Index

accent, 4 animal husbandry, population and, 17–18 ACD (Austronesian Comparative APSC (ASEAN Political‐Security Dictionary), 38 Community), 727 ACE (Asian Corpus of English), 731, APT (ASEAN+3), 81–82 748–749 English in education, 91 AEC (ASEAN Economic Community), 727 monolingualism, 82–84 Afghan English dictionary, 220 national in education, 91 agony and ecstasy of , Arabic, 35–36 9–10 lexical borrowing in Southeast agriculture, population and, 17–18 Asia, 41 ALT (Assistant Language Teachers), areoversals, 172–173 Japan, 92 articles, irregular use, 176–177 alterglobalization, 709, 720 ARWU (Academic Ranking of World , Universities), 157–159 and, 195–196 Aryan Vedic speakers, Rgveda American slang, , and, 20 259–260 ASCC (ASEAN Socio‐Cultural Americanization, globalization and, Community), 727 9–10 ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Anglophone, marginalized traditions, Nations), 27 794 AEC (ASEAN Economic Anglophone Asian literature, 787 Community), 727 imperialism and, 793 APSC (ASEAN Political‐Security migration and, 793 Community), 727 racial mixture and,COPYRIGHTED 793 ASCC MATERIAL (ASEAN Socio‐Cultural Southeast Asia, 792–796 Community), 727 tiger symbol, 794 Charter of 2009, 728 angloversals, 172–173 globalization and, 707

The Handbook of Asian Englishes, First Edition. Edited by Kingsley Bolton, Werner Botha, and Andy Kirkpatrick. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

0004918362.INDD 887 8/7/2020 6:17:22 AM 888 Index

ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Asian Englishes and linguistic Nations) (cont’d) landscapes, 833–861 , 727–731 Asian Englishes and legal systems, internationalization of global 863–886 education, 10 as field of study, 2 language policies, 726–727 future study, 8–10 members, 81 Asian Englishes, 2 multilingualism and, 725–727 Asian Englishes: Beyond the canon standardization and, 718–719 (Kachru), 3 ASEAN ELF Asian Games, 587 community and, 735 Asian legal systems. See legal systems cooperative atmosphere, 734 Asian literatures, 787–811 cultural values and, 735 cultural nationalism, 796–798 identity expression and, 735 diasporic writing, 791, 798–799 linguistic features, 731–735 feminism, cultural nationalism sociocultural ELF, 731–735 and, 798 Asian ELF, 731 legitimacy, 790 first language influence on second, 732 Mo, Timothy, 791 Asian Englishes nationalist authors, 788 Asian Englishes and Asian , nationalist canon, 791 15–48 postcolonial calibrations, 802 Asian Englishes and statistics, postcolonial studies and, 790–791 49–80 queer diaspora, 798–799 Asian Englishes and language policies, Roy, Arundhati, 791 81–105 Rushdi, Salman, 791 Asian Englishes and Asian schools, Southeast Asia, 792–796 107–131 Three Circles model, 802 Asian Englishes and Asian universities, transpacific, 799–801 133–168 world English literatures, 801–806 Asian Englishes and morphosyntax, Asian popular culture, 763–786 169–188 development, 764–766 Asian Englishes and phonology, Expanding Circle Englishes, 189–207 767–768 Asian Englishes and lexicography, Outer Circle Englishes, 766–767 209–240 Atharvaveda people, 21 Asian Englishes and globalization, 707–721 Khasic, 18, 20 Asian Englishes and English as a lexical borrowing, 37 Lingua Franca (ELF), 725–740 MSEA, 23 Asian Englishes and corpus linguistics, Munda, 18, 20 741–762 Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis, 23 Asian Englishes and popular culture, Tai‐Kadai languages and, 23 763–786 Tibeto‐Burman languages and, 23 Asian Englishes and Asian literatures, Vietnamese, 34 787–811 Austronesians, Papuan populations Asian Englishes and Asian religions, and, 30 813–832 Aw, Tash, 801, 802, 804

0004918362.INDD 888 8/7/2020 6:17:22 AM Index 889

Bangladesh, 51, 297–315 Bible, English, 816 Bangla bilingual creativity, 1 code‐switching, 306–308 popular culture and, 769–771 creating writing, 305 bilingual dictionaries, 210–211 education and, 301–302 bilingualism media and entertainment, 303 instinct, 2 nationalism and, 297–299 legal systems, 867–869 politics, 303–304 The black isle (Tan), 804–805 status, 300–301 Book of Han, 27 Common Law, 867–869 BPO (business process outsourcing), 9–10 East India Company and, 298 American slang, 259–260 ELT ( teaching), The British Council, 50 108–109 British East India Company, 247–248 EMI higher education, 138, 154 Brunei, 51, 399–418 English in schools, 108–109 Bahasa Indonesia, 413 English users, 53–54 Bahasa Melayu, 109 English‐medium education system, Common Law, 865 108–109 Dwibahasa, 412–413 functions of English Dwibahasa policy, 109–110 creative writing, 304–305 East India Company, 400 education, 301–302 EMI higher education, 141–142, 154 electronic communication, 305 English in Constitution, 400 employment, 302–303 English in schools, 109–110 entertainment, 303 English users, 54 media, 303 functions of English, 402–403 NGOs (non‐government history of English, 400–402 organizations), 304 language in social media, 409–412 politics, 303–304 language policies, 402–403 history of English, 298–299 language‐in‐education policies, 412–414 languages spoken, 53 languages of, 399–400 linguistic ecology, 299–300 legal system, monolingual, 865 status of English, 300–301 linguistic landscape studies, 836 Bangladesh English dictionary, 221 Melaya Islam Beraja, 400 , 297–315 , 83 code‐mixing and, 306–308 phonology, 192 code‐switching and, 306–308 , 399–418 features, 306–308 discourse, 406–407 linguistic carelessness, 309–311 existence, attitudes toward, 408–409 nativization, 309 features, 403–408 SMS texts, 306 lexis, 407–408 sociolinguistics, 306–307 morphosyntax, 405–406 technology and, 306–308 phonology, 403–405 varietal features versus errors, 309–310 Brunei English dictionary, 221 Bhutan, 51 Buddhism Common Law, 869–870 Sanskrit and, 33–34, 317–318 legal system English use, 869 spread to Southeast and East Asia, Bhutan English dictionary, 221 33–34

0004918362.INDD 889 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 890 Index

Burma. See Cambodian English dictionary, 221 Butler English, 175 Cambridge English, 50 , 54 calibrations, 802 Macau, 530 Cambodia, 51, 649–666 capitalism, globalization and, 707 ASEAN and, 654 Catford, John C., 2 bilingual signage, 658–659 CEFRL (Common European Framework Civil Law, 872 of Reference for Language), dignitary visits, 659 118, 697 education, foreign language, 652 CET (College English Test), 93 EMI (English‐medium instruction), 655 China, 51, 503–528 higher education, 146–147, 156 bilingual education, 505 English in Cambodia, 649–666 business/trade, international, 510–511 English in schools, 116–117 EMI higher education, 149–150, 156 English users, 59 English in China, 503–528 history of English, 651–653 English in Chinese schools, 117–118 IFL (Institute of Foreign Languages), 653 English literacy, 505 Institute of Foreign Languages at the English users, 59 Royal University of Phnom international education, 509–510 Penh, 116 language‐in‐education policies, 89 Khmer Rouge, 651 linguistic landscape studies, 837–838 linguistic landscape studies, 837 minority languages, 60 multilingualism, 649–650 Mongolian, 60 official language, 83 NCEE (National College Entrance UNTAC (United Nations Transitional Examination), 508 Authority for Cambodia), 651 phonology, 197–198 Cambodian English Putonghua, 507 ACC (Accreditation Committee of script reform, 87 Cambodia), 662 southern geography, 16 bilingual signage, 658–659 status of English, 507–508 CamTESOL, 662 Tibetan, 60 culture and, 658–660 Uyghur, 60 features, 656–658 , 87 functions of, 654–655 Zhuang, 60 future of, 663 China English dictionary, 221–222 grammar, 657 Chinese English, 504 language education, 660–663 American English and policies, 660–663 English, 513–514 lexis, 657 and Chinese English, literature, 659–660 513–514 newspapers, 655 code‐mixing/code‐switching, 517–521 as official language, 654 in communications, 512–513 phonology, 657 CPE (Chinese Pidgin English), 541 ratification, 656 Crazy English movement, 505 status, 654–655 education, 505–507, 508–510 technology, 655 EMI (English‐medium instruction), 509 TV and radio, 659 functions, 508–513

0004918362.INDD 890 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 891

grammar, 516 code‐shifting, legal systems, 877–878 lexical features, 515 code‐switching linguistic features, 513–514 Chinese English, 517–521 in media, 512–513 legal systems, 877–878 phonology, 515–516 Madarin‐Hokkien (Taiwan), 549 pragmatic features, 517 Minglishes (Indian English) and, 267 Putonghua, 507 Nepali English, 328–329 research on, 504–507 Pinoylish, 495 sociolinguistics, 507–508 superdiversity and, 716–717 status of, 507–508 Collected works of B.B. Kachru, 1 tourism, international, 511–512 colonial pluralism, 793 universities, 509 Philippines, 795 varieties, 181–182 colonialism Chinese languages, 34 European, 711 Gan group, 60 India, 248 Guanhua group, 60 Indonesia, 118, 607 Hakka speakers, 35 Japanese in Korea, 586–587 Han, 34 lexicography and, 213–214 Hanfite Muslim Chinese community, 35 Myanmar, 360 Kejia group, 60 Outer Circle Asian societies, 51 Min group, 60 Philippines Min languages, 35 American colonialism, 480–481 Singaporean speakers, 424 Spanish colonial period, 480 Sinitic, 34 US colonialism, 114–115 standard, promotion, 507 postcolonial Englishes, 4 Wu group, 60 postcolonial nation‐states, 792 Xiang group, 60 postcolonial theory, linguistics and, Yue group, 60 218–219 Christianity, English and, 818–820 Sri Lankan language policies, 338–340 Civil Law‐based legal systems Thai English and, 632 Cambodia, 872 Vietnam, French colonialism, Indonesia, 872–873 123, 684 Japan, 870–871 Common Law‐based legal systems, Laos, 872 864–865 Macau, 871 Bangladesh, 867–869 South Korea, 870–871 Bhutan, 869–870 Thailand, 871–872 Brunei, 865 Timor Leste, 873 Kong, 867–869 Vietnam, 872 India, 865–867 code‐mixing Malaysia, 867–869 Bangladeshi English and, 306–308 Maldives, 869–870 Chinese English, 517–521 Myanmar, 869–870 legal systems, 877–878 Nepal, 869–870 Nepali English, 328–329 Pakistan, 865–867 Pinoylish, 495 Philippines, 865–867 Sri Lanka, 345–347 Singapore, 865 Taiwanese English, 559–560 Sri Lanka, 867–869

0004918362.INDD 891 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 892 Index

community law, 874–875 Japan, 87 connections, globalization and, 709 Korea, 87 contact languages orthographic reform and, 86 Arabic, 35–36 Philippines NLI, 86 Chinese, 34–35 corpus revolution, 742 creoles, 31 creoles, acquisition, 31 Islamic invasions, 35–36 cross‐border law Malay, 34 private law, 874 Persian, 35–36 public law, 873–874 pidgins, 31 Crystal, David, 49, 51, 52 Sanskrit, 31–34 CSAT (College Scholastic Ability corpora Test), 93 ACE (Asian Corpus of English), cultural homogenization, 708 748–749 cultural nationalism, Asian literatures CLARIN (Common Language and, 796–798 Resources and Technology culture. See also Asian popular culture Infrastructure), 749 economic diversity, 765 Diachronic Corpus of religious practice, 764–765 English, 754–756 Diachronic Corpus of Singapore decorative English, 769–770 English, 754–756 Diachronic Corpus of Hong Kong DIY (do‐it‐yourself), 748 English, 754–756 GloWbE (Corpus of Global Web‐based Diachronic Corpus of , English), 747 754–756 ICE (International Corpus of English), diasporic writing, Asian literatures, 745–746 798–799 ICNALE (International Corpus dictionaries, 209–240 Network of Asian Learners of Afghan English, 220 English), 748–749 Bangladesh English, 221 Kolhapur Corpus, 742, 745 Bhutan English, 221 LINDSEI (Louvian International bilingual, 210–211 Database of Spoken English Brunei English, 221 Interlanguage), 747 Cambodian English, 221 NOW (News on the Web), 747 China English, 221–222 specialized, web and, 746–747 early twentieth century, 211–215 typology, 745–749 global (Vienna‐Oxford International Encarta world English dictionary, Corpus of English), 748 230–231 corpus linguistics, 741–762 Green’s dictionary of slang, 233 analysis, 744 Grolier international dictionary, 231 annotation, 743 Lonely Planet travel guides, 231–232 compilation, 743 Oxford English dictionary, 232–233 LOB (Lancaster/Oslo‐Bergen) , 222 Corpus, 743 Indian English, 223–224 corpus planning, 85 Indonesian English, 224 China, 87 Japanese English, 225 Indonesia, 86–87 Korean English, 225

0004918362.INDD 892 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 893

Lao English, 225 pedagogy policies, 92–93 LEME (Lexicon of Early Modern teacher qualification policies, 91–92 English), 211 Education Testing Service, 50 Macquarie dictionary, 217 EF (Education First), 50, 65 , 225–226 English Proficiency Index, 50 methodology, 219–220 EF English Proficiency Index, 65–69 Mongolian English, 226 Myanmar, 363 , 226 EFL (English as Foreign Language), 107 Nepal English, 226 Expanding Circle, 107 nineteenth century, 211–215 ELT (English language teaching) Pakistan English, 226 Bangladesh, 108–109 Philippine English, 227 Thailand, 634 pre‐nineteenth century, 210–211 EMI (English‐medium instruction), 7 Singapore English, 227–228 Cambodia, 655 , 228–229 Chinese schools, 89, 509 Taiwanese English, 229 global education and, 10 Thai English, 229 globalization and, 719 Vietnamese English, 229 higher education discourse particles, 184 Asian region, 136–137 disembedding, globalization and, 709 Expanding Circle contexts, 146–153, diversity, 715–716 155–157 economic diversity, 765 global collaboration and, 134–136 ethnic diversity, 764–765 Outer Circle contexts, 137–146, language families, 725 153–155 superdiversity, 715–716, 835 Hong Kong, 462 divine languages, 817 promoting, international rankings and, DIY (do‐it‐yourself) corpora, 748 157–159 Dong Son culture, 27 Thailand, 642 Dravidian languages, 20 Vietnam, 688–689 India, 246 “English as an Asian language” Indo‐Aryan speakers and, 29–30 (Kachru), 2 English Proficiency Index, 50 East Asia, EMI higher education, English studies, paradigm shift, 1–2 141–146 English Today, 2 economic diversity, 765 English users, 52–53 Educated Indian English (EIE), 253 Bangladesh, 53–54 education Brunei, 54 additional language teaching, 90–91 Cambodia, 59 APT (ASEAN+3), 91 China, 59 Education Testing Service, 50 Hong Kong, 54 EF (Education First), 50, 65 India, 54–55 EMI (English‐medium instruction) Indonesia, 61 global education and, 10 Japan, 61 higher education, 136–157 Laos, 62 English Proficiency Index, 50 Macau, 62 internationalization, 10 Malaysia, 55 language‐in‐education policies, 88–90 Myanmar, 55–56

0004918362.INDD 893 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 894 Index

English users (cont’d) Expanding Circle Asian societies, 1–10, Nepal, 56 503–703 Pakistan, 56–57 Expanding Circle Englishes, 503–703 Philippines, 57 Singapore, 57 feminism, cultural nationalism South Korea, 62–63 and, 798 Sri Lanka, 58 first language influence on second Taiwan, 63 language, 732 Thailand, 63–64 Five star billionaire (Aw), 804 Vietnam, 64 future study, 8–10 English World‐Wide, 2 Englishes, postcolonial, 4 geography, morphosyntactic features Englishes versus English, 3 and, 176 English‐medium education systems, geosemiotics, 835 Bangladesh, 108–109 Ghosh, Amitav, 802, 803–804 ENL (English as Native Language), 107 The glass palace (Ghosh), 803–804 ESL (English as a Second Language), 107 global education Outer Circle, 107 EMI in higher education, 134–136 ethnic diversity, 764–765 internationalization, 10 ETS (Educational Testing Service), 65 globalization, 707 European colonization, 711 alterglobalization, 709, 720 eWAVE (World Atlas of Morphosyntactic Americanization and, 9–10 Variation in English), ASEAN and, 707 172–173 Asian Englishes and Expanding Circle, 1, 5–6, 169, 713 anecdotes, 710 EFL (English as Foreign Language), disembedding, 711–715 107, 171 reembedding, 711–715 EMI higher education, 155–157 connections, 709 East Asian societies, 149–153 cultural homogenization and, 708 Southeast Asian societies, 146–149 dimensions, 709 English in schools disembedding, 709 Cambodia, 116–117 EMI (English‐medium instruction) China, 117–118 and, 719 Indonesia, 118–119 identity politics, 709 Japanese, 119 IMF (International Monetary Fund) Laos, 120–121 and, 708 Macao, 121 mixing, 709 South Korea, 119–120 mobility, 709 Taiwan, 121–122 Nepali English, 325–326 Thailand, 122 phonology and, 201–202 Vietnam, 123 risk, 720 varieties speed, 709 Chinese English, 181–182 standardization and, 718–719 Japanese English, 182 World Bank and, 708 Korean English, 182 WTO (World Trade Organization) Thai English, 183 and, 708

0004918362.INDD 894 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 895

GloWbE (Corpus of Global Web‐based sociolinguistic context, 451–453 English), 747 status of major languages, 467 grammar, 4 trilingualism, 111, 457 grammaticity, ICE corpus, 176 Hong Kong English, 449–478 Greene, Graham, 788 accent, 468–469 community use, 463, 465–467 Hakka speakers, 35 , 468 Halliday, Michael A.K., 2 diphthongs, 468 higher education, 133–168 in education, 461–463 Hinduism EMI (English‐medium Sanskrit and, 317–318 instruction), 462 Vedas translations, 822 features, 467–471 history of English, in India, 247–250 fricative system, 469 HKE (Hong Kong English), 176 in government, 458–459 HKSAR (Hong Kong Special grammar, 470–471 Administrative Region), Konghish, 471–473 proficiency measurement, 70 in legal system, 459–461 Hmong‐Mien languages, MSEA, 23–24 LegCo, 458–459 homogenization, cultural, 708 in media, 465 Hong Kong, 51, 449–478 official languages, 458 aided schools, 110 sociolinguistics, 177 biliteracy, 457 varieties, 177–179 Cantonese, 451–452 vocabulary, 469–470 Common Law, 867–869 vowel contrasts, 468 culture, 452–453 workplace, 463–465 EMI higher education, 142–143, 154 written languages at work, 464 English in schools, 110–112 Hong Kong English dictionaries, 222 English users, 54 government schools, 110 IAL (international auxiliary language), history of English, 449–451 817 HKSAR (Hong King Special IAWE (International Association for Administrative Region), 111 World Englishes), 2 Hong Kong people, 452 ICE (International Corpus of English), internalization of English, 772 171, 745–746 language planning, 456–458 grammaticity, 176 language policies, 456–458 ICNALE (International Corpus Network languages, 54, 454 of Asian Learners of English), Lennon walls, linguistic landscape 748–749 study, 842–854 identity, language and, 793–794 linguistic landscape studies, 837–838 identity languages, 726 multilingualism, 453–456 India, 246 phonology, 192–193 linguistic stereotypes, 771–772 private schools, 110 popular culture and, 771–772 Putonghua, 451–452 identity politics, globalization and, 709 SAR (Special Administrative ideology, language and, 789, Region), 843 793–794

0004918362.INDD 895 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 896 Index

IDP (International Development Indo‐Aryan subfamily, 245 Program), 50 Indo‐Iranian subfamily, 245 IELTS ( Language Kamada English, 194 Testing System), 50, 510 language boundaries, 717 proficiency levels, 65–69 linguistic diversity, 245–246 IndE. See Indian English linguistic landscape studies, 838 India, 51, 243–277 literary languages, 246 Austro‐Asiatic , 246 local language in legal system, 865–866 bilinguals, 253 multilingualism, 245–247 BPO (business process outsourcing), NCERT (National Council for American slang, 259–260 Educational Research and British East India Company, 247–248 Training), 269 Butler English, 175 northeastern geography, 16 Christian missionaries, 247 official languages, 246 Dravidian languages, 246 phonology, 193–195 EMI higher education, 138–139, 154 regional languages, 246 English as official language, 268 scheduled languages, 246 English in education Sino‐Tibetan language family, 246 cognitive development and, 268–269 social mobility, English and, 112 Indian identity and, 270 status of English, 250–252 minority languages and, 269–270 superdiversity, 716 regional languages and, 268–269 Three Language Formula, 249 second language acquisition and, three‐language formula, 194 270–272 Tibeto‐Burman language family, 246 as subject, 268 trilingualism, 112 tribal languages and, 269–270 Indian English, 176, 243–277 English in schools, 112 academic debates, 270–272 English users, 54–55 versus British/American English, functions of English 270–272 administration, 250–251 creative writers, 244 education, 251 culture and, 263 imaginative, 250 Educated Indian English (EIE), 253 instrumental, 250 features, 253–263 law, 251 India Today, 245 media, 252 lexicon, 256 regulative, 250 American slang, 259–260 Hindustani English, 194 archaisms, 258 historical milestones, language calques, 259 and, 245 clichés, 258 history of English in India, 247–250 clippings, 259 class and, 248 collocational differences, 258 colonial control and, 248 diction, 257–258 Convent English, 247 idioms, 258 education and, 248–249 Indian expressions, 257 Three Language Formula, 249 Indian words, 257 identity languages, 246 initialisms, 259 Indo‐European language family, 245 innovations, 258

0004918362.INDD 896 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 897

loanwords, 257 history of English, 607–608 register crossover, 258 indigenous languages, 118, 606 semantic shift, 259 Javanese, 118 linguistic area, 254 Language Agency (Badan Bahasa), 607 Minglishes language loss, 606–607 cultural significance, 266 languages, future, 622 domains, 263–266 major languages, 61 linguistic theory, 267 Minangkabau, 118 morphology, 255–256 Ministry of Education and Culture, 607 phonetics, 254–255 multilingualism, 605–607 phonology, 254–255 Pancasila, 605 reading, 244 regional languages, 606 spelling religious heritage, 605 place names, 261 Sanskrit loan words, 39–40 pronunciations, 262 Sundanese, 118 substrate influence, 253–254 Indonesian English subvarieties based on mother cultural aspects, 613–615 tongues, 262 education system, 616 syntax, 260–261 materials for teaching, 621 variation, acquisitional background policy, 617–619 and, 262 sector composition, 616–617 varieties, 178–179 subject coverage, 619–620 Indian English dictionaries, teacher evaluation, 621–622 223–224 teacher qualifications, 620 The Indianization of English: The English teaching, 620 language in India (Kachru), 2 error analysis, 612–613 “The Indianness in Indian English” functions of, 608–609 (Kachru), 2 future of, 622 indirect questions, inverted word language acquisition, 609–610 order, 176 policy, 617–619 Indo‐Aryan languages, 20 spoken English, 610–611 Dravidian speakers and, 29–30 tourism, 613–614 Indo‐Burmese Arc, Sino‐Tibetan written English, 611 languages and, 24 Indonesian English dictionaries, 224 Indo‐Gangetic language, 29 Indosphere, 27 Indonesia, 51, 605–627 Inner Circle, 107, 169, 713 Bahasa‐Indonesia, 118 ENL (English as Native Language), Balinese, 118 107, 171 Batak, 118 WAMVE and, 174 Civil Law, 872–873 internationalization colonial era, 118, 607 global education, 10 corpus planning, 86–87 phonology and, 201–202 Dutch East Indies, 118, 608 inversion EMI higher education, 147, 156 indirect questions, 176 English in Indonesia, 605–627 main clause yes/no questions, 177 English in schools, 61, 118–119 wh‐questions, 177 English users, 61 Iron Age, Southeast Asia trading, 27

0004918362.INDD 897 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 898 Index

ISEA (Island Southeast Asia) as official language, 575–576 Austronesian speakers, 26 ornamentalism, 577–578 geography, 16 policies, 572–573 Jatakas, 27 prospects, 576–577 Niddesa, 27 pseudo‐loans, 579–580 Papuan speakers, 25–26 TOEFL scores, 569 political integration, 26–28 varieties, 182 Ramayana, 27 words which come from outside, Srivijayan expeditions, 27 578–579 Islam workplace, 569 Brunei, 399 Japanese English dictionaries, 225 English and, 820–822 JET (Japan Exchange and Teaching) invasions, contact languages and, program, 92 35–36 JGSS (Japanese General Society Malay and, 34 Surveys), 61 Qur’an translations, 822 Kachru, Braj B., 1, 2–3, 5, 9, 11, 54, 98, 107, Japan, 51, 569–584 127–129, 169–171, 189, 198, 200, ALT (Assistant Language 217, 237, 244–245, 250, 253–254, Teachers), 92 256–258, 263, 270–271, 323, American occupation, 571–572 339–340, 350, 367, 402–403, 526, Civil Law, 870–871 553, 585, 634, 636, 638, 641, 651, EMI higher education, 150–151, 156 685, 712–713, 724, 728–729, 738, English as foreign language, 773 748, 766–767, 769, 772, 789–790, English in Japan, 569–584 801–802, 807–808, 813 English in schools, 119 The alchemy of English: The spread, English Language Education functions, and models of non‐native Associations, 572 Englishes, 2 English users, 61 Asian Englishes: Beyond the canon, 3 history of English, 570–572 “English as an Asian language,” 2 JET (Japan Exchange and Teaching) The Indianization of English: The English program, 92 language in India, 2 linguistic landscape studies, 839 The other tongue: English across cultures, 2 Meiji period, 571 World Englishes, 2 monolingualism, 570 Kachru, Yamuna, 2, 245, 254, 263, 271, phonology, 198–199 273–276 script reform, 87–88 Khasic, 18, 20 writing system, 87–88 knowing a language, 49–50 Japanese English Kolhapur Corpus, 742, 745 in education, 572, 574–575 , 589 features, 578–581 Korea, 51, 585–604 ideology, 570 Asian Games, 587 influence, attitudes toward, attitudes toward English, 580–581 599–600 Japanese‐made English (wasei eigo), bilingualism, 586–587 579 Chinese characters, 586 nihonjinron treatises, 573 English in Korea, 585–604

0004918362.INDD 898 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 899

English Villages, 598 structural convergence, 28–29 globalization, English and, 597–599 Wallacea, 30 history of English, 587 language dominance, 834 K‐Beauty, 596 language families in South/Southeast kirogi families, 598 Asia, 17–18 Koreanized English, 589 language in place, 834 language in, 586–587 language mixing, popular culture and, linguistic landscape, 596–597 769–771 script reform, 87–88 language replacement, language contact South/North linguistic differences, 586 and, 29 suppression of language, Japanese language shift, language contact and, 29 colonization and, 586–587 language‐in‐education policies, 88–90 Korean English, 585–586 Lao English dictionaries, 225 advertising and, 596 Laos, 51, 667–682 cultural aspects, 594–597 ASEAN, 674–677, 678 in education, 599–600 Civil Law, 872 English officialization, 598–599 education, 669–670, 672–674 English Villages, 598 EMI higher education, 147–148, 156 Englishization of Korean, 593–594 English in Laos, 667–682 features, 588–594 English in schools, 120–121 grammar, 590–592 English users, 62 kirogi families, 598 French, 120–121 Konglish, 589 French in, 670–671 K‐Pop, 595 in government, 674–677 lexis, 592–593 , 672–673 music and, 595–596 literacy in national language, 669–670 phonology, 590 major languages, 61 South Korea, 588 MOE (Ministry of Education), 668 television and, 594–595 MOES (Ministry of Education and terms for, 588–589 Sports), 668 varieties, 182 multilingualism, 668–670 Korean English dictionaries, 225 National Education System Reform Kurukh, Munda languages, 18 Strategy, 673 private sector, 677–679 language contact, 171 teacher training colleges, 677–678 language replacement, 29 legal systems in Asia, 863–886 language shift, 29 bilingualism, 867–869 legal systems Civil Law‐based code‐mixing and, 877–878 Cambodia, 872 code‐shifting and, 877–878 Indonesia, 872–873 code‐switching and, 877–878 Japan, 870–871 hybrid texts, 877 Laos, 872 lexical borrowing, 876 Macau, 871 lexical borrowing, 28 South Korea, 870–871 MSEA, 30 Thailand, 871–872 South Asia, 29–30 Timor Leste, 873 structural borrowing, 28–29 Vietnam, 872

0004918362.INDD 899 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 900 Index

legal systems in Asia (cont’d) Dictionary of the English/creole of colonial expressions, 878–879 Trinidad & Tobago, 217 Common Law‐based, 864–865 The English dialect dictionary, 217 Bangladesh, 867–869 Fifth report from the Select Committee Bhutan, 869–870 on the affairs of the East India Brunei, 865 Company, 212 Hong Kong, 867–869 Hobson‐Jobson, 213, 214–215 India, 865–867 The Middle English dictionary, 217 Malaysia, 867–869 naturalization, 215–216 Maldives, 869–870 non‐standard language, 217–218 Myanmar, 869–870 standard language, 217–218 Nepal, 869–870 lexis, 4, 209–240 Pakistan, 865–867 Brunei English (BrunE), 407–408 Philippines, 865–867 Cambodian English, 657 Singapore, 865 Korean English, 592–593 Sri Lanka, 867–869 Myanmar English, 367 community law, 874–875 , 284 cross‐border law Sri Lankan English, 345 private law, 874 Taiwanese English, 558–559 public law, 873–874 Thai English, 637–638 culturally specific terminology, LINDSEI (Louvian International 878–879 Database of Spoken English language contact, lexical borrowing Interlanguage), 747 and, 876 linguistic diversity, 715–716 monolingual English law, 865 linguistic elitism, 318 nativized grammar, 878–879 linguistic epicenters, 752–754 religious law, 875 linguistic landscapes, 755–756, shariah law, 865, 875 801–806, 833–861 LEME (Lexicon of Early Modern in Brunei, 836 English), 211 in Cambodia, 837 Lennon walls, Hong Kong linguistic in China, 837–838 landscape study, 842–854 in Hong Kong, 837–838 lexical borrowing. See also loanwords in India, 838 Arabic to Southeast Asia, 41 in Indonesia, 838–839 Austroasiatic into Indo‐Aryan, 36 in Japan, 839 influences, 40 in Macau, 837–838 language contact and, 28 in Malaysia, 839–840 MSEA (Mainland Southeast Asia) in Pakistan, 840 and, 37 in the Philippines, 840 lexicography, 209–240. See also in Singapore, 840–841 dictionaries, Asian Englishes in South Korea, 841 codification, 217 in Taiwan, 841–842 colonial‐era, 213–214 in Thailand, 842 A descriptive dictionary of British Malaya, linguistic stereotypes, identity and, 213–214 771–772 Dictionary of American regional literature. See also Asian literatures, English, 217 787–811

0004918362.INDD 900 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 901

Anglophone Asian literature, 787 Patuá Macaense, 530 Anglophone literature, 789 Portuguese in, 538–539 global English literature, 789 SARs (Special Administrative nationalist authors, 788 Regions), 529 Pakistani English, 287–288 of China, 121 post‐colonial, 788–789 sociolinguistic context, 531–532 postcolonial writing, 789 status of English, 534 world Englishes literature, tourism, international, 536 801–806 Macquarie dictionary, 217 world literature in English, 789 Madurese, Sanskrit and, 40 loanwords. See also lexical borrowing Malay Indian English, 257 Islam and, 34 MSEA (Mainland Southeast Asia), 37 Philippines and, 34 LOB (Lancaster/Oslo‐Bergen) Proto‐Malayic, 34 Corpus, 743 Singaporean speakers, 424 localization, case studies, 772–773 Tagalog and, 41 Girls Out Loud, 775–776 Malaysia, 51, 373–397 Love Psychedelico, 773–775 Bahasa Malaysia, 95 Common Law, 867–869 Macau, 529–546 Education Ordinance, 375 the British and, 533 EMI higher education, 143, 154 Cantonese, 530 English in, 374–375 Chinese languages in, 540–541 English in schools, 112–113 Civil Law, 871 English users, 55 code‐switching, English/Cantonese, functions of English, 375–381 530 history of English, 373–374 Commercial Code, 536 increase of English, 714 contact varieties, 541–542 language policies, 374–375 CPE (Chinese Pidgin English), 541 language‐in‐education policies, dialects, 530, 532 94–95 EMI higher education, 151, 156 languages, 55 English in Macau, 529–546 linguistic landscape studies, 839–840 English in media, 535 Mandarin, 375 English in schools, 121, 534–535 National Language Act, 112 English users, 62 official language, 83 functions of English, 534–536 Razak Report of 1956, 375 future of English, 542 Tamil, 375 history of English, 532–534 Malaysian English, 373–397 international business, 536 ADR (Alternative Dispute languages, 61, 530, 532 Resolution), 378 linguistic landscape studies, business, 376 837–838 code‐switching, courts, 378 Macau English versus English in in education, 379–380 Macau, 536–537 higher education, 380–381 Maquista/Makista, 530 grammar multilingualism, 537–542 noun‐phrase structure, 386–389 origins, 532 verb phrase structure, 389–390

0004918362.INDD 901 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 902 Index

Malaysian English (cont’d) Austronesian languages, 22 law, 376–377 geography, 16 law courts, 377–379 Hmong‐Mien languages, 22, 23–24 MBM‐MBI (Memartabatkan Bahasa Khasic languages, 18, 20 Malaysia Mengukuhkan Bahasa language contact and convergence, 30 Inggeris), 380 lexical borrowing and, 37 phonology linguistic convergence, 22 consonants, 384–385 linguistic phyla, 22 suprasegmental features, 385–386 Munda languages, 18, 20 vowels, 382–384 political integration, 26–28 UMSEP (University of Malaya’s rice cultivation and, 22 Spoken English Project), 377–378 Sino‐Tibetan languages, 22, 24 varieties, 179 Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis, 23 vocabulary, 390–392 Tai‐Kadai languages, 22, 24–25 Malaysian English dictionaries, 225–226 multilingualism, 4–5 Maldives ASEAN and, 725–727 Common Law, 869–870 Cambodia, 649–650 legal system English use, 870 diversity of language families, 725 Mandarin, Singaporean speakers, 424 Hong Kong, 453–456 The maneater of Malgudi (Narayan), 788 India, 245–247 metaphors in religious language, 815 Indonesia, 605–607 middle‐class societies, growth, 765 Laos, 668–670 Min languages, 35 linguistic landscapes, 833 minority languages, official language Myanmar, 356–359 policy, 84–85 Pinoylish (Phillipines), 492 mixing, globalization and, 709 Singapore, 423–425 Mo, Timothy, 791 Sri Lanka, 345–347 mobility, globalization and, 709 superdiversity, 715–716 modernity, 4 Taiwan, 548 Mongolian English dictionaries, 226 Munda, 18, 20 monolingual ideology, 82–83 MuPDAR (Multifactorial Prediction APT (ASEAN+3), 82–84 and Deviation Analysis with morphology, 4 Regression), 753 morphosyntactic features of Asian Myanmar, 355–371 Englishes, 169–170 colonial era, 360 Outer Circle varieties Common Law, 869–870 Hong Kong English, 177–178 EfECT (English for Education College Indian English, 178–179 Trainers Project), 362–363 Malaysian English, 179 EMI higher education, 144, 154 Philippine English, 180 English in schools, 113–114 Singapore English, 180–181 English users, 55–56 substrate language influences, ethnic groups, 356, 358 183–184 history of English, 359–362 VUs (vernacular universals), 172–177 Independence Government, 360–361 MSEA (Mainland Southeast Asia) language distribution, 358 Austroasiatic languages, 22 languages, 55–56 Austroasiatic speakers, 23 legal system English use, 869

0004918362.INDD 902 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 903

multilingualism, 356–359 legal system English use, 869–870 official language, 83 linguistic elitism in, 318 regions, 357 linguistic politics, 318 religions, 356 MLE (multilingual education), 327 Revolutionary Council multilingualism, 326–328 Government, 361 Nepali as state language, Socialist Government, 361 318–319 State Law and Restoration Council, NESP (New Education System 361–362 Plan), 321 states, 357 Newari, 318 union territory, 357 Sanskrit, 317–318 Myanmar English, 355–371 Nepal English dictionaries, 226 CESR (Comprehensive Education Nepali English, 317–336 Sector Review), 362 code‐mixing, 328–329 discourse, 367 code‐switching, 328–329 compliments and responses, 368 constitution and, 321–322 greetings, 368 education, MLE (multilingual English education, 362–363 education), 327 grammar, phrases, 366, 367 and English of British Raj, 323 lexis, 367 features, 328–329 phonology functions connected speech, 365 creative, 325–326 clusters, 365 instrumental, 324 consonants, 364–365 interpersonal, 324–325 diphthongs, 364 regulative, 324 vowels, 364 globalization and, 325–326 Myanmar English dictionaries, 226 language policies, 321–323 literature, 325 national languages, ethnic identity and, Nenglish, 329 793–794 neocolonialism and, 327–328 nation‐states, legal systems, 864 neologisms, 328 Negara Brunei Darussalam. See , 329 Brunei pluralization, 328 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 788 New Englishes, 171 Nepal, 317–336 NHEEE (National Higher Education Common Law, 869–870 Entrance Examination), ELT (English language teaching), 321 China, 93 EMI higher education, 139–140, 154 norms, 1 English education, 319 NOW (News on the Web), 747 English users, 56 history of English, 317–321 Old Javanese, 39–40 indigenous languages, 326 Sanskrit and, 40 Khasa Bhasha, 318 Old Malay, Sanskrit and, 40 Kirantis, 317–318 Orient, 796 language and religion, 317 Oriental, 796 language hegemony, 320 orthographic reform, literacy increases languages, 56 and, 86

0004918362.INDD 903 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 904 Index

The other tongue: English across cultures multilingualism, 280–283 (Kachru), 2 status of English, 281–282 Outer Circle, 1, 4, 5–6 Pakistan English dictionaries, 226 EMI higher education, 137, Pakistani English, 279–296 153–155 culture and, 286–287 East Asian societies, 141–146 literature, 287–288 South Asian societies, 138–141 education and, 288–289 Southeast Asian societies, features, 283–285 141–146 discourse, 285–286 English in schools future prospects, 290–292 Bangladesh, 108–109 grammatical features, 284–285 Brunei, 109–110 lexis, 284 Hong Kong, 110–112 phonology, 283–284 India, 112 policies, 289–290 Malaysia, 112–113 status and, 286 Myanmar, 113–114 Papuan populations, Austronesians Nepal, 320–321 and, 30 Pakistani, 114 paradigm shift in English studies, 1–2 Philippines, 114–115 Persian, 35–36 Singapore, 115–116 Philippine English, 176, 479–500 Sri Lanka, 116 American English and, 195–196 ESL (English as a Second Language), BEP (Bilingual Education 107, 171 Policy), 489 substrates, 173 call centers, 490 varieties competence, 488 Hong Kong English, 177–179 creative writing, 482–483 Indian English, 178–179 endonormativity, 486 Malaysian English, 179 features, 481–489 Philippine English, 180 grammatical features, 486 Singapore English, 180–181 lexical properties, 482–483 WAMVE and, 174 lexical trends, 484–485 Outer Circle Asian societies, 1–10, literature, 485 243–500 MTB‐MLE (Mother Tongue‐based Outer Circle Englishes, 243–500 Multilingual Education), 490 Oxford English Dictionary (OED), 215 Pinoylish, 479, 491–495 policies, 489–491 Pakistan, 51, 279–296 pronunciation model, 487 EMI higher education, 140, 154 Standard Filipino English, 482 English in schools, 114 varieties, 180 English users, 56–57 Philippine English dictionaries, 227 functions of English, 281–282 Philippines, 51, 479–500 history of English in, 280–281 American colonialism, 480–481 language policies, 1973 Constitution, Anglophone literature, 281–282 793–795 languages, 56–57 Atkinson, Fred W., 480 linguistic landscape studies, 840 BEP (Bilingual Education Policy), local language in legal system, 866 95–96

0004918362.INDD 904 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 905

colonial pluralism and, 795 postcolonial Englishes, 4 cultural pluralism and, 793 postcolonial literature, 789 EMI higher education, 144–145, 155 postcolonial nation‐states, 792 English in schools, 114–115 postcolonial studies, Asian writing and, English users, 57 790–791 language‐in‐education policies, 95–97 postcolonial theory, linguistics and, languages, 57 218–219 linguistic landscape studies, 840 proficiency levels, 65–72 local language in legal system, Proto‐Malayic, 34 866–867 Proto‐Tibeto‐Burman languages, 24 Malay and, 34 Putonghua, 54 MTB‐MLE (Mother Tongue‐Based Multilingual Education), 96, QS (Quacquarelli Symonds) rankings, 114–115 157–159 NLI (National Language Institute), 86 queer diaspora in Asian literatures, official language, 83 798–799 phonology, 195–196 Pinoylish, 491–495 religion Spanish colonial period, 480 dead languages, 817 US colonialism, 114–115 divine languages, 817 phonology, 4, 189–207 as domain, 813 Brunei, 192 English and religion China, 197–198 Christianity and, 818–820 Hong Kong, 192–193 Islam and, 820–822 India, 193–195 as sacred and divine language, Japan, 198–199 816–817 Lankan English (Sri Lanka), 345 IAL (international auxiliary language), Philippines, 195–196 Bahá’í faith, 817 Singapore, 191 linga francas and proselytization, Vietnam, 199–200 817–818 pluralism English, 1, 3 ritualized language, 814–815 policies sacred languages, 817 language choice, 88–90 spiritual intelligence, English and, language education, 89 820–821 pedagogy, 92–93 religious conversion, Indian programs for teaching language, 90–91 influence, 40 teacher qualifications, 91–92 religious language popular culture, 763–764 divine languages, 817 bilingual creativity and, 769–771 English as sacred and divine, decorative English, 769–770 816–817 identity and, 771–772 metaphors, 815 language mixing and, 769–771 sacred languages, 817 middle‐class societies, growth, 765 religious law, 875 music, 772 religious practice, 764 population religious texts, Sanskrit, agriculture and, 17–18 31–34 animal husbandry and, 17–18 risk, globalization and, 709, 720

0004918362.INDD 905 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 906 Index

ritualized language in religious practices, Mandarin speakers, 424 814–815 multilingualism, 423–425 Roy, Arundhati, 791 phonology, 191 Rushdi, Salman, 791 population, 423–424 Speak Mandarin Campaign, 115 sacred languages, 817 Tamil speakers, 424 Sanskrit Singapore Colloquial English, 422, Buddhism and, 33–34 437–438 Indonesian and, 39–40 Singapore English, 176, 419–447 Madurese and, 40 British English and, 420 Old Javanese and, 40 CSE (Colloquial Singaporean English), Old Malay and, 40 775–776 religious texts, 31–34 diglossia, 420 SAR (Special Administrative Region) in language attitude studies, 437–438 Hong Kong, 843 language identity and, 438–440 SAT (Scholastic Assessment Test), 510 lexical features, 421 SCE (Singapore Colloquial English), 180 Mother Tongue policy, 429–431 , 191 expertise, 433 semiotic landscapes, 834 functions of English, 433–434 geosemiotics, 835 identity and, 435–436 Shanghai rankings, 157–159 parentless tongues, 436 shariah law, 875 SCE (Singapore Colloquial English), Brunei, 865 180 Singapore, 865 Singlish, 419–420 Singapore, 51, 419–447 SSE (Singapore ), 180 Chinese speakers, 424 standard, 420 Common Law, 865 syntactic features, 421 current status of English, 428–429 varieties, 180–181 EMI higher education, 145–146, 155 Singapore English dictionaries, 227–228 English education, 425–428 Singlish, 419–420 English in schools, 115–116 Sinitic, 34 English schools, 427 Tai‐Kadai and, 37–38 English users, 57 Sinosphere, 27 functions of English, 428–429 Sino‐Tibetan languages, 21 future of English, 440–442 Macau, 61 history of English, English education, MSEA, 24 425–428 Tai languages and, 37–38 increase of English, 714 Smith, Larry, World Englishes, 2, 367 language planning, 428–429 sociolinguistics language‐in‐education policies, Hong Kong English, 177 97–98 language and religion, 822–824 languages, 57 linguistic landscapes, 833 languages by ethnic group, 425 superdiversity, 715–716 legal system, monolingual, 865 South Asia linguistic landscape studies, 840–841 Austroasiatic languages, 18–20 Malay speakers, 424 Dravidian languages, 20

0004918362.INDD 906 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 907

EMI higher education, 138–141 EMI higher education, 141, 155 geography, 15–16 English in schools, 116 Indo‐Aryan languages, 20 English users, 58 Indo‐Aryan Dravidian contact, 29–30 language policies Indo‐Gangetic language, 29 colonial, 338–339 language contact and convergence, postcolonial, 339–340 29–30 languages, 58 linguistic epicentre, 176 multilingualism, 345–347 major language families, 17–18 Muslim population, 338 monsoonal patterns, 16 Sinhala, 338 Sino‐Tibetan languages, 21 social class, English and, 341 Tai‐Kadai speakers, 21–22 SSLE (Standard Sri Lankan Tibeto‐Burman languages, 21 English), 341 South Korea Tamil, 338 ageism, 772 Sri Lankan English, 337–353 Civil Law, 870–871 British English, 342–343 Dongmunhak (Common Script emergence, 342 Learning), 119 habitual speakers, 342 EMI higher education, 151–152, 156 Lankan English English in, 588 code‐mixing and, 345–347 English in schools, 119–120 code‐mixing in popular song, 347–349 English users, 62–63 grammar, 343–345 languages, 61–62 lexis, 345 linguistic landscape studies, 841 multilingualism and, 345–347 NEC (National English Curriculum), 120 phonology, 345 Suneung (College Scholastic Ability popular music, 346 Test), 120 mixed language, 347 Yukyonggongwon (Teaching English popular music, 346 Public Institute), 119–120 Sri Lankan English dictionaries, 228–229 Southeast Asia SSE (Singapore Standard English), ASEAN, 725–740 180, 191 colonial pluralism, 793 standardization, globalization and, 709, EMI higher education, 141–146 718–719 geography, 15–16 structural borrowing, language contact literature in English, 792–796 and, 28–29 major language families, 17–18 structural convergence, language contact monsoonal patterns, 16 and, 28–29 postcolonial nation‐state substrate languages, influence, 183–184 and, 792 superdiversity, 715–716, 835 speed, globalization and, 709 code switching and, 716–717 Sprachräume, 752–753 India, 716–717 Sri Lanka, 51, 337–353 syntax, 4, 169–188 code‐mixing, 345–347 Common Law, 867–869 Tagalog development of English, 337–341 Malay and, 41 education, English in, 340–341 Spanish loanwords, 41

0004918362.INDD 907 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 908 Index

Tai‐Kadai languages, 21–22 TESOL (Teaching English to speakers of Austroasiatic languages and, 23 other languages), English, MSEA, 24–25 Christianity and, 818–820 Sinitic influence, 37–38 Thai English Taiwan, 547–567 cultural aspects, 640–641 code‐switching, 549 discourse features, 639–640 DPP (Democratic Progressive Party), education, compulsory, 633 548–549 EMI (English‐medium instruction), 642 EMI higher education, 152–153, 157 functions, 634–635 English in schools, 121–122 higher education, 635 English in Taiwan, 547–567 King Rama IV, 632–633 English users, 63 language education, 641–643 ethnolinguistic groups, 547 lexis, 637–638 Hakka people, 548 phonology, 636–637 history of English, 549–553 status, 634–635 Hokkien people, 547–548 syntactic features, 638–639 KMT (Kuomintang) government, 548 varieties, 183 language policy, 548 Thai English dictionaries, 229 languages, 63 Thailand, 51, 629–648 linguistic landscape studies, 841–842 absolutism, 633–634 Mandarin‐Hokkien code‐switching, Basic Education Core Curriculum of 549 2008, 122 Mandarinization, 548 Civil Law, 871–872 multilingualism, 548 ELT (English language teaching), 634 pseudo‐monolingualism, 549 EMI higher education, 148, 157 Taiwanese English English in schools, 122 American English, 560–562 English in Thailand, 629–648 BEPs (bilingual English programs), 555 English proficiency, 630 code‐mixing, 559–560 English users, 63–64 cultural aspects, 559–560 ethnic groups, 631 elementary education, 555 history of English, 632–634 future of, 563–564 languages, 63–64 lexis, 558–559 linguistic landscape studies, 842 in media, 556 National Education Commission, 634 in medicine, 555–556 NEA (National Education Act), 122 phonology, 557–558 social mobility and, 632 secondary education, 555 sociolinguistics, 630 as semi‐official language, 553–554 THE (Times Higher Education) World syntax, 559 University Rankings, 157–159 tertiary education, 554–555 Three Circles model, 1, 107, 169, 802 TOEIC (Test of English for early controversies, 189–190 International Communication), Expanding Circle, 1, 5–6, 713 555 globalization and, 713 Twin Peaks phenomenon, 562–564 Inner Circle, 1, 713 Taiwanese English dictionaries, 229 mixing, 715–718 Tamil, Singaporean speakers, 424 mobility, 715–718 teacher qualifications, 91–92 Outer Circle, 1, 5–6, 713

0004918362.INDD 908 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM Index 909

Tibeto‐Burman languages, 21 Vietnamese Austroasiatic languages and, 23 as institutional language, 683 Timor Leste, Civil Law, 873 writing system, 34 TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Vietnamese English Language), 50, 510 in business, 686 proficiency levels, 65–69 communication and, 686 translingual practices, 717–718 culture and, 695–696 trilingualism in education, 686–688 Hong Kong, 111 education and, 696–698 India, 112 EMI (English‐medium instruction), 688–689 urban language, 4 future of, 698–699 urbanization, 4 language policies, 696–698 phonology/phonetics Vietnam, 51, 683–703 consonants, 690–691 Austroasiatic languages, 684 grammar, 692–694 CEFR, 697 tone, 691–692 Civil Law, 872 vocabulary, 694 EMI higher education, 148–149, 157 vowels, 690 English in schools, 123 Vietnamese society and, 689 English in Vietnam, 683-703 Vietnamese English dictionaries, 229 English users, 64 vocabulary, 4, 209–240 French colonialism, 123, 684 VOICE (Vienna‐Oxford International history of English, 684–685 Corpus of English), 731, 748 language‐in‐education policies, VUs (vernacular universals), 172–177 98–99 languages, 64 WAMVE (World Atlas of minority groups, 683 Morphosyntactic Variation in Mon‐Khmer languages, 684 English), 172–174 National Foreign Language 2020 WE (world Englishes), 1–10 Project, 696 world Englishes. See WE (world phonology, 199–200 Englishes) post‐war economy, 685 World Englishes, 2 , 123 world Englishes literature, 787–811

0004918362.INDD 909 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM 0004918362.INDD 910 8/7/2020 6:17:23 AM