Historical Archaeology in the French Caribbean: an Introduction to a Special Volume of the Journal of Caribbean Archaeology
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Journal of Caribbean Archaeology Copyright 2004 ISSN 1524-4776 HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE FRENCH CARIBBEAN: AN INTRODUCTION TO A SPECIAL VOLUME OF THE JOURNAL OF CARIBBEAN ARCHAEOLOGY Kenneth G. Kelly Department of Anthropology University of South Carolina Columbia SC 29208, USA [email protected] _______________________________________________________ The Caribbean region has seen a projects too numerous to mention, throughout tremendous growth in historical archaeology the Caribbean, with only a few areas excepted over the past 40 years. From important, (for an example of the coverage, see the although isolated beginnings in Jamaica, at papers in Farnsworth 2001 and Haviser 1999). Port Royal and Spanish Town and Montpelier (Mayes 1972; Mathewson 1972, 1973; Not only have nearly all islands of the Higman 1974, 1998), in Barbados at Newton Caribbean been the focus of at least some Cemetery (Handler and Lange 1978), and historical archaeology, but also the types of elsewhere in the Caribbean, the field has historical archaeological research have been expanded at a phenomenal rate. The late diverse. Thus, studies of both industry and 1970s and the early 1980s saw the initiation of labor have been conducted on sugar, coffee several important long-term studies, including and cotton plantations in the Greater and Norman Barka’s island-wide focus on rural Lesser Antilles. Military fortifications have and urban life in the Dutch territory of St. been documented and explored in many areas. Eustatius (Barka 1996), Kathleen Deagan’s Urban residential and commercial sites have multi-year project at Puerto Real and the been investigated, and ethnic minorities neighboring site of En Bas Saline in Haïti within the dominant class, such as Jewish and (Deagan 1995), Douglas Armstrong’s work at Irish populations, have been the focus of Drax Hall, Jamaica (Armstrong 1985, 1990), research programs. But probably the greatest and Lydia Pulsipher’s decades-long work on area of archaeological research has been Montserrat (Pulsipher 1991; Pulsipher and focused on the history and experiences of Goodwin 2001), to name a few of the most African and African-descended populations of important. Subsequently, the mid 1980s to the the region. Archaeological work initially late 1990s have witnessed a proliferation of explored the conditions endured by enslaved Journal of Caribbean Archaeology, Special Publication # 1, 2004 1 Introduction Kelly Africans on the plantations of Barbados, factor, although not to a degree that it has Jamaica, Montserrat, and other islands. prohibited US historical archaeologists from Furthermore, this research has investigated working in Dutch, Spanish, or (formerly) more than simply the conditions of plantation Danish territories. slavery, but has looked at the creation and Reviewing the scope of historical maintenance of African Caribbean identities archaeology as practiced in the Caribbean through architecture, the use of space, reveals that one colonial sphere is foodways, and artifact choice. A recent conspicuous in its absence: France. The lack development in historical archaeological of historical archaeological research on French research is the inclusion of the lives of or formerly French islands is remarkable, African and African-descended people in particularly when the antiquity of French other settings, such as free villages after colonization in the region is considered. emancipation (Armstrong 2001; Haviser French colonies were established in 1999; Kelly and Armstrong 1991), as well as Martinique and Guadeloupe in the 1630s, and free villages that were established and a significant French presence took official maintained by self emancipated individuals in possession of St. Domingue (the western the face of the dominant slave holding portion of Santo Domingo) in 1697. Thus, societies (Agorsah 1994; Weik 1997). These major French colonies in the region are Maroon settlements are important as broadly contemporaneous with English efforts reminders that not all Africans and African- in Barbados, St. Kitts, and others in the Lesser descended people accepted survival in slavery, Antilles, as well as Jamaica in the Greater but struggled to contest the institution by Antilles. Furthermore, although the French living outside of it. possessions were part of the same general enslaved labor-based plantation economy as Colonial origins the British islands, they exhibited significant differences as well as similarities. The French For the most part, the important historical islands of the Lesser Antilles followed a archaeological trends outlined above have similar trajectory to those under English rule, been conducted in the Anglophone Caribbean, with the initial occupation based upon small- on islands that for some or all of their history scale production of tobacco using the labor of were colonial outposts of England. No doubt indentured servants. However, as in their this is in part due to the fact that even in the English neighbors, the profitability of sugar early 21st century, historical archaeology is produced by enslaved labor soon led to the still most closely associated with the United rapid installation of sugar plantations in the States, and the US was until the late 18th areas that were most suitable. Other century, also a colonial outpost of Great commodities were also produced, including Britain. This common history facilitates cotton, indigo (discussed below by Xavier comparison and contrast between different Rousseau and Yolande Vrager), and by the moments of the same colonial world. The early 18th century, coffee. Thus as the 18th language of colonial documentation is also a century developed, Martinique and Journal of Caribbean Archaeology, Special Publication # 1, 2004 2 Introduction Kelly Guadeloupe both saw the growth of plantation abolition decree, re-establishing slavery in all agriculture such that by the last decades of the French possessions. The uprising in St. century, they were between them home to over Domingue had progressed beyond the ability 200,000 enslaved people. of the French to enforce the new law, and by 1804 the newly independent nation of Haïti Meanwhile, the colony of St. Domingue was created. In Guadeloupe, slavery was re- rocketed to prominence in the 18th century, as established, and was to continue for nearly sugar and coffee estates were established first half a century, until the final and lasting in the fertile northern plains and adjoining abolition of slavery in 1848, whereas, in mountains, and then later in the western Martinique, slavery continued uninterrupted region, and finally in the south. An indication until 1848. of the rapidity of growth in St. Domingue is seen in the numbers. By 1790, St. Domingue Despite these extraordinary histories, the was home to over half a million enslaved main former French colonies have not seen people, a significant proportion of which was the development of historical archaeology that African born. The colony produced more has occurred on other islands. Delpuech sugar, rum, coffee, indigo, and cotton than did (2001) discusses the lack of historical any other island, and its production, combined archaeology in the French West Indies (the with that of Guadeloupe and Martinique, departements of Guadeloupe and Martinique), outpaced that of all the British Caribbean noting that Martinique did not have a Service colonies combined. Clearly, the French Régional d’Archéologie (SRA) [government Antilles were important. office of archaeology] until 1986, and that Guadeloupe did not get its SRA until 1992. The late 18th and 19th century however Thus the governmental infrastructure to record brought about some of the most significant and manage archaeological sites was not in differences between the French islands and place until quite recently. With the those controlled by the British. In 1789 the establishment of these offices, archaeological French revolution began, and in 1791 St. research of all sorts, particularly historical Domingue was the scene of a massive revolt archaeology, has grown dramatically (see also by the enslaved population, centered on the Kelly 2002). northern plain of the colony. This revolt, combined with evolving ideas of the rights of It is therefore in the setting of these man taking place in France, and political and fascinating histories of the Caribbean that we military expediency, led to the abolition of see the arrival of important archaeological slavery in all French possessions in 1794. work on a variety of historic sites. The papers However, the British had already occupied in this issue of The International Journal of Martinique, so abolition did not occur there, Caribbean Archaeology point out some of the although it did in St. Domingue and directions research in the Francophone regions Guadeloupe. Yet eight years later, the new of the Caribbean is going. Papers in this government of Napoleon rescinded the collection include ethnoarchaeological work, Journal of Caribbean Archaeology, Special Publication # 1, 2004 3 Introduction Kelly studies of the industrial components of sugar concerns that governed their placement. This and indigo plantations, military fortifications, study identified 180 sites including isolated and the bioarchaeological study of a probable batteries, forts, and other defensive or military African Guadeloupean cemetery. The work sites such as camps. The site inventory, reported in these papers includes Guadeloupe undertaken as part of the program to improve and its dependency of Marie