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From: Kent M. Syverson and Patrick M. Colgan, The Quaternary of : An Updated Review of Stratigraphy, Glacial History and Landforms. In J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard and P.D. Hughes, editors: Developments in Quaternary Science, Vol. 15, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2011, pp. 537-552. ISBN: 978-0-444-53447-7. © Copyright 2011 Elsevier B.V. Elsevier. Author's personal copy

Chapter 42

The Quaternary of Wisconsin: An Updated Review of Stratigraphy, Glacial History and Landforms

Kent M. Syverson1,* and Patrick M. Colgan2 1Department of Geology, University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire, Wisconsin 54702, USA 2Department of Geology, Padnos Hall of Science, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan 49401, USA *Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to Kent M. Syverson. E-mail: [email protected]

42.1. INTRODUCTION et al., 2011). Ice from the Keewatin ice dome to the north-west (e.g. the Des Moines Lobe; Fig. 42.2) deposited silt-rich, cal- Wisconsin was probably glaciated dozens of times during careous tills. Ice from the Labradoran ice dome to the north- the Epoch (2.58–0.012 Ma), but stratigraphical east flowed out of the Superior lowland and deposited red- units provide direct evidence for at least four glaciations. dish-brown tills with Precambrian basalt, banded iron forma- Even though Wisconsin lies well north of the maximum tion and reddish sandstone erratics (e.g. Superior Lobe and extent of Quaternary glaciations, the in the other smaller lobes; Fig. 42.2). Labradoran ice flowing out south-western part of the state remained unglaciated of the Green Bay and Michigan lowlands (e.g. Green (Fig. 42.1). Glacial, alluvial and aeolian sediments from BayandLakeMichiganLobes;Fig.42.2)depositedcalcareous several glaciations and are present, but age tills whose grain size was strongly influenced by ice-dammed control for all except the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation within those lowlands. (marine isotope stage 2 or MIS 2) is limited to palaeosols Syverson and Colgan (2004) summarised the glacial his- and palaeomagnetic data (Whittecar, 1979; Baker et al., tory of Wisconsin (including an extensive literature review 1983; Jacobs and Knox, 1994; Miller, 2000). Radiocarbon which is not repeated here). Since that publication, the analyses are numerous for deglaciation after 13.0 14 Pleistocene lithostratigraphy of Wisconsin has been C ka BP, but they are rare for the rest of the Wisconsinan reviewed and updated (Syverson et al., 2011) to incorporate Glaciation (MIS 2–4). Limited optically stimulated lumi- more recent research findings. Additionally, our knowledge nescence (OSL) and cosmogenic radionuclide (CRN) data of ice dynamics and landform genesis has expanded as more are also available for the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation. has been learned more about modern ice sheet analogs. In this review, all ages are reported in thousands of cal- Here, we summarise our current understanding of the gla- endar years (ka) unless stated otherwise. Radiocarbon ages 14 cial history of Wisconsin and suggest areas of future ( C ka BP) have been converted to calendar years using research. CALIB v. 5.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993). OSL and CRN age estimates are assumed to be roughly equivalent to cal- ibrated radiocarbon ages. Numerical ages of stratigraphical boundaries are taken from charts produced by the Subcom- 42.2. EARLY PLEISTOCENE GLACIATIONS mission on Quaternary Stratigraphy of the International Three formations might represent at least two pre- Union of Geological Sciences (Gibbard and Cohen, glaciations in Wisconsin. These units have been assigned an 2008). We also use the current definition of the base of Early Pleistocene age based on intense weathering charac- the Holocene as 11.7 ka (Walker et al., 2009). teristics and reversed remanent palaeomagnetism. The units Glacialsedimentcoversapproximatelythree-fourthsofthe underlie sediment assigned to the Illinoian Glaciation (MIS 145,000 km2 land surface of Wisconsin (Figs. 42.2–42.4). 6 or 8) and are sometimes referred to informally as pre-Illi- Ice flowing from three major source regions deposited sedi- noian (older than MIS 6 or 8). Tills of the Pierce Formation ment (Mickelson et al., 1984; Attig et al., 1988; Syverson of western Wisconsin (the ‘old grey’ till of Leverett, 1932)

Developments in Quaternary Science. Vol. 15, doi: 10.1016/B978-0-444-53447-7.00042-8 ISSN: 1571-0866, # 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 537 Author's personal copy

538 Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology

FIGURE 42.1 Map of Wisconsin and surround- ing states relative to the maximum extent of gla- cier ice during the Quaternary (modified from Hobbs, 1999). The Driftless Area in south-west- ern Wisconsin does not show evidence for burial by glacier ice. The shaded area of patchy, eroded till displays the same deeply incised river valleys as the Driftless Area and has been referred to as the ‘pseudo-driftless area’ by Hobbs (1999).

and Marathon Formation in north-central Wisconsin 42.2.2. North-Central Wisconsin (Syverson et al., 2011) are the most extensive (Figs. 42.4 and 42.5). The Wausau Member of the Marathon Formation in north- central Wisconsin is a silt-rich, intensely weathered till (Fig. 42.5). No similar till units have been found in the rest 42.2.1. Western Wisconsin of Wisconsin, and the Wausau Member may be evidence for Tills of the Pierce Formation in western Wisconsin are grey an extremely old glacial event. The Medford and Edgar to brown, calcareous (where unleached), silt rich, kaolinite Members of the Marathon Formation are calcareous and silt rich and they probably represent an ice advance from a Kee- rich (Figs. 42.4 and 42.5). These tills contain less kaolinite watin source during at least two events (Baker et al., 1983; than the Hersey Member of the Pierce Formation, but oth- Johnson, 1986; Thornburg et al., 2000; Syverson et al., erwise they are very similar (Muldoon et al., 1988; Attig 2011). Till of the Woodville Member of the Pierce Forma- and Muldoon, 1989; Thornburg et al., 2000; Syverson tion marks the first ice advance (Fig. 42.5). Peat and wood et al., 2011). The Marshfield contains 30–50 m overlie the Woodville Member till at the type section (Attig of Edgar till (Weidman, 1907, p. 452; Clayton, 1991), et al., 1988, p. 8 and 11). and this is the only primary glacial landform that remains Keewatin-source ice flowed south-east across the Mis- from a pre-Illinoian ice advance. sissippi River during the later Reeve Phase, deposited the Hersey Member of the Pierce Formation in western Wis- 42.2.3. Southern Wisconsin consin and dammed the major south-easterly flowing trib- utaries of the (Baker et al., 1983; Johnson, In south-eastern Wisconsin, till is present in erosional rem- 1986). The resulting ice-dammed lakes extended at least nants outside of end deposited during the Wiscon- tens of kilometres east of the modern Mississippi River val- sinan Glaciation (Alden, 1918). Bleuer (1970, 1971) and ley. Silt- and clay-rich lake sediment of the Kinnickinnic Whittecar (1979) proposed that some of the silt-rich, calcar- Member of the Pierce Formation was deposited in these eous grey till units were deposited during a pre-Illinoian ice lakes (Fig. 42.5). Based on lake sediment elevations and advance from the east out of the lowland. varve counts, the lakes might have covered an area of These till units have been observed beneath Illinoian till 5800 km2 for more than 1200 years (Baker, 1984; Syverson of the Walworth Formation in southern Wisconsin (Bleuer, et al., 2011). 1971, p. 143; Miller, 2000, p. 116). Author's personal copy

Chapter 42 The Quaternary of Wisconsin 539

FIGURE 42.2 Major ice lobes during the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation (inset, modified from Clayton et al., 2006). The shaded-relief image of Wisconsin shows the following major features: BR, Baraboo Range; DA, Driftless Area; GB, Green Bay; KM, Moraine; LW, glacial bed. Image was created from USGS 3 arcsec digital elevation data. Illumination direction is approximately 315, and sun angle is 25.

42.2.4. Ice Extent and Chronology (1988) described till in the Bridgeport terrace of the Wis- consin River (ca. 3 km east of the Mississippi River junc- Ice extent and the chronology concerning these pre-Illi- tion). This till formed during a pre-Illinoian ice advance noian events are poorly known. Any original glacial land- to the south-east across the Mississippi River (Knox and forms other than the Marshfield moraine have been Attig, 1988) with an ice margin closely following the loca- completely removed by extensive erosion, and weathered tion of the Mississippi River (Figs. 42.3 and 42.6A; Clayton till remnants are widely scattered and buried by younger et al., 2006). sediment. The Powers Bluff chert dispersal fan (Fig. 42.3, Till units with reversed remanent magnetism provide location PB) suggests that pre-Illinoian Keewatin ice flo- some age control for pre-Illinoian till units. A Keewatin- wed towards the south-east in central Wisconsin (Weidman, source ice lobe may have deposited the Hersey Member 1907,p.444;Clayton, 1991). Additionally, Knox and Attig of the Pierce Formation and the Medford Member of the Author's personal copy

540 Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology

FIGURE 42.3 Phases of glaciation in Wisconsin. These phases are events that probably represent at least a minor advance of the ice sheet. Letters indi- cate important localities mentioned in the text: DL, Devils Lake; PB, Powers Bluff chert fan; TC, Two Creeks Forest Bed; V, Valders. Age estimates are in calendar years. Modified from Clayton et al. (2006) using information from Hooyer and Mode (2008) and Syverson et al. (2011).

Marathon Formation at the same time (Fig. 42.5; Baker reversed remanent magnetism, and the uppermost part of et al., 1987). This interpretation is based on evidence such the Kinnickinnic Member displays normal remanent mag- as the Powers Bluff chert fan, similar grain sizes, similar netism (Baker et al., 1983; Baker, 1984). The Medford stratigraphical positions, a common provenance of sedi- Member also has reversed remanent magnetism (Syverson mentary carbonate and black shale sources located to the et al., 2005). Thus, the Kinnickinnic, Hersey and Medford north-west, and palaeomagnetism. Till of the Hersey Mem- Members were probably deposited before the Illinoian Gla- ber and the lower part of the Kinnickinnic Member display ciation, perhaps during the Emperor event at 0.42 Ma or Author's personal copy

Chapter 42 The Quaternary of Wisconsin 541

more likely before the Matuyama/Brunhes boundary at by ice from the Superior region (Figs. 42.4 and 42.5). The 0.781 Ma (Baker et al., 1983). Miller (2000) also described River Falls Formation displays normal remanent magne- till and interbedded lake sediment with reversed remanent tism and unconformably overlies deeply weathered Pierce magnetism in south-central Wisconsin. Formation till in western Wisconsin (Baker et al., 1983). Magnetically reversed till units have been described in Both the River Falls and Bakerville till units contain red- Nebraska, Kansas and (Boellstorff, 1978; Colgan, dish-brown, sandy till with abundant Precambrian basalt 1998, 1999a; Roy et al., 2004) and northern Missouri and red sandstone clasts from the region. (Rovey and Kean, 1996, 2001; Roy et al., 2004; Rovey Both of these tills are extensively eroded and do not display and Balco, 2010). Roy et al. (2004) used sedimentology, primary glacial topography (Johnson, 1986; Clayton, 1991; palaeomagnetism and K–Ar geochronology of volcanic Syverson et al., 2011). Proximal stream sediment of the ashes to re-examine the tills first described by Boellstorff River Falls Formation is common in western Wisconsin (1978) and to propose a revised stratigraphy for pre-Illi- and is intensely weathered. Soil-derived clay extends to noian tills in the midcontinent. They described four ‘R’ type depths of 5 m and cements the stream sediment in some tills deposited during the Matuyama Reversed Polarity cases (Syverson, 2007). Chron and three ‘N’ type tills deposited during the Brunhes Normal Polarity Chron. ‘R2’ tills (rich in sedimentary 42.3.2. Southern Wisconsin lithologies, kaolinite and quartz) are older than 2.0 Ma. Two ‘R1’ tills were deposited between 1.3 and 0.781 Ma. Illinoian tills in south-central Wisconsin (adjacent to north- The Hersey and Medford Member tills might have been ern Illinois where the Illinoian Glaciation was first defined) deposited at approximately the same time by Keewatin ice are members of the Walworth Formation and the Capron (Syverson et al., 2005). If so, the Medford till must have Member of the Zenda Formation (Figs. 42.4 and 42.7; been deposited by a different lobe with a flow line that Bleuer, 1971; Curry, 1989; Syverson et al., 2011). Wal- incorporated less kaolinite from Cretaceous source mate- worth Formation tills typically are yellowish-brown, silt rials in (Morey and Setterholm, 1997). If the rich to sandy in texture, contain abundant dolomite pebbles Medford and Hersey Member tills are time equivalent, and are dissected by erosion (Alden, 1918, p. 151; Bleuer, the Reeve Phase and the deposition of the Kinnickinnic 1970, 1971; Miller, 2000; Syverson et al., 2011). Capron Member lake sediment might represent a recessional event. Member till is pink and silt rich. Weathered loess units in The tills of the Marathon and Pierce Formations also might the Driftless Area (Wyalusing and Loveland Members of possibly represent at least two glaciations. Roy et al. (2004) the Kieler Formation) also have been attributed to the Illi- reported seven pre-Illinoian tills in the midcontinent, and noian Glaciation based on stratigraphical position and following their reasoning, the Hersey Member could repre- palaeosols (Leigh and Knox, 1994; Jacobs et al., 1997; sent an older glaciation where more kaolinite-rich saprolith Knox et al., 2011). was available for glacial erosion. Clearly, the maximum ice extent in Wisconsin was 42.3.3. Ice Extent and Chronology reached well before the Illinoian Glaciation (MIS 6 or 8), and most of Wisconsin except the Driftless Area probably The River Falls Formation and Bakerville Member of the was ice covered during these glaciations. Sediment from Copper Falls Formation are associated with the Baldwin/ these older events might be preserved in buried valleys Dallas/Foster and Nasonville Phases, respectively and as remnants below sediment from the Late Wisconsinan (Figs. 42.3–42.5; Johnson, 1986; Attig and Muldoon, Glaciation (MIS 2). Subsurface drilling, cosmogenic burial 1989; Syverson, 2007). The lack of primary glacial land- dating of palaeosols (Balco et al., 2005; Rovey and Balco, forms makes it difficult to determine the maximum extent 2010) and additional palaeomagnetic data could help deci- of glacier ice and the number of depositional events. Baker pher this enigmatic part of the glacial record in Wisconsin. et al. (1983) and Syverson (2007) attributed the intense weathering of River Falls Formation till and stream sedi- ment to the (MIS 5e–d) and used 42.3. MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE this to support an Illinoian age for the sediment, even (ILLINOIAN GLACIATION) though any number of older interglacials (MIS 7, 9 or 11) might have weathered these till units. The Bakerville till 42.3.1. Western Wisconsin does not display intense weathering, but based on its strat- Two pre-Late Wisconsinan tills in western Wisconsin are igraphical position and eroded nature, workers such as thought to represent events during the Illinoian Glaciation Johnson (2000) have tentatively correlated the Bakerville of the Middle Pleistocene (MIS 6 or 8). The River Falls For- and River Falls tills. mation (the ‘old red’ till of Leverett, 1932) and the Baker- In south-central Wisconsin, tills of the Walworth For- ville Member of the Copper Falls Formation were deposited mation and Capron Member of the Zenda Formation were Author's personal copy

542 Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology

FIGURE 42.4 Pleistocene lithostratigraphical units for tills in Wisconsin. Age estimates are in calendar years. Modified from Clayton et al. (2006) using information from Syverson et al. (2011).

probably deposited by ice flowing westward out of the Lake 42.4. LATE PLEISTOCENE Michigan lowland during several events (Fig. 42.6C). The (WISCONSINAN GLACIATION) Capron Member was recently dated using the OSL method at 130 ka, so the Capron Member (and the older, more Landforms and sediment formed during the Wisconsinan eroded Walworth Formation) was deposited before the last Glaciation (80–11.7 ka) are abundant within the state. part of the Illinoian Glaciation (R. Berg, Illinois State Geo- Age control is lacking for events other than the last part logical Survey, oral communication, 2009, as reported in of the Wisconsinan Glaciation (MIS 2). Thus, the subdivi- Syverson et al., 2011). sions of the Wisconsinan Glaciation proposed by Johnson Author's personal copy

Chapter 42 The Quaternary of Wisconsin 543

FIGURE 42.5 Glacial lithostratigraphy in western and north-central Wisconsin. Vertical scale is only approximate, and mean grain size is reported as sand:silt:clay percentages. Sources for the sediment are indicated as follows: Ch, Chippewa Lobe; DML, Des Moines Lobe; Keewatin, derived from Kee- watin ice dome to the north-west; La, Langlade Lobe; Sup, Superior Lobe; WV, Wisconsin Valley Lobe. Proposed age estimates in calendar years and correlations for glacial units are shown. Modified from Syverson and Colgan (2004) using information from Syverson et al. (2011). et al. (1997; Athens and Michigan Subepisodes of the Wis- till of the Merrill Member of the Copper Falls Formation consin Episode) have not been used in Wisconsin. Most in north-central Wisconsin (Figs. 42.4 and 42.5). It dis- workers in Wisconsin use the terms ‘pre-Late Wisconsinan plays some streamlined glacial landforms and low-relief Glaciation’ (>35 ka) and ‘Late Wisconsinan Glaciation’ or hummocky topography. Thus, it is probably younger ‘last part of the Wisconsinan Glaciation’ (35–11.7 ka) to (MIS 4?) than pre-Illinoian and Illinoian units, which typ- refer to sediment ages. ically display no primary glacial topography. Stewart and Mickelson (1976) presented clay mineral analyses as evi- 42.4.1. Early Wisconsinan dence for greater weathering of the Merrill Member than Glaciation (MIS 4?) similar units deposited during the Late Wisconsinan Gla- ciation. Thornburg et al. (2000) could not reproduce this Glacial tills attributed to the Early Wisconsinan Glaciation trend so it is not clear whether these criteria are valid. are rare in the state. Where present, these till units appear One radiocarbon analysis of >40.8 14CkaBP(>44 ka) relatively fresh, display little to moderate stream incision for organic material overlying till of the Merrill and lack well-developed weathering horizons at the sur- Member supports an Early Wisconsinan age (Stewart face. The most extensive unit is the reddish-brown, sandy and Mickelson, 1976). Author's personal copy

544 Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology

FIGURE 42.6 Reconstructions of six different phases of glaciation in Wisconsin (plotted on the shaded-relief base map from Fig. 42.2). (A) Pre-Illinoian glacial maximum, Stetsonville Phase. Limit based on interpretation of Clayton et al. (2006). The ice margin shown here may have been diachronous. (B) Pre-Illinoian Reeve Phase during the deposition of the Hersey Member (till) and Kinnickinnic Member (lake sediment) of the Pierce Formation. (C) Illi- noian Glaciation maximum, Nasonville Phase in north-central Wisconsin. (D) Late Wisconsinan Glaciation maximum ice position at 21 ka. (E) Late Wisconsinan Glaciation ice-margin reconstruction at 16 ka during initial deposition of Kewaunee Formation. Ice margin extends south to the vicinity of along the Lake Michigan shoreline. (F) Ice-margin positions at 13 ka (just after the Two Creeks Forest is covered by ice and the Two Rivers Member of the Kewaunee Formation is deposited).

Evidence for extensive Early Wisconsinan ice is lack- not well constrained in Wisconsin because organic material ing, but loess of this age is common in Wisconsin. Dates is rare from 32 to 16 ka. Clayton et al. (2001) attribute this from the base of the Roxana Member of the Kieler Forma- lack of organic material to the presence of permafrost in tion, a loess unit derived from the Mississippi River valley Wisconsin, yet many areas not subject to permafrost also in the Driftless Area, range from a non-finite analysis of lack radiocarbon dates from this period. Some workers >47.0 to 45.2Æ2.65 14CkaBP(Leigh and Knox, 1993, are starting to use OSL and CRN exposure dating to fill this 1994; Knox et al., 2011). Grimley (2000) used the magnetic void in geochronology. The Green Bay Lobe was at its susceptibility and clay mineralogy of the Roxana Formation maximum extent in the Devils Lake area (DL; Fig. 42.3) to infer that the Superior, Wadena and Des Moines Lobes 20–18 ka based on recent OSL dates on ice-marginal were contributing glacial meltwater (and fine-grained sed- lake sediment (Attig et al., 2009) and CRN exposure dates iment) to the Mississippi River during the Early and Middle (Colgan et al., 2002). Wisconsinan (MIS 4 and 3). Numerous tills were deposited during many phases of the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation (Figs. 42.3 and 42.4). 42.4.2. Late Wisconsinan Glaciation The Copper Falls and Holy Hill Formations are the most extensive units (Figs. 42.4, 42.5 and 42.7). During the ear- Ice crossed the drainage divide south of Lake Superior by liest phases of the Green Bay Lobe (the Hancock/Johnstown 32 ka, shortly before the Late Wisconsinan (MIS 2; ca. Phases), the ice margin intersected the Baraboo Range in 24–12 ka). This inference is based on spruce wood in west- central Wisconsin, blocked the drainage ern Wisconsin buried by 60 m of glacial stream sediment and formed glacial Lake Wisconsin in the central part of (26.06Æ0.8 14C ka BP; Black, 1976b; Attig et al., 1985). the state (Fig. 42.2; locations BR, LW). This lake was up The ice may have reached its Late Wisconsinan maximum to 115 km long and 50 m deep, and its outlet was to the west by 21.3–18.8 ka and remained there until approximately via the Black River. The ice dam broke as the ice thinned, 18.0 ka (Clayton and Moran, 1982; Fig. 42.6D). This is and catastrophic drainage of glacial Lake Wisconsin around Author's personal copy

Chapter 42 The Quaternary of Wisconsin 545

FIGURE 42.7 Schematic stratigraphical column for tills deposited by the Lake Michigan Lobe in eastern Wiscon- sin. Shaded units display reddish colours. Estimated ages in calendar years are from Maher and Mickelson (1996) and Mickelson et al. (2007). The leaves at Valders Quarry are located above Holy Hill Formation till and below till of the Valders Member. Modified from Syverson and Colgan (2004) using stratigraphical information compiled from Syverson et al. (2011).

the east side of the Baraboo Range (estimated discharge during the St. Croix Phase. The Spooner Hills north-west 4Â104 m3/s; Clayton and Knox, 2008) incised deep, of the St. Croix moraine may have been incised by subgla- branching bedrock channels that are now part of the Wis- cial meltwater erosion during the St. Croix Phase (Johnson, consin Dells (Clayton and Attig, 1989, p. 44–45; Clayton 1999, 2000). and Attig, 1990). Clayton and Attig (1989) estimated that A small sublobe of the Des Moines Lobe advanced from glacial Lake Wisconsin drained between 15.5 and 17 ka. the west-southwest into western Wisconsin during the Pine Active sand dunes were present on the eastern part of the City Phase and deposited till of the Trade River Formation exposed plain of glacial Lake Wisconsin by 14 ka (Rawling (Figs. 42.3–42.5). This Keewatin-source ice occupied an et al., 2008). area previously covered by the Superior Lobe. Trade River The Superior Lobe advanced to its Late Wisconsinan Formation till is silt rich, calcareous and similar to till of the maximum during the Emerald Phase (Figs. 42.2 and 42.3; pre-Illinoian Pierce and Marathon Formations, but Trade Johnson, 2000). Emerald Phase ice deposited thin till of River Formation till exhibits little weathering and erosional the Poskin Member of the Copper Falls Formation, indis- modification (Johnson, 2000; Syverson et al., 2011). The tinct landforms and small outwash plains. The Superior Pine City Phase ice margin dammed the St. Croix River Lobe then retreated more than 15 km to the St. Croix Phase drainage along the Minnesota and Wisconsin border and ice-margin position where a markedly different suite of glacial Lake Grantsburg formed. This lake lasted at least landforms was deposited (Fig. 42.3). The St. Croix moraine 80–100 years based on varve counts (Johnson and Hemstad, displays numerous large hummocks, ice-walled-lake plains 1998; Johnson, 2000). The Pine City Phase might have and tunnel channels adjacent to an extensive . occurred at 14.0 14C ka BP (16.7 ka) based on the well- According to Johnson (2000), the Superior Lobe was a cold, dated advance of the Des Moines Lobe to the Bemis margin non-surging glacier during the Emerald Phase and a less in central Iowa (Johnson, 2000). cold, surging glacier during the St. Croix Phase. This warm- As ice margins wasted northward across drainage ing effect caused more meltwater erosion and deposition divides for Lake Superior, Green Bay and Lake Michigan, Author's personal copy

546 Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology

modern outlets towards the east were blocked by ice and sequence of the region (Goldthwait, 1907; Black, lakes formed within these deep bedrock basins. The lakes 1970a, 1974; Kaiser, 1994; Leavitt et al., 2007; Mickelson drained to the south via the St. Croix (e.g. Lakes Nemadji, et al., 2007). The Two Creeks Forest Bed is first overlain by Duluth), Wisconsin (Lake Oshkosh) and Illinois (Lake Chi- lake sediment and then till of the Kewaunee Formation. cago) River systems (Clayton, 1984; Hansel and Mickelson, Acomb et al. (1982) interpreted this sequence to represent 1988; Colman et al., 1995; Hooyer and Mode, 2008; Knae- an ice readvance into the Lake Michigan basin that blocked ble and Hobbs, 2009). Silt- and clay-rich sediment was the eastern drainage, raised the lake level, flooded and buried deposited in these lakes, and ice readvancing out of the lake the forest and deposited till of the Two Rivers Member of the basins eroded the fine-grained sediment. Till units depos- Kewaunee Formation as the site was overridden by ice ited by these later advances are clast poor and contain up (Figs. 42.6Fand42.7). Kaiser (1994) used dendrochronology to 90% silt and clay (Miller Creek Formation in northern and accelerator mass spectrometry dates to delimit the growth Wisconsin, Oak Creek and Kewaunee Formations in east- period of the Two Creeks Forest to between 12.05 and 11.75 ern Wisconsin; Figs. 42.4 and 42.7; Schneider, 1983; Simp- 14CkaBP(14.0–13.6 ka).MostagesforTwoCreeksForest kins, 1989; Simpkins et al., 1990; Ronnert, 1992; Syverson wood fall between 11.2 and 12.4 14CkaBP(13–14 ka; et al., 2011). For these reasons, early workers such as Mickelson et al., 2007). Chamberlin (1883) and Alden (1918) found it difficult to Early workers (e.g. Black, 1976b, 1980) initially determine if the sediments were lacustrine or till. thought all reddish-brown Kewaunee Formation till was The reddish-brown colour of the Kewaunee Formation younger than the Two Creeks Forest (the ‘Valders till’; is quite different from the grey to yellowish-brown till units see Acomb et al. (1982) for details). Field mapping and deposited previously by the Late Wisconsinan Green Bay lab analyses later showed some red till units to be older, and Lake Michigan Lobes (Figs. 42.4 and 42.7). Alden and others younger, than the Two Creeks Forest (Acomb (1918, p. 315) proposed that water carried iron-oxide-rich et al., 1982; McCartney and Mickelson, 1982). sediment from the Lake Superior basin into the Green Bay Ice margins in eastern Wisconsin oscillated markedly and Lake Michigan lowlands during a time of ice-margin during the last part of the Wisconsinan Glaciation retreat, an event that occurred before 15.8 ka. Ice advance (Fig. 42.8), although the timing of events is poorly con- subsequently eroded red lake sediment and deposited the strained. Some researchers have suggested an early Green reddish-brown tills of the Kewaunee Formation as far south Bay Lobe retreat before 18.8 ka (Colgan, 1996, 1999b), as Milwaukee (Rovey and Borucki, 1995). while others have suggested a later retreat beginning The Two Creeks Forest Bed along the western Lake Mich- 14.6 ka (Maher, 1982). Hundreds of small moraines, igan shoreline (Fig. 42.3, location TC) contains spruce wood interpreted as annual moraines, are visible on surfaces and has been recognised as an important interstadial marker uncovered by the Green Bay Lobe (Colgan, 1996; Clayton bed within the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation sedimentary and Attig, 1997). If annual, these moraines suggest that the

FIGURE 42.8 Time–distance diagram for the Green Bay Lobe (modified from Colgan et al., 2002). Dots are radiocarbon dates converted to calendar years using CALIB 5.0 (Stuiver and Reimer, 1993). Cross bars are cosmogenic isotope dates from Colgan et al. (2002) using the production rates of Stone et al. (1998). Bar lengths represent one sigma analytical uncertainty. Yellowish-brown, sandy till of the Holy Hill Formation was deposited during the Hancock, Johnstown, and Green Lake Phases. Reddish-brown, fine-grained till of the Kewaunee Formation was deposited during the Chilton and late Athelstane Phases. Author's personal copy

Chapter 42 The Quaternary of Wisconsin 547

Green Bay Lobe retreated at a rate of 50–100 m/year. The this suggests a supraglacial origin, rather than a subglacial Green Bay Lobe was at its maximum position at 20 ka ice-pressing origin (Boone and Eyles, 2001), for the ice- based on OSL-dated ice-marginal lake sediments high in walled-lake plains and the surrounding hummocks in the the Baraboo Hills (Attig et al., 2009). Cosmogenic exposure moraines (Clayton et al., 2008). Prominent tunnel channels dates at two sites more than 50 km from the maximum cut the outermost hummocky moraines but are generally not extent of the Green Bay Lobe suggest ice retreat before associated with recessional moraines (Attig et al., 1989; 17–19 ka (Colgan et al., 2002). Clayton et al., 1999; Cutler et al., 2002). Loess of the Peoria Member of the Kieler Formation The correlation of cold winter climate, hummocky was deposited during the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation moraines and tunnel channels has been used to infer a fro- (Knox et al., 2011). This loess is thickest (up to 10 m) along zen bed zone up to tens of kilometres wide near the ice mar- the Mississippi River valley in the Driftless Area. Outwash gins in Wisconsin between 32 and 16 ka (Attig et al., 1989; streams and sparsely vegetated periglacial landscapes were Winguth et al., 2004). This frozen bed zone would have the most important sources of loess (Leigh and Knox, 1994; enhanced compressive ice flow, increased the transport of Mason et al., 1994). Loess also was derived from sources sediment to the ice surface (as modelled by Moore et al., such as freshly exposed glacial sediment and the exposed 2009) and produced broad, high-relief hummocky moraine beds of recently drained proglacial or ice-walled lakes complexes (Johnson and Clayton, 2003). Behind the frozen (Schaetzl et al., 2009). zone was an unfrozen wet bed with high subglacial pore- Glaciers last advanced into Wisconsin south of Lake water pressures (Attig et al., 1989; Colgan et al., 2003). Superior during the Lakeview Phase (Fig. 42.3; Clayton, Tunnel channels could have been eroded by water escaping 1984). Black (1976b) reported wood dates from the red, through the frozen bed of the glacier margin (Attig et al., clay-rich till of this event in northern Wisconsin 1989; Clayton et al., 1999), perhaps as geothermal heat (9.73Æ0.140 and 10.1Æ0.1 14C ka BP). Clayton (1984) melted the frozen bed at the glacier margin (Cutler et al., correlates this 9.9 14C ka BP advance with the Marquette 2000). Phase in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and estimates Well-developed, radiating fields are present in that the glacier margin wasted out of Wisconsin for the last areas formerly covered by the Green Bay Lobe (Boro- time by 9.5 14C ka BP (10.9 ka). wiecka and Erickson, 1985; Colgan and Mickelson, 1997) and Lake Michigan Lobe (Whittecar and Mickelson, 1977, 1979; Stanford and Mickelson, 1985). These drum- 42.4.3. Late Wisconsinan Landforms and lins are up-flow from narrow (2–5 km wide), single-crested end moraines that are cut by numerous tunnel channels Palaeoglaciology (Attig et al., 1989; Clayton et al., 1999; Colgan, 1999b; Col- Based on an extensive geographic information system data- gan et al., 2003). According to Mickelson et al. (1983) and base of landforms and sediments, Colgan et al. (2003) clas- Attig et al. (1989), glacial ice with a thawed bed eroded sified the landforms in the State of Wisconsin into two these up-flow from the ice-marginal frozen bed. glacial landsystems. These include (A) a younger landsys- Colgan and Mickelson (1997) suggested that the drumlins tem with low-relief till plains and end moraines and (B) an did not all form during the ice maximum, but rather formed older landsystem with high-relief hummocky moraines, ice- during several deglaciation/readvance events. If so, then ice walled-lake plains, drumlins and tunnel channels. must have advanced over permafrost redeveloped on Colgan et al. (2003) proposed that landsystem (B) recently deglaciated surfaces. Permafrost clearly did rede- formed under cold subpolar climate and permafrost condi- velop during ice retreat prior to 15.4 ka based on numerous tions during the and the early part of ice-wedge-cast polygons on drumlinized surfaces (Colgan, the deglaciation (32–16 ka). Evidence for permafrost 1996; Clayton et al., 2001). Colgan and Mickelson (1997) includes ice-wedge casts and ice-wedge polygons found cited the absence of tunnel channels associated with these on landscapes older than 15.4 ka (Black, 1965, 1976a; younger ice-margin positions to argue against a cata- Mason et al., 1994; Colgan, 1996; Holmes and Syverson, strophic subglacial flood origin for the drumlins (Shaw, 1997; Clayton et al., 2001). 2002); if the drumlins formed via subglacial meltwater pro- Moraines marking the ice maximum in northern Wis- cesses, many flood channels should be associated with the consin (St. Croix, late Chippewa, Perkinstown, Harrison younger drumlin-forming phases. Phases; Fig. 42.3) are hummocky complexes 5–20 km wide The Kettle Moraine of eastern Wisconsin trends approx- with numerous, large ice-walled-lake plains (Attig, 1993; imately parallel to the Lake Michigan shoreline for more Johnson et al., 1995; Ham and Attig, 1996, 1997; Johnson than 125 km (KM; Fig. 42.2). This time-transgressive ridge and Clayton, 2003; Syverson, 2007; Clayton et al., 2008). complex formed during the time of drumlin formation as Lake sediment is commonly at least as thick as the height meltwater was concentrated in the interlobate region of the ice-walled-lake plain above adjacent depressions; between the Green Bay and Lake Michigan Lobes. Most Author's personal copy

548 Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology

fluvial sediment was deposited in contact with glacial ice, what he thought to be evidence for glaciation of the Drift- so the Kettle Moraine contains hummocky stream sediment, less Area, perhaps as recently as the Early Wisconsinan pitted outwash plains, outwash plains and (Chamber- Glaciation. Mickelson et al. (1982) evaluated Black’s evi- lin, 1883; Alden, 1918; Black, 1969, 1970a; Syverson, dence for glaciation in the Driftless Area and concluded that 1988; Mickelson and Syverson, 1997; Clayton, 2001; Carl- no unequivocal evidence supported glaciation of the entire son et al., 2005). Driftless Area. However, periglacial processes such as soli- Following the formation of landsystem (B), ice-surface fluction eroded Driftless Area uplands and slopes during slopes probably changed from steeply sloping margins dur- glaciations (Knox, 1989; Clayton et al., 2001). Loess blown ing Late Wisconsinan maximum to more gently sloping mar- out of the Mississippi and Wisconsin River valleys mantles gins during deglaciation phases (Colgan and Mickelson, many upland surfaces in the Driftless Area (Knox et al., 1997). Other palaeo-reconstructions of ice lobes in Wiscon- 2011). sin during retreat from the glacial maximum suggest gentle Hobbs (1999) provides a review of different hypotheses ice-surface slopes, thin ice and low basal shear stress values used to explain the origin of the Driftless Area. According typical of fast-moving outlet glaciers or surging glaciers to Chamberlin and Salisbury (1885), bedrock highlands in (Clark, 1992; Colgan, 1999b; Socha et al., 1999). This could northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan reflect increasing meltwater generation during deglaciation deflected ice to the east and west and ‘protected’ the Drift- and/or a rapid ablation-driven lowering of the ice surface less Area from glaciation. Based on numerical ice sheet during retreat. modelling, Cutler et al. (2001) argued that the presence The low-relief till plains and end moraines of landsys- of the deep Lake Superior basin retarded ice advance into tem (A) of were formed by low-profile ice lobes during central Wisconsin and perhaps funnelled ice to the west retreat, according to Colgan et al. (2003). At this time, and east, leaving the Driftless Area unglaciated. If so, the the bed of the ice was wet, and ice was sliding from the inte- Driftless Area owes its existence to the deep Superior basin rior of the ice sheet to the terminus. Colgan et al. (2003) to the north. In addition, permeable Palaeozoic bedrock interpreted these low-relief features to indicate englacial might have dewatered the glacier bed and inhibited ice from and subglacial sediment transport. Some of the sediment flowing into the Driftless Area from the west (Hobbs, may have been transported and deposited by a subglacial 1999). All of these factors may have played a role in pre- deforming bed (Colgan et al., 2003, p. 122). Landsystem venting the glaciation of the Driftless Area. (A) is found in areas where tills were deposited after climate became warmer and permafrost conditions diminished at  16 ka. 42.6. FUTURE WORK Surging glaciers may have modified the landscape dur- ing the Late Wisconsinan Glaciation. The Kewaunee For- The glacial history of Wisconsin is complex because it mation in eastern Wisconsin is associated with low-relief reflects ice advances from both the Keewatin and Labra- moraines and till plains. Low basal shear stress values esti- doran ice domes of the Laurentide and earlier ice sheets. mated for the Chilton and Denmark (late Athelstane) Phases Many questions about the glacial history still need to be of the Green Bay Lobe (2–3 kPa) may indicate a surging ice answered. When did ice first advance into Wisconsin? Gla- lobe with elevated subglacial water pressures enhancing ciers advanced into Missouri as early as 2.5 Ma (Balco basal sliding and/or subglacial sediment deformation et al., 2005; Rovey and Balco, 2010), so Wisconsin was (Socha et al., 1999; Figs. 42.3, 42.4 and 42.8). Offset likely glaciated during the Early Pleistocene as well. The moraine segments associated with the Chilton Phase (Col- marine oxygen-isotope record suggests dozens of glacia- gan, 1996) and the late Chippewa Phase (Attig et al., 1998) tions (Gibbard and Cohen, 2008), far more than can be are morphologic evidence for glacial surges during ice-mar- recognised from the known geological record in Wisconsin. gin retreat. Will it ever be possible to date pre-Late Wisconsinan events with any confidence? OSL is starting to produce new results. Cosmogenic isotope dating of surfaces and buried 42.5. DRIFTLESS AREA palaeosols is another technique yet to be applied to pre-Late The Driftless Area of south-western Wisconsin is charac- Wisconsinan events in the state. terised by deeply incised, dendritic river valleys developed Using glacial landforms to determine Quaternary envi- in relatively flat-lying Palaeozoic bedrock (Figs. 42.1 and ronmental and glaciological conditions is another area of 42.2). River valleys were eroded to their present levels as fruitful research. A better understanding of the relationship the Mississippi River incised sometime before 0.781 Ma between proglacial permafrost, ice sheet dynamics and gla- (Baker et al., 1998). Most early workers thought evidence cial sedimentology in modern environments is likely to for glaciation was lacking in the Driftless Area (e.g. Cham- inform our interpretations of Quaternary processes and berlin and Salisbury, 1885), but Black (1970b,c) presented landforms in Wisconsin. The interaction of terrestrial ice Author's personal copy

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lobes with the ice streams that probably fed fast-flowing Balco, G., Rovey II, C.W., Stone, J.O.H., 2005. The first glacial maximum glaciers is another important area to be explored. in . Science 307 (5707), 222. Clearly, new technologies and researchers with new Black, R.F., 1965. Ice-wedge casts of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. questions are needed. The State of Wisconsin will almost Arts Lett. Trans. 54, 187–222. certainly yield new and exciting answers in the future. Black, R.F., 1969. Glacial geology of Northern Kettle Moraine State For- est, Wisconsin. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. Arts Lett. Trans. 57, 99–119. Black, R.F., 1970a. Glacial geology of Two Creeks Forest Bed, Valderan ACKNOWLEDGMENTS type locality, and Northern Kettle Moraine State Forest. Wisconsin Geol. Nat. History Surv. Inform. Circular 13, 40pp. This chapter was strengthened by comments from Lee Clayton, Mark Black, R.F., 1970b. Blue Mounds and the erosional history of southwestern Johnson, John Attig and David Mickelson. Gene Leisz (UW-Eau Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geol. Nat. History Surv. Inform. Circular 15-H, Claire) assisted with figures. H1–H11. Black, R.F., 1970c. Residuum and ancient soils of the Driftless Area of southwestern Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geol. Nat. History Surv. Inform. REFERENCES Circular 15-I, I1–I12. Acomb, L.J., Mickelson, D.M., Evenson, E.B., 1982. Till stratigraphy and Black, R.F., 1974. Geology of National Scientific Reserve of Wis- late glacial events in the Lake Michigan Lobe of eastern Wisconsin. consin. National Park Service Scientific Monograph Series 2, 234pp. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 93, 289–296. Black, R.F., 1976a. Periglacial features indicative of permafrost: ice and Alden, W.C., 1918. The Quaternary geology of southeastern Wisconsin, soil wedges. Quatern. Res. 6, 3–26. with a chapter on the older rock formations. Geological Black, R.F., 1976b. 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