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Specific Targeting of Ganglion Cell Sprouts Provides an Additional The Journal of Neuroscience, October 1, 1998, 18(19):7987–7995 Specific Targeting of Ganglion Cell Sprouts Provides an Additional Mechanism for Restoring Peripheral Motor Circuits in Pelvic Ganglia after Spinal Nerve Damage Mark E. Kepper and Janet R. Keast Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, 4072, Australia The pelvic ganglia contain both sympathetic and parasympa- which grow profusely within just a few days. These arise from thetic neurons and provide an interesting model in which to each of the main chemical classes of pelvic neurons but grow study the effects of a distributed spinal nerve lesion. Previous at different rates and have different distributions. Importantly, animal studies have suggested that after either lumbar or sacral some chemical classes of sprouts preferentially supply neurons nerve injury, some functional connections are restored between of dissimilar histochemistry, suggesting the presence of very preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. It has been pro- specific targeting mechanisms rather than random growth. posed that this is because of intact preganglionic axons sprout- These sprouts are transient, however, those formed after partial ing collaterals to supply denervated ganglion cells. However, decentralization appear to be maintained. Moreover, after le- this has never been demonstrated, and our study has investi- sion of either lumbar or sacral spinal nerves, many sprouts arise gated whether the ganglion cells themselves contribute to axo- from neurons with intact spinal connections and innervate neu- genesis and restoration of peripheral circuitry. We have moni- rons that have lost their preganglionic inputs. This provides a tored the growth of axons from pelvic ganglion cells after very different alternative mechanism to reestablish communi- lumbar or sacral nerve injury (partial decentralization), or a cation between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons. In combination of the two (total decentralization). These new pro- conclusion, we have demonstrated a rapid and selective axo- cesses were distinguished from intact preganglionic terminals genesis within the pelvic ganglion after spinal nerve injury. This by their immunoreactivity for substances present only in pelvic may allow the development of novel strategies by which auto- ganglion neurons (vasoactive intestinal peptide, neuropeptide nomic nerve pathways can be experimentally manipulated, to Y, and tyrosine hydroxylase). The proportion of pelvic neurons facilitate more rapid return of appropriate peripheral reflex surrounded by these immunostained fibers was then assessed. control. Complete removal of preganglionic terminals provides the big- Key words: autonomic ganglion; deafferentation; nerve injury; gest stimulus for growth of new axon processes (sprouts), parasympathetic; pelvic reflexes; plasticity; sympathetic Autonomic ganglia have been commonly exploited to examine is based on the chemical similarity between sprouts and the synapse formation after nerve injury. Numerous studies have ganglion cells, as well as the lack of other possible sources; focused on the ability of regenerating spinal preganglionic axons notably, they have inappropriate chemistry and appear too soon to form functional connections with their target ganglion cells to be regenerated processes of spinal axons. These sprouts form and have determined the time course, specificity, and physiolog- varicose terminals around neighboring ganglion cells and in some ical consequences of this synapse formation (for review, see Taxi cases have been shown to form morphological and functional and Euge`ne, 1995). Most of these experiments have been per- synapses (Quillam and Tamarind, 1972; Sargent and Dennis, formed in paravertebral sympathetic ganglia and have demon- 1977; Yokota and Burnstock, 1983; Ramsay and Matthews, 1985; strated that many preganglionic axons eventually reestablish Johnson, 1988). The function of these sprouts and the mecha- functional synapses, and do so with quite a remarkable degree of nisms underlying their formation are not known. specificity. A particularly interesting place in which to investigate the A second type of axogenesis occurs much more rapidly, within consequences of spinal nerve injury is the pelvic plexus, which just a few days of spinal nerve injury. After removal of pregan- consists of ganglion cells that supply the urogenital organs and glionic axons supplying sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia, lower bowel. This plexus is a mixture of sympathetic and para- many axon processes grow “sprouts”, presumably from dener- sympathetic neurons and receives spinal inputs from the lumbar vated ganglion cells (Quillam and Tamarind, 1972; Sargent and and sacral levels of the spinal cord (Keast, 1995b). It is well Dennis, 1977; Dail and Evan, 1978; Yokota and Burnstock, 1983; known that damage to lumbar spinal outflow leads to a failure of Ramsay and Matthews, 1985; Dail and Minorsky, 1986; Johnson, reflexes such as emission, whereas sacral nerve damage causes 1988; Minorsky and Dail, 1993; Dail et al., 1997). This assumption loss of the micturition and erection reflexes (Keast, 1995a). How- ever, there is intriguing evidence from animal studies that the Received April 7, 1998; revised June 17, 1998; accepted July 14, 1998. peripheral motor component of these reflex circuits can be rees- This work was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council tablished and that this does not involve regeneration of damaged of Australia. Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Janet Keast, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queens- spinal axons. For example, between 3 and7dafter pelvic (sacral) land, 4072, Australia. nerve transection in rats, a substantial penile erection reflex can Copyright © 1998 Society for Neuroscience 0270-6474/98/187987-09$05.00/0 be elicited by hypogastric (lumbar) nerve stimulation, whereas in 7988 J. Neurosci., October 1, 1998, 18(19):7987–7995 Kepper and Keast • Axogenesis after Spinal Nerve Injury intact animals this elicits only a very small response (Dail et al., A further four animals served as unoperated controls (i.e., 0 d). In the 1989). Similar success in restoration of ganglionic connectivity partial decentralization experiments, ganglia were analyzed 4, 8, and 12 d has also been seen for the micturition reflex (de Groat and after either HGN or PVN lesion (four animals per group). Sham lesions (n 5 2) involved separation of the HGN and PVN from surrounding Kawatani, 1989) and contraction of the vas deferens (Kihara et connective tissue and blood vessels, without nerve transection, and a al., 1996) after damage to sacral and lumbar spinal nerves, survival period of 8 d. respectively. After the allocated time, each animal was reanaesthetized, and the The popular interpretation of these observations has been that pelvic ganglia were removed. Ganglia were immediately placed in a dish after incomplete lesion of spinal nerves, undamaged pregangli- lined with silicon polymer and briefly rinsed in 0.1 M PBS, pH 7.2. Pins were placed through the tips of each nerve to maintain the ganglion flat onic axons grow collateral processes to innervate those ganglion and in its typical orientation during fixation. The tissues were then stored cells that have lost their spinal connections (Dail et al., 1989; de at 4°C overnight in Zamboni’s fixative (a mixture of 0.2% picric acid and Groat and Kawatani, 1989; Kihara et al., 1996). However this 2% formaldehyde, buffered with 0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH 7.4), fol- axogenesis has never been directly demonstrated, and a second lowed by washes in dimethylsulfoxide (three times for 10 min each) and possibility exists. In pelvic ganglia, as in other autonomic ganglia, PBS (three times for 10 min each). sprouts grow rapidly after removal of preganglionic inputs, and Before sectioning, the ganglia were cryoprotected with PBS containing 30% sucrose. Serial cryostat sections (10 mm) were divided between their likely source is the ganglion cells (Dail and Evan, 1978; three sets of slides, and immunolabeling for TH, NPY, and VIP was Yokota and Burnstock, 1983; Dail and Minorsky, 1986; Minorsky performed so that every third section was stained for the same substance. and Dail, 1993; Dail et al., 1997). We propose that after partial These substances label virtually all of the pelvic ganglion neurons, which decentralization these sprouts will originate from ganglion cells are known to consist of three major chemical types: (1) parasympathetic that have retained their spinal connections and, as such, consti- cholinergic NPY neurons, (2) sympathetic noradrenergic NPY neurons, tute a quite different mechanism by which signaling between and (3) cholinergic VIP neurons, of which most are parasympathetic and approximately one quarter are sympathetic (i.e., have lumbar spinal preganglionic and postganglionic neurons can be reestablished. inputs; Keast, 1995b). Specific, characterized antisera were used, as The present study has exploited the relative simplicity of the rat described previously (Kepper and Keast, 1995). Sections were incubated pelvic plexus, consisting of the paired major pelvic ganglia, to at room temperature for 18–24 hr with primary antisera raised in rabbits investigate the anatomical changes that occur in response to against VIP (1:2000, Incstar, Stillwater, MN), NPY (1:3000, Incstar), and removal of some or all spinal inputs. We have tested two hypoth- TH (1:1000, Eugene
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