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Japanese Traditions John K A Concise Introduction to World Religions Japanese Traditions John K. Nelson 019900_11_ch11.indd 544 20/08/14 3:43 PM Japanese Traditions | Nelson 545 Traditions at a Glance Numbers (Tendai), Kukai (Shingon), Eisai (Rinzai Zen), Dogen All numbers are based on self-assessment by the (Soto Zen), Honen (Pure Land), Shinran (True Pure groups concerned. Because most Japanese religions Land), and Nichiren (Nichiren). are complementary rather than exclusive, the num- bers reported by various sects may reflect occasional Deities participation rather than membership. Shinto has a vast number of deities, many of which are specific to local communities. The Sun Goddess, Shinto: Estimates range from 3.5 million self- Amaterasu, has been promoted as the supreme deity described adherents to more than 100 million if since the late 1800s because of her affiliation with New Year’s visits to shrines are counted as indicat- the imperial household. However, one of the most ing “Shinto” affiliation. widely distributed deities is Hachiman, associated with military valour. Buddhism: Estimates range from 84.8 million, The primary Buddhist deities include the based on a 2009 government assessment of mem- Medicine Buddha, the Cosmic Buddha, and Amida, bership in the major denominations, to more than the Buddha of the Pure Land, along with various 100 million. bodhisattvas associated with compassion, healing, and deliverance from hell. “New” religions: Estimates range from 10 to 30 mil- lion worldwide. Authoritative Texts Since the nineteenth century, the primary texts for Christianity: Generally estimated at a little under 1 Shinto have been the Kojiki: Record of Ancient Matters million nationwide. and the Nihon Shoki. The various Buddhist denom- inations and “new” religions all have their own Distribution primary texts. Buddhism, Shinto, and “new” religions are practised in every part of Japan, as well as in overseas com- Noteworthy Teachings munities. Japan itself counts approximately 75,000 Shinto emphasizes harmony with nature, sincer- Buddhist temples and more than 80,000 Shinto ity, and ritual purity. Each Buddhist denomination shrines, although many of the latter do not have and “new” religion (Tenrikyo, Rissho Koseikai, etc.) resident clergy. likewise emphasizes its own distinctive teachings: secrets about the nature of reality, how universal Founders salvation can be achieved through the Buddha of Shinto is an ethnic religion with no founder. Import- the Pure Land, the perfection of the Lotus Sutra, the ant founders of new Buddhist schools include Saicho necessity of performing memorial rites for ancestral spirits, and so on. Long before the establishment of shrines to local deities and Buddhist temples, in the third and sixth centuries respectively, local clans had developed close relationships with both deities of the natural world and the spirits of their ancestors. Reciprocity was a key dynamic of these relation- ships, in which humans sent their petitions to the deities, accompanied by ritual offerings, and the The great “floating” torii gate at the Itsukushima Shinto shrine. Each of the main posts is a giant camphor tree, said to be some 500 years old (GARDEL Bertrand/hemis.fr/Getty Images). 019900_11_ch11.indd 545 20/08/14 3:44 PM 546 A Concise Introduction to World Religions deities were expected to respond by providing bountiful harvests, plentiful children, and stable political and social conditions. There was brand-name loyalty to the ancestral spirits of one’s own household and clan; yet there was also acknowledgement of the powers of the many other deities (kami) associated with natural phenomena such as fire, water, mountains, and the spirits of ani- mals and plants. When the harmonious balance of the relationship between humans and spirits was disturbed—by plague, famine, earthquake, typhoons, war, death—efforts to restore it via ritual were renewed. This pattern is common to all Japanese religions. To discuss Japan’s religious traditions with any degree of accuracy, it is necessary to juggle and juxtapose perspectives from cultural studies, history, politics, and anthropology, as well as religious studies. Even then, to encompass all the traditions that inform Japanese society today is a challenge. Shinto, the “way of the kami,” is often said to be more than two thousand years old. Yet it has gone through several transformations, some as recently as 150 years ago. Buddhism likewise defies easy assumptions; for example, only a few denominations have anything to do with medita- tion. Layered on an even older tradition of venerating ancestral spirits, the seven major Buddhist denominations today have their roots in the medieval period and yet must continually reinvent themselves to retain the financial support of the Japanese people. Nearly every temple has a home- page, and many monks use social media to stay in touch with their flocks, but there is no guarantee that a younger generation highly skeptical of religion in general will develop affiliations with local temples. It is no exaggeration to say that Japanese religious traditions force us to rethink the social, cultural, and individual dimensions of religion in a rapidly changing world. • Overview The Rousing Drum In a small city in central Japan, tens of thousands of people fill the evening streets for the festival of the “rousing drum.” At 9:30 an enormous drum, a metre and a half (five feet) in height, will emerge from the city’s main Shinto shrine, having been blessed by priests in solemn rituals. It will then be hoisted and affixed to a platform that will be carried through the streets by as many as 170 men. Adding to the weight of the platform will be two male strikers, one on each side of the drum, and eight “guardians” representing local officials. But the weight is only part of the challenge that the bearers face, for as the drum makes its way through the streets it will be “attacked” by neighbour- hood teams with their own (smaller) drums mounted on platforms, who will fight for a position of honour immediately behind the main drum. Fuelled by generous amounts of sake, the ensuing clashes seem anything but conducive to com- munity solidarity. The festival is like a steam vent designed to release the pressure created by class and economic differences. In fact, injuries are common; parked vehicles are frequently damaged, and houses belonging to greedy landlords or stingy merchants may be vandalized. Old-timers remember with pride the year when the local police station was trashed. Yet the event is promoted as representing “the spirit of Furukawa.” Mr Sato’s Funeral After nearly a week of preparation, the funeral for Mr Sato Hideo (in Japan, the surname precedes the given name) is unfolding with the precision of a military operation. In a building constructed specifically for funerals, on the grounds of a large temple, the casket sits at the front of a hall 019900_11_ch11.indd 546 20/08/14 3:44 PM Japanese Traditions | Nelson 547 The okoshidaiko or “rousing drum” festival takes place every spring in the city of Furukawa, Nagano prefecture. Smaller drums from neighbourhood associations try to topple a large drum representing the city government and main Shinto shrine as it is carried through the streets (Hida city, Gifu prefecture). Timeline c. 8000 BCE Hunter-gatherers produce sophisticated cord-pattern pottery, arrowheads, and human figures with possible religious significance c. 450–250 CE Immigration from north Asia introduces new technology, cultural forms, language, religious rituals, etc. c. 250–600 Kofun period; rulers interred in massive burial mounds (kofun), with grave goods and clay models of attendants that indicate complex local hierarchies in this life and the next 538 Introduction of Buddhism; Yamato clan establishes its dominance 594 “Prince” Shotoku (Shotoku taishi) promotes Confucian principles alongside Buddhism; later acknowledged as patron saint of Buddhism in Japan 600s Early temple-building; ruler referred to as “heavenly sovereign” (tenno) 710–794 Nara period; capital city, Heijokyo, located on site of present-day Nara 019900_11_ch11.indd 547 20/08/14 3:44 PM 548 A Concise Introduction to World Religions 712, 720 Compilation of two key texts (Kojiki, Nihon Shoki) used to legitimate imperial rule and aristocratic privileges; more than a thousand years later, these texts would be used in the campaign to revitalize “Shinto” 752 Dedication of Todaiji temple and completion of its Great Buddha image 785 Saicho, founder of Tendai sect, establishes a temple on Mount Hiei near Kyoto 794 –1184 Heian period; capital city, Heiankyo, moved to what is now Kyoto 834 Kukai, founder of Shingon sect, establishes a monastery on Mount Koya 1039 Tendai monks attack monasteries of rival Buddhist sects 1052 Beginning of the “Final Decline of the Buddhist Dharma” (age of mappo) marked by fires, famines, earthquakes, wars, pestilence, etc. 1175 Honen begins propagating “Pure Land” Buddhism 1185–1333 Kamakura period, characterized by dominance of the samurai class; capital moved to Kamakura 1200 Eisai establishes Rinzai Zen school with support of the samurai 1233 Dogen establishes Soto Zen school 1253 Nichiren forms a sect centred on recitation of the Lotus Sutra 1254 Honen’s disciple Shinran introduces “True Pure Land” Buddhism 1274, 1281 Attempted invasions by Mongol armies are thwarted when violent storms, called “divine winds” (kamikaze), sink many of their ships 1430–1500 Major fires, famine, epidemics, social disorder; Onin War (1467) devastates Kyoto and
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