moving of Adagio, as it is also checked by the composer, especially if it is song in the

154 church in the Divine Liturgy. If the canticle is represented in a concert, than it can be song a bit moved and more cursively without changing the character and the expressivity, and all that to do not dally very much the musical speech and to do not risk to make the canticle static. The dynamic fits in the slow shades of p-mp parameters for that the priest prayers be heard, but also because it’s a sacrament prayer, seraphic that remembers of Seraphim and Cherubim. In the general execution must be followed that in the first phrase a, the attack of the first sound be soft and on the air, in a slow shade of pp, conducing the voices on air and cursively on quarter values, especially at the tenor and alto, with a delay melodic tension on seventies and none, attacking precisely rhythmically every stretto entrances, but with intonated sounds on soft voice and attack sustaining the auftakt on eighties or quarters and in the end of the phrase a slow placing at the first tenor.

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In the first phrase, a1 the alto’s melody and the first soprano’s blend must be placed in the principal plan, the entrances on auftakt on quarter values but especially on eighties must be sustained on air and the tension be conduced to the following musical note, all the imitations on the melodic descendent cell must be heard in the secondary plan, but rhythmically precise and with a soft voice of legato. The end of the phrase must be placed in a transparent sonority to all the seven voices, by realizing a tenuto in a decreased arrangement of double do hash and a discreet delay to the final un.

In the next phrase a2 development it appears in the first two measures an according sonority that must be executed with a soft attack in pp shade on the first sound, conducing the melodic speech on legato and sustaining the sounds and emphasizing the baritone melodic motif from the sixteen measure, with soft

156 attack in the intonation of the quarter from the first tenor and from the other voices and with a tensioning growing up on every entrance. The sound conducing to the end of the phrase involves the same sustaining especially for the dissonances that must be song on tension with result on the next sound. The picardian cadence from the end must be lately placed with the final arrangement, on a sustained shade for the whole two times during, without filtering the sounds.

Continuing the seven voices musical speech in the a3 phrase, where the voices are gradually overlapping by intoning the intervals of fourths and fifths, must be realized intonation and rhythmic precisely, with the attack on the first soft sound on a expansive dynamic from p to mf, keeping in the first plan of the melodic line from the first soprano and in the secondary plan of the other voices, evidencing the dissonances by tensioning the sounds and than resolving them,

157 with sustaining, also, the descendent chromatic scene on legato and with placement on the sounds where the chromatic is ending, by keeping a constant tempo, except the cadence where the rhythmic complementary between voices creates that melodic fluency very smart thought by the composer, expansive by it’s character, representing in the same time the culmination of the whole composition.

The melodically resumption of the first two musical phrases, in this care av and a1v starting for the thirty sixth measure, in the second section of the composition Av, it’s realizing almost identically, with a return on the same tempo I-no, the same metric of 4/4 and dynamic on pp and p. The difference is on the lyrics - Let us set aside all the cares of life, but also the modal harmonic structure that is kept in the beginning and in the end of phrases on mi tonic, with the presence of the mi-la hash Lydian quarter, with new passenger modulations but that doesn’t change significantly the melodic structure.

158 The last phrase of the composition – a4, has the character of a code and and it’s arrangin voices on an expressive melodic counterpoint presented a alto. The end is blending in a descendent chromatic scene on a diminuendo e perduto sonority.

The canticle Ca pre împăratul (We may receive the King of all) from the Divine Liturgy written by Achim Stoia is a composition with a complex sonority, written for seven voices on a harmonic-polyphonic musical speech, where is presented the tenet between the tow choirs, the female and the male one, with imitations an stretto entrances, with baroque melodic lines where the voice is treated similar to instruments. The structured form is in a singular big section where are succeeding three musical phrases, by the following scheme:

A (Mi-Mi) a (m.1-7) – b (m.7-20) – c(m.21-28)

The harmonic is tono-modal with the tonic on Mi major, with successions of arrangements in accompaniment of the tenet realizing voices, were prevail the scourge connections I-IV-I-II-I, with modulations at the major homonymous of the third step major hash sol in the end of the first phrase a, then at Si Major in the end of the second phrase b, where the modulation it’s evolving ascending on quarter or descending on quint – Sol Hash – Do Hash – Sol Hash – Do Hash – Fa Hash – Si –Mi. In the last phrase c with stretto entrances from quint to quint mi – si - fa hash – do hash – sol hash. The musical speech polyphonic treatment consists in realizing a tenet strict at eight between the two choirs, the one of female voices and the one of

159 male voices, in the first musical phrase a, then with a writing based on scenes and imitations, with stretto entrances and with melismatic melodic lines intonated on vocalizations taken from a voice to another, in the b and c phrases. The rhythm is based especially on successions of quarters and eighties, always moving because of the polyphonic writing, with gaps and pedals on large notes, all framed in a constant binary metric of 4/4. Dynamically, this canticle must be executed on a constant and slightly shade of mf, from the beginning to the end, in a manner than the longer sounds are articulated and then are filtered for the eights value motifs not be forced on a higher intensity an then be clearly distinguished in the dialog between voices. Being a composition prevalent polyphonic written, the tempo keeps constant in dynamic moves of Allegro, as it is indicated by the composer, without fluctuations, except the final. There before the last arrangement must be practiced an tenuto, for about two times, on the fourth time to place the phrase. The song manner is detachee, but soft not round like the baroque instrumental detachee, with sounds sustained on their whole value and with an articulation very clear and precise. The tenet between the soprano Ist and the tenor Ist from the first phrase a must be kept in first plan, and the accompaniment in the tenet of the other voices in the secondary plan, keeping very well the dynamic and the tempo, without fluctuations, evidencing the stretto in all the voices at the resuming of the text the king, all those in a vocal legerity.

The complex polyphonic development from the second phrase b, engages all the female voices and the tenor ones, I and II, sustained by pedals at the bass- baritone voices on the text invisibly escorted by the angelic hosts in a choral laboring where prevailing are the imitations and the melodic scenes.

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The polyphonic speech must be intoned slightly in a soft shade of mf, keeping a constant tempo respecting exactly the rhythm and the notes values. All the delays must be relied, the evolution on eights values must be exactly rhythmically, and the song manner is kept in detachee. All the big leaps, especially from the first soprano and the first tenor, it’s realizing soft, without glissando keeping a equality of the registers, without accents of the sounds on acute, with closing of the syllables and of the ending consonants short and soft, with the execution of the cadence on Major Si, in tempo, without any thinning. The last musical phrase of this canticle - c is constructed significantly melodic motifs on the Alleluia text, with stretto exposition and a counterpoint speech between voices, categorized on male and female choir with a tono-modal trajectory that ends on Major Mi tonic.

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The whole polyphonic construction must be song very rhythmical precise ant with clear entrances, accenting in attack the first sound and then it’s retirement, with a execution in detachee of the melodic lines with a clear syllables articulation and sustaining the melodic tension until the final sound of every musical motif. The last canticle of the Divine Liturgy is Sfânt, Sfânt, Sfânt Domnul Savaoth (Holy, holy, holy, Lord Sabaoth) written for a double choir on eight voices, in third measure of 6/8, with a vocal-instrumental baroque writing, thought as a concert with a middle part in 3/4 written in placed tempo, the sung manner being kept like in the previous canticle.

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The Modal Liturgy of Achim Stoia is in the Romanian musical consciousness a perfection model regarding the harmonic and modal language richness but also as mode of sound construction based on polyphonic principle take from the great Dutch polyphonists technique.

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Music Performance Anxiety

Lecturer Dorina Iuşcă PhD (“George Enescu” University of Arts, Iasi)

Abstract Music performance anxiety is one of the main factors that influence the artistic level of classical music performers. Its significant incidence among amateur and professional musicians and its special impact on one’s developing music career interested the international scientific community. As a result, during the last years, a series of important studies discovered a large area of information related to the associated factors of music performance anxiety and to therapeutic approaches. The present research is a review of the main findings.

Key words: music performance anxiety, associated factors, strategies of control and reduction of music performance anxiety

1. Conceptual delimitation Music performance anxiety can be analyzed as a psychological state as well as a personality trait (Kenny et al, 2004; Osborne & Kenny, 2008; Ryan, 2005). In literature it is defined as “an exaggerated, often incapacitating, fear of performing in public” (Wilson & Roland, 2002, p. 47). Furthermore, Wilson (1999 apud Yondem, 2007, p. 1415) describes it as “an exaggerated fear that an individual has with regard to exhibition of performance in front on others”. Salmon (1990 apud McGinnis & Milling, 2005, p. 358) defines music performance anxiety as “the experience of persisting, distressful apprehension about and or actual impairment of, performance skills in a public context, to a degree unwarranted given the individual’s aptitude, training, and level of preparation”. Regarding this phenomenon, Pablo Casals, the famous cello player, said “the thought of a public concert always gives me nightmares” (Sweeney & Horan, 1982, p. 486), and the pianist Ignace Paderewski described his experience of performance anxiety as “that terrible pain… that anguish that is not to be described” (ibidem). Music performance anxiety is explained through psychological theories which describe the general mechanisms of anxiety (the cognitive and behavioral perspective, psychoanalysis, emotional processing theory, neuro-physiological theories) and also through specific theoretical models (for example, the conceptual model of Papageorgi, Hallam & Welch, or Wilson’s three- dimensional extension of the Yerkes-Dodson Law). There are three main components that describe music performance anxiety (Osborne & Kenny, 2008; Ely, 1991): 1. the physiological arousal – that includes disturbance in breathing rate, increased heart rate, sweating, shaking, inhibition of saliva, digestive symptoms; 2. the behavioral component – that includes difficulty in maintaining posture, failures of technique, trembling;

165 3. the psychological component – including dysfunctional cognitions regarding one’s success in music performance and also emotional states (of fear, shame, sadness, anger, guilt) that appear during the performance. The interaction between these three components may manifest itself in different ways, starting with powerful interdependence (where one component highly influences the reactions of the other two) and ending with partially independent reactions. For example, cognitive anxiety may appear in the lack of somatic responses but it may produce strong behavioral reactions during music performance. Sweeney & Horan (1982) identified three types of music performance anxiety: • reactive anxiety – that results from insufficient training; in this case instrumental or vocal individual training and the development of music analysis abilities are indicated; • adaptive anxiety – that generates high levels of music performance by accumulating an optimal level of motivation, tension, concentration and energy; there are studies (Steptoe & Fidler, 1987 apud Osborne & Kenny, 2008) which demonstrated that international level performers with many years of training actually find intimidating conditions to be rather stimulating than overwhelming; • maladaptive anxiety – that lowers music performance level and weakens performer’s opportunities to express his musical abilities; The incidence of maladaptive music performance anxiety is significant among professional performers. Wesner, Noyes & Davis’s study (1990 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002) has discovered that 21% of music faculty students experience music performance anxiety in such high levels that it endangers significantly their performing abilities. Most of the common symptoms included: lack of concentration, hands and voice trembling, dizziness, nausea, mouth dryness, perspiration, shortness of breath. Nine percents of the subjects said they often avoided performance opportunities because of anxiety, and 13% had interrupted and actual performance on at least one occasion. One research made on 2200 professional musicians from 48 orchestras has showed that performance anxiety represents a debilitating problem for 19% of females and 14% male performers (Fishbein & Middlestadt, 1988 apud McGinnis & Milling, 2005). Another study investigated anxiety levels of performers from professional orchestras in Netherlands and found that 59% of them suffer from performance anxiety, and 10% of them suffer anticipatory anxiety for weeks before important recitals or concerts. The incidence of music performance anxiety can be extended up to 25% of professional musicians (Kenny, 2004; Steptoe, 2001 apud McGinnis & Milling, 2005) and it affects performers of all ages and variable levels of instrumental or vocal training (McGinnis & Milling, 2005).

166 In some cases (Orman, 2003; Gorges, Alpers & Pauli, 2007; McGinnis & Milling, 2005) music performance anxiety was considered to be a form of social phobia. The main characteristic of social phobia is constituted by the powerful desire of the subject to produce a good impression on the others and this desire is associated with the fear that he or she will not be able to succeed in this. Once included in a social situation, the subject tends to evaluate it as being dangerous. Consequently, the subject is convinced that he or she will react in a stupid and unacceptable manner and this will have catastrophic consequences such as: loosing social status, rejection and humiliation from others (Holdevici, 2005). According to DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), the main criteria for social phobia are: a) an intense and persistent fear of one or many social situations where the person is exposed to non-familiar people or to social scrutiny that may lead to humiliating or embarrassing situations; b) the anxiety is inevitable produced by the described social situation that can be either real or anticipated; c) the persona admits that his/her fear is excessive and unjustified; d) the described social situations are avoided or experienced with high levels of anxiety; e) the avoidance, the anxious anticipation and the anxiety interfere significantly with the normal routine, the professional status, the educational development or with the social activities in general. Although music performance anxiety may share some common elements with social phobia, the studies focused on the correlation between these two have found contradictory results. On one hand, Steptoe & Fidler’s research (1987 apud McGinnis & Milling, 2005) has identified low correlations between music performance anxiety and social phobia, and has explained this result by the fact that performers’ fear is not unjustified, but determined by extremely high standards that classical music performers are exposed to. Furthermore, the way a music performer is perceived by the others is relevant for the development of his public image and consequently his career. On the other hand, Gorges, Alpers & Pauli (2007) have discovered high correlations between performance anxiety and social phobia. Even so, regression calculations revealed that music performance anxiety is a partial predictor for social phobia. They discovered other factors that could better explain music performance anxiety such as: perfectionism, focusing on the public self-image, gender and professional status. In conclusion, performance anxiety and social phobia may be connected but also partially independent.

167 2. Factors that influence music performance anxiety A growing body of research has revealed, in different experimental contexts, the fact that a series of factors correlate significantly with music performance anxiety. These factors give information about the performer’s attributes, and the context where he or she performs in front of the public.

2.1. Performers’ gender Most studies have discovered a prevalence of music performance anxiety among females (Yondem, 2007; Ryan, 2004; Rae & McCambridge, 2004; Osborne & Kenny, 2008; Kenny, Davis & Oates, 2004). The gender differences may be observed in adults, teenagers and children also. Ryan’s study (2004) has showed that, in a group of sixth grade students, the girls’ heart rates rose through each recital stage (before playing and during playing). Boy’s heart rates rose minimally prior to performing but exceeded the girls’ while performing. A transversal study (Ryan, 2005) realized on 349 students with ages between 5 and 13 years old has discovered insignificant anxiety differences between girls and boys in the case of early ages. The fifth grade boys experience higher levels of anxiety than girls of the same age do. In the sixth grade the results are opposite, and in the seventh grade, in the day of the concert, boys are again more anxious than girls. These contradictory results are difficult to interpret but they open a research direction to a new demographic area less studied.

2.2. Performers’ musical experience Wilson & Roland (2002) stipulate a general reduction of music performance anxiety with experience but they also remind that a significant percentage of professional performers have to deal with this problem all their live. Other studies failed to discover relevant correlations between the years of musical training and music performance anxiety.

2.3. Performers’ musical area of expertise A research realized by Ryan & Andrews (2009) has showed that instrumental ensembles induced greater anxiety than choral ensembles. Also, in both categories, the conductor seemed to be one of main the factors to generate anxiety. These were the conductor’s behaviors more prone to induce anxiety among performers: conductors’ anxious behavior (75% of total participants), his negative mood (31%), weak conducting and rehearsal skills (17%), disrespectful attitude (17%), poor preparation (13%), negative body language (12%), perfectionist behavior (7%), not enough attention to musical details (6%) and arrogant attitude (2%). The same research indicated that solo performances were reported to be more anxiety inducing than ensemble performances. This result confirms previous findings (Wilson & Roland, 2002) which showed that the number of

168 performers on stage has a great influence on music performance anxiety level. Accordingly, solo performances induce more anxiety than duo performances. Also, duets are more anxious that trio or quartet performances. After a certain number of performances, the level of music performance anxiety doesn’t drop significantly anymore. Interviews made on 201 choir members (Ryan & Andrews, 2009) regarding the factors that generate anxiety on stage mentioned: music difficulty (72%), performing from memory (64%), the importance of performance (57%), the conductor’s behavior (50%), performer’s physical health (24%), the stature of audience (19%), performer’s mental health (16%), performer’s mood (11%), and the size of audience (10%). The study of Kenny, Davis & Oates (2004) explored the anxiety levels of opera chorus artists and has showed that in their case anxiety correlates with occupational stress. Also, the chorus performers reported higher trait anxiety, higher occupational role concerns and higher occupational personal strain than controls. In order to cope with this problem, these artists have higher self-care and recreation than other professional groups. As a group, they were more likely to engage in regular exercise, have sufficient sleep, be careful with their diet, avoid harmful substances such as alcohol and drugs, and practice relaxation techniques. The researchers underlined that this is not surprising in a group of singers, as the vocal instrument is delicate and requires special care to maintain it at optimal performance.

2.4. Performers’ personality traits Perhaps the most studied aspect in relation to the state of performance anxiety is trait anxiety, as many researches (Kenny et al, 2004; Osborne & Kenny, 2008; Ryan, 2005) have discovered significant correlations between the two. The reason for the existing relation is obvious. Other analysis suggest important connections between music performance anxiety and the need for approval from others (Yondem, 2007), neuroticism (Rae & McCambridge, 2004), and negative cognitions (Osborne & Kenny, 2008; Gorges et al, 2007). A negative correlation between performance anxiety and extraversion was observed by Rae & McCambridge (2004) but, in the end, this correlation was not significant. The finding confirms previous results (Graydon & Murphy, 1995 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002) which suggest that introvert performers are more prone to experience anxiety on the stage, whereas the presence of the public can be especially comfortable for performers with higher levels of sociability and communication. Perfectionism creates a special situation. It is defined (Wilson & Roland, 2002) as the tendency to have high, unrealistic expectations from him and from others. The perfectionist person is exaggeratingly preoccupied by defects and mistakes, and tends to concentrate more on what went wrong and not to take

169 into consideration the positive aspects. Perfectionists frequently criticize themselves and have a low self-esteem. The relationship between perfectionism and performance anxiety has bee confirmed in some researches (Gorges et al, 2007, Bourne, 1995 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002) and infirmed in others (Yondem, 2007). Mor, Day & Flett (1995 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002) have analyzed the link between perfectionism, self-control and performance anxiety in musicians, actors and dancers and made a clear distinction between self- perfectionism (self imposed high standards) and social perfectionism (high standards imposed by others). The results have shown that social perfectionism correlates better with performance anxiety than self-perfectionism. Also, the connection between perfectionism (of both types) and low self-control generates excessively high levels of anxiety.

2.5. Public’s characteristics Wilson & Roland (2002) have noticed than public performances are usually more anxious than private performances, although there isn’t a direct relationship between the number of spectators and music performance anxiety levels. The researchers said that, although it is expected for televised performances (which may include more than 10 million viewers) to produce high levels of anxiety, this thing doesn’t mandatory happen. They suggest that rather the proximity with the public (for example, the possibility of seeing the audience faces) and the relationship with the public are more important for the appearance of performance anxiety. Most musicians reported that auditions are the most anxious performances, as they imply the assessment from others, as well as the experience of an inferior social status. Also, they always keep in mind that auditions have a direct and determined effect on their career ascension. Therefore, competitive performances induce more anxiety than divertissement performances. The latter are not completely devoid of anxiety, the anxiety level depending on the audience status and relationship with the performer.

3. Strategies of control and reduction of music performance anxiety When the music performance anxiety level is so high it disrupts significantly the performer’s professional activity, it is recommended to attempt a series of therapeutic strategies of control and reduction of performance anxiety. Although many musicians use beta-blockers to control their anxiety, the side effects of these drugs may sometimes be dangerous. Bet-blockers operate to inhibit peripheral autonomic symptoms by reducing body’s physiological responses such as trembling, abdominal discomfort and by inducing a general state of indifference. In the same time, the possible side effects (Wilson & Roland, 2002) include loss of sexual potency, nausea, tiredness and blunting of affect. In asthmatics these drugs are particularly dangerous as they sometimes precipitate heart failure. In many

170 countries the use of beta-blockers for performance anxiety is not sanctioned by medical authorities, and this may be one reason for the fact that almost one- quarter of professional performers (Wilson & Roland, 2002) use them regularly. Nevertheless, the most efficient strategies meant to control performance anxiety are the ones which don’t create the situation for the performer to depend on an external factor, but the ones which make him develop his own resources to the maximum. For doing this, the performers may choose from: cognitive and behavioral therapy (Sweeney & Horan, 1982; Orman, 2003, 2004), hypnosis (Stanton, 1994), music therapy (McGinnis & Milling, 2005), Alexander technique (Wilson & Roland, 2002), bio-feed-back (McGinnis & Milling, 2005) or Zen meditation (Lin et al, 2008).

3.1. Cognitive and behavioral therapy The cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy of music performance anxiety follows the same steps as any other anxiety by using a series of techniques such as positive enforcement, progressive desensitizing, modeling instruction (Holdevici, 2005), in addition to self-instructional cognitive training where the performer is taught the constructive skills of becoming aware of negative thoughts and substituting positive and task-oriented self-statements of them. The pioneering study for behavior therapy of music performance anxiety belongs to Appel (1976 apud McGinnis & Milling, 2005) who compared the effect of exposure-based behavior with traditional music analysis, on 30 volunteer graduate music students who had previously experienced anxiety in solo performances. The exposure-based therapy included exposure to performance situations and involved techniques such as in vivo desensitization, progressive muscle relaxation and counter-conditioning. The music analysis treatment included intellectual mastery of the structural and stylistic aspects the musical piece to be performed. The subject received 8 one hour sessions. The control group received no therapy treatment. The results have shown that both exposure-based therapy and music analysis reduced significantly the piano errors. Furthermore those receiving systematic desensitization reduced anxiety more than music analysis group or than control group. A latter study (Kendrick et al, 1982) demonstrated the importance of negative cognitions for the growing of music performance anxiety, and compared the effects of two therapeutic strategies (behavior rehearsal and attentional training) in reducing the anxiety levels of 53 pianists. Behavior rehearsal included progressive exposure to a friendly public during rehearsals and home assignment to perform for family members. Attentional training used one technique of challenging negative thoughts followed by substituting and attending only to task-oriented and positive thoughts. Four types of positive self- statements were described: comforting, task focusing, technique oriented and self-rewarding. The control group didn’t get any kind of therapy. After 5 weeks, both therapies reduced significantly the performance anxiety. Nonetheless,

171 cognitive therapy was more effective than the behavioral-rehearsal program on several measures A similar research (Sweeney & Horan, 1982) investigated cue-controlled relaxation and cognitive restructuring, separately and in combination in comparison with a standard treatment control condition (musical analysis training). The latter was then compared with a waiting-list control group. Forty- nine pianists participated in the study and their anxiety levels were measured before and after 6 weeks of therapy. Results have shown that cognitive, behavioral and cognitive-behavioral strategies were each equally effective in reducing the state anxiety. A particular form of cognitive reconstruction is called “stress inoculation” and it was tested as a therapy strategy for music performance anxiety (Salmon, 1990 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002). The main idea supports the fact that it is important to familiarize the performer with realistic expectations regarding his reactions during public performances and to promote positive cognitions about his musical activity. The performers are taught to anticipate the symptoms that usually appear before performing in public and to interpret them as less threatening reactions, and maybe sometime desirable. For example, the reactions produce by adrenaline growing (palpitations, shortness of breath) may be seen as normal emotional responses which give energy to the performer and contribute to a more passionate performance. An analysis of interviews realized on successful professional performers (Roland, 1994 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002) has shown that they anxiety as a normal, even benefic aspect of music performance. They describe this phenomenon as a feeling of enthusiasm, a rising of mental concentration and sometimes a state of inspiration. Other more recent studies (Orman, 2003, 2004) have investigated the effect of virtual graded-exposure on the development of music performance anxiety. The results have shown that virtual exposure to anxious situations (a big public) determined physiological and psychological reactions of anxiety, by generating the feeling of public presence, in a group of 3 saxophone players. Nevertheless, the therapeutic implications of this technique are far from being completely elucidated, as the statistical results offered contradictory findings regarding the use of virtual desensitization for the therapy of performance anxiety.

3.2. Psychoanalysis A series of psychoanalytic interpretations on music performance anxiety have been described in literature (Nagel, 1993; Gabbard, 1979 apud Wilson & Roland, 2002). They attribute the evolution of this kind of anxiety to early childhood experiences that include conflicts related to genital exhibition and fear of parental punishment for masturbation. Although there are some successfully treated case studies, it is difficult to scientifically generalize this method.

172 3.3. Hypnosis There is only one research in the scientific literature (Stanton, 1994) which investigated the therapeutic effect of hypnosis in reducing music performance anxiety. The research was performed on 40 music students who got two therapeutic sessions of 50 minutes each, one session per week. The hypnotic treatment included relaxation suggestions, suggestions of pleasant visual images (a lake and clouds) and suggestions for rising mental control, performance abilities and self-esteem. The assessment of the therapeutic effect was accomplished after the two weeks of sessions and after 6 months from the intervention. The results have shown the reduction of performance anxiety in both moments and induced the idea that hypnosis could be used in order to reduce music performance anxiety.

3.4. Music therapy The idea of using music as a tool for anxiety therapy in the case of musicians started from the premise that this particular category already showed specific physiologic and psychological reactions towards music, when compared to non-musicians, due to their long-live relationship with musical training (Kim, 2008). The meaningful and special connection that musicians have with music allows them to involve in therapy more responsibly, more comfortably and more efficiently. The main reasons for using music therapy in the treatment of music performance anxiety reveal the following ideas: • music itself induces a state of relaxation when the listener is focused towards auditory stimulus and therefore reduce catastrophic thinking; • music is a powerful emotional and cognitive tool for musicians and this may generate intense physiological and psychological reactions; • music itself may generate mental imagery and the performers have already been taught how to do this during their previous musical training; The first music therapy approaches involved a passive attitude from the subject, as he had been asked only to listen to certain musical fragments that were previous carefully selected. Latter, music therapy techniques developed the use of improvisation as a relaxation tool and for reducing music performance anxiety. When musicians are clearly told that there are no right or wrong improvisations, this technique become more and more therapeutic. Montello and collaborators were the pioneers in using music therapy as a tool for the reductions of music performance anxiety (Montello et al, 1990 apud Kenny, 2004). They conducted two studies where 17 professional performers with high levels of performance anxiety were given 12 weekly one hour and a half sessions of music therapy. These sessions combined cognitive-behavioral strategies (breathing control, progressive muscle relaxation, guided imagery) with musical techniques (musical role play, improvisation). The control group didn’t get any therapy. The results have shown significant anxiety reduction

173 levels, although there are important question to either the results might have been generated only by the cognitive-behavioral techniques. Other similar experimental efforts (Brodsky & Sloboda, 1997 apud McGinnis & Milling, 2005) have failed in revealing the specific role music therapy techniques on the reduction of music performance anxiety. A recent study (Kim, 2008) compared two different music therapy techniques (desensitization based on improvisation and progressive muscle relaxation based on music audition) and observed no significant differences between them regarding the reduction on music performance anxiety. The research area of music therapy is still in preliminary results, but this approach is far from being unnecessary for the therapy of music performance anxiety.

3.5. Alexander technique Alexander technique got its name from Fred Alexander, the Australian actor who discovered it. Although it is not dedicated particularly for musicians, almost 43% of British professional performers from big orchestras use it as as form of alternative medical technique in order to reduce music performance anxiety (Wilson & Roland, 2002). This technique involves a process of kinesthetic reeducation that uses verbal instructions and demonstrations to correct certain postures. The purpose of the method is to cultivate a natural line of the head, neck and spine, and this alignment brings more equilibrium, straight and coordination. Through Alexander technique the performers learn conscious and voluntary posture and movement control in order to eliminate involuntary muscle tension or useful habits that interfere with coherent production of complex movements. For the performers, this method contributes to consciousness organization by using kinesthetic stimulus, tension sensations, effort sensations and space positions. Despite the enthusiasm this method is used by the performers, only one scientific study (Valentine et al, 1995 apud Kenny, 2004) investigated its effect on reducing music performance anxiety. In this study, 25 performers got 15 therapeutic sessions, while the control group include a waiting-list group. The results have shown a decrease in music performance anxiety in the experimental group. Future studies will be able to offer more information about the generalization of these results on different age, gender or musical experience categories.

3.6. Meditation The tendency to innovate the therapeutic space regarding the performance anxiety management strategies determined a series of Asian researchers (Chang, 2001 apud Kenny, 2004; Lin et al, 2008) to try the scientific validation of ancient meditation techniques. There are only two studies related to this attempt. Although they reveal important information regarding concrete ways to bring

174 the mental processes to a higher voluntary mental control, they failed to demonstrate a significant impact in reducing music performance anxiety.

4. Conclusion The scientific research on music performance anxiety has revealed that it manifests according to three components: the physiological one, the behavioral one and the psychological one. The study of each component generated correspondent explanative theories according to each of the three perspectives. The main associated factors of music performance anxiety are: performers’ gender, musical experience, musical area of expertise and personality traits, as well as public characteristics. The therapeutic strategies for music performance anxiety include: cognitive and behavioral therapy, psychoanalysis, hypnosis, music therapy, Alexander technique and meditation. These strategies vary considerably regarding the success rate in reducing and controlling performance anxiety. Music psychology literature has showed, in new and diverse experimental contexts, that the performers’ psychological states, especially the performance anxiety state, may have significant effects on the artistic level of music performance.

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