Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park

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National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior

Natural Resource Stewardship and Science

Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRSS/WRD/NRTR—2012/652 ON THE COVER The Amargosa River in the southeast part of Death Valley National Park during a flash flood in February 2005 Photography by: A. Van Luik Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRSS/WRD/NRTR—2012/652

M. S. Bedinger Hydrologist U.S. Geological Survey, Retired Carlsborg, WA

J. R. Harrill Hydrologist U.S. Geological Survey, Retired Carson City, NV

December 2012

U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Natural Resource Stewardship and Science Fort Collins, Colorado The National Park Service, Natural Resource Stewardship and Science office in Fort Collins, Colorado, publishes a range of reports that address natural resource topics of interest and applicability to a broad audience in the National Park Service and others in natural resource management, including scientists, conservation and environmental constituencies, and the public.

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Please cite this publication as:

Bedinger, M. S., and J. R. Harrill. 2012. Groundwater geology and hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada. Natural Resource Technical Report NPS/NRSS/WRD/NRTR—2012/652. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.

NPS 143/118339, December 2012

ii Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Contents

Figures...... vii Plates...... vii Tables...... ix Photographs...... ix Abbreviations...... xi Conversions...... xi Introduction...... 1 Background and Acknowledgements...... 3 Objectives...... 3 Hydrologic Environment of Death Valley...... 5 Geologic and Structural Setting of Death Valley...... 9 Depositional and Tectonic History...... 9 Structural Features and Hydrogeologic Significance...... 10

Thrust Faults...... 10

Regional Transverse Fault Zones...... 10

Normal Faults...... 11

Detachment Faults...... 11

Chaos Faulting...... 12 Geologic Units and their Hydrologic Characteristics...... 14 Metamorphic and Igneous Basement Rocks (Xmi)...... 14 Clastic and Carbonate Rocks (ZPcc)...... 18 Carbonate Rocks (PMc)...... 20 Intrusive Igneous Rocks (MTi)...... 21 Volcanic and Older Basin Fill (Cvb)...... 21

Volcanic Rocks...... 21

Older Basin Fill...... 21 Younger Basin Fill and Alluvium (Qb)...... 22 Climatic Setting of the Death Valley Region...... 23 Vegetation...... 27 Soils...... 29 Hydrogeologic Setting...... 31 Death Valley Groundwater Flow System...... 31 Regional Flow...... 31 Local Flow...... 32 Surface Water Flow of the Death Valley Region...... 33

National Park Service iii Contents (continued)

Present-Day Surface Water...... 33 Pleistocene Streams, Lakes, and Marshes...... 34 Inferred Groundwater Conditions under Pluvial Conditions...... 35 Groundwater Inflow, Recharge, and Discharge...... 37 Groundwater Inflow from California...... 37 Groundwater Inflow from Nevada...... 37 Valley Floor Discharge of Groundwater...... 38 Saratoga–Amargosa River Valley Springs...... 41 Amargosa River Valley...... 41 Badwater Basin...... 41 Middle Basin...... 42 Cottonball Basin...... 43 Mesquite Flat...... 43 Regional Spring Discharge above the Valley Floor...... 44 Recharge to Death Valley...... 46 Groundwater Budget Components for Death Valley...... 50 Springs of Death Valley National Park and their Hydrogeologic Settings...... 51 Regional Springs Above the Valley Floor...... 51 Keane Wonder Spring...... 52 Saline Valley Hot Springs...... 52 Furnace Creek Spring Complex ...... 52 Grapevine, Staininger, Surprise Springs Complex...... 53 Mesquite Spring Complex...... 54 Sand and Little Sand Springs...... 54 Ibex Spring and Superior Mine Tank B Springs...... 54 Devils Hole and Ash Meadows Complex...... 55 Valley Floor Springs...... 58 Cottonball Basin...... 58

Salt Spring and Sulfur Spring...... 58

East Salt Springs and Buckboard Spring...... 59 Salt Creek Springs...... 59 Saratoga Spring...... 60 Amargosa River Valley Springs...... 60 Springs and Wells at Foot of Panamint Range...... 61 Springs at Foot of Black Mountains...... 61 Upland Springs...... 62 iv Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Contents (continued)

Panamint Range...... 65 Cottonwood Mountains and Last Chance Range...... 66 Black Mountains and Greenwater Range...... 67 Funeral Mountains...... 68 Grapevine Mountains...... 68 Owlshead Mountains...... 68 Saline Range and Inyo Mountains...... 68 Vulnerability of Death Valley Hydrologic Features to Natural and Human-Induced Stresses...... 69 Local Springs...... 69 Stresses Outside the Park...... 70 Land Management Practices...... 70 Water Resource Developments...... 70 Potential Contaminant Sources...... 71 Flow Systems Adjoining Death Valley Flow System...... 75 Historic Impacts on Groundwater in the Park...... 77 Appendix: Springs of Death Valley National Park...... 81 Bibliography...... 109

National Park Service v vi Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figures

Figure 1. Location of Death Valley National Park and Devils Hole, an outlying portion of the park, California and Nevada...... xii Figure 2. Map of Death Valley showing some of the principal springs, wells on the valley floor, alluvial fans, mountain ranges, and other geographic features...... 2 Figure 3. Map showing geographic and hydrologic features of Death Valley National Park region...... 6 Figure 4. Section through Tucki Mountain showing the Tucki Mountain detachment fault and its branches on the east side of the mountain...... 12 Figure 5. Generalized geologic map of Death Valley National Park...... 15 Figure 6. Graphs of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration versus altitude in the Death Valley region...... 25 Figure 7. Graphs of mean annual, mean July, and mean January temperature versus altitude in the Death Valley region...... 25 Figure 8. Map showing Pleistocene streams and lakes tributary to Death Valley...... 34 Figure 9. Map showing Death Valley floor groundwater discharge areas...... 39 Figure 10. Composite schematic diagram of groundwater flow, groundwater and soil salinity gradients, and plant species distribution in the mountain front–gravel fan–salt pan complex of Death Valley...... 41 Figure 11. Map showing locations of regional springs above the valley floor of Death Valley...... 44 Figure 12. Map of Death Valley region showing hydrologic basins...... 46 Figure 13. Schematic cross section of Furnace Creek basin from Funeral Mountains to Death Valley salt pan showing hydrologeologic setting of Travertine and Texas springs...... 53 Figure 14. Map showing location of Devils Hole, Ash Meadows groundwater subbasin, and pumping centers of southwest Nevada...... 55 Figure 15. Cross section showing hydrogeologic setting of Devils Hole and Ash Meadows springs...... 57 Figure 16. Map showing location of springs on the floor of Death Valley...... 58 Figure 17. Map showing distribution of springs of Death Valley National Park...... 62 Figure 18. Map showing ranges of discharge in upland springs of Death Valley National Park...... 63 Figure 19. Map showing geothermally heated local springs of Death Valley National Park...... 64 Figure 20. Map showing general areas of underground testing and other potential sources of subsurface contamination at Nevada Test Site...... 72 Figure 21. Maps showing general direction of groundwater flow from the Nevada Test Site to areas in Death Valley National Park...... 73 Figure 22. Map showing segments of the Death Valley regional flow-system boundary...... 76

Plates

Plate 1. Regional potential for flow of groundwater in the Death Valley regional groundwater flow system, Nevada and California...... Insert 1 Plate 2. Structural setting of Death Valley showing thrust faults, detachment faults, strike-slip faults, and major normal faults...... Insert 2

National Park Service vii viii Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Tables

Table 1. Geographic features shown in figure .3...... 7 Table 2. Geologic and hydrologic units of Death Valley ...... 16 Table 3. Precipitation data for 10 stations in and near the study area ...... 24 Table 4. Summary of groundwater inflows to Death Valley from southeast California...... 37 Table 5. Discharge of regional springs above the valley floor...... 45 Table 6. Hydrologic basins of the Death Valley flow system...... 47 Table 7. Estimates of recharge to Death Valley...... 49 Table 8. Areas of groundwater withdrawal in the Death Valley flow system...... 74

Photographs

Photograph 1. Stovepipe Well in Mesquite Flat...... 5 Photograph 2. Badwater Basin...... 14 Photograph 3. Cambrian strata of the Last Chance Range...... 18 Photograph 4. Stirling Quartzite...... 19 Photograph 5. Bonanza King Formation...... 20 Photograph 6. View from Zabriskie Point...... 22 Photograph 7. Salt polygons...... 22 Photograph 8. Alkali Spring...... 27 Photograph 9. Mud crack in floor of Eureka Basin...... 30 Photograph 10. Amargosa River in flood...... 32 Photograph 11. Shoreline Butte...... 33 Photograph 12. Saline Marsh and phreatophytes at Eagle Borax Spring...... 40 Photograph 13. Coyote Wells Spring...... 42 Photograph 14. Furnace Creek Fan...... 43 Photograph 15. Salt Creek...... 43 Photograph 16. Travertine mound at Nevares Spring...... 48 Photograph 17. Ibex Spring...... 54 Photograph 18. Crystal Spring...... 56 Photograph 19. Devils Hole pupfish...... 56 Photograph 20. Saratoga Spring...... 60 Photograph 21. Amargosa River Valley Springs...... 61 Photograph 22. Upper Warm Spring...... 66 Photograph 23. Long-eared owl in tamarisk at Warm Spring...... 67 Photograph 24. Remains of an Arrastre mill at Telephone Spring...... 69 Photograph 25. Skidoo pipeline...... 78 Photograph 26. Burros of Death Valley National Park...... 79

National Park Service ix x Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Abbreviations mg/l...... milligrams per liter mm...... millimeter m...... meter km...... kilometer l...... liter l/min...... liters per minute ha ...... hectare hfu...... heat flow units msl...... mean sea level referenced to the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 yr...... year d...... day

Conversions

1 meter (m) = 3.281 foot 1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 mile 1 square kilometer (km²) = 0.3861 square mile 1 cubic meter (m³) = 35.31 cubic foot 1 million cubic meters (Mm³) = 35.31 million cubic feet 1 meter per day (m/d) = 3.281 foot per day 1 meter per year (m/yr) = 3.281 foot per year 1 meter squared per day (m²/d) = 10.76 square foot per day 1 cubic meter per day (m³/d) = 35.31 cubic foot per day 1 cubic meter per day (m³/d) = 264.2 gallon per day 1 cubic meter per year (m³/yr) = 35.31 cubic foot per year Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as follows: °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32

National Park Service xi Figure 1. Location of Death Valley National Park and Devils Hole, an outlying portion of the park, Califor- nia and Nevada.

xii Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Introduction Death Valley (fig. 1), in the southern part of and gravel to form the alluvial fans at the the Great Basin of California and Nevada base of the mountains. The mountain (Hunt 1967) has a fearsome reputation fronts have been sculpted by waves at the for heat and dryness—and rightfully so. shores of ice age lakes. Beyond the al- What is lesser known is that Death Val- luvial fans, dry and dusty expanses of the ley National Park possesses hundreds of fine particles of silt and clay that settled spring-fed water resources and riparian from ephemeral lakes blanket the playas. and wetland habitats. Without these water Evaporation of surface and groundwater resources, life in Death Valley would be has left behind the salt flats and intricate virtually impossible. Most of these habi- salt formations at the Devils Golf Course. tats are limited to areas of small springs Sheets of water-deposited travertine drape discharging water from local sources. the slopes below the sites of present and However, several habitats, such as Traver- former springs. tine Springs in the Furnace Creek area and Grapevine Springs and Staininger Spring in The park faces significant challenges with the Scotty’s Castle area, are extensive as a regard to properly inventorying, studying, result of large volumes of water discharging and managing its water resources. These from the regional carbonate aquifer (Miller challenges include, but are not limited to, 1977 and Steinkamp and Werrell 2001). (1) properly monitoring and managing the The Death Valley salt pan and some of the effects of new production wells and ripar- principal springs, wells, alluvial fans, and ian area recovery associated with a new mountain ranges of Death Valley are shown water supply, water treatment, and deliv- in figure 2. ery infrastructure for the Furnace Creek headquarters complex and concession The hydrologic environment of Death Val- operations; (2) protection of water rights in ley is one of contradistinction. A landscape the face of steadily increasing population that appears to be devoid of water, where in growth in the region, particularly southern truth, its very shape, composition, and life Nevada; (3) potential diminution of the are greatly dependent upon the presence volume of water reaching the park because and action of water above, on, and under of upgradient water users; (4) protection the landscape. On close examination, it is of endemic, sensitive, and threatened and revealed that the hydrologic environment endangered species that depend on water has added the final flourish to a bedrock- resources; and (5) concern regarding con- dominated landscape. Water has sculpted taminant sources in the flow system from the faulted and contorted mountains of underground nuclear testing and waste rock and cut the arroyos through which storage upgradient from the park. floods transport massive amounts of sand

National Park Service 1 Figure 2. Map of Death Valley showing some of the principal springs, wells on the valley floor, alluvial fans, mountain ranges, and other geographic features. Contours are in meters above sea level. After Hunt 1975.

2 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Background and Acknowledgements In addition to personal observation and Resources Division, of the U.S. Geological study, the authors have drawn extensively Survey, for valuable technical insight and on the scientific studies made over many critical review of the report. We extend our years by scientists of a multitude of diverse warm thanks and regards to Alan Riggs, disciplines, as well as narratives and stories U.S. Geological Survey, Water Resources of early travelers, prospectors, miners, and Division, for his enthusiastic support Native Americans. Our thanks go first to for public release of the report and his all those who have contributed to the rich thoughtful, tireless, and valuable detailed body of knowledge of Death Valley. Many, review of all phases of the report. but by no means all of them, are listed in the extensive bibliography at the end of this This report is an outgrowth of a report report. We wish to thank many colleagues done under contract to the National Park who have encouraged and assisted us in Service as a phase of the park’s Water our work in Death Valley National Park Resources Stewardship Program. Our during the past twenty years. Bill Werrell of participation in this effort was done at the the National Park Service, now retired, an initiation of Terry Fisk, then-Hydrologist, enthusiastic supporter of this work, offered of Death Valley National Park. Preparation continued encouragement and support of this report intended for public distribu- for many years during our work in the tion was done in coordination with Jennifer park. We also thank National Park Service Back, Hydrologist, and Dan McGlothlin, personnel Mel Essington, now retired, Paul Technical Team Leader, both of the Na- Christensen, and Douglas Threloff—all of tional Park Service Water Rights Branch in whom provided professional assistance Fort Collins, Colorado. Final editing and and knowledge of geologic, hydrologic, formatted copy of the report was done by and biologic resources of the park. We are Gretel Enck of the National Park Service indebted to Donald Sweetkind, Geologic Water Resources Division in Fort Collins, Division, and Randell Laczniak, Water Colorado.

Objectives This report summarizes the hydrogeologic (2) hydrogeology of the Death Valley region setting of Death Valley. Specific elements of with particular attention to the relationship this report include to and effects of water-related activities outside the park to the water resources of (1) geologic setting of Death Valley: geo- Death Valley National Park. This includes logic units and structural aspects of the potential relationships between the Death region that control the occurrence and Valley flow system and adjoining flow sys- flow of groundwater to and within Death tems; and Valley, the current knowledge of distribution of groundwater flow to the park, and (3) climate and its relationship to water the source and distribution of groundwater resources in Death Valley. flow and occurrence within the park;

National Park Service 3 4 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Photograph 1. Stovepipe Well in Mesquite Flat. Hydrologic Environment of Death Valley On a regional scale, topography controls structure favors or inhibits flow of ground- the flow of groundwater to Death Valley. water within and between rock units by As the lowest point in the conterminous controlling the attitude, position, continu- United States, Death Valley is the ultimate ity, and juxtaposition of rock units having destination of groundwater within a large similar or dissimilar hydrologic properties. area in southeast California and southern The bedrock units that control groundwa- Nevada. The contours of regional potential ter flow have virtually no primary inter- (plate 1) in the Death Valley groundwater granular porosity or permeability because flow system reveal the regional pattern of of a geologic history of metamorphism, groundwater flow. Throughout the region, deep burial and compaction, and mineral topographic elevation influences precipita- filling of voids by hydrothermal fluids. Per- tion, evaporation, and moisture available meability of the sedimentary bedrock units for recharge to groundwater. is a function of the fracturing and faulting of the brittle rocks during Cenozoic Underground, the flow of water is con- extensional tectonism and enlargement of trolled by structure, physical properties, openings in carbonate rocks by groundwa- and lithology of the rock units. Geologic ter solution.

National Park Service 5 Figure 3. Map showing geographic and hydrologic features of Death Valley National Park region, Califor- nia and Nevada.

6 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Table 1. Geographic features shown in figure 3 Map # Geographical Feature Map # Geographical Feature 1 Death Valley 49 Silver Lake playa 2 Travertine Springs 50 Ash Meadows 3 Furnace Creek Area 51 Owens Lake 4 Grapevine Spring and Staininger Spring 52 Silver Lake basin 5 Scottys Castle area 53 Wingate Pass 6 Devils Golf Course 54 Nopah Range 7 Black Mountain 55 Surprise Spring 8 Panamint Range 56 Navel Spring 9 Badwater 57 Sand Spring 10 Owlshead Mountain 58 Little Sand Spring 11 Cottonwood Mountains 59 Ibex Spring 12 Funeral Range 60 Superior Mine Tank B Spring 13 Grapevine Mountains 61 Dry Mountain Range 14 Last Chance Range 62 Saline Range 15 Pahrump Valley 63 Warm Spring 16 Resting Springs Range 64 Palm Spring 17 Greenwater Range 65 Lower Warm Spring 18 Hunter Mountain 66 Upper Warm Spring 19 Saline Valley 67 Travertine Point 20 Sierra Nevada 69 Salt Creek 21 Saratoga Springs 70 Warm Springs (Panamint Range) 22 Tucki Mountain 71 Three Springs west 23 Virgin Spring area 72 Tucki Spring 24 Galena Canyon (in Panamint Range) 73 Gypsum Spring 25 Ibex Hills 74 Mosaic Canyon 26 Saddle Peak Hills 76 Emigrant Canyon 29 Inyo Range 77 White Top Mountain 30 Amargosa Desert 78 Last Chance Springs 31 Eureka Valley 80 Willow Spring 32 Salt Hills 81 Klare Spring 33 Salt Spring 82 Owl Hole Spring 34 Badwater Basin 83 Indian Wells Valley 35 Cottonball Marsh 84 Searles Lake Valley 36 Keane Wonder Spring 85 San Rafael Mountains 37 Texas Spring 86 Cajon Canyon 38 Nevares Spring 87 Long Valley Geothermal Field 39 Cowcreek Spring 88 Coso 40 Amargosa River Springs 89 Owens River 41 Amargosa River 90 Skidoo Mine 42 Mesquite Spring 91 Keane Wonder Mine 43 Racetrack Playa 92 Birch Springs 44 Mojave River 93 Telescope Peak 45 San Bernardino Mountains 94 Stovepipe well 46 Barstow 95 Shortys well 47 Afton Canyon 96 Bennetts well 48 Soda Lake playa 97 Greenwater Valley

National Park Service 7 8 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Geologic and Structural Setting of Death Valley Depositional and Tectonic History nied by igneous intrusions, folding, and The depositional history and tectonic faulting. Compressive forces from the west evolution of the region provides insight produced a series of low-angle thrust faults. into the shaping of the hydrogeologic The mountains formed during this tectonic framework that controls the groundwater activity were eroded while the geosynclinal flow. The sedimentary and igneous rock basin centered to the north in the Great Ba- sequences and the tectonics of Death Val- sin continued to receive ocean sediments. ley have shaped the structural framework In the Middle Mesozoic the Sierra Nevada of the region and created the geometry of batholith was formed west of Death Valley; permeable pathways and flow barriers that later the folded and faulted sedimentary control groundwater flow. The stratigraphic rocks of Death Valley were intruded by and tectonic history is taken from the work igneous stocks and laccoliths. of many geologists whose studies provide insight into the subject, including nota- Erosion in Mesozoic and early Tertiary bly Noble (1934, 1941), Hunt and Mabey greatly subdued the topography. Begin- (1966), Troxel and Wright (1976, 1989), ning possibly in Oligocene and certainly by Wernicke et al. (1989), Grose and Smith Miocene time, sediments were formed in (1989), Stewart (1967, 1970), Sweetkind et extended broad shallow basins that ex- al. (2004), Hamilton (1988), Workman et al. isted over most of the Death Valley region (2002a and 2002b), Potter et al. (2002), and before the present-day topography was Fridrich et al. ( 2003a and 2003b). developed by regional extension. Deposi- tion continued during Middle and Late Sedimentary rocks of present-day Death Cenozoic accompanied by episodes of Valley were deposited in three geosynclinal regional extension involving block faulting basins; each depositional stage is imbri- and low-angle normal detachment faulting. cated with younger ones centered progres- Rifts developed in the main valley of Death sively farther west (Hunt 1967). During Valley where huge blocks subsided, form- Middle and Late Proterozoic at least 900 ing grabens that were filled with sediment meters (2,953 ft) of geosynclinal deposits from the adjacent rising blocks. The depth accumulated in the southern part of the of the pre-Cenozoic surface beneath Death area that is now the Great Basin. The extent Valley is quite variable. Near Badwater the of these deposits is not known because maximum depth is estimated between 4.5 they are deeply buried throughout most of and 5 kilometers (2.8 and 3.1 mi; Blakely their occurrence, but they are exposed in and Ponce 2001). Volcanism accompanied the Black and Panamint ranges of Death the extension with basaltic lava flows and Valley (fig. 3, table 1). In Late Proterozoic felsite-eruptions-capped plateaus. though Paleozoic time a second geosyn- cline occupied the Great Basin, and 9,000 Through geologic time, the oldest strata meters (29,529 ft) of ocean sediments were were deeply buried by thousands of meters deposited. In Death Valley the lower part of younger deposits, heated under pres- of the sequence is conglomerate, sand, and sure, and recrystallized. Heating and pres- clay with limestone and dolomite. Dolomite sure formed shale from clay deposits and and limestone sediments increase upward quartzite from sandstone. Lithification and in the section with the first massive dolo- low-grade metamorphism virtually elimi- mite deposited in the Middle and Upper nated the original interstitial porosity and Cambrian. Clastic rocks make up a greater permeability of the Proterozoic, Paleozoic, proportion of sediments toward the west. and Mesozoic formations. Millions of years Early Mesozoic sedimentary deposition of tectonic forces have crushed rock and in the third geosynclinal basin overlapped imprinted the rock mass with folds, joints, the Paleozoic deposits. This sequence also faults, and fractures that have produced contains volcanic materials. During the large blocks of tightly recrystallized rock Middle and Late Mesozoic (Jurassic and interspersed with crushed rock strata. Cretaceous) regional uplift was accompa- Some fractures and faults were opened;

National Park Service 9 some fractures filled with minerals from angle fault planes of low permeability could circulating hydrothermal fluids. The latest significantly impede vertical groundwa- episode of tectonic deformation in the ter movement. Northeast of Death Valley Tertiary and Holocene was marked by ex- near the eastern limit of the geosynclinal tensional tectonics producing fractures and basin, thrust faults typically are low angle shear zones as the crust extended, moving features of great lateral extent (Wernicke large crustal blocks many kilometers. The et al. 1989). However, the primary control brittle rocks fractured as pressure released on modern groundwater movement in and the strata were folded, twisted, and the vicinity of thrust faults is likely to be faulted. Permeability of the carbonate rocks post-thrusting tectonism and the present- has been increased by solution of the tec- day depth of burial. Mesozoic thrusting tonically produced openings. The various predates the regional extensional detach- modes, environments, and sequences of ment movements of mountain blocks and tectonic deformation produced great differ- faulting. Thrust-fault planes were subject to ences in physical properties of the rocks. displacement, faulting, and folding, and the upper and lower thrust plates were sub- Structural Features and ject to separation by Tertiary extensional Hydrogeologic Significance tectonics. Andrew (1999), in studying the structure of the Panamint Range, noted Thrust Faults that many Mesozoic structures were reacti- Thrust faulting accompanied regional up- vated during Tertiary extension, producing lift, folding, mountain building, and erosion a strong brittle fabric that would tend to of the region during the Mesozoic, after be more permeable than the ductile fabric the geosynclinal deposition of thousands related to Mesozoic tectonic events. Exten- of meters of sediments during the Late sional tectonics would tend to nullify the Proterozoic and Paleozoic. Thrust faulting influence of an originally low permeability of igneous rocks and sedimentary rocks thrust-fault plane. For example, the dis- was caused by compressive forces from the charge of Warm Springs (Warm Spring A, B, west. The thrust faulting in sedimentary and C, numbered 106, 107, and 108 in the sequences causes younger strata to override Appendix) originates as recharge at higher older strata. Thrust faults were recognized elevations of the Panamint Mountains, the and mapped in the mountains and origi- Wheeler Pass thrust plate of Wernicke et al. nally given different names in each moun- (1989). Groundwater flows across the plane tain block (plate 2). Wernicke et al. (1989) of the thrust fault to discharge from strata recognized that the thrust faults in different of the lower plate, the Keystone thrust plate mountain blocks were segments of several of Wernicke et al. (1989). Permeable joint once-continuous thrust faults that crossed and fault networks are apparently continu- the region before the segments were sepa- ous across the plane of the fault. rated by later mountain and basin formation during the Cenozoic. The traces of the Regional Transverse Fault Zones thrust faults are offset between mountain A regional dominating pattern of trans- ranges by transverse strike-slip faults that verse fault zones crosses the Death Valley bound the massive blocks of the region. A region from northwest to southeast (plate sense of the lateral translocations of rock 2). These faults divide the region into large masses can be seen by observing the offsets crustal blocks containing mountain blocks of the thrust faults between mountain or mountain blocks and basins. The faults ranges (Wernicke et al. 1989, fig. 0–4). are typically displaced both vertically and strike-slip. From the northeast, the Death The influence of thrust faults on groundwa- Valley region is bounded by the state-line ter movement depends to a large extent on fault that extends from Pahrump Valley to the orientation of the fault zones in rela- the latitude of the Grapevine Mountains. tion to the gradient of the potentiometric The segment northeast of the Funeral surface. Thrust-fault planes would tend to Mountain front lies beneath the Amargosa be of low permeability because of the com- Desert. The Death Valley–Furnace Creek pressive forces that created the faults. Low fault, a right-lateral strike-slip fault, borders

10 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada the southwest front of the Funeral Moun- fault zone. This would have been an area tains. The fault extends northwest to Fish of intense releasing pressure (Potter et al. Lake Valley in Nevada and to the western 2002) during fault movement by virtue of front of the Resting Springs Range where the right-slip movement of the west block the fault zone turns and continues south- of the fault away from the fault plane. The ward as a large normal fault. The Southeast fault zone here would be expected to in- Death Valley fault, an active right-lateral crease permeability in the area of Pahrump strike-slip fault with large vertical displace- Series rocks in a south trending zone paral- ment, borders the western front of the lel to the regional hydraulic gradient toward Black Mountains. The Grand View fault, Saratoga Spring. with right-lateral strike-slip movement, lies between the Black Mountains and the Normal Faults Greenwater Range. The Hunter Mountain– Normal faults commonly associated with Panamint fault zone, composed of a linear extending terrane tend to produce open- sequence of faults with vertical and strike- ings for movement of groundwater. In the slip segments, extends northwestward from Proterozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary the Garlock fault along the western front rocks and the intrusive igneous rocks, in of the Owlshead Mountains and Panamint which primary interstitial and intercrystal- Range to the southern margin of Saline line permeability is nil, normal faults are a Valley thence northward along the eastern primary cause of rock permeability. front of the Inyo Mountains. The Garlock fault, with a left lateral strike-slip move- Large vertical offsets along normal faults ment, marks the southern boundary of may juxtapose water transmitting units Great Basin extension and extends from against low permeability units. The south of the Owlshead Mountains west- southwest block along the Death Valley- ward to the Sierra Nevada. Furnace Creek fault is downthrown. As noted above, this normal fault movement The hydrogeologic setting of individual re- juxtaposes the aquifer of lower Paleozoic gional springs, discussed later in this report, carbonate rocks against low permeability and the inflow to Death Valley do not sup- Tertiary and Quaternary valley fill in the port the conclusion that regional transverse vicinity of Grapevine Springs and Nevares fault zones impede the flow of groundwater Spring (fig. 16). In contrast, the down- to Death Valley. For example, groundwa- thrown block places permeable gravel beds ter flow across the Furnace Creek–Death of the Funeral Formation in contact with Valley fault zone and into Death Valley is the Paleozoic carbonate rocks upgradient several tens of thousands of cubic meters from Travertine and Texas springs. At Ash per day. In areas where permeable rocks are Meadows, lower Paleozoic carbonate rocks juxtaposed across the fault zone, the ab- abut low-permeability basin-fill materials sence of springs at the fault zone indicates across the gravity fault (fig. 18). Flow in the that the fault zone is permeable. In other ar- carbonate rocks moves in to the basin fill in eas groundwater movement is inhibited by local travertine and gravel aquifers and is low permeability rocks downgradient from discharged at the springs in Ash Meadows the fault. Low permeability sedimentary (Winograd and Thordarson 1975, Dudley rocks of Tertiary age on the downgradient and Larson 1976, Harrill and Bedinger side of the Death Valley–Furnace Creek 2005, Sweetkind et al. 2004, and Bedinger fault zone apparently control the emer- and Harrill 2006b). gence of Grapevine Springs, Keane Wonder Spring, and Nevares Spring. No location Detachment Faults has been found where it can be demon- Detachment faulting developed at middle strated that the fault zone itself solely acts crustal depths as shear zones during re- as a barrier to groundwater flow. gional extension in the region from Oli- gocene to Holocene age. The detachment The southeast termination of the Death faults juxtapose unmetamorphosed upper Valley–Furnace Creek fault zone is char- plates of upper Proterozoic to Paleozoic acterized by a southward curvature of the strata astride medium- to high-grade

National Park Service 11 Figure 4. Section through Tucki metamorphic lower plates of basement of lower permeability, the rocks are cut Mountain showing the Tucki Mountain detachment fault and its Proterozoic and lower Paleozoic rocks. by joints and faults that developed as the branches on the east side of the Stratigraphic units are given in table 2. De- cooled, brittle plates were raised, domed, mountain, the Cenozoic deposits on the west side conceal, PMc, tachment faults are major tectonic features and rotated (Hamilton 1988). On the west Paleozoic carbonates. PMK, Stirling of Panamint, Grapevine, Funeral, Black, flank of Tucki Mountain, the lower plate is Quartzite, Johnnie Formation and and Cottonwood Mountains of Death Val- overlain by Cenozoic sediments and volca- Pahrump Series, undivided; pЄn, Noonday Dolomite; ЄpЄ Stirling ley. The blocks have been rotated, raised, nics concealing Paleozoic carbonates and Quartzite and Lower Cambrian; and denuded as they were progressively clastic rocks, units ZPcc and PMc (Sweet- Єm Middle Cambrian; Єu Upper Cambrian; O, Ordovician; S, Silurian; transported westward. The lower plates kind et al. 2001 and Hunt and Mabey 1966). D, Devonian; PMc, Paleozoic and of metamorphic rocks underwent dom- Low permeability mylonite of the detach- Mesozoic carbonates; QTf, Funeral Formation; Qg, upper Pleistocene ing and faulting as the plates were raised ment fault zone and the underlying lower- fan gravel. Vertical scale not exag- and rotated to the northwest. The upper plate metamorphic rocks may account for gerated. From Hunt and Maybey 1966, modified after Sweetkind et plates of unmetamorphosed brittle upper the emergence of springs in the east frontal al. 2001. crust broken into shingled normal faults lie upper plate. However, springs are common across a zone of mylonite that developed through the Panamint Range, discharg- during movement on the fault (Hamilton ing from the metamorphic complex of the 1988). lower plate, intrusive rocks, and the volcanic and sedimentary rocks of Paleozoic and The Grapevine and Funeral mountains Cenozoic age of the upper plate. preserve the upper and lower plates of the Boundary Canyon detachment, a gently Chaos Faulting south-dipping fault that juxtaposes the Noble (1941) observed a style of intricate metamorphosed Proterozoic to lower and complex faulting in the Virgin Spring Cambrian rocks of the lower plate against area in the southwestern part of the Black the unmetamorphosed brittle fractured Mountains that he named Amargosa chaos. upper plate Proterozoic to Paleozoic rocks He interpreted the Amargosa chaos as (Hamilton 1988, Wright and Troxel 1993, part of the upper plate of a regional thrust and Sweetkind et al. 2004). In the Black fault he termed the Amargosa thrust. The Mountains, lower-plate midcrustal meta- Amargosa thrust is now recognized as a de- morphic rocks of the detachment underlie tachment fault and the chaos as an extreme Cenozoic sedimentary and volcanic rocks. product of Tertiary crustal extension that scrambled rocks during extensional tecton- A major detachment zone in Tucki Moun- ics of Death Valley and the Basin and Range tain preserves an upper plate of middle province (Troxel and Wright 1987). Hunt Proterozoic through Paleozoic rocks on the and Mabey (1966) also found chaos struc- east mountain flank overlying a basal plate ture in the Panamint Range associated with of Proterozoic rocks (Stirling Quartzite, the Tucki Mountain detachment fault. The Johnnie Formation, and Pahrump Group) intricate and complex chaos faulting may of the ZPcc unit (fig. 4). Although the provide permeable pathways for movement metamorphic rocks of the lower plate are of groundwater.

12 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada National Park Service 13 Photograph 2. Badwater Basin. Geologic Units and their meters (2,953 ft) to these rocks. Proterozoic Badwater Basin, from center to left margin of photo, viewed from Hydrologic Characteristics basement rocks (Xmi) are exposed in the Dantes View in Black Mountains, The hydrogeologic groupings of geologic Mesozoic Wheeler and equivalent thrust Panamint Mountains in background. Photograph from C. B. Hunt, USGS formations of Death Valley National Park plates and as metamorphic core in basal files. are outlined in table 2, following the de- plates of Cenozoic detachment faults in scriptions in Hunt and Mabey (1966) and the Panamint Mountains, in the southern Sweetkind et al. (2004). The formations are Black mountains, and limited exposures grouped into units that have similar and in the Funeral Mountains (fig. 5). Hunt et distinctive hydrogeologic properties. The al. (1966, B13) note that the metamorphic hydrologic groupings were established by and granitic rocks are dense; they have no Winograd and Thordarson (1975) and gen- significant inter-crystalline permeability, erally followed by D’Agnese et al. (1997) but they are broken by numerous widely and Sweetkind et al. (2004). The surface spaced fissures that provide channels for distribution of geologic units in the park is seepage of groundwater. At depth these shown in figure 5. fissures are believed to be closed, and the crystalline basement rocks are thought to Metamorphic and Igneous form the lower limit of significant regional Basement Rocks (Xmi) flow in the Death Valley groundwater Early Proterozoic crystalline metamor- system (Winograd and Thordarson 1975). phic rocks (Xmi) (the Crystalline Rock However, local springs (fig. 20) are widely Confining Unit [XCU] of Sweetkind et distributed in outcrops of metamorphic al. 2004) make up the rock basement and and igneous basement rocks, especially at are the oldest rocks exposed in the park. higher altitudes where the greater precipi- The rocks consist of metasedimentary tation provides recharge to the fractured quartzofelspathic schist, augen gneiss, and rock. granite intrusive rocks. Hunt and Mabey (1966) ascribed a thickness of at least 900

14 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figure 5. Generalized geologic map of Death Valley National Park. After Workman et al. 2002a.

National Park Service 15 Table 2. Geologic and hydrologic units of Death Valley Hydrogeologic unit and Hydrologic Properties and map symbol (fig. 5) Age Formation Lithology and thickness (meters/day) Younger Basin Fill Cenozoic Coarse- and fine-grained basin Variable with hydraulic and Alluvium (Qb) (Quaternary) fill, evaporites, freshwater conductivities from 1x10¯⁵ to limestone, travertine spring 2x10² m/d deposits

Volcanic Rocks and Cenozoic Artist Drive Formation, Basalt, silicic to intermediate Variable with hydraulic Older Basin Fill (Cvb) (Tertiary and Furnace Creek Formation, flows; alluvium, fan, lacustrine, conductivities from 1x10¯⁵ to Quaternary) Funeral Formation and evaporite deposits, 900 meters 2x10² m/d

Intrusive Igneous Mesozoic and Granite, gabbro, diorite, Hydraulic conductivities from Rocks (MTi) early Tertiary quartzmonzonite 1x10¯⁸ to 1x10⁰ m/d

Carbonate Rocks Middle Formations at east foot Conglomerate, limestone, and Hydraulic conductivities: (PMc) Cambrian of Tucki Mountain shale, 900 meters Fractured carbonite rocks through from 1x10¯² to 1x10³ m/d; Permian Resting Springs Shale Conglomerate, limestone, and Unfractured carbonate shale, 900 meters rocks from 1x10¯⁴ to 1x10⁰ m/d; Quartzite 1x10¯⁵ to Tin Mountain Limestone Limestone, 300 meters 1x10⁰ m/d; Shale 1x10¯⁸ to and younger limestone 1x10¯¹ m/d

Lost Burro Formation Limestone with some quartzite and sandstone, 600 meters

Hidden Valley Dolomite Dolomite, 100–300 meters

Ely Springs Dolomite Massive dolomite, 100–150 meters

Eureka Quartzite Quartzite, 100 meters

Pogonip Group Dolomite, minor shale and limestone, 450 meters

Nopah Formation Basal shale, 30 meters; dolomite, 400 meters

Bonanza King Formation Thick-bedded, massive dolomite with minor limestone and shale units, 500 meters, 900 meters

16 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Table 2 continued Hydrogeologic unit and Hydrologic Properties and map symbol (fig. 5) Age Formation Lithology and thickness (meters/day) Lower Clastic and Middle and Carrara Formation Shale, silt, limestone, 300 meters Hydraulic conductivities: Carbonate Rocks (ZPcc) Upper Fractured carbonite rocks Proterozoic Zabriskie Formation Quartzite, about 50 meters from 1x10¯² to 1x10³ m/d; and Lower and Unfractured carbonate Middle Cambrian Wood Canyon Lower basal quartzite, 500 rocks from 1x10¯⁴ to 1x10⁰ Formation meters; middle shaley unit, m/d; Quartzite 1x10¯⁵ to 150 meters; upper dolomite 1x10⁰ m/d; Shale 1x10¯⁸ to and quartzite, 120 meters 1x10¯¹ m/d

Stirling Quartzite Quartzite, 600 meters

Johnnie Formation Mostly shale, interbedded with dolomite, quartzite, conglomerate, 120 meters

Noonday Dolomite Dolomite and limestone, 300 meters

Pahrump Series —Kingston Peak Conglomerate, quartzite, shale, with Formation limestone and dolomite, 900 meters

—Beck Spring Cherty dolomite, 150 meters Dolomite

—Crystal Spring Quartzite, shale, dolomite, diabase, Formation and chert, 600 meters

Metamorphic and Early Metasedimentary rocks with Hydraulic conductivities Igneous Basement Proterozoic igneous intrusions from 1x10¯⁸ to 1x10¯¹ m/d Rocks (Xmi) Source: Hydraulic conductivities after Waddell 1982, Bedinger et al. 1989a and 1989b, D’Agnese et al. 1997, and Belcher et al. 2001.

National Park Service 17 Photograph 3. Cambrian strata of Clastic and Carbonate Rocks (ZPcc) and quartzite grading upward to shale and the Last Chance Range. View of Last Chance Range from the floor of Eu- The Lower Clastic and Carbonate rock unit thinly bedded limestone. The upper part of reka Basin shows an uninterrupted (ZPcc), equivalent to the Lower Clastic- the Crystal Spring is thick-bedded dolo- 1,000-meter (3,281-ft) sequence of Lower to Upper Cambrian strata, Confining Unit (LCCU) of Sweetkind et mite and locally massive chert. At Galena units ZPcc and PMc. Quartzite strata al. (2004), consists of quartzites, shales, Canyon the formation is about 900 meters appear as light colored bands. The (2,953 ft) in thickness and is intruded by lower broad band is the Stirling limestones, and dolomites. In Death Valley Quartzite, the middle light colored the Lower Clastic and Carbonate rock unit diabase (Hunt and Mabey 1966). The Beck band is the Zabriskie Quartzite, and Spring Dolomite is a cherty dolomite with the upper light colored band is the is reported by Hunt and Mabey (1966) to Eureka Quartzite. Photograph by be 4,700 meters (15,421 ft) thick. The rocks estimated thickness of 150 meters (492 ft). M. S. Bedinger. are slightly to moderately metamorphosed The Kingston Peak Formation is conglom- where they form the upper plate of detach- erate, quartzite, shale, and some limestone ment faults and where intruded by igneous and dolomite, at least 900 meters (2,953 ft) rocks. The lower parts of this sequence in thickness (Hunt and Mabey 1966). make up the lower plate of detachment faults in the middle Funeral Mountains The upper part of the Lower Clastic and (Hamilton 1988) and at Galena Canyon in Carbonate rock unit (ZPcc) includes the southern part of the Panamint Range formations of Upper Proterozoic through (Hunt and Mabey 1966, A13). Cambrian. This sequence is made up of Noonday Dolomite (dolomite and lime- The Lower Clastic and Carbonate rock unit stone, 300 meters [984 ft]), Johnnie For- (ZPcc) can be considered to be made up mation (mostly shale interbedded with of two parts. The lower part of the strati- dolomite, quartzite, and conglomerate, graphic section includes the Proterozoic 1,220 meters [4,000 ft]) and Stirling Quartz- rocks of the Pahrump Series composed ite (quartzite, 600 meters [1,969 ft]), the of the Crystal Spring Formation, the Beck Lower Cambrian Wood Canyon Formation Spring Dolomite, and the Kingston Peak (quartzite and dolomite, 500 meters [1,641 Formation. The Crystal Spring Forma- ft]) and Zabriskie Quartzite (quartzite, tion is composed of basal conglomerate more than 50 meters [164 ft]) and the

18 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Lower and Middle Cambrian Carrara filled with precipitated minerals. The for- Formation (limestone and shale, 300 mations comprising this unit at the Nevada meters [984 ft]) (Hunt and Mabey 1966). Test Site (renamed the Nevada National Se- Exposures of the Stirling Quartzite in the curity Site in 2010) were considered to have Panamint Mountains show open bedding negligible permeability and were called joints between 8- to 30-centimeter- (3.1- the Lower Clastic aquitard by Winograd to 11.8-in) thick beds and cross bedded and Thordarson (1975). However, in the fracture openings spaced at closer intervals. Death Valley region, the Lower Clastic and Belcher et al. (2001) reports the maximum Carbonate rock unit (ZPcc) is of regional measured hydraulic conductivity of the importance as an aquifer. Saratoga Spring, quartzite to be 5 meters per day (16.4 ft/d). discharging regional flow at the southeastern edge of the Death Valley playa, emerges Exposures of the Lower Clastic and Car- from the Pahrump Series of this unit. Keane bonate rock unit (ZPcc) are widespread in Wonder Spring, a regional spring, issues the principal mountain ranges—Panamint from the Pahrump Series in the northern Range, Funeral Mountains, Grapevine Funeral Mountains. Other locations where Mountains, Cottonwood Mountains, and the Lower Clastic and Carbonate rocks may Last Chance Range. The Lower Clastic contain aquifers of regional significance in- and Carbonate rocks are the principal unit clude the upper detachment plate between in the Ibex Hills and Saddle Peak Hills, the Panamint and Cottonwood Range. A southeast of the Black Mountains. Rocks in line of springs arises along the east flank of the exposures are porous and permeable by the Panamint Range bordering the central virtues of cracks, faults, and fractures—fea- Death Valley playa. These springs are prob- tures that in carbonate rocks are enlarged ably of local origin in the Panamint Range, by solution. but regional discharge to the Death Valley playa through the Lower Clastic and Car- Over much of Death Valley flow system, bonate rocks cannot be ruled out. this unit is deeply buried where the fractures may be closed by compression or Hunt et al. (1966, B13) note from study of exposures of the rock sequence that carbonate rocks, shale, and quartzite are dense and not intrinsically permeable, but they are broken by closely spaced fissures. The quartzites tend to be generally shat- tered by faulting (McAllister 1970). In places quartzites are intensely fractured to a granular texture (Hunt et al. 1966). Some fissures in the carbonate rocks are closed by secondary carbonate and others opened by solution (Hunt et al. 1966). Where the rocks in this unit are at or near the surface, they make up the principal aquifer of many upland springs. The abundant fractures in the rocks readily admit recharge in the higher elevations where precipitation is greater. Many of the upland springs are perennial with significant reservoir storage; Photograph 4. Stirling Quartzite. circulation of groundwater is to depths of Photograph of Stirling Quartzite showing fold and fault openings, several tens of meters in the flow path of bedded plane joints, and cross-bed some springs as indicated by warmer spring joints and fractures. Beds are 8 to 30 centimeters (3.1 to 11.8 in) in temperatures. thickness. Photograph from C. B. Hunt, USGS files.

National Park Service 19 Photograph 5. Bonanza King For- Carbonate Rocks (PMc) In Death Valley the Middle Cambrian mation. Bonanza King Formation showing solution channels. The In Death Valley the succession of rocks of through Permian carbonate unit (PMc) Bonanza King is one of the principal Middle Cambrian through Permian age is is the primary regional aquifer conveying groundwater-bearing formations of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic carbon- dominated by carbonate rocks with inter- groundwater to Death Valley from the east ate rock unit (PMc). Photograph beds of quartzite and shale. The carbonate through the Funeral and Grapevine Moun- from C. B. Hunt, USGS files. rock units make up the principal regional tains and from the west through the Cot- aquifer of central and east-central Nevada tonwood and Last Chance Ranges. Strati- (Dettinger et al. 1995). North and northeast graphic equivalents of this unit containing a of Death Valley in Nevada, the carbon- significant thickness of carbonate rocks oc- ate rock succession is often separated by cur in the Inyo Mountains bordering Saline a great thickness of clastic rocks of Upper Valley and Eureka Valley in the northwest Devonian and Mississippian age. At the part Death Valley National Park. The PMc Nevada Test Site, the clastic dividing unit is unit is missing in the Greenwater Range the Eleana Formation having a thickness of and Black Mountains and the Ibex and 2,400 meters (7,874 ft; Winograd and Thor- Saddle Peak Hills. The presence of these darson 1975). Where the sequence is sepa- rocks in the east facing slopes of the Pana- rated by a clastic unit, the lower sequence mint Range is limited to the upper plate of of carbonates form the Lower Carbonate– detachment faults where the rocks are aqui- Rock Aquifer (LCA), clastic rocks make up fers supplying upland springs. However, in the Upper Clastic Confining Unit (UCCU), the northwestern Panamint Range (north- and the Pennsylvanian and Mississippian west slope of Tucki Mountain), the Lower Limestone and dolomite make up the Up- Carbonate Rock Unit in the upper plate per Carbonate–Rock Aquifer (UCAQ) of of the detachment fault may be important D’Agnese et al. (1997) and Sweetkind et al. in transfer of regional groundwater from (2004). Panamint Valley to Death Valley playa.

20 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada In the higher mountain ranges where car- sediments in basin fill. bonate rocks are the predominant country rock, as in the Cottonwood Mountains and Basalt flows are exposed at Towne Pass and Last Chance Range, upland springs are rare in the Saline Range. Felsic and intermediate except near igneous intrusions that ob- flows are exposed in the Darwin Plateau, struct the downward migration of infiltrat- Southern Panamint Range, Owlshead ing water. Upland springs are lacking in the Mountains, Saline Range, Black Moun- southern Funeral Mountains in the outcrop tains, and Greenwater Range. Volcanics are area of the PMc unit. interbedded with sediments in the Furnace Creek basin. Many of the exposed volca- Intrusive Igneous Rocks (Mti) nic units are not of sufficient thickness to Mesozoic and early Tertiary igneous intru- extend downward to the water table. sions (MTi unit) were emplaced following thrust faulting, folding and uplift of the Older Basin Fill Proterozoic and Paleozoic sedimentary Sedimentary deposits of Oligocene, Mio- sequence of the Death Valley region and cene, and Pliocene age include playa- and following the emplacement of the Sierra basin-filling clastic and evaporite deposits Nevada batholith. Intrusions in the Death (the sedimentary part of the volcanic- Valley region include the large Hunter sedimentary-rock unit [VSU] of Sweetkind Mountain Batholith in the southern Cot- et al. 2004). The oldest of these deposits tonwood Mountains, batholiths in the accumulated in broad shallow basins ex- Panamint Mountains, Black Mountains, tending over most of Death Valley National Greenwater Range and Owlshead Moun- Park and adjacent areas before the present- tains. The intrusive igneous rocks are called day topography developed. In southeastern the Intrusive Rock Confining Unit (ICU) Death Valley, the deposits overlie basement by Sweetkind et al. (2004). Many fractures rocks of the Pahrump Group (lower part of and weathered zones in the igneous intru- ZPcc) and crystalline igneous and meta- sives are open at shallow depths, and many morphic rocks (Xmi). The oldest deposits springs discharge from igneous plutons in this unit are also exposed on the east side at higher elevations in the ranges where of the Funeral and Grapevine Mountains recharge occurs, such as the Hunter Moun- (Reynolds 1974, Wright and Troxel 1993, tain batholith where saturated fractures and and Sweetkind et al. 2004). In the park, fault zones are intersected by deep ravines. the deposits probably reach their maxi- The extent and depth of the open fractures mum thickness in the Furnace Creek and is not well known. Indirect evidence from Death Valley basins (Fridrich et al. 2003a the temperature of springs in the Hunter and 2003b). Equivalent deposits underlie Mountain Batholith indicates moderate younger basin fill and alluvium in the Ama- depth of circulation of groundwater that rgosa basin and Pahrump basins. The de- discharges at mountain springs. position of these deposits began possibly in Oligocene and continued during Miocene Volcanic Rocks and Older Basin extension, but before basin-range mountain Fill (Cvb) building. The oldest formation in this unit Tertiary and Quaternary volcanics and is the Artist Drive Formation. Deposition older basin fill of Tertiary age are common- continued during and after basin-range ly interbedded and are mapped as a single extension and mountain building. Follow- unit in the geologic map (fig. 5). ing deposition of the Artist Drive Forma- tion, the Furnace Creek Formation was Volcanic Rocks deposited. These formations are primarily Exposed volcanic rocks of Death Valley fine-grained playa sediments with interbed- region of Oligocene to Pleistocene age ded, but discontinuous, lenses of sand and are basalt flows and silicic to intermediate gravel in a fine-grained matrix: evaporites composition flows and tuffs (Workman et and interbedded volcanic flows and teph- al. 2002a). Volcanic activity was contem- ras. Fridrich et al. (2003a and 2003b) de- poraneous with extensional tectonics, and scribe these formations as “impermeable.” volcanic materials are interbedded with During basin-range mountain building

National Park Service 21 Photograph 6 (right). View from the Black Mountains and Funeral Moun- Younger Basin Fill and Alluvium Zabriskie Point. Badlands carved from fine-grained playa sediments tains were uplifted, leaving these deposits (Qb) of the Furnace Creek Formation in a synclinal basin between the two moun- The younger basin fill and alluvium are viewed from Zabriskie Point. Silt and clay exposed here were deposited tain ranges. Excellent sequences of the the unconsolidated Cenozoic alluvium in one of Death Valley’s Tertiary Artist Drive and Furnace Creek Formation and basin-fill sediments and local young lakes, then were buried by still more are exposed in the strata on the south limb sediment, compressed and weakly volcanic rocks (YAA and OAA) of Sweet- cemented, then folded and uplifted of the syncline upturned against the Black kind et al. (2010). These deposits include during the basin–range phase of ex- Mountains. The formations in the synclinal coarse-grained alluvial stream and fan de- tension tectonics to be exposed by erosion and weathered to form bad- basin north of Furnace Creek are covered, posits, fine-grained basin playa sediments lands of the soft rock called mud- to a large extent, by the Pliocene and Pleis- and evaporite deposits, eolian deposits, stone. Photograph by Tom Bean. tocene age Funeral Formation, a coarse- and local lacustrine limestone and spring Photograph 7 (below). Salt Poly- grained, post basin-range, extension-fan discharge deposits. gons. Salt polygons in the Badwater saltpan, snow-covered peaks of Pan- deposit from the Funeral Range. amint Mountains in the background. Regional groundwater flows in the younger Photograph by Ray Nordeen, NPS. The older basin-fill deposits extend north- basin fill deposits of the Amargosa River to ward along the western flanks of the Funer- Death Valley basin where it may provide al and Grapevine Mountains. The Furnace part of the flow of Amargosa River Valley Creek Formation underlies Cottonball Springs. Alluvium of Furnace Creek con- Basin and Mesquite Flat and crops out at veys water to the alluvial fan at the mouth uplift in the Salt Hills between these two of the creek. Furnace Creek alluvium is segments of Death Valley. Older basin-fill recharged by surface runoff and, near the deposits are exposed in the valley of Death mouth of the creek, by subsurface flow Valley Wash, Saline Valley, and Eureka Val- from Travertine and Texas springs through ley. Deposits making up the Miocene and colluvial deposits. Coarse alluvial fan Pliocene basin filling sequences in Death deposits on the east flank of the Panamint Valley are described by Cemen et al. (1985), Mountains convey groundwater to the floor Wright et al. (1999), Sweetkind et al. (2004), of Death Valley. The groundwater emerges Greene (1997), and Fridrich et al. (2003a from the fan deposits and the underlying and 2003b). bedrock as springs and seeps and is trans- pired by phreatophytes at the margin of the Many deposits of older basin fill is of low valley floor. The valley floor is underlain by permeability and act as barriers to flow be- fine-grained sediments and evaporites. The neath the aquifer of the overlying Funeral alluvial fill of Death Valley Wash, the north- Formation. Coarse-grained sand and gravel west arm of Death Valley above Mesquite deposits in the Funeral Formation are Flat, is not well-known, but the Holocene permeable and supply Navel Springs, Texas and Tertiary fill in the valley is shallow as Spring, Travertine Spring, and the springs determined from geophysics. on Salt Creek.

22 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Climatic Setting of Death Valley Region The climate of the Death Valley is one of all stations reported by Rowlands (1993) the most diverse in the country. Climate is except Beatty, Nevada. largely controlled by elevation which has an extreme range from –86 meters (–282 ft) “Furnace Creek” was aptly named for at the lowest point in Death Valley to 3,368 a geographic feature in one of the hot- meters (11,049 ft) at Telescope Peak in the test places on earth. Temperatures have Panamint Mountains. While basically a exceeded 120°F (49°C) each month from complex of rain shadow deserts, the region May through September during the period exhibits climatic characteristics associated of record (James 1993). Daily maximum with continentality—severe conditions of averages in summer are in the 110°–115°F winter cold and summer heat—while also (43°–46°C) range from June through Au- exhibiting subtropical properties such as gust, with nights normally cooling only into mild warm winters (at low elevations) and the low to mid 80s (27°–29°C). Maximum summer convectional rainfall (Rowlands summer temperatures routinely approach 1993). 130°F (54°C). Winter temperatures at the desert floor are relatively cool with winter The dominant source of winter precipita- days typically having high temperatures tion is from the west or northwest from reaching the mid-60s (15.5°C). Freezing the eastern Pacific and Gulf of Alaska. Less temperatures at night are common during commonly northeasterly flow of air brings the colder winter months of December and dry and unusually cold temperatures to January (James 1993). Rowlands (1993) has the region (James 1993). In summer the drawn regression equations for the three dominant air flow is from the south and major climatic factors affecting the hydro- southeast and less frequently from the west. logic environment—potential evapotrans- This southeast flow, the so-called “Arizona piration, temperature, and precipitation— Monsoon,” sometimes brings convective relating each to elevation. Relations given thunderstorms that occasionally release below from Rowlands (1993) are drawn damaging rains. Some summers a westerly from weather stations in and surrounding flow of drier air dominates and thunder- Death Valley National Park. The stations storms are virtually non-existent (James include Trona, Bishop, Deep Springs, and 1993). White Mountains (two stations) in Califor- nia, outside the park, and Beatty, Goldfield, The relative amount of summer (June–Sep- and Sarcobatus Flat in Nevada. Stations in tember) precipitation ranges from 5 to 40% the park include Wildrose Ranger Station, of the annual total and is less than 33% at Badwater, Cow Creek, and Furnace Creek.

Potential Evapotranspiration (mm) = e (–0.00042 Alt (m) + 7.185), r2 = 0.994

Precipitation (mm) = 0.111 Alt (m) + 10.736, r2 = 0.894

Mean annual temperature (Celsius) = –0.007 Alt (m) + 23.114, r2 = 0.988

Mean July Temperature (Celsius) = –0.008 Alt (m) + 45.701, r2 = 0.988

Mean January Temperature (Celsius) = –0.008 Alt (m) + 4.448, r2 = 0.901

National Park Service 23 More current data on precipitation stations method (Thornthwaite 1948) is greater in and adjacent to Death Valley are pre- than 1.3 meters per year (4.3 ft/yr) at sea sented in Hevesi et al. (2003). An indepen- level. The huge moisture deficit at the dent evaluation of the relation between playas decreases with increasing altitude precipitation and elevation was made using as the potential evapotranspiration de- 10 stations in or near the park. These data creases and precipitation increases. The are listed in table 3. The relation between moisture gradient increases with increasing annual precipitation and altitude is shown altitude as the potential evapotranspira- in figure 6. The results are in general agree- tion decreases and precipitation increases. ment with Rowland’s findings. Based on average annual precipitation and evapotranspiration, the elevation at which The climatic environment of a site is in- precipitation equals potential evapotrans- fluenced by topography, aspect, slope, soil piration occurs at 3,100 meters (10,171 ft; characteristics, and longitude, within the fig. 6). This boundary is lower during the overall predominating influence of precipi- winter months (October–May), and the tation, evapotranspiration, and tempera- opportunity for recharge of precipitation ture, which are controlled by elevation. to groundwater is enhanced, especially at These factors in varying measures affect higher elevations, when there is greater ex- the vegetation cover, species distribution, cess of precipitation over potential evapo- and recharge to groundwater. Rowlands transpiration. The relation of temperature (1993) shows that potential evapotrans- to elevation is shown in figure 7. piration, estimated by the Thornthwaite

Table 3. Precipitation data for 10 stations in and near the study area UTM UTM Altitude Average Annual Station Name Easting¹ Northing¹ (meters) Precipitation (millimeters) Barstow 496,955 3,860,401 659 113 Barstow 496,955 3,860,401 659 113 Goldstone Echo No. 2 519,603 3,904,072 899 150 Mountain Pass 632,115 3,926,003 1,442 221 Shoshone 565,819 3,980,883 479 132 Trona 464,669 3,957,601 517 100 Wildrose Ranger Station 483,357 4,013,218 1,250 180 White Mountains 1 401,946 4,128,839 3,094 358 White Mountains 2 398,760 4,133,760 3,081 496 Deep Springs College 412,926 4,135,799 1,593 158

¹Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. Source: Hevesi et al. 2003 and Rowland 1993.

24 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figure 6 (right). Graphs of precipitation and potential evapotranspiration versus altitude in the Death Valley region.

Figure 7 (below). Graphs of mean annual, mean July, and mean Janu- ary temperature versus altitude in the Death Valley region.

¹Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters.

National Park Service 25 26 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Photograph 8. Alkali Spring. High in the Panamint Mountains, Alkali Vegetation Spring supports a healthy growth of vegetation at an elevation of 2,015 Natural vegetation cover is sparse through- content of soils are important ecological meters (6,611 ft). out most of the region, especially at lower factors that determine the distribution elevations, except for favorable areas where of plant assemblages (Hunt and Durrell water is available for growth of riparian 1966). Phreatophytes, plants that con- vegetation from spring discharge and sume groundwater, are principally found shallow groundwater levels. The creosote– around the edges of the Death Valley salt bursage association occupies the largest pan, in Mesquite Flat, in the floodplain of area compared to other plant associations. the Amargosa River, and near regional and Woodland and forest plant assemblages upland springs. Hunt and Durrell (1966) are limited to the higher elevations where studied the distribution of plant species in precipitation is greater and air temperature the salt flat–fan transition zone. He identi- and potential evapotranspiration are lower fied nine phreatophytic species and related (Hevesi et al. 2003). Pinion–juniper wood- their occurrence to salinity and depth to lands occur at elevations of about 2,000 me- groundwater at the edge of the salt pan. The ters (6,562 ft) and higher elevations. Limber transition from least salt-tolerant phreato- pine and bristlecone pine associations are phytes to most salt-tolerant is screwbean found on a few isolated peaks and ridges in mesquite (Prosopis pubescens) and desert the Panamint Range (Rowlands 1993). baccharis (Baccharis sergiloides), honey mesquite (Prosopis julifera), arrowweed Salinity of shallow groundwater, depth to (Pluchea sericea) and four-wing saltbush groundwater, and calcium–magnesium (Atriplex canescens), alkali sacaton grass

National Park Service 27 (Sporobolus airoides), tamarisk (Tamarix cies, from lower to higher elevations, from gallica and T. aphylla), inkweed (Suaeda Rowlands (1993), excluding phreatophytes, sp.), saltgrass (Distichlis spicata, var. stricta), halophytes, and spring assemblages, is list- rush (Juncus cooperi), and finally, pickle- ed here, with high altitude additions from weed (Allenrolfea occidentalis). Dissolved Hunt (1975) and Arno (1984): desert holly solids in groundwater grades from a mini- (Atriplex hymenelytra); creosote bush (Lar- mum of 5,000 milligrams per liter (.042 lb/ rea tridentata); bursage (Ambrosia dumosa); gal) or less where there is honey mesquite burrobush or cheesebush (Hymenoclea sal- to a maximum of 60,000 milligrams per sola); shadscale (Atriplex confertifolia); des- liter (.50 lb/gal) where there is pickleweed. ert buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum); Less tolerant phreatophytes, screwbean desert-thorn (Lycium andersonii); spiny mesquite (Prosopis pubescens) and desert menodora (Menodora spinescens); Nevada baccharis (Baccharis sergiloides), grow at ephedra (Ephedra nevadensis); spiny hop- higher elevations bordering the salt pan and sage (Grayia spinosa); Cooper goldenbush at springs on the gravel fans. Principal xero- (Haploppapus [Ericamera] cooperi); black- phytes in the zone above the phreatophytes brush (Coleogyne ramosissima); big sage- are desert holly (Atriplex hymenelytra) brush (Artemisia tridentata); sticky-leaved which is replaced in the zone at the south rabbit bush (Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus); end of the valley by cattle spinach (Atriplex antelope brush (Purshia gladulosa); green polycarpa). Above the pure stands of desert ephedra (Ephedra viridis); Macdougal holly and cattle spinach is creosote bush buckwheat (Eriogonum microthecum); Utah (Larrea tridentata). Higher on the fans in juniper (Juniperus osteosperma); pinion the north is burroweed (Ambrosia dumosa) pine (Pinus monophyla); limber pine (Pinus replaced in the southern part of the valley flexilis); Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus by inceinso (Encelia farinosa) (Hunt and longaeva). Durrell 1966). A schematic representation of the effect of depth to water and salin- Because of the close relationship between ity of soil and groundwater in the gravel plant species and the moisture gradient, fan–salt pan groundwater discharge area on zones of plant associations have been made the distribution of plant species is shown in principal criteria by some investigators for figure 10. assigning estimated recharge rates. Rice (1984) placed the lower limit of recharge Rowlands (1993) summarizes studies of to coincide with the elevation of the pinion how plant cover, plant communities, and pine–juniper plant zone where precipita- plant species distribution in the park vary tion is greater than 254 millimeters (10 in) as a function of precipitation, evapotrans- and elevation is greater than 1,675 meters piration, and moisture. Density of plant (5,500 ft). The lowest zone of recharge of cover increases in proportion to precipita- D’Agnese et al. (1997) is coincident with tion. Montane plant abundances as spindle the mixed-shrub transitional zone which graphs (Rowlands 1993, fig. 6) show the begins at an elevation of about 1,500 me- overlapping elevational distribution of ters (4,900 ft). The two vegetation zones 17 xerophytic species in order from des- above the mixed-shrub transitional zone, ert holly at the lowest elevation to pinion the pinon–juniper zone (1,520 to 2,440 pine at the highest elevation. Rowlands meters [5,000 to 8,000 ft], 305 to 510 mil- (1993, fig. 7) shows that the stratification of limeters [12 to 20 in]) and the coniferous characteristic plant species is a function of forest zones (>2,440 meters [8,000 ft], >510 potential evapotranspiration relating to the millimeters [20 in]) reflecting successively moisture–evapotranspiration lapse rate. A greater moisture availability were given ac- composite vertical sequence of plant spe- cordingly greater recharge weight.

28 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Soils Soils in the Death Valley region were Soils of Death Valley are included in the grouped into four types by Hevesi (2002 STATSGO data base covering the United and 2003) for use in infiltration models: (1) States (U. S. Department of Agriculture upland soils on the mountains and areas 1988). The STATSGO data base is a digital characterized by rugged topography, (2) general soil association map developed valley-fill soils on alluvial fans and ter- by the National Cooperative Soil Survey. races, (3) playa soils on the valley floors and STATSGO depicts information about soil playa basins, and (4) channel soils in active features on or near the surface of the Earth. stream channels. These classifications are STASGO is designed primarily for regional, based on the STATSGO data base of the multi-county, river basin, state, and multi- U.S. Department of Agriculture. Hevesi state regional planning, management, and (2002 and 2003) describes upland soils as monitoring. It consists of a broad-based usually less than one-meter (3.3-ft) thick, of inventory of soils and non-soil areas that coarse texture with little moisture-holding occur in a repeatable pattern on the land- capacity, and having great permeability. Pla- scape and that can be cartographically ya soils are fine-grained and characterized shown at the scale mapped. The soil maps by a high percentage of clays or evaporites for STATSGO are compiled by generaliz- including silicified hardpans (Beatley 1976), ing more detailed soil survey maps. Where and have much lower permeability than more detailed soil survey maps are not valley-fill and upland soils. Valley fill and available, data on geology, topography, soils in active channels tend to be coarse vegetation, and climate are assembled, to- textured and more permeable than the soils gether with Land Remote Sensing Satellite of the surrounding terraces and interchan- (LANDSAT) images. Soils of like areas are nel areas of alluvial fans. studied, and the probable classification and extent of the soils are determined.

National Park Service 29 30 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Hydrogeologic Setting During the gold rush days, the vast desert ley depends upon to supply water for the region between the Rocky Mountains and large springs that emerge in Death Valley the Sierra Nevada was considered a track- and the groundwater that discharges by less wasteland—a formidable obstacle evapotranspiration from the valley floor. almost devoid of water that had to be carefully crossed from water hole to water Death Valley Groundwater Flow hole to survive the trek to the gold fields of System California. That the Native Americans who lived in the region were aware of the water Regional Flow holes that were essential for their survival The quantitative basis for establishing the is indicated by the names they gave the concept of regional groundwater flow is valleys reflected the presence or absence of grounded in the basin studies made by the water. Many basins having Native Ameri- U.S. Geological Survey and the State of can names beginning in “pa” or “pah” Nevada cooperative groundwater program. contain water – such as Pahranagat and Maxey and Eakin (1949), in attempting Panamint. These basins have groundwater to quantify the available groundwater near the surface or springs and marshes in resources of basins, developed field meth- the playas. Other basins having names end- ods for estimating basin recharge and ing in “pah” – Ivanpah and Nopah have no discharge. They discovered, in evaluat- springs or marshes. ing groundwater budgets of topographi- cally closed basins, that many basins were This great region is characterized by long not closed to groundwater transfer to or high mountains of hard rock with interven- from adjacent basins. Hunt and Robinson ing sand, gravel, and silt-filled basins with (1960) advanced the hypothesis of inter- no external drainage to the sea. This very basin transfers of groundwater to Death basic but significant hydrologic insight Valley based on geochemical studies of into the Great Basin was recorded prior to water. Early studies such as Eakin and the 20th century by John C. Fremont who Winograd (1965), Eakin (1966), Eakin and explored the northern part of the region Moore (1964), Mifflin (1968), Winograd from the Rockies to California and named and Thordarson (1975), and Mifflin and the Great Basin in early 1840s. Fremont Hess (1979) recognized the importance of defined the Great Basin as that collection of interbasin groundwater flow. In time, prac- basins with closed drainage having no out- tically all basins in Nevada were studied, let to the ocean. He designated the Great and estimates of recharge and discharge Basin as bounded by the Columbia River were made. Mifflin (1968), recognizing that drainage on the north, the Sierra Nevada on thermal springs were surface manifesta- the west and the Colorado River drainage tions of deep regional potential, mapped to the south. the first set of regional potential contours from the surface altitudes of springs in Ne- Using data from wet and dry valleys, dis- vada issuing at temperatures of 27°C (80°F) charge areas, thermal springs, and topog- or greater. Harrill et al. (1988) made use of raphy Bedinger and Harrill (2010) have water-budget imbalances in their work in formulated a set of guidelines for mapping the Great Basin to interpret interbasin flow. the potential for regional movement of They constructed generalized contours of Photograph 9. Mud crack in floor of Eureka Basin. Groundwater groundwater. The regional potential map, the regional groundwater potential in the discharge does not occur from the shown in plate 1, shows the direction and Great Basin. Prudic et al. (1995) simulated floor of Eureka Basin because the gradient of regional potential for ground- depth to groundwater is too deep flow in the carbonate rock province of for evaporation from the water water movement in a part of the Great Nevada from the higher basins in central table and well below the reach of Basin and Mojave Desert. The map of the Nevada to the terminal discharge areas of phreatophytes. Recharge to the surrounding hills flows to the adjoining regional potential enables definition of the the Death Valley and the Colorado River Saline Basin to discharge at thermal area contributing groundwater to Death regional groundwater flow systems. springs and to Mesquite Flat on the main Death Valley floor. Photograph Valley. This is the area outlined by the red by M. S. Bedinger. line in plate 1. It is this area that Death Val-

National Park Service 31 Photograph 10. Amargosa River The most recent and comprehensive model higher elevation springs that occur on the in flood. The Amargosa River in the southeast part of Death Valley of the Death Valley regional groundwater slopes of the mountains. In ranges where National Park during a flash flood flow system was made by the U. S. Geologi- the adjacent basin does not discharge in February 2005. Photograph by A. Van Luik. cal Survey, in cooperation with the Depart- groundwater from the playa, some of the ment of Energy (Belcher and Sweetkind recharge becomes a part of the regional 2010). The model incorporates geologic flow system. The circulation of ground- and hydrologic data in a state-of-the- water in the ranges is superposed on the science mathematical multilayered model. regional flow system. Higher mountain The model was supported by advanced ranges that receive greater precipitation, geological and geophysical investigations, such as Panamint Range and Cottonwood comprehensive studies of groundwater Range, contain mountainside springs and discharge by withdrawal and evapotrans- springs on the upper parts of the alluvial piration, models of groundwater recharge, fans. The circulation of the groundwater and hydrologic properties of rock units. above the regional flow system can be vi- Both steady and transient states of regional sualized as circulation cells above regional groundwater flow were analyzed. flow paths that discharge at large intermediate discharge areas and the ultimate Local Flow discharge areas at Death Valley. Recharge of groundwater occurs in the mountain ranges of the Death Valley region. This local recharge supports the

32 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Surface Water Flow of the Death depth to groundwater is shallow, phreato- Valley Region phytes consume groundwater. The perennial flow of Salt Creek above Cottonball Present-Day Surface Water Basin originates as spring flow. Perennial Perennial surface water flow occurs only lakes at Badwater, Cottonball Basin, and in a few stream reaches originating from Saline Valley are maintained by discharge spring discharge. Perennial flow and pools of groundwater. Riparian wetlands are fed of water in the Amargosa River in the park by spring discharge at Grapevine, Traver- originate from the Amargosa River Valley tine, Nevares, and Mesquite springs. Some Springs that is supplied from groundwater upland springs feed short stream reaches in the alluvium beneath the river. Upstream of perennial flow. Discharge of upland from Death Valley, east of the park, the Am- springs supports riparian vegetation, with argosa River is perennial in a few reaches many springs having pools, but no stream. near Tecopa, the Franklin Well area, and Smaller springs may have no visible water, Shoshone that are fed by discharge from the groundwater discharge being evidenced regional flow system. Laczniak et al. (2001) only by the presence of riparian vegetation. estimated groundwater evapotranspiration in these areas. Flow was observed by the Infrequent storms can cause flash floods in authors and was reported by Miller (1977) normally dry stream channels. Geological- on occasions at the Highway 127 crossing ly, such floods are a principal geomorphic near the southern boundary of the park. factor in building bajadas of coalescing al- These perennial and near-perennial seg- luvial fans along the mountain fronts. Occa- ments of the Amargosa River and shallow sionally storms can cause ephemeral lakes groundwater supplying phreatophytes are in the playas. Flooding along the Amargosa principally discharge of regional ground- River and tributaries formed the ephemeral water. Along the perennial reaches, where lakes in the Death Valley playa during 1969, 1993, and 2005.

Photograph 11. Shoreline Butte. Wave-cut beaches in Shoreline Butte record pluvial lake levels in Death Valley basin. Photograph by Marli Miller.

National Park Service 33 Figure 8. Map showing Pleistocene Pleistocene Streams, Lakes, and Deep Springs Lake occupied a closed basin streams and lakes tributary to Death Valley. After Bedinger and Harrill Marshes between the Owens River Valley and Death 2006a. Pleistocene lakes of the Basin and Range Valley. Three closed basins—Saline Valley, Province are shown in figure 8 from Eureka Valley, and the smaller Racetrack studies of Williams and Bedinger (1984) Playa—did not hold lakes. Racetrack Playa and Bedinger and Harrill (2006a). Death and Eureka Valley were occupied by dry Valley, the ultimate discharge area of both playas that were probably well above the surface and groundwater, was beneficiary water table, as they are today. Though no of a large regional contributing area. The shoreline terraces are present at Saline Val- most striking divergence from today’s ley as evidence of a Pleistocene lake higher hydrology was the chain of lakes along the than the present-day lake, it is inferred that east flank of the Sierra Nevada, beginning during the pluvial the marsh was probably at its maximum extent with its headwaters more extensive than today. A chain of Pleis- at Lake Russel (that occupied the present- tocene lakes punctuated the pluvial Mojave day position of Mono Lake just north of River, whose watershed heads in the San the study area), then Adobe Lake, Owens Bernardino Mountains, and drained into Lake, China Lake, Searles Lake (China Death Valley. Lake Manix occupied the and Searles lakes merged at high stages to lowland of the Mojave River valley between form one lake), Panamint Lake, and finally present-day Barstow and Afton Canyon. Lake Manly that occupied Death Valley.

34 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Lake Mojave occupied the present-day During the Pleistocene, under climatic Soda Lake and Silver Lake playas. The Soda conditions of greater precipitation and Lake and Silver Lake playas are usually less evapotranspiration than today, these dry under modern conditions; however, in basins contributed groundwater flow to years of high precipitation in the San Ber- Death Valley. Today groundwater discharge nardino Mountains, floods in the Mojave in Saline Valley, as is inferred during the River sometimes fill the Soda Lake playa to Pleistocene, is by springs, including several depths of a few meters. Pleistocene lakes thermal springs, evaporation from a saline Harper, Cuddeback, Koehn, and Thomp- playa lake, and transpiration by a band of son, without apparent connection to the phreatophytes bordering the playa. The Mojave River, occupied shallow basins west fact that the playa of Saline Valley did not and northwest of the Mojave River. support a lake during the Pleistocene of significantly higher elevation than at pres- During the Pleistocene, the Amargosa River ent indicates that, even under conditions of was, as it is today, tributary to Death Valley. greater than modern recharge, the underly- In the Pliocene, Lake Tecopa, named for its ing rock permeability was great enough to location near the town of that name, occu- convey the groundwater beyond the basin. pied the present-day route of the Amargosa Groundwater flows from Eureka basin and River until a natural dam was breached Saline basin to Death Valley as shown by by the river. The basins of Pahrump Val- the regional potential map (plate 1). ley, Mesquite Valley, and Ash Meadows did not hold lakes but are inferred to have Based on present-day elevations, Panamint been occupied by marshes of somewhat Valley was the site of a 305-meter- (1000-ft) larger extent than the early settlers found deep, 77,700-hectare (192,000-ac) lake hav- when they entered the region (Williams and ing a maximum depth of about 305 meters Bedinger 1984). (1000 ft), about 610 meters (2,000 ft) in elevation. At the southern end of Panamint Following the Pleistocene lake maxima, Valley, the lake was the natural spillway—at the Holocene climate has shifted toward Wingate Pass—between Panamint Valley decreasing precipitation and increasing and Death Valley. At its maximum stage aridity. Although there was not integrated the lake in Panamint Valley was 366 meters drainage from Mono to Death Valley dur- (1,200 ft) above Lake Manly in adjacent ing the late Holocene, there were at least Death Valley. We can infer that the rock shallow lakes in Mono, Searles, Panamint, permeability between Panamint Valley and and Death Valley. Soda Lake Valley re- Death Valley is not great enough to have ceived flow from the Mojave River as it conveyed all the inflow from the Pleis- does under present conditions. tocene lake in Panamint Valley to Death Valley. We can infer from the modern water Inferred Groundwater Conditions balance of Panamint Valley, a closed basin, under Pluvial Conditions (recharge to the basin minus groundwater The location and elevations of lakes and evapotranspiration) that groundwater is groundwater marshes during the late Pleis- conveyed to Death Valley under the region- tocene allow us to make some inferences al hydraulic gradient and prevailing hydrau- as to groundwater flow conditions and lic conductivity of the rocks. inter-basin hydraulic conductivities. These inferences have application to the present- There is a question as to what route day groundwater regime. groundwater from Panamint Valley and Saline Valley takes to Death Valley. The fact Two adjacent closed basins in Califor- that Saline Valley did not contain a Pleis- nia—Eureka and Saline valleys—have the tocene lake of higher level than at present greatest infiltration rates of all California reveals that the permeability of the basin basins adjoining Death Valley (J. A. Hevesi, rocks was too great to allow water to rise written communication). Gale (1914) significantly in the basin. The Pleistocene found no evidence that these basins con- water table in the playa of Saline Valley was tained lakes during the Pleistocene Epoch. at a maximum near its present elevation of

National Park Service 35 320 meters (1,050 ft). The Pleistocene lake of flow from Pahrump Valley was corrobo- elevation in Panamint Valley was more than rated by Malmberg’s (1967, 28–33; fig. 5, 579 meters (1,900 ft). The outflow from plate 2) potentiometric mapping in Pah- Saline Valley during the Pleistocene thus rump Valley, but the potentiometric map could not have been by way of Panamint shows that groundwater flows southwest- Valley. It is inferred that the present out- ward toward Tecopa, directly into north- flow from Saline Valley is east toward the east-dipping Paleozoic carbonate strata Mesquite Flat area of Death Valley as it was comprising the bordering Nopah Range, during the Pleistocene. rather than to Ash Meadows.

Hunt and Robinson (1966, B40) inferred Williams and Bedinger (1984), in their map that the absence of wave-cut terraces in of Pleistocene lakes and marshes of the Pahrump Valley revealed the absence of a Death Valley region, inferred that closed lake in the closed basin during the pluvial basins that today have shallow groundwater climate of the Pleistocene and reasoned level but that did not hold Pleistocene lakes that the absence of a lake indicated sub- were the sites of marshes during pluvial surface drainage through the Paleozoic climate of the Pleistocene. It is further in- rocks of the bounding ranges. Hunt and ferred that groundwater from these basins Robinson (1960, B28) ascribed the source in the Death Valley flow system drained in of the springs at Ash Meadows and possibly the direction of the regional potentiometric springs in the Tecopa area to groundwater gradient (plate 1). flow from Pahrump Valley. The hypothesis

36 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Groundwater Inflow, Recharge, and Discharge Groundwater Inflow From The Panamint area basins—East Pilot California Knob and Brown Mountain Valley (257), Estimates of inflow to Death Valley from Panamint Valley (255), and Darwin Plateau desert basins in southeast California were (254)—contribute an estimated 14,000 made by a combination of water budgets cubic meters per day (m³/d; 494,340 ft³/d) for closed basins bordering Death Valley to Death Valley. In addition, inflow to the and calculations of inflow based on region- Panamint area from Lost Lake–Owl Valley al hydraulic gradient and hydraulic conduc- basin (258) and the basins to the west of the tivity of the geologic materials (Bedinger Panamint area contribute about 2,000 m³/d and Harrill 2006a). (70,620 ft³/d) for a total estimated flow of 16,000 m³/d (564,960 ft³/d) to Death Valley. Water budgets (table 4) were made for several basins bordering the southern part of An approximately equal contribution to Death Valley basin (243). The basin num- Death Valley originates from the basins to bers referred to in this report are shown the northwest where the high altitudes pro- on the map in figure 12. The water budgets vide large amounts of precipitation. Water in combination with the regional potential budgets were made for the major contrib- map indicate that most of the recharge to uting basins: Deep Springs (250), Eureka the basins and the inflow from the Lower (251), Saline (252), and Racetrack (253) Mojave Basin (269) is discharged by evapo- valleys. Combined with a small inflow from transpiration at Soda Lake (262) playa. Owens Valley (249), total flow to Death Probably most of the recharge to Valjean Valley from these valleys is about 15,500 Valley (244) flows to Death Valley. Other m³/d (547,305 ft³/d). valleys—Riggs Valley (261), Red Pass Valley (260), and Leach Valley (259)—contribute small flows based on gradient and aquifer hydraulic conductivity.

Table 4. Summary of groundwater inflows to Death Valley basin (243) from southeast California Bordering Area Bordering Basins Inflow m( ³/d) Method of Estimating Inflow Southern 244, 261, 260, 259 2,500 Water budgets and Darcy calculations Panamint Area 254, 255, 257, 258 16,000 Water budgets and Darcy calculations Northern Basins 251, 252, 263 15,500 Water budgets and Darcy calculations Total 34,000

Groundwater Inflow From Nevada characteristically cut by normal faults, Regional potential for inflow to Death thrust faults, and detachment faults. The Valley from Nevada is indicated by the western margin of these ranges is marked configuration of the regional groundwater by the Furnace Creek–Death Valley fault potential (plate 1). The gradient is nearly zone, a right-lateral strike-slip fault, with a perpendicular to the trend of the northeast downthrown southwest block, that extends boundary of the park. Flow across this from the northwest extent of the park to boundary is controlled by the structural the Resting Spring Range southeast of the features and the distribution of geologic park boundary. The eastern boundary of units. Inside the park along this bound- these ranges is marked by the Stewart Val- ary are the Funeral Mountains and the ley–Pahrump fault zones, with strike-slip Grapevine Mountains. Segments of these faults and normal fault movement, extend- ranges, discussed later in this report, are ing from Pahrump Valley northwestward composed of carbonate, volcanic, clastic, to the Grapevine Mountains. The structure and metamorphic rocks. The rocks are and lithology of segments of these ranges

National Park Service 37 affect not only the distribution and nature connected fault and fracture zones in the of inflow and regional springs from the lower plate of a detachment fault provide Nevada portion of the flow system, but also conduits for groundwater flow. Other cases the distribution of springs of local origin, where igneous, metamorphic, and clastic discussed later in this report, that occur rocks provide permeable media for ground- within the ranges. water movement are given elsewhere in this report and in the report on the source of Several regional springs and spring com- groundwater to Death Valley from south- plexes occur along the Furnace Creek– eastern California (Bedinger and Harrill Death Valley fault zone, including Navel 2006a). Spring, Sand Spring, Little Sand Spring, the Furnace Creek spring complex (Texas, The estimated inflow to Death Valley from Travertine, Nevares, Cow Creek, and Salt Nevada, about 60,000 m³/d (2,118,600 springs), the Keane Wonder Spring com- ft³/d), is obtained by subtracting the inflow plex, and the Grapevine, Staininger, and from California (31,500 m³/d [1,112,265 Surprise spring complex. Several of these ft³/d]) from the total regional inflow to springs emerge upgradient from the fault Death Valley (90,382 m³/d [3,191,388 zone and apparently emerge because of ft³/d]). The derivation of this estimate is impedance to groundwater flow at or near given later in the section “Groundwater the fault zone. In general, however, the Budget for Death Valley.” fault zone does not appear throughout its length to impede the flow of groundwater. Valley Floor Discharge of The flow to Nevares Spring appears to be Groundwater impeded in crossing the fault zone by juxta- Evapotranspiration from the valley floor of position of the Funeral and Furnace Creek Death Valley was determined by DeMeo Formations on the downthrown southwest et al. (2003) using direct field measure- block of the fault zone (Bredehoeft et al. ments and observations collected from 2005). Flow to the spring appears to flow in 1997 through 2001 at selected sites. Multi- the Paleozoic carbonate rocks on the north- spectral satellite-imagery data were used to east block of the fault near the discharge delineate areas of groundwater discharge area. According to Fridrich et al. (2003a by evapotranspiration on the valley floor. and 2003b), the groundwater discharg- The areas of evapotranspiration were ing from Furnace Creek spring complex divided into five types of areas based on crosses the southern Funeral Mountains soil type, soil moisture, vegetation type, several kilometers southeast of the spring and vegetation density. The evapotranspi- orifices. In transit to the discharge area, the ration areas, called ET units by DeMeo et Furnace Creek–Death Valley fault zone may al. (2003), were (1) salt-encrusted playa, provide permeable media for transmission (2) bare-soil playa, (3) low-density veg- of groundwater to the springs. The springs etation, (4) moderate-density vegetation, of the Grapevine, Staininger, and Surprise and (5) high-density vegetation. Annual complex emerge in or near carbonate evapotranspiration was computed from rock terrane. Sand and Little Sand springs micrometeorological data which were mea- emerge from alluvium overlying igneous sured continuously at six sites. The total intrusive rock. Sand and Little Sand springs evapotranspiration from the valley floor are springs of small flow, and their source includes discharge of groundwater, local may be local recharge to alluvial deposits. precipitation, and surface-water inflow. The groundwater discharge to Death Valley, de- Keane Wonder Spring emerges from the termined by deducting local precipitation upper Proterozoic and Lower Cambrian and surface water inflow to the valley floor rocks of the lower plate of the detachment from total evapotranspiration, is about 42.9 fault at the contact with upper plate of million cubic meters per year or 117,523 Tertiary sedimentary rocks. Keane Wonder m³/d (1,515 million ft³/yr or 4,149,737 ft³/d; Spring provides an example in which inter- DeMeo et al. 2003).

38 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada The estimate of valley floor discharge Cottonball, and Middle basins (fig. 9). includes local and regional springs that dis- Some areas where groundwater enters the charge at the valley floor. The discharge of valley are characterized by springs and the regional springs that issue above the val- growth of phreatophytes. In figure 9, the ley floor is not included in the valley floor segments of the valley floor are shown, evapotranspiration. The greatest portion from south to north, (1) Saratoga–Ama- of valley floor evapotranspiration, 47,720 rgosa River Valley Springs, (2) Amargosa m³/d (1,684,993 ft³/d) or about 40% of the River Valley, (3) Badwater Basin, (4) Middle total floor discharge, is from the bare soil Basin, (5) Cottonball Basin, and (6) Mes- and salt-encrusted playa of the Badwater, quite Flat.

Figure 9. Map showing Death Val- ley floor groundwater discharge areas. Modified from DeMeo et al. 2003 (fig. 4). Numbers refer to discharge areas and subareas discussed in text.

National Park Service 39 40 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Saratoga–Amargosa River Valley and volcanic rocks of relatively low eleva- Springs tion and are believed to provide small flow Saratoga Spring makes up a significant to the Amargosa River Valley. portion of the discharge in the Saratoga– Amargosa River Valley Springs area (fig. 9). Badwater Basin The evapotranspiration of this area is 8,311 Evapotranspiration from the Badwater m³/d (293,461 ft³/d; DeMeo et al. 2003). Basin is about 51,687 m³/d (1,825,068 ft³/d; The principal source of inflow for Saratoga DeMeo et al. 2003). The most concentrated Spring is regional flow in the Pahrump area of evapotranspiration is along the west Series (of the Lower Clastic and Carbon- margin of the valley floor at the base of the ate [ZPcc] rock unit). The two sources of Panamint Range. groundwater for evapotranspiration from the valley floor and Amargosa River Valley Inflow to the Badwater basin from the west Springs are regional groundwater flow that is concentrated along the strip of phre- supplies Saratoga Spring and groundwater atophytic growth and a line of springs on flow in the alluvium beneath the Amargosa the west side of the basin at the toe of the River. Panamint Range fans (fig. 9, area 3A) where an estimated 18,000 m³/d (635,580 ft³/d) is Amargosa River Valley discharged (DeMeo et al. 2003). Certainly The Amargosa River Valley discharges a large part of the groundwater inflow is groundwater by evapotranspiration prin- from recharge in the Panamint Range and cipally along the incised channel upstream infiltration of storm runoff to the alluvial from the Badwater Basin (fig. 9). The fans at the front of the range. That a part groundwater discharge in this section, of the inflow may be regional groundwater estimated to be 3,236 m³/d (114,263 ft³/d) from the west is suggested by the water by DeMeo et al. (2003), is thought to be budget reconnaissance of the Panamint ba- derived from groundwater inflow from sin that reveals recharge to Panamint basin the Amargosa Valley Springs section of the in excess of basin discharge (Bedinger and valley floor and groundwater inflow from Harrill 2006a). Regional flow may also be Photograph 12. Saline Marsh the Owlshead Mountains to the west and indicated by the groundwater temperature and phreatophytes at Eagle Borax of two wells reported by Miller (1977). One Spring. Groundwater discharge at southern Black Mountains to the east. The Eagle Borax Spring, at the west foot bordering terrane in the southern Black well, 16 meters (52.5 ft) in depth, at Eagle of the Panamint Mountains, forms a Mountains is in the complexly faulted Borax Spring was measured to be 28.5°C marsh; shallow groundwater is used by phreatophytes on the edge of Amargosa chaos described by Noble (1941) (83.3°F); the other well near Bennetts Well, the salt pan on the floor of Death and Troxel and Wright (1987). The Owls- 10 meters (32.8 ft) in depth, the groundwa- Valley. head Mountains are underlain by igneous ter was measured to be 29.5°C (85.1°F). Figure 10. Composite schematic diagram of groundwater flow, groundwater and soil salinity gradients, and plant species distribution in the mountain front–gravel fan–salt pan complex of Death Valley. Groundwater inflow from recharge in the mountain range and runoff infiltration on the fan mix and diffuse with inferred density- induced circulation cells in the saline groundwater beneath the salt pan. The progression of zones of plant species reflect the soil salinity, groundwater salinity, and depth to water gradients with distance from the salt pan. Phreatophytes, in descending order of salt tolerance, include pickleweed, p; saltgrass, s; arrowweed, a; and honey mesquite, m. Xerophytes include desert holly, h, and creosote bush, c, and occupy the zones of greater depth to water on the fan above the phreatophytes. Drawing not to scale. After Miller 1977, Harrill 1995b, and Hunt 1966.

National Park Service 41 The indicated depth of flow and tem- the Panamint Range and infiltration to the perature of groundwater in these wells are alluvial fan. near the common ranges considered to be indicative of regional flow (Bedinger and The Furnace Creek fan (fig. 9, area 4B), Harrill 2006a). A schematic transect from formed by deposition of coarse material the salt pan through the gravel fan to the carried down Furnace Creek by storm run- bedrock of the mountain range is depicted off, deserves special notice with respect to in figure 10 showing the relationships the source and the nature of the groundwa- between phreatophytes, groundwater and ter discharge at its surface. Evapotranspira- salinity of soils, and groundwater in the tion, 11,522 m³/d (406,842 ft³/d), is largely discharge area. by phreatophytic mesquite trees along distributary channels radiating from the Significant discharge occurs by phreato- mouth of Furnace Creek. Ephemeral runoff phytes at the foot of the Black Mountains contributes some recharge to the alluvial (fig. 9, area 3B). Small springs, including deposits of the lower reaches of Furnace Badwater Spring, are located at the toes of Creek and the fan. The primary source is small fans at the base of the mountains. The probably through surficial gravels and the inflow of groundwater is probably small alluvium of Furnace Creek that are fed by and derived from recharge in the meta- groundwater flow derived from the Funeral morphic and igneous rocks in the Black Formation, the source of Travertine and Mountains. Texas springs.

Middle Basin The groundwater conditions of the Fur- Evapotranspiration from the Middle Basin nace Creek fan are quite different com- is estimated by DeMeo et al. (2003) to be pared to the fans on the west side of the about 18,147 m³/d (640,771 ft³/d). Evapo- Badwater Basin. Phreatophytic growth in transpiration from the toe of the northern the distributary channels of Furnace Creek Panamint Range fan (fig. 9, area 4A) is fan indicates a relatively shallow water table about 2,000 m³/d (70,620 ft³/d); there are no beneath the fan. Evapotranspiration on the springs in this area. Groundwater inflow to west side of the basin is from the toe of the the area is from local recharge in the car- fan rather than the area up on the fan. bonate and clastic rocks (ZPcc and PMc) of

Photograph 13. Coyote Wells Spring. Coyote Wells Spring is a small spring at the foot of the Black Mountains looking over the Death Valley salt pan with Panamint Mountains in the distance.

42 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Cottonball Basin Salt Spring (115) and Sulfur Spring (116). Cottonball basin is an ovoidal playa of fine Numerous small springs, East Salt Springs silt, clay, and salt with springs and saline (240-270) and Buckboard Springs (271- water pools. DeMeo et al. (2003) estimate 312), issue from a spring area that extends evapotranspiration from Cottonball basin along the eastern margin of Cottonball to be 10,224 m³/d (361,009 ft³/d). Springs Basin (fig. 12, area 5B). Evapotranspiration issue on the west side in Cottonball Marsh occurs from the fine-grained sediments and at the foot of Tucki Mountain. Seventy or salt crust of the playa. more small springs issue from the margin of the playa on the east side. The high salinity Mesquite Flat of the pools is not attributed to the dis- Mesquite Flat is a broad area of low-lying charging groundwater but to the solution basin fill through which Death Valley Wash of evaporite deposits in the playa sedi- drains. The area is characterized by rela- ments. tively shallow groundwater and widespread growth of phreatophytes. There are few Evapotranspiration on the west side of springs in the upper, broad part of the ba- Cottonball Marsh (fig. 9, area 5A) is from sin. Groundwater discharge is primarily

Photograph 14 (above). Furnace Creek Fan. Radiating channels in the Furnace Creek alluvial fan are marked by growths of mesquite trees, phreatophytes that tap the shallow water table beneath the fan. Salt Creek in left foreground. Photograph by Marli Miller.

Photograph 15 (right). Salt Creek. Flow of Salt Creek is spring discharge of groundwater from Mesquite Flat. Springs are caused by uplift of Tertiary playa silts and clays of the Furnace Creek Formation at Salt Hills. The Furnace Creek Forma- tion is exposed on the left side of stream.

National Park Service 43 Figure 11. Map showing locations by evapotranspiration, estimated by charge area for groundwater outflow from of regional springs above the valley floor of Death Valley. DeMeo et al. (2003) to be about 29,002 Saline Valley (Bedinger and Harrill 2006a). m³/d (1,024,061 ft³/d). In the lower part of Mesquite Flat, per- Groundwater supporting phreatophyte meable alluvial deposits are restricted by growth on the west side of Mesquite Flat a structural uplift of the underlying low (fig.9, area 6A) is regional flow and lo- permeability Furnace Creek Formation. A cal recharge to the adjoining Grapevine channel is incised in the Funeral Formation Mountains. where it drains to Cottonball Basin. In the channel section (fig. 9, area 6C), phreato- Groundwater on the west side of Mesquite phyte growth is abundant and perennial Flat (fig. 9, area 6B) is derived in part from springs discharge giving rise to Salt Creek. local recharge in the Cottonwood Moun- The discharge of Salt Creek is discussed in tains. This area may be the principal dis- a later section on valley floor springs.

44 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Regional Spring Discharge above (1977). Laczniak et al. (2006) made evapo- the Valley Floor transpiration estimates in spring areas The regional springs that issue above the based on field instrumentation and aerial valley floor are shown in figure 11. Esti- imagery. The total estimated groundwater mates of discharge, given in table 5, are discharge from the Grapevine, Staininger, based on flow measurements reported by Surprise, Texas, and Travertine springs was Rush (1968), Miller (1977), La Camera and derived by R. J. Laczniak (written com- Westenberg (1994), Hale and Westenberg munication, 2006) from his observations at (1995), Westenberg and La Camera (1996), the spring areas including high-resolution La Camera et al. (1996), La Camera and multi-spectral imagery, micrometeoro- Locke (1997), and San Juan et al. (2004). logical data, discharge measurements, and Estimates of groundwater loss from evapo- evapotranspiration estimates (Laczniak et transpiration by local riparian vegetation al. 2006) at the spring areas. in spring areas has been reported by Miller

Table 5. Discharge of regional springs above the valley floor Discharge spring-flow Evapotranspiration Total Groundwater measurements and estimates. (Laczniak et al. 2006) Discharge Spring (m³/d) (m³/d) (m³/d) Staininger 1,035¹ 165 1,200⁶ Grapevine 2,450¹ 1,367 1,367⁶ Surprise 228³ 30 258⁶ Texas 1,220¹ 81 1,301⁶ Travertine 4,630¹ 154 4,784⁶ Nevares 1,885¹’² 1,885 Cow Creek, Salt 125² 125 Mesquite 7 7³’⁴ Keane Wonder 360 360³ Navel 11 11³ Sand 65 65 Little Sand 6 6³ Ibex 1.5 1.5³ Superior Mine Tank B 1.5 1.5³ Total 11,247

¹From compilation of published and unpublished spring flow by San Juan et al. (2004). Estimates of discharge of Staininger Spring are based on measurements by Miller (1977) and Rush (1968). The estimate of Grapevine Spring is based on estimates originally made by Miller (1977) on the basis of discharge measurements made at a few accessible springs and a cursory quantification of evapotranspiration. Estimate of Texas Spring discharge is from measurements reported in La Camera and Westenberg (1994), Hale and Westenberg (1995), Westenberg and La Camera (1996), La Camera et al. (1996), and La Camera and Locke (1997).

²San Juan et al. (2004) from Pistrang and Kunkel (1964). San Juan et al. (2004) report the discharge of Nevares Spring by Pistrang and Kunkel (1964) includes the flow of Cow Creek and Salt Springs.

³National Park Service spring survey 2005.

⁴Includes Mesquite Springs (605–608) and nearby related springs (578, 579, 580, 581, 609–613, 623, and 670). (Numbers in parentheses refer to the spring number in the Appendix).

⁵Discharge reported by San Juan et al. (2004) is based on flow estimates of a few springs and an estimate of evapotranspiration by Miller (1977). The evapotranspiration estimate reported by Laczniak et al. (2006) is considered to be accurate and supersedes the estimate of Miller (1977).

⁶R. J. Laczniak (written communication, 2006).

National Park Service 45 Recharge to Death Valley decreases. A part of the precipitation that Precipitation, the source of recharge to falls within the Death Valley hydrologic groundwater in the Death Valley region, is basin (basin 243 of figure 12) infiltrates and closely related to elevation. The lapse rate recharges the groundwater flow system. of precipitation with altitude in the Death (The hydrologic basins shown on figure 12 Valley region has been defined by Row- are listed in table 6.) A part of the recharge lands (1993) from weather station data. As discharges from upland springs, and a part the precipitation increases with altitude the discharges from the valley floor. potential evapotranspiration concomitantly

Figure 12. Map of Death Valley region showing hydrologic basins.

46 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Table 6. Hydrologic basins in the Death Valley flow system Number Name Number Name 117 Fish Lake Valley 250 Deep Springs Valley 144 Lida Valley 251 Eureka Valley 146 Sarcobatus Flat 252 Saline Valley 147 Gold Flat 253 Racetrack Valley area 148 Cactus Flat 254 Darwin Plateau B. 158A Emigrant Valley 255 Panament Valley 159 Yucca Flat 256 Searles Valley 160 Frenchman Flat 257 E. Pilot Knob & Brown Mt. V. 161 Indian Springs Valley 258 Lost Lake–Owl Lake V. 162 Pahrump Valley 259 Leach Valley 163 Mesquite Valley 260 Red Pass Valley 164B Southern Ivanpah Valley 261 Riggs Valley 170 Penoyer Valley 262 Soda Lake Valley 173A S. Railroad Valley 263 Kelso Valley 211 Three Lakes Valley (southern) 264 Cronise Valley 225 Mercury Valley 265 Bicycle Valley 226 Rock Valley 266 Goldstone Valley 227A Jackass Flat 267 Superior Valley 227B Buckboard Mesa 268 Coyote Lake Valley 228 Oasis Valley 269 Lower Mojave River Valley 229 Crater Flat 270 Lucerne Valley 230 Amargosa Desert 271 Upper Mojave River Valley 240 Chicago Valley 272 Middle Mojave River Valley 241 California Valley 273 Harper Valley 242 Lower Amargosa Desert 274 Antelope Valley 243 Death Valley 275 Fremont Valley 244 Valjean Valley 276 Cuddleback Valley 245 Shadow Mountain Valley 277 Indian Wells Valley 247 Adobe Lake Valley 278 Rose Valley 248 Long Valley 249 Owens Valley

National Park Service 47 Photograph 16. Travertine mound Maxey and Eakin (1949) developed an Walker and Eakin 1963, Malmberg 1967, at Nevares Spring. Nevares Spring, issuing on the travertine mound empirical relationship between elevation and Harrill 1986). Notwithstanding the (white) built from deposition of and recharge in the Great Basin of Nevada. imperfections and limitations, the Maxey– carbonate from the spring waters. Travertine Spring issues along a Maxey and Eakin assigned recharge as a Eakin method retains a useful practicality. fault from the Cambrian Bonanza percentage of precipitation at elevation The method has been employed in several King Formation, shown in the back- intervals beginning with three percent of landmark quantitative regional studies of ground, at the foot of the Funeral Mountains. Photograph from C. B. precipitation at the elevation interval of groundwater in the Great Basin (Eakin et Hunt, USGS files. 1,524 to 1,829 meters (5,000 to 6,000 ft). al. 1976, Harrill et al. 1988, Prudic et al. The Maxey–Eakin method has been justifi- 1995, and Dettinger et al. 1995). Further ably criticized for its lack of precision and endorsement of the method is the weight technical sophistication (Avon and Durbin accorded the Maxey–Eakin water budget 1994). However, during its development analyses of basins in groundwater adjudica- the Maxey–Eakin method was calibrated by tions by the Nevada State Engineer. balancing the recharge estimates with measurements of discharge for single closed D’Agnese et al. (1997) adapted the altitude basins and multiple basin systems with in- interval–recharge concept of the Maxey– terbasin flow. During the 50 years since its Eakin method to incorporate empirical re- development, water budgets for most of the charge ratings for soil–parent rock perme- closed basins in Nevada have been made ability, slope–aspect, and vegetation zones. using the Maxey–Eakin method. Recharge While the basin recharge estimates using in many basins has also been estimated the modification of D’Agnese et al. appear using a modified recharge–altitude relation to be based on rational and logical technical to reflect local conditions (Miller 1977, criteria, there is no discussion by the

48 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada authors of what, if any, calibration proce- water–balance approach that includes the dures were made to verify the accuracy or distributed parameters of precipitation, po- calibrate the method. Recharge estimates tential evapotranspiration, soil and bedrock for 25 basins by D’Agnese et al. (1997, table storage, and permeability. The basin charac- 11) are 30% greater than Maxey–Eakin terization model provides for character- estimates for the Death Valley flow system. izing basins on the basis of characteristics However, estimates for individual basin dif- that determine the temporal and spatial fer by multiples of -3.4 to +11. Recharge es- variability of recharge and runoff, but the timates for the Death Valley hydrologic ba- basin characterization model is not deemed sin (243) by both the Maxey–Eakin method accurate enough to be used for assessment and by D’Agnese et al. (1997) are reported of water availability (Flint et al. 2004). to be 32,400 m³/d (1,144,044 ft³/d). Table 7 summarizes the estimates that have Studies were made to develop a basin been made of recharge to the Death Valley characterization model to determine spatial hydrologic basin (243) shown in figure 12. and temporal variability of recharge (Hevesi These estimates are only for direct recharge et al. 2002, Hevesi et al. 2003, and Flint to basin 243 and do not include ground- et al. 2004). The basin characterization water inflow to basin 243 from adjacent model uses a mathematical deterministic basins.

Table 7. Estimates of recharge to Death Valley Method/Investigator Recharge (m³/d) Maxey–Eakin Method/ 32,400 D’Agnese et al. (1997)

D’Agnese Method/ 32,400 D’Agnese et al. (1997)

Maxey–Eakin Method/ 27,036 Flint et al. (2004)

Maxey–Eakin Method modified by 27,017 Constants of Rantz and Eakin/ in Miller (1977) and Hevesi et al. (2003)

Basin Characterization Model, Range of various versions/ 20,705 to 205,992 Hevesi et al. (2002) and Flint et al. (2004)

The results of the various versions of the and lack of precision and relevance of GIS basin characterization model reflect both factors in model application. Following model calculations based on mean and time the recommendation of Flint et al. (2004), series of climate factors as well as differenc- basin–characterization–model results are es in computational design of the models. not used directly in selecting a value for The basin characterization model results recharge to the Death Valley Basin. Accord- are presented to demonstrate a sense of the ingly, the estimates of recharge based on variability of recharge due to temporal cli- Maxey–Eakin method are considered the matic factors, problems inherent in concep- best available estimates of recharge. tual modeling of mechanisms of recharge,

National Park Service 49 Groundwater Budget Components The Total Groundwater Inflow to Death for Death Valley Valley Basin: The total inflow to Death In this section we account for the ground- Valley is valley floor evapotranspiration, water flow components for Death Valley 120,000 m³/d (4,237,200 ft³/d), plus dis- basin (basin 243, fig. 12) This accounting charge from regional springs above the will provide an assessment of the source valley floor, 11,000 m³/d (388,410 ft³/d), for and quantity of the groundwater flow in a total of 131,000 m³/d (4,625,610 ft³/d). Death Valley. Because of the approximate values for the components, we round the The Regional Flow to Death Valley Basin²: components to one or, at most, two signifi- This flow to Death Valley basin from cant figures. beyond the boundaries of basin 243 is approximated as the Death Valley Valley Floor Discharge: Groundwater flow floor evapotranspiration, 120,000 m³/d to Death Valley is ultimately discharged (4,237,200 ft³/d), minus the recharge to by evapotranspiration at the valley floor. Death Valley basin that is not discharged as The evapotranspiration at the valley floor upland springs, 29,000 m³/d (936,990 ft³/d), was estimated by DeMeo et al. (2003) as plus the discharge of regional springs that 120,000 m³/d (4,237,200 ft³/d). issue above the valley floor, 11,000 m³/d (388,410 ft³/d). This gives a total regional Discharge of Regional Springs Above the inflow of about 100,000 m³/d (3,531,000 Valley Floor¹: Regional springs above the ft³/d). valley floor discharge is about 11,000 m³/d (388,410 ft³/d). Flow to Death Valley Basin from Califor- nia and Nevada: Regional inflow to Death Groundwater Discharge to Death Valley Valley from California has been estimated Basin: As discussed in the previous section, by Bedinger and Harrill (2006a) to be about recharge to the Death Valley basin is esti- 30,000 m³/d (1,059,300 ft³/d). Regional mated to be about 30,000 m³/d (1,059,300 inflow from Nevada is estimated as total ft³/d). Part of this recharge is discharged regional inflow, 100,000 m³/d (3,531,000 from upland (non-regional) springs and ft³/d), minus inflow from California, or does not reach the valley floor. From the about 70,000 m³/d (2,471,700 ft³/d). small rate of flow of upland springs and the number of springs in the basin, less than 800, we estimate this total discharge to be about 1,000 m³/d (35,310 ft³/d).

¹San Juan et al. (2010) estimated groundwater inflow to Death Valley as the sum evapotranspiration from the valley floor of Death Valley (San Juan et al. 2010, fig. C-2) plus the discharge of regional springs that issue at elevations above the valley floor. San Juan et al. (2010) recognized that the method might account twice for that part of the flow of valley-margin springs that infiltrates into surficial sediments downstream from the spring orifices and flows to the valley floor. They considered this component to be small, reasoning that most of the water discharged from valley-margin springs is lost by evaporation or transpiration before reaching the sediments beneath the valley floor.

²San Juan et al. (2010) consider all valley floor evapotranspiration as regional flow. However, the regional springs include a minor component of local recharge and groundwater beneath the valley floor includes a component of recharge that occurs within Death Valley basin. In the present report we account for evapotranspiration at the valley floor derived from recharge within the basin. In our calculations of groundwater inflow to Death Valley, we have estimated the magnitude of these two components and separated regional flow from flow that originates in Death Valley basin.

50 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Springs of Death Valley National Park and their Hydrogeologic Settings

Records of springs collected by National are the surface emergence of concentrated Park Service personnel date back to the groundwater flow, rather than the surface 1930s. In the 1940s, Frank B. and Florence intersection of a widespread saturated E. Welles began collecting and establish- horizon along which diffuse flow might ing a permanent file of spring records of occur, as to a lake or stream. Much of the Death Valley National Monument. In the discharge of groundwater to the Death late 1950s, they entered into a contract Valley floor is not concentrated at springs with the NPS to locate springs and compile but is widely dispersed as seepage from the records of all known springs in the Monu- adjacent mountain blocks and alluvial fans. ment. Their report dated September 1959 Three conditions are required to produce was entitled Preliminary Study of Wildlife a spring: (1) a barrier to continued sub- Water Resources in Death Valley National surface flow of groundwater, (2) a conduit Monument. The record of each spring was along which flow is concentrated, and (3) a entered on a standard form with provision hydraulic head to bring the groundwater to for recording information on location; flow; the surface. vegetation; condition of springs; signs and observations of wildlife; length, depth and In this report, springs of Death Valley are width of flow; and developments and main- discussed in three categories: regional tenance. Particular emphasis was noted on springs above the valley floor, upland use of springs by animals and activities at springs, and valley floor springs. Regional the springs by burros that often degraded springs originate from recharge distant the conditions and were considered det- from Death Valley and are conveyed by rimental to the needs of bighorn sheep. In regional interbasin flow to Death Valley. the years following the Welles and Welles Upland springs are those that occur above compilation, the unpublished records of the Death Valley floor and have as their individual springs were updated as oppor- source infiltration of precipitation that tunity arose, and additional springs were falls in the immediate surrounding area added to the inventory as they were dis- at higher elevation. Upland springs issue covered. In September 1988 the spring list from local flow systems above the regional was updated, which then contained records flow system. Valley floor springs issue from of 289 springs. A comprehensive survey of the Death Valley playa or at low elevations springs by the Great Basin Institute (Jacobs bordering the playa. These springs may be 2005) enumerates about 1000 springs in derived from local recharge in the Death Death Valley National Park. This survey Valley hydrologic basin, regional flow, or a is not complete, but available data on the combination of regional and local flow. springs are given in the Appendix. The Great Basin Institute survey of springs is Regional Springs Above the being refined. The final list of springs will Valley Floor probably be less than 800 because (1) the Regional springs discharge interbasin winter of 2004/2005 when the survey was groundwater flow. The groundwater flow made was extraordinarily wet and many to these springs also typically travels at ephemeral water discharge areas were depth beneath shallow circulation cells improperly called springs and (2) in spring of groundwater. As a result of the flow at complexes, several nearby orifices will be depth, the temperatures of regional springs combined as a single spring. are geothermally elevated above the ambient air temperature. The chemical and Various investigators have devised schemes isotope signatures of the regional spring for categorizing the origin and occurrence waters reflect the chemistry of the ground- of springs. They may be based on topo- water in the distant source areas and the graphic position, structural and geologic strata of the flow system. Geochemistry has setting, or other criteria. Basically, springs been used to support the concept of an

National Park Service 51 interbasin source of regional springs in the (7,064 ft) in the Saline Range and 2,544 Great Basin by many investigators including meters (8,347 ft) in the Dry Mountain Winograd and Thordarson (1975), Thomas Range. The springs, 100 to 200 meters (328 et al. (1996), and Steinkampf and Werrell to 656 ft) above the playa lake in Saline Val- (2001). ley, include Lower Warm Springs (springs 677–680, Appendix), Lower Warm Springs There is believed to be a small compo- South Shelf (364–372), Palm Spring (676), nent of local recharge in some regional Upper Warm Springs (668–669), and Upper springs; for example the springs at Furnace Warm Mesquite Spring (670). The warmest Creek and Travertine, Texas, and Nevares spring measurements range from 34.6° to springs probably discharge some ground- 47.1°C (94.3° to 116.8°F). water from recharge in the nearby Funeral Mountains. Mase et al. (1979) calculate geothermal heat flow from wells in Saline Valley ranges Regional springs that issue above the valley from 1.24 to 2.08 hfu (heat flow units) with floor are shown in figure 11. These springs a mean of 1.6 hfu. The geothermal gradi- discharge at elevations a few tens of meters ent in five boreholes in Saline Valley ranges to a few hundred meters above the valley from 3.0°C/100 meters to 4.9°C/100 meters floor. (5.4°F/328 ft to 8.8°F/328 ft; Mase et al. 1979). The authors conclude that the heat Keane Wonder Springs discharge at Saline Valley can be accounted Keane Wonder Spring, discharging about for by heat transfer to groundwater circu- 150 L/min (39.6 gal/min), emerges from lating to a depth of 1,000 meters (3,281 ft). the Middle Member of the Crystal Spring The most recent igneous activity at Saline Formation of the Pahrump Series (Troxel Valley is dated as Pliocene; therefore, it is and Wright 1989), a part of the Lower too old to be the heat sources for the mod- Clastic and Carbonate rock unit (ZPcc). ern springs (Mase et al. 1979). The Middle Member of the Crystal Spring Formation is described by Troxel and Furnace Creek Springs Complex Wright (1989) as mostly calcite marble. The hydrogeologic system providing the Lower Clastic and Carbonate rocks (ZPcc) flow of springs at Furnace Creek has been form the core of the northern Funeral recently described and analyzed by Brede- Mountains. The spring is located near the hoeft, Fridrich, Jansen, and King (Inyo trace of a detachment fault overlain by County Yucca Mountain Repository As- Tertiary rocks. The chemistry of the water sessment Office 2005) and Fridrich, Blakely, (Steinkampf and Werrell 2001), topo- and Thompson (2003a and 2003b). These graphic setting, and the spring elevation in studies propose groundwater flow through relation to the regional hydraulic gradient the Paleozoic and Mesozoic carbon- indicate the source of the water is regional ate rocks (PMc) of the southern Funeral groundwater flow from the northeast. The Mountains supplying the spring flow at low flow of the spring, absence of other Texas (931), Travertine (880–885 and regional springs in similar hydrogeologic 936–940), Nevares (872–876, 934, and 935), settings of the Funeral Mountains, and the and Salt and Cow Creek springs (414 and water chemistry lead Steinkampf and Wer- 416–423). Flow from the Amargosa Desert rell (2001) to surmise that the Proterozoic southwest through the southern Funeral core of the Funeral Mountains transmits Mountains is supported by detailed geo- meager regional flow to Death Valley. logic mapping and regional groundwater potential (Fridrich et al. 2003a and 2003b). Saline Valley Hot Springs From the southern Funeral Mountains, Several warm springs emerge from fill in the groundwater flows northwest through the structural basin of Saline Valley between carbonate rocks parallel and northeast Dry Mountain Range on the east and Saline of the Death Valley–Furnace Creek fault Range on the west. Recharge for the springs toward the regional springs in the Furnace could be from either adjacent range where Creek area. At least part of the fault zone is peaks attain elevations of 2,153 meters inferred to be permeable and possibly

52 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figure 13. Schematic cross section acting as a medium of conveyance allow- Furnace Creek fault. The Bonanza King of Furnace Creek basin from Funeral Mountains to Death Valley salt pan ing groundwater to flow across or from the Formation appears to be terminated to the showing hydrogeologic setting of fault zone to Travertine and Texas springs. west of the spring by Cenozoic rocks on Travertine and Texas springs. Texas Spring is located about 1.2 miles the downthrown block of a normal fault (1.9 km) NW of this section. Texas Interbasin flow of groundwater through (Troxel and Wright 1989). and Travertine springs emerge on carbonate rocks in the southern Funeral the trace of the Echo Canyon Thrust (ECT) where groundwater flow is Mountains is supported by the chemical, Grapevine, Staininger, Surprise impeded by thinning of gravel beds radioisotope, and rare earth signatures Springs Complex in alluvium and Funeral Formation and by low permeability beds of the of the water (Winograd and Thordarson Grapevine Springs (131–133, 533–563, 614, Furnace Creek Formation. Flows to 1975, Thomas et al. 1996, Johannesson et and 615) emerge well above the floor of the springs is from interbasin flow through Paleozoic carbonate rocks al. 1997, and Steikampf and Werrell 2001). Death Valley on the up-hydraulic-gradient in the southern Funeral Range. Part Travertine and Texas springs, which emerge side of the Death Valley–Furnace Creek of the interbasin flow enters the near Furnace Creek Ranch, are strati- fault. The groundwater upgradient of the Funeral Formation and overlying alluvium giving rise to Travertine and graphically controlled by the contact of the fault is possibly held at a high level by low Texas springs and part continues to water-bearing Tertiary gravel of the Funeral permeability fault gouge and/or low perme- flow northwest to Nevares Spring (not shown, located about 4.5 miles Formation with the underlying clay of the ability Cenozoic deposits downgradient of [7.2 km] NW of this section) where Furnace Creek Formation (fig. 13). The the fault. Staininger Spring (457) and Sur- the carbonate rocks are terminated by faulting. ECT, Echo Canyon springs discharge at the eroded southwest prise Spring (458 and 520–527) issue from Thrust; Qsl, saline lake beds of limb end of a southeast plunging syncline Paleozoic carbonate rocks (unit PMc, fig. Death Valley; Qal, alluvium; Tfc, Fur- nace Creek Formation; QTf, Funeral in the basin fill deposits of Tertiary age. Ne- 5). Surprise Spring issues above an outcrop Formation; PMc, Paleozoic carbon- vares Spring discharges groundwater that of low permeability older basin fill (unit ate rocks. After Hunt and Mabey traverses further westward in carbonate Cvb, fig. 5) and Staininger Spring rises from 1966, McAllister 1970, Machette et al. 2000, Inyo County Yucca Moun- rocks of the northeast plate of the Death carbonate rocks underlying the channel of tain Repository Assessment Office Valley–Furnace Creek fault. The spring creek in Grapevine Canyon. Groundwater 2005, and Fridrich et al. 2003b. emerges from the Bonanza King Forma- at Staininger Spring is collected for use at tion, a unit of the carbonate rock sequence, the Scotty’s Castle Visitor Center. Ground- unit PMc of figure 5, near the juxtaposition water at Surprise Spring is collected for use of the formation with Cenozoic rocks on at the park’s Grapevine housing area and the southwest block of the Death Valley– ranger station.

National Park Service 53 Photograph 17. Ibex Spring. Ibex Mesquite Springs Complex and the source of the springs may be in Spring is a small spring in the Ibex Hills north of Saratoga Spring. The Mesquite Springs (605-508) rises in a part local recharge to alluvial deposits from elevation of the spring in relation to marshy area of the Death Valley Wash which the springs discharge. the regional potentiometric surface indicates its source is regional flow. about 60 kilometers (37 mi) upstream from Cottonball Basin (fig. 16). One of the Ibex and Superior Mine Tank B springs is dug out and boxed to collect wa- Springs ter for a nearby camping area. The springs The Superior Mine Tank B Spring (585) are a few kilometers south of the latitude of and Ibex Springs (586 and 587) are near Surprise Spring. The source of the spring and northeast of Saratoga Spring. Saratoga may be regional inflow from Nevada with Spring, a regional spring, is discussed under a component of recharge from within the heading of valley floor springs. The the Death Valley hydrologic basin. Miller springs are in the structural zone of Sara- (1977) reports the flow of the spring to be toga Spring in the Pahrump Series rocks. 34 liters per minute (9 gal/min). The location and elevation of the springs in relation to the regional groundwater Sand and Little Sand Springs head (plate 1) suggest the springs may be Sand (508–515) and Little Sand springs of regional flow origin. The potential local (516 and 517) are located on the Furnace catchment area of the springs, being less Creek–Death Valley Fault. The springs are than 1,500 m (4,922 ft) above sea level, above the floor of Death Valley Wash on indicates low precipitation and recharge in the upgradient side of the fault indicating the nearby area. There are no temperature the fault is a barrier to groundwater flow in and chemical data to evaluate the source of this location. The springs are of small flow, the springs.

54 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Devils Hole and Ash Meadows the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, encom- Complex passes 2,300 acres (931 ha) of spring-fed Devils Hole is adjacent to Ash Meadows wetlands providing habitat for about 25 National Wildlife Refuge in southwestern endemic species. Devils Hole is an active Nevada (fig. 14). In 1952 a 40-acre (16.2- extensional fault opening, enlarged by col- ha) tract of land containing Devils Hole lapse near the surface, in the limestone hills was incorporated into the Death Valley above Ash Meadows. Devils Hole is a pool National Monument as a detached manage- about 15 meters (49.2 ft) below the surface, ment area. The area is currently a part of connected at great depth to the underly- Death Valley National Park. Ash Meadows ing regional carbonate aquifer. The pool is National Wildlife Refuge, a reservation of home to the endangered endemic species

Figure 14. Map showing location of Devils Hole, Ash Meadows groundwater subbasin, and pumping centers of southwest Nevada.

National Park Service 55 Photograph 18 (above). Crystal of desert pupfish Cyprinodon diabolis. Ash Meadows is the major area of natu- Spring. Crystal Spring is one of several large springs that discharge The population feeds and reproduces on a ral discharge of groundwater in the Ash from carbonate rocks of the Death slightly submerged rock ledge. Devils Hole Meadows groundwater subbasin (fig. 15). Valley groundwater flow system in Ash Meadows. Ash Meadows is an is a window to the Death Valley ground- The water moves southward and westward intermediate discharge area of the water flow system; the aquifer is the source through faults and solution channels in the Death Valley flow system. Photo- of the nearby large springs of Ash Mead- Paleozoic carbonate rocks of the ground- graph by A. Van Luik. ows. water subbasin to Ash Meadows where it Photograph 19 (right). Devils Hole pupfish (Cyprinodon diabolis). Devils Hole, a collapse depression in lime- The water level in Devils Hole, the natural stone hills adjacent to Ash Meadow environment of the endangered Devils National Wildlife Refuge, contains a warm-water pool that is the home Hole pupfish, and the spring flow and wet- of a unique species of endangered land habitat of Ash Meadows are subject to pupfish, Cyprinodon diabolis. The depletion by withdrawal of groundwater in population feeds and reproduces on a slightly submerged rock ledge. the region (Bedinger and Harrill 2006). In 1952 a 40-acre (16.2-ha) tract of land containing Devils Hole was incorporated into the Death Valley National Monument as a detached management area. The area is currently a part of Death Valley Na- tional Park.

56 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figure 15. Cross section showing flows across bounding faults into the basin- grained, generally lack travertine and con- hydrogeologic setting of Devils Hole and Ash Meadows springs. After fill sediments. In Ash Meadows groundwa- tinental limestone deposits, and are gener- Bedinger and Harrill 2006b, Dudley ter discharge is by springs and evapotrans- ally not productive for high capacity wells and Larson 1976, Winograd and Thordarson 1975, and Carr 1991. piration of shallow groundwater from an (Dudley and Larson 1976). Here also, the area about 3.2 by 16 kilometers (2 by 10 mi) water table is near the land surface and the long, bordering the limestone upland. The fluctuations of the water table are largely westward extent of the spring discharge controlled by evapotranspiration and local area has been called the “spring line” by recharge. Probably a large portion of the Dudley and Larson (1976). The springs Ash Meadows subbasin flow discharges are inferred to be controlled by faulting. at Ash Meadows. The groundwater in the West of the spring line, the alluvial materi- basin fill at Ash Meadows is tributary to the als in the upper basin-fill deposits are fine alluvium of the Amargosa Desert.

National Park Service 57 Figure 16. Map showing location of Valley Floor Springs type similar to the groundwater of Nevares, springs on the floor of Death Valley. Valley floor springs are shown in figure 16. Texas, and Travertine springs.

Cottonball Basin Salt Spring and Sulfur Spring Hunt and Robinson (1960) reveal that the The springs of Cottonball Marsh on the chemistries of the east and west side spring west side of Cottonball Basin are Salt waters are quite different and provide Spring (915) and Sulfur Spring (916). Thre- a basis for ascribing their sources. The loff (written communication, 6 November spring water chemistry on the west side is 1993) records the temperature of Salt of sodium sulfate type similar to the water Spring as 33.5°C (92.3°F). Hunt et al. (1966) at Mesquite Flat. The water chemistry of describes the springs as aligned along faults the east side springs is calcium bicarbonate oriented in the direction of Mesquite Flat

58 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada to the north of the marsh. Hunt et al. (1966) Salt Creek Springs estimate the flow of Cottonball Marsh to be McLean Spring (238) and Salt Creek Spring 42.5 liters per second (11.2 gal/s). (239) (fig. 16) issue from the channel of Salt Creek in the Salt Creek Hills, an uplift Thermal properties of the Cottonball of the low permeability Furnace Creek Marsh springs, the thermal wells at Stove- Formation (Hunt et al. 1966, B19). The pipe Wells, and the related geochemical discharge of Salt Creek Springs is believed properties of the waters suggest that the derived from groundwater from Mesquite groundwater in the west portion of Cotton- Flat. The regional groundwater flow to ball Basin is regional flow from either Saline Mesquite Flat, as indicated by the regional Valley or Panamint Valley, both of which potential contours (plate 1), would be from contribute regional flow to Death Valley adjacent basins—Saline and Eureka valleys and are up-regional-gradient from Cotton- to the west, and Lida Valley and Sarcobatus ball Marsh (Bedinger and Harrill 2006a). Flat to the east. Daily discharge measure- The perennial pools of the springs on the ments of Salt Creek are given in Lamb and west side of Cottonball Basin contain a Downing (1979) during water years 1974 population of desert pupfish (Cyprinodon to 1977. Flow of Salt Creek is continuously salinus), the same species that lives in Salt sustained by the discharge of Salt Creek Creek, 16 kilometers (10 mi) to the north. Springs. Monthly mean flows vary season- ally with flows in winter months being as East Salt Spring and Buckboard Spring much as 1,715 m³/d (60,557 ft³d), about About 73 springs are aligned along the four times greater than the low monthly east margin of Cottonball Basin (East Salt mean flows of the summer. The flow is vir- Springs, 240–270, and Buckboard Springs, tually all base flow, groundwater discharge, 271-312). These springs on the east margin with an occasional runoff peak from a of the basin appear to be regional inflow. A local storm. The reduced summer flow local source for the springs is considered represents the loss of groundwater by the to be limited because of the low potential greater seasonal evapotranspiration from for recharge in the Tertiary deposits in the the alluvial groundwater basin upstream of area adjoining Funeral Mountains. Hunt the gauging station and riparian vegetation et al. (1966, B29) describe the groundwater along the channel. source of the springs as being confined by fine-grained sediments—silts and clays— that make up the confining bed. The surface expressions of these conduits are tube-like openings ranging in size from the diameter of a pencil to about five centimeters (2 in). Hunt et al. (1966) describe the confined response of these springs to barometric pressure and the flow, 3.8 to 7.6 liters per hour (1 to 2 gal/hr).

National Park Service 59 Photograph 20. Saratoga Spring. Saratoga Spring Amargosa River Valley Springs The Saratoga Springs pupfish lives only in Saratoga Spring ponds. Five Steinkampf and Werrell (2001) consid- Amargosa River Valley Springs (616 and rare invertebrate species also oc- ered Saratoga Spring (892) to be derived 617) issue from the channel of the Ama- cur at Saratoga Spring and include the Amargosa tryonia snail, the from regional flow on the basis of water rgosa River about eight km northwest of Amargosa spring snail, the Saratoga chemistry. Steinkampf and Werrell (2001) Saratoga Springs. Hunt et al. (1966) ascribe Springs belostoma bug, the Amar- gosa naucorid bug, and the Death ascribe the source of Saratoga Spring to the the springs as a rising of groundwater from Valley June beetle. The first four southern Spring Mountains on the basis of the alluvium of the Amargosa River over species are strictly aquatic in nature a structural barrier. The barrier is fine- and live only in Saratoga Spring. geochemistry of the water. The chemistry The June beetle lives on land, but and setting of Saratoga Spring and Keane grained lacustrine deposits of Tertiary age, its distribution is limited to saltgrass Wonder Spring, also a regional spring dis- probably correlative with the barrier at Salt habitats where shallow groundwater is present. The June beetle and cussed earlier in this report, are similar in Springs on Salt Creek above the Cotton- both snail species have distribu- that they emerge from the Pahrump Series ball Basin. The springs are assumed to be tions which are entirely confined to the Amargosa River drainage. Five of Proterozoic age and the water chemis- derived largely from regional groundwater notable bird species are known to try indicates flow through hydrothermally flow and recharge along the Amargosa occur at Saratoga Spring: the yel- low warbler, the Cooper’s hawk, altered terrane which contributes complex River upstream from the springs. Regional the western snowy plover, the long- water chemistry (Steinkampf and Werrell flow to the springs is believed to be from billed curlew, and the long-eared the lower clastic and carbonate rocks owl. All of these species have been 2001). placed on state or federal sensitive (ZPcc) that supply flow to Saratoga Spring. species lists because of habitat loss Groundwater is conveyed to Saratoga The springs are not situated (plate 1) at a or population declines across their geographic ranges. Saratoga Spring Spring from the recharge area in the Spring propitious location to be supplied by re- is also unique in that it is one of the Mountains to Death Valley principally in gional flow from the southwest. The other few locations in the park where red- spotted toads and Pacific tree frogs the Paleozoic and Mesozoic carbonate avenue of regional inflow is the ground- occur in the same area (Threloff rocks. The carbonate rock unit (PMcc) water that has entered the Amargosa River 1988). Photograph by NPS. extends south of the Nopah Range where alluvium upstream from the park boundary. it is terminated by upbending of the strata. Perennial flow is maintained in segments From the Nopah Range regional flow oc- of the Amargosa River upstream from the curs through the stratigraphically underly- park by groundwater base flow, primarily ing Proterozoic and Lower Paleozoic clastic in the Amargosa Narrows. Flow has been and carbonate rocks (ZPcc) containing observed by the authors in the Amargosa the Pahrump Series. Flow of the spring is River at Highway 127 near the park bound- reported to be 288 m³/d (10,169 ft³/d) by ary. Miller (1977) reports the flow March Jacobs (2005), 817 m3/d (28,848 ft³/d) by 21, 1967, at this crossing to be 17 liters per King (1999), and 700 m³/d (24,717 ft³/d) by second (4.5 gal/s). Downstream from this D’Agnese et al. (1997). crossing the streamflow infiltrates into the alluvium.

60 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Photograph 21. Amargosa River Springs and Wells at Foot of Bennetts well, 32 feet (9.8 m) in depth, the Valley Springs. Valley Springs are located along the Amargosa River Panamint Range groundwater temperature was measured at channel five miles (8 km) northwest A line of springs at the base of alluvial fans 29.5°C (85.1°F). The temperature of these of Saratoga Springs. The springs are responsible for the presence of discharge groundwater from recharge in wells approaches the range considered permanent water along a two-mile the Panamint Range. The springs discharge indicative of regional flow (Bedinger and (3.2-km) reach of the river. Valley Harrill 2006a). Springs are not known to have a from alluvial fan material overlying older unique invertebrate fauna, but do clastic and carbonate rocks (ZPcc). The possess habitat that is occupied Springs and Wells at Foot of Black by the Amargosa River pupfish. springs rise above the fresh-saltwater inter- This pupfish subspecies only exists face in alluvial deposits in a zone at the toe Mountains at two locations along the length of the alluvial fan bordering discharge area Small springs and wells, including Badwa- of the Amargosa River. One site is inside the park at Valley Springs, of the Death Valley playa (fig. 16). Along ter Springs (232 and 332–345), Tinaja Baja and the other is outside the park in this linear boundary area are also shallow Spring (220), Bicentennial Spring (577), and Tecopa Canyon. Valley Springs also Coyote Well Spring (144), issue along the have been documented as having relatively freshwater wells. The springs Amargosa Canyon speckled dace, include Eagle Borax Spring (569) and Tule fault zone and from the toes of small fans at another species of fish, following the base of the Black Mountains. The small flash flood events. The vegetation Spring; the wells include Bennetts well, at Valley Springs consists primarily Shortys well (567), Gravel Well (141), and flows would indicate that the groundwater of common reed, bulrush, saltgrass, is derived from recharge to the metamor- and salt cedar (Threloff 1988). Salt Well (921). phic and igneous rocks in the Black Moun- One spring in this area has a recorded tains. Two wells, Ashford Well (582) and temperature significantly above the average Confidence Mill Well (583), are located ambient air temperature. The groundwa- along the Black Mountain front. No springs ter temperatures of two wells reported by issue at the margin of the Black Mountains Miller (1977) are also above ambient air from the Furnace Creek fan to Badwater, an temperature. The groundwater tempera- area in which the rocks are largely the Art- ture of one well, 50 feet (15.2 m) in depth, ist Drive Formation of the older basin-fill at Eagle Borax Spring was measured to (Cvb) unit. be 28.5°C (83.3°F); in the other well near

National Park Service 61 Figure 17. Map showing distribu- structural setting, hydrologic characteristics tion of springs of Death Valley Upland Springs National Park. Springs are listed in Upland springs can be visualized as the of the rock terrane, and source area eleva- the Appendix. Upland springs occur tion. Likewise, areas devoid of springs can in bedrock areas and are derived discharge of groundwater from the cir- from recharge to local mountain culation of groundwater cells above the similarly be related to structural, lithologic, areas. Valley floor springs issue from regional flow. The flow of an upland spring and climatic characteristics of the geologic Quarternary basin fill and alluvium and are derived from recharge in is derived from infiltration of precipitation and topographic setting. The occurrence of nearby mountains and regional flow. in an area above the spring. The occurrence upland springs is discussed in the following Regional springs issue at the valley floor (fig. 16) and above the valley of upland springs is neither uniform nor paragraphs with respect to groupings based floor (fig. 11) and originate from random. Upland springs tend to occur in on the geologic settings (fig. 17). interbasin flow from outside Death Valley National Park. clusters that are related to similarities of the

62 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figure 18. Map showing ranges of Upland springs vary widely in discharge, temperature at the spring orifice. But some discharge in upland springs of Death Valley National Park. Springs are though most upland springs are small and springs have elevated temperatures indicat- listed in the Appendix. discharge a fraction to a few liters per mining deeper circulation of the groundwater ute (geothermal gradient, and the depth shown in figure 19. of groundwater circulation to the spring. The temperature of local springs is commonly near the mean annual ambient air

National Park Service 63 Figure 19. Map showing geothermally heated local springs of Death Valley National Park. Springs are listed in the Appendix.

64 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Panamint Range Clastic and Carbonate Rocks (ZPcc) Ter- Carbonate Rock (PMc) Terrane: A huge rane: The detachment fault plane becomes slice of the carbonate rock unit (PMc) rests lower stratigraphically with distance south on clastic and carbonate rocks (ZPcc) in of Tucki Mountain; upper plate rocks be- the lower plate of the Tucki Mountain de- come predominantly clastic and carbonate tachment fault (fig. 4) on the eastern slope (ZPcc). Springs on the crest and high slopes of the Panamint Range. This terrane lies at of the Panamint Range reflect the large pre- elevations at or below 1,000 meters (3,281 cipitation and highly fractured and faulted ft) and probably does not receive signifi- nature of the clastic and carbonate rocks cant recharge. The principal source of the (ZPcc) of the upper detachment plate. The approximately 10 springs in this terrane is flow of the numerous springs ranges from at higher elevation in terrane underlain by less than 1 liter per minute (.26 gal/min) the older clastic and carbonate rock unit to greater than 500 liters per minute (132 (ZPcc). The following quote from Hunt et gal/min; fig. 18). Many springs arise along al. (1966) refers to the structural setting of saturated permeable fault zones exposed springs in the upper detachment block of in deep linear ravines draining the range. the Panamint Range: “The structural geol- Discharge temperatures (fig. 19) of many ogy is also important in controlling the oc- springs indicate moderate depths of circu- currence of water in the mountain blocks. lation. Hunt et al. (1966, B22) state, “Most In the Panamint Range the formations dip of the springs, and all the big ones, issue east 25°–60°, and they are broken by a se- from the noncarbonate rocks. The spring ries of faults of the Amargosa thrust system waters are high in sulfates and compara- (see Hunt et al. 1966), most of which dip tively low in chlorides and carbonate.” west 10°–45°. The crushed rocks along the faults act as conduits, and practically every Metamorphic (Xmi), Granitic (Mti), and spring along the east slope of the Panamint Volcanic Rock (Cvb) Terrane: Few springs Range is along one of these faults.” The issue from basement (Xmi) and granitic Amargosa thrust system referred to above is rocks (Mti). The locations of some springs now recognized as a system of detachment appear to be controlled by flow barriers faults formed during Tertiary extension of created by these intrusive rock masses. the region (Troxel and Wright 1987). Tucki Mountain: Three springs, West Warm Springs, a group of three springs, Twin Spring (472), Tucki Spring (473), and discharge water geothermally heated to Gypsum Spring (477), emerge at elevations 16°C (29°F) above the ambient average air from 1,000 to 1,240 meters (3,281 to 4,068 temperature. Warm Springs was ascribed ft) in Mosaic Canyon north of Tucki Peak, to be discharge of regional flow (Faunt, elevation 2,000 meters (6,732 ft), in the D’Agnese, and O’Brien 2010, fig. D-7), but contorted Proterozoic metamorphic and because the setting of the spring, at 750 clastic rocks of the Tucki Mountain De- meters (2,461 ft) in elevation, is well above tachment zone. the regional potential (plate 1), the spring is now known to be discharge of nearby Emigrant Canyon Area: A dozen or more recharge in the Panamint Range. Warm springs emerge from Tertiary basaltic and Springs issue from the carbonate rock unit sedimentary rocks (Cvb) along the west (PMc) in the lower plate of the Butte Valley side of Emigrant Canyon in the northern thrust fault (Steinkampf and Werrell 2001 Panamint Range south of Tucki Mountain. and Anderson 1999). The source of the springs is recharge to the ZPcc rock unit at higher altitude in the Panamint Mountains.

National Park Service 65 Photograph 22. Upper Warm Cottonwood Mountains and Last Granitic (MTi) terrane of Hunter Moun- Spring. Warm Springs, one of the larger springs in the Panamint Chance Range tain: The granitic rocks (MTi) of Hunter Mountains, discharges water geo- The Cottonwood Mountains separate Mountain area in the southern part of the thermally heated to 16°C (29°F) above the average ambient tem- Saline Valley from Death Valley; the Last Cottonwood Range are the upper plate of a perature by deep circulation. The Chance Range separates Eureka Val- detachment. Springs emerge along fracture source of the spring is nearby re- and fault zones created by regional exten- charge in the clastic and carbonate ley from Death Valley. The elevation of rock unit (ZPcc) at high altitudes of the Cottonwood Range is high enough sion. The area is conducive to recharge the Panamint Mountains and issues to receive precipitation for groundwater from the greater precipitation in the higher from the carbonate rock unit (ZPcc) in the lower plate below the Butte recharge. The higher parts of each of these altitudes. Closure of the joints and frac- Valley thrust. The spring issues near ranges attain elevations of more than 2,500 tures with depth limits deep circulation of the contact with igneous intrusive rocks. meters (8,200 ft), and a large part of the groundwater. A few springs issue at tem- ranges are above 2,000 meters (6,562 ft) peratures of 5° to 10°C (9° to 18°F) above elevation. The ridges in the Cottonwood the ambient air temperature. Mountains are separated by three high playas at elevations from 1,200 to 1,500 Carbonate (PMc) terrane of Cottonwood meters (3,937 to 4,922 ft). These playas are Mountains and Last Chance Range: The dry, with no springs or phreatophytes, and outcropping carbonate terrane of the Cot- the water level is at great depth beneath the tonwood and Last Chance Range is the up- playas. per plate of a detachment overlying lower- plate clastic and carbonate rocks (ZPcc)

66 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada (Sweetkind et al. 2001). The carbonate- Black Mountains and Greenwater rock-dominated terrane is punctuated by Valley small outcrops of igneous intrusions. The The Black Mountains border the floor of carbonate terrane is virtually devoid of Death Valley on the east from the Furnace springs, even though elevations are great Creek Ranch area to Saratoga Spring. The enough that the area receives ample pre- Greenwater Valley separates the Black cipitation for recharge. The lack of springs Mountains from the Greenwater Range and the presence of dry playas are products to the east (fig. 4). The Greenwater Range of the permeable well-fractured and faulted runs parallel to the Black Mountains and carbonate rocks that allow groundwater to lies to the east of the Funeral Mountains. percolate to great depths and recharge to Proterozoic crystalline basement and sedi- the zone of regional flow. Discharge of the mentary rocks underlie the Black Moun- regional flow is to Mesquite Flat. tains and are locally overlain by Tertiary volcanic rock and Tertiary sedimentary Granitic intrusions (MTi) in carbonate basin filling rocks (fig. 7). Proterozoic and terrane of northern Cottonwood Moun- Cambrian clastic and carbonate rocks tains and Last Chance Range: Fingers crop out in the southern part of the Black of a deep seated igneous intrusion reach Mountains. The highest points in the Black the surface in the carbonate rock terrane Mountains are near 1,800 meters (5,900 ft). in the vicinity of White Top Mountain in The Greenwater Range is lower, with the the Cottonwood Mountains and at Last highest peaks about 1,500 meters (4,900 Chance Springs in the Last Chance Range. ft). The general low altitudes provide scant Springs commonly arise in these settings, opportunity for much moisture in excess where deep percolation of groundwater of potential evapotranspiration. Few small, is impeded by the igneous rocks. Willow widely scattered springs emerge in the Spring (849) issues from igneous granitic ranges. The type area of Amargosa chaos rock from the Death Valley–Furnace Creek (Noble 1941 and Troxel and Wright 1987), Fault zone near the Death Valley National an area of intensely and complex faulted Park boundary. upper-plate detachment, occurs in the southeast part of the Black Mountains. A few small springs occur in the chaos area even though the precipitation is less than 170 millimeters per year (6.7 in/yr).

Photograph 23. Long-eared owl in tamarisk at Warm Spring. Warm Spring in the Panamint Mountains is one of hundreds of springs in the mountains of Death Valley National Park that provides water for plants and animals. Plant foliage in turn provides food and shelter for birds and other animals. At Warm Spring are found exotic plants, oleander and tamarisk, among the native plants.

National Park Service 67 Funeral Mountains Miocene and Pliocene deposits overlying Carbonate rock (PMc) terrane of south- the lower slopes of the western part of the ern Funeral Mountains: Elevations of two Grapevine Mountains. The higher volcanic peaks in the southern part of the Funeral terrane of the eastern part of the southeast- Mountains reach near 2,000 meters (6,600 ern Grapevine Mountains supports about ft) elevation. The virtual absence of springs 30 springs (533–563, Appendix) of which is the result of deep infiltration of recharge six have spring outlet temperatures greater into the permeable carbonate rocks. than average air temperature. Recharge on the west front of the Funeral Mountains may augment the flow of Navel Klare Spring (356, Appendix) issues from Springs and the regional springs that dis- the Titus Canyon thrust fault. The lower charge at Furnace Creek. plate is rock of the Wood Canyon formation (Reynolds 1974). The upper plate is Lower Clastic and Carbonate rock (ZPcc) the Carrara Formation. Both formations terrane of the middle and northern are part of the Proterozoic and Cambrian Funeral Mountains: Lower Clastic and Lower Clastic and Carbonate rock unit Carbonate rocks (ZPcc) are the lower plate (ZPcc). The Carrara Formation is overlain of a detachment underlies the middle seg- by the Bonanza King Formation. ment of the Funeral Range. The elevation of mountain peaks in this part of the ranges Owlshead Mountains from 1,000 to 1,800 meters (3,300 to 5,900 The curved ridges of granitic (Mti) and ft). The minor recharge in the middle por- volcanic rocks (Cvb) of the Owlshead tion of this segment, lower in elevation than Mountains are underlain by granitic (Mti) the portions to the southeast and north- and volcanic rocks (Cvb) appearing to form west, supports a dozen or so small springs a large circular highland. Few of the higher discharging about one liter per minute (.26 ridges reach elevations greater than 1,200 gal/min). The springs in the very northern meters (4,000 ft). The sparse precipitation part of this segment have discharge tem- and significant potential evapotranspira- peratures several degrees above ambient tion provides scant excess moisture for air temperature. The springs are located in recharge. The virtual lack of springs in the deeply incised canyons opening to Death range and the two large dry playas (the Valley. On the western flank of the Fu- eyes of the owl) signal that recharge is neral Mountains, Keane Wonder Spring, a minimal and groundwater is well beneath regional spring discussed previously, issues the surface. One spring, Owl Hole Spring, from the Proterozoic Pahrump Series. south of the Owl Mountains, beyond the national park boundary, was a rest stop for Grapevine Mountains the 20-Mule-Team borax wagons on their Carbonate (PMc) and volcanic rock (Cvb) trek from Death Valley to the rail junction terranes: A body of largely carbonate rock at Mojave, California. with clastic rocks, broken by transverse and sub parallel thrust faults and normal Saline Range and Inyo Mountains faults, underlies the western portion of The Saline Range, between Saline Valley the Grapevine Mountains and is bounded and Eureka Valley, is underlain by volcanic on the west by the Death Valley–Furnace flows (Cvb). West of the Saline Range, the Creek fault zone. The eastern portion of adjoining Inyo Mountains are underlain by this segment of the Grapevine Mountains is carbonate, clastic, and large igneous batho- underlain by lava flows, breccias, and tuffs. liths (ZPcc, PMc, and Mti). There are no Many springs in the southeastern part of springs in the volcanic rocks. The carbon- the area occur in deeply incised canyons in ate rocks of the Inyo Mountains gives rise carbonate and clastic rocks. The tempera- to a group of springs near but outside the ture of several of these springs is elevated park boundary discharging about 80 liters above the average ambient air temperature. per minute (21 gal/min). Few springs occur in the carbonate rock terrane in the northwest part of the Grape- vine Mountains. Several springs issue from

68 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Photograph 24. Remains of an Vulnerability of Death Valley spring outlet are a function of natural fac- Arrastre mill at Telephone Spring. Arrastre mills were primitive stone Groundwater to Natural and tors, largely climate, geology, and extra- structures used to break up ore, Human-Induced Stresses environmental factors (i.e., human-induced commonly gold or silver ore. Tele- phone Spring in the Panamint detrimental changes or by invasion of Range at an elevation of 833 meters Local Springs exotic plants or animals that may degrade (2,733 ft) was named from the the natural environmental conditions). 1906 telephone line from Rhyolite Local springs include upland springs and to Skidoo that passed through the springs at the valley floor derived from Extra-environmental factors that influence canyon. The NPS spring records nearby recharge. Recharge is primarily a conditions at the spring outlet are subject contain a note by A. E. Borell, dated 1935, stating, “A small flow function of climatic and geologic factors to control by park management. of good water. Has been dug out and is thus beyond the control of park and boarded over. Small birds and mammals can get water but not management. Environmental conditions at large birds or sheep. There is an ar- and near the spring outlet can control the rastre mill and several tent houses nearby, area is strewn with debris.” riparian vegetation, endemic wildlife, and The spring was reported to be dry in utility of the spring for watering wildlife. 1959 and subsequent reports. Biological and physical conditions at the

National Park Service 69 Stresses Outside the Park of the point of withdrawal. Withdrawal of The greater part of the water resources of groundwater that would have been partially the park, probably on the order of 60%, consumed by evapotranspiration in an originates outside the park boundaries. intermediate discharge area would have a Regional flow is the major component of diminished effect on flow to Death Valley. groundwater that maintains the regional The larger groundwater withdrawal areas springs, the few perennial stream reaches, near the park are listed in table 8. the areas of riparian vegetation at springs, phreatophytes at areas of shallow ground- The location of Devils Hole and pumping water, perennial lakes, and marshes. The centers in southwest Nevada are shown in regional inflow is a function of both natural figure 14. Based on analysis of the hydro- factors and human-induced stresses such as geologic setting, the history of water-level groundwater withdrawals. fluctuations, and hydrologic properties of the groundwater system, groundwater Regional flow to Death Valley originates withdrawals from three pumping centers within the Death Valley flow system whose have significant effect on the stage at Devils boundaries are shown in plate 1. Stresses Hole and the flow of springs at Ash Mead- on the flow system outside the park that ows (Bedinger and Harrill 2006b). Large affect the quantity or quality of groundwa- withdrawals of groundwater for irriga- ter may have an effect on the groundwater tion were made from Ash Meadows from in the park. Consideration is given here of 1969 to 1977. Ash Meadows is adjacent to human-made stresses on the flow system Devils Hole, and a cause–effect relationship that may affect groundwater at the park, between pumping and water level decline with major reference to ongoing, planned, in Devils Hole has been established (Dud- or proposed developments and the physical ley and Larsen 1976 and Rojstaczer 1987). properties of the flow system that con- Pumping in the Amargosa Desert, west of trol the magnitude and time response of Devils Hole, is currently the nearest large- resultant groundwater-related changes in scale pumping to Devils Hole. The distance the park. to the Amargosa Desert pumping from Devils Hole ranges from about 13 to 34 Land Management Practices kilometers (8 to 21 mi). Army Well 1, about Management practices that affect natural 29 kilometers (18 mi) upgradient from Dev- plant cover and natural conditions of the ils Hole, is the closest pumping well com- soil and subsoil—as by excavation, agri- pleted in the carbonate rock aquifer that culture, mining, forestry, plant removal, supplies groundwater to Devils Hole and introduction of exotic plants and animals, Ash Meadows. Analytical calculations indi- range management practices, construction, cated that the magnitude of pumpage from urbanization, surface water diversions, this well may be capable of causing changes groundwater withdrawal, or impoundment in the water level in Devils Hole (Bedinger of reservoirs—have the potential for affect- and Harrill 2006b). ing the aquifer system. Pahrump Valley, southeast of Devils Hole, Water Resource Developments contains a large pumping center (fig. 14) Groundwater withdrawal reduces the but is believed to be separated from Dev- system flow and potentially reduces the ils Hole by clastic rocks that restrict wa- water resources of Death Valley. Ground- ter level declines from propagating from water withdrawals outside the park are the Pahrump Valley to Devils Hole (Winograd most common and widespread causes of and Thordarson 1975). Eventually pump- potential impact on groundwater resources ing effects could propagate to Devils Hole of the park. The magnitude of the effect of by expanding south of the confining unit groundwater withdrawal may vary from barrier or the effects could be transmit- a direct proportion to a lesser percentage ted slowly through the confining units. depending on the hydrogeologic setting Water level records in wells south of Ash

70 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Meadows show no indication of pumping Potential Contaminant Sources effects. The main effect of pumping in Pah- The Nevada Test Site has been the location rump Valley will be a potential reduction in of nuclear device testing above and below groundwater flow to southern Death Valley the water table, disposal of low-level radio- and the lower Amargosa River. active and other wastes, and storage and disposal of other potential contaminants by Withdrawal of groundwater from Army well injection, drainage ponds, leach fields, Well 1 reduces the flow to Ash Meadows sumps, tailings, and tanks (fig. 20). Disposal and lowers the level of Devils Hole (Be- of high-level radioactive waste is proposed dinger and Harrill 2006b). These pumping for an underground repository in the centers in Nevada draw water directly from unsaturated zone at Yucca Mountain near the Death Valley flow system on perme- the west boundary of the Nevada Test Site. able flow paths that lead to Death Valley. A decommissioned low-level radioactive Regional water level declines in Amargosa waste site exists near Beatty where waste is Desert are documented by measurements stored in the unsaturated zone above the from observation well networks (Harrill water table (Bedinger 1989). Gold mining and Bedinger 2005). Water level declines at Rhyolite, near Beatty, in the 1990s used in Death Valley National Park have been a cyanide leaching process to recover gold recorded at Travertine Point Well and at from ore. Groundwater flow is the primary Travertine Well (Texas Spring Syncline-1) mechanism by which radioactive and other near Furnace Creek (Harrill and Bedinger contaminants from these sites could be 2005). These declines are possibly due to transported from the disposal sites to the the large withdrawals from the Amargosa accessible environment. Groundwater flow Desert. from these potential sites of contamination is tributary to Death Valley National Park. In California large groundwater withdraw- The following paragraphs do not discuss als are concentrated in a few alluvial basins: specific contaminants or their properties, the Mojave River Valley, Indian Wells do not predict mobilization of contami- Valley, and Searles Lake Valley (Bedinger nants in groundwater, nor predict time of and Harrill 2006a). Withdrawals from the travel from potential contaminant sites to Mojave River Valley have reduced the flow the accessible environment. The discussion of the river to Soda Lake Valley (Stamos, is a broad overview of probable routes of Martin et al. 2001). Surface inflow into groundwater flow in the upper part of the Soda Lake Valley is usually lost there by saturated zone and the underlying principal evaporation, but on rare occasions an zone of flow, groundwater flow directions, unusually heavy rainfall has caused runoff discharge areas, and the most probable to Soda Lake Valley to overflow to Death Death Valley entry points of groundwater Valley through Silver Lake. There are large from the potential contaminant sites. The surface water diversions from the Owens ultimate discharge points of groundwater River. Historically flow of the Owens River from areas of potential contamination are was largely lost by evaporation from Owens the Death Valley floor discharge areas and Lake. Diversions of surface water may have regional springs of Death Valley that issue lowered the groundwater levels in the Ow- above the valley floor. Intermediate natural ens River Valley. The head decline would groundwater discharge occurs at inter- have minor effect on groundwater flow to mediate areas in the flow system before it Death Valley. Groundwater withdrawals at reaches Death Valley. Intermediate dis- Indian Wells Valley and Searles Lake Valley charge areas include areas along the Ama- probably salvage groundwater that under rgosa River, Franklin Playa, Ash Meadows, natural conditions would have been lost to and Oasis Valley (Laczniak 1996; plate 1). evapotranspiration. These basins are in Pre- cambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks which have low capacity to transmit region- ally significant quantities of groundwater.

National Park Service 71 Figure 20. Map showing general The general directions of flow from con- southward to about the southern boundary areas of underground testing and other potential sources of subsur- taminant sites to Death Valley are shown of the Nevada Test Site, thence southwest- face contamination at Nevada Test in figure 21. Many of the potential sites of ward to Devils Hole and Ash Meadows, a Site. From Laczniak et al. 1996. contamination are above the zone of satu- large intermediate discharge area from the ration or are at relatively shallow depths carbonate aquifer. It is conjectural whether beneath the water table. Initial transport of all the groundwater of the Ash Meadows the contaminants from these sites would subbasin is discharged at Ash Meadows be in the upper part of the flow system. In and the carbonate aquifer is terminated or some areas this zone may be the principal the carbonate aquifer continues southward zone of lateral groundwater flow. or southwestward from Ash Meadows. It is customary for hydrochemists to compare Although confining units are commonly the solute and isotope chemistry of the present above the carbonate rocks, in the groundwater at the Furnace Creek springs eastern part of the Nevada Test Site, basin- in Death Valley (this includes Travertine fill deposits of Yucca and Frenchman Flats Springs, Texas Springs, Salt Springs, and overlie carbonate rock without an interven- Nevares Springs) to the groundwater of the ing confining layer (Laczniak et al. 1996). springs discharging from carbonate rocks Groundwater flow from this part of the Ne- at Ash Meadows and ascribe the source vada Test Site is in both alluvium and car- as the Ash Meadows subbasin. However, bonate rocks. This groundwater flow, a part the chemical signatures do not provide a of the Ash Meadows groundwater subbasin unique match between the two waters. The of Winograd and Thordarson (1975), flows Furnace Creek springs could be derived,

72 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Figure 21. Maps showing general all or in part, from groundwater flow in Bredehoeft et al. (2005) present the hy- direction of groundwater flow from the Nevada Test Site to areas in carbonate rocks from west of the Ash pothesis that groundwater in the carbon- Death Valley National Park. Meadows subbasin, a concept proposed by ate aquifer beneath Yucca Mountain flows A. Direction of flow of groundwater in the upper part of the zone of Bredehoeft et al. (2005). southward beneath the basin fill of the saturation, potential contamination Amargosa Desert to the southern Funeral sites, and intermediate and final dis- Groundwater flow from volcanic calderas Mountains where it flows through the charge areas are also shown. B. Schematic showing relative per- in the northwest part of the Nevada Test exposed carbonate rocks and discharges meability of principal groundwater Site is southward toward the Beatty area. at the Furnace Creek springs. This flow flow unit, direction of groundwater flow, and ultimate discharge area. Beyond the volcanic rocks of the calderas, regime is discussed further under the sec- From Laczniak et al. 1996; Wino- groundwater flows in alluvium and flow in tion on regional springs. The hydrogeologic grad and Thordarson 1975; Sweet- kind et al. 2004; Waddell et al. the underlying carbonate rocks. Intermedi- system should be examined to determine 1984; Faunt, D’Agnese, and O’Brien ate discharge at Oasis Valley is derived in if basin-fill groundwater of the Amargosa 2010; and Dettinger et al. 1995. part from flow from the caldera area of Ne- Desert also flows into carbonate rocks of vada Test Site. Shallow flow continues from the southern Funeral Mountains and to Oasis Valley to the Amargosa Desert. Deep the Furnace Creek springs. Furnace Creek groundwater flows southward beneath the springs area is one of the principal areas of Amargosa Desert. discharge of groundwater originating in the potential contamination sites (fig. 21). The Beatty low-level waste site, the cyanide pits near Rhyolite, and the proposed Another Death Valley entry area for repository in Yucca Mountain are in the groundwater from the contaminant areas unsaturated zone and overlie groundwa- is the southern Death Valley floor from ter in alluvial and basin-fill deposits. The groundwater flow along the course of the groundwater in the basin fill beneath these Amargosa River. Flow in bedrock aqui- sites flows southeastward to the central fers would involve flow though segments Amargosa Desert. of low- to mid-range permeability rocks (fig. 21b), rock unit ZPcc of this report. This flow would discharge in the southern Death Valley floor.

National Park Service 73 Table 8. Areas of groundwater withdrawal in the Death Valley flow system Pumpage Number Hydrologic Area Name m³/day m³/day x1000 Year Source 117 Fish Lake Valley 4,145 4 1970 Rush and Katzer (1973) 144 Lida Valley 2 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 146 Sarcobatus Flat 69 <1 1998 San Jaun et al. (2004) 147 Gold Flat 118 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 148 Cactus Flat 155 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 158A Emigrant Valley 946 1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 159 Yucca Flat 250 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 160 Frenchman Flat 1,462 2 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 161 Indian Springs Valley 2,162 2 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 162 Pahrump Valley 120,069 120 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 163 MesquiteValley 85 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 164B Southern Ivanpah Valley <1 1975 Bedinger et al. (1963) 170 Penoyer Valley 42,902 43 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 173A S Railroad Valley 13 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 211 Three Lakes Valley (southern) 1,125 1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 225 Mercury Valley 10 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 226 Rock Valley 1 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 227A Jackass Flat 506 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 227B Buckboard Mesa 321 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 228 Oasis Valley 848 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 229 Crater Flat 469 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 230 Amargosa Desert 84,133 84 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 240 Chicago Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 241 California Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 242 Lower Amargosa Desert 91 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 243 Death Valley 111 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 244 Valjean Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 245 Shadow Mountain Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 247 Adobe Lake Valley info NA 248 Long Valley 345 <1 1997 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 249 Owens Valley 174,523 175 ʷ1999 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 250 Deep Springs Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 251 Eureka Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 252 Saline Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 253 Racetrack Valley Area <1 2004 Field obs by authors 254 Darwin Plateau B. <1 2004 Field obs by authors 255 Panamint Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 256 Searles Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 257 E. Pilot Knob & Brown Mt. V. <1 2004 Field obs by authors 258 Lost Lake-Owl Lake V. <1 2004 Field obs by authors 259 Leach Valley info NA 260 Red Pass Valley info NA 261 Riggs Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 262 Soda Lake Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors 263 Kelso Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 264 Cronise Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 265 Bicycle Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors

74 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Table 8. Areas of groundwater withdrawal in the Death Valley flow system Table 8 continued Pumpage Pumpage Number Hydrologic Area Name m³/day m³/day x1000 Year Source Number Hydrologic Area Name m³/day m³/day x1000 Year Source 117 Fish Lake Valley 4,145 4 1970 Rush and Katzer (1973) 266 Goldstone Valley info NA 144 Lida Valley 2 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 267 Superior Valley info NA 146 Sarcobatus Flat 69 <1 1998 San Jaun et al. (2004) 268 Coyote Lake Valley 5,721 6 1995 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 147 Gold Flat 118 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 269 Lower Mojave River Valley 130,662 131 ʷ1998 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 148 Cactus Flat 155 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 270 Lucerne Valley 33,850 34 1976 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 158A Emigrant Valley 946 1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 271 Upper Mojave River Valley 264,633 265 ʷ1998 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 159 Yucca Flat 250 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 272 Middle Mojave River Valley 90,719 91 ʷ1998 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 160 Frenchman Flat 1,462 2 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 273 Harper Valley 90,719 91 ʷ1998 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 161 Indian Springs Valley 2,162 2 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 274 Antelope Valley 53,298 53 1970 Durbin (1970) 162 Pahrump Valley 120,069 120 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 275 Fremont Valley 108,321 108 1960 Calif. DWR (2004 update) 163 MesquiteValley 85 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 276 Cuddleback Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 164B Southern Ivanpah Valley <1 1975 Bedinger et al. (1963) 277 Indian Wells Valley 6,810 7 1985 Bettenbrock and Martin (1989) 170 Penoyer Valley 42,902 43 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 278 Rose Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) 173A S Railroad Valley 13 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 211 Three Lakes Valley (southern) 1,125 1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) ʷ1998 indicates water year ending in 1998 225 Mercury Valley 10 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) 226 Rock Valley 1 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) Flow Systems Adjoining Death Spring Mountains to Clark Mountain 227A Jackass Flat 506 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) Valley Flow System segment: The segment (B to C, fig. 22) 227B Buckboard Mesa 321 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) The natural boundaries of the Death Valley follows groundwater divide from the crest 228 Oasis Valley 848 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) regional flow system are hydraulic barriers, of the Spring Mountains to the Clark 229 Crater Flat 469 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) groundwater divides, or groundwater flow Mountain Range. The bedrock is largely 230 Amargosa Desert 84,133 84 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) lines. The boundaries are subject to being Paleozoic siliceous and carbonate rocks. Recharge in the boundary area is a source 240 Chicago Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors shifted by natural or human-made stresses that disturb the balance of hydraulic head of groundwater flow in the flow system to 241 California Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors and groundwater flow and cause ground- Death Valley. There is heavy pumping east 242 Lower Amargosa Desert 91 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) water to flow across the original bound- of the boundary in Las Vegas Valley and 243 Death Valley 111 <1 1998 San Juan et al. (2004) ary location. The potential for hydraulic west of the boundary in Pahrump Valley. 244 Valjean Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) boundaries to be changed or moved de- Stresses from either or both of these areas 245 Shadow Mountain Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) pends upon the hydraulic properties of the could eventually cause a shift in location of 247 Adobe Lake Valley info NA flow system at the boundary. The hydraulic the boundary. 248 Long Valley 345 <1 1997 Calif. DWR (2004 update) properties of the flow system control the 249 Owens Valley 174,523 175 ʷ1999 Calif. DWR (2004 update) rate of movement of groundwater and the Mojave segment: The Mojave segment 250 Deep Springs Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors probability that nearby groundwater with- (C to D, fig. 22) follows the relatively low 251 Eureka Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors drawal would affect the flow system bound- groundwater divide separating the Death 252 Saline Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors ary. Segments of the Death Valley regional Valley flow system from the lower Colo- rado River flow system. Bedrock is largely 253 Racetrack Valley Area <1 2004 Field obs by authors flow system boundary are shown in figure metamorphic, igneous, and volcanic rocks 254 Darwin Plateau B. <1 2004 Field obs by authors 22. The potential for these segments to shift in response to natural and pumping stresses of low permeability. Large groundwater 255 Panamint Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors are discussed in the following paragraphs. flux is restricted to relatively small areas. 256 Searles Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) Precipitation is low, potential evapotrans- 257 E. Pilot Knob & Brown Mt. V. <1 2004 Field obs by authors White River boundary segment: The piration is large, and recharge is low. Very 258 Lost Lake-Owl Lake V. <1 2004 Field obs by authors White River boundary segment (A to B, fig. limited flow originates in this area for 259 Leach Valley info NA 22) is highly subject to change because of contribution to Death Valley. The bed- 260 Red Pass Valley info NA the relatively low height of the divide, the rock along this segment generally acts as a 261 Riggs Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) relatively high transmissivity of the flow relative barrier to groundwater flow, and 262 Soda Lake Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors system, and past and probable continuing significant shifts in location of the bound- 263 Kelso Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) efforts to develop groundwater supplies ary are not anticipated. 264 Cronise Valley info NA Calif. DWR (2004 update) nearby to the east and north in the adjacent 265 Bicycle Valley <1 2004 Field obs by authors White River flow system.

National Park Service 75 Figure 22. Map showing segments of the Death Valley regional flow- system boundaries.

76 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada San Bernardino–San Gabriel Mountain Northern segment: The Northern segment segment: This segment (D to E, fig. 22) (G to A, fig 22) extends from the Shoshone follows the crest of the San Bernardino and Range eastward across the Toiyabe Range San Gabriel Mountains. The bedrock is and Big Smoky Valley to Monitor Valley, largely igneous intrusives. The flow system thence the boundary turns southward and boundary, a groundwater divide, generally extends in an arc concave to the northeast follows the crest of the ranges. The divide is to the beginning point of the White River generally high and maintained by ground- segment. This segment traverses the high- water recharge to the bedrock of low to est points on the boundary of the Death moderate permeability. The bedrock is a Valley flow system. The area traversed by relative barrier to groundwater flow; conse- this boundary receives significant recharge quently, significant shifts in the location of to the Death Valley flow system. Flow in the boundary are not anticipated. the Death Valley flow system is subject to depletion in response to withdrawal from Sierra Nevada segment: The Sierra Nevada groundwater in the boundary area, particu- segment (E to F, fig. 22) follows the crest larly the basin fill areas in Reese River Val- of the Sierra Nevada from San Gabriel ley, Big Smoky Valley, and Monitor Valley. Mountains to the Long Valley geothermal field. The Sierra Nevada is underlain by a Historic Impacts on Groundwater in huge batholith of igneous rock. Recharge in the Park the range is limited by the moderate to low Prospecting, mining claims, mine devel- permeability of the igneous rocks. Locally, opment, mining scams, mine company zones of large permeability are believed to promotions, and mining were the principal exist in the high temperature geothermal endeavors in Death Valley until the early systems at Coso and Long valley. Modest 1930s when Death Valley became a national recharge that occurs in the Sierra Nevada is monument as a part of the National Park tributary to the basin valleys of the Death System. Mining endeavors and promotions Valley flow system that border the range. focused on a broad gamut of natural re- Most of the recharge and surface runoff sources from precious metals, gold and sil- to the Owens River has been diverted to ver, to talc, salts of borax and sulfate, lead, the U. S. west coast for water supply since filter clay, and even mud, with fraudulent the 1930s resulting in large reductions of schemes involving oil and copper (Lingen- evapotranspiration in Owens Valley (in- felter 1986). Gold, the perennial favorite of cluding the drying up of Owens Lake) and the prospectors’ quest, was found at many some reduction of natural groundwater places in Death Valley. In addition to many flow toward Death Valley. A significant shift small gold mining operations, two large on location of the boundary in this segment gold mines came into production, the Ski- is not anticipated. doo Mine in the Panamint Range and the Keane Wonder Mine in the Funeral Moun- Northwest segment: The Northwest tains. Each of these mines produced gold segment (F to G, fig 22) is generally a valued at one million dollars or more, but low groundwater divide separating the not enough to return a profit to the inves- Death Valley regional flow system from tors after the costs of mining, machinery, the Humboldt–Truckee groundwater flow transportation of ore, and diverting water system. The boundary extending from the to the mines that was needed for the mining Sierra Range to the Shoshone Mountains in and milling. The most remunerative mining central Nevada does not cross high ranges ventures were those involved in recovering that would afford significant recharge. The borate, talc, and filter clay. Mining of borax boundary area is subject to shifting as a and the famous 20-Mule-Team wagons are result of groundwater withdrawals in the well known. Borate was found and mined adjacent flow system. This could result in in the playa of Death Valley and in the older diversion of water from the Death Valley Tertiary deposits in the Furnace Creek flow system.

National Park Service 77 Photograph 25. Skidoo Pipeline. basin, where mining rights still exist to for some camps; Stovepipe Well, Shortys The Skidoo pipeline brought water to the gold mine at Skidoo for this day and active mining continued Well, Bennetts Well, and many others were generating steam power to operate until recently (NPS, M. Essington, oral dug but did not find water. Subsurface the mill. Prospecting and mining was the principal endeavor in Death communication). exploration of the copper prospect at Gre- Valley until the early 1930s when enwater was continued to a depth of 427 Death Valley was made a national Water, the most essential commodity, was meters (1,400 ft). Apparently groundwater monument as a part of the National Park System. Water, required for the probably the most valuable when all is said was not encountered. Because water for the sustenance of the miners, their bur- and done. Water, required for the suste- prospectors and miners was scarce—the ros and other livestock in prospecting, and for mining and milling op- nance of the miners, their burros and other local spring hardly provided enough water erations and mining towns, was the livestock in prospecting, and for mining for a burro—water was hauled in from Fur- critical and often the limiting factor of a successful venture. Elaborate and milling operations and mining towns, nace Creek, about 28 kilometers (17.4 mi) and extensive engineering projects was the critical and often the limiting away (Lingenfelter 1986). Springs, being were constructed to convey water factor of a successful venture. Elaborate from springs to the stamping mills the primary source of water, were often the and steam generators where ore and extensive engineering projects were site of camps established by prospectors. was processed. Gold, the perennial constructed to convey water from springs The outlet of many springs were altered favorite of the prospectors’ quest, was found at many places in Death to the stamping mills and steam generators and modified by excavations, tunnels, pits, Valley. In addition to many small where ore was processed. A 34-kilometer piping, and other means to aid in collect- gold mining operations, two large gold mines came in to production, (21-mi) pipeline was constructed from ing and directing the flow of springs. The the Skidoo Mine in the Panamint Birch Spring near Telescope Peak to bring remnants of these activities are evident Mountains and the Keane Wonder Mine in the Funeral Mountains. water to the mine at Skidoo for steam today at many springs. Many a prospector’s power and to run a fifty-stamp mill (Lin- or miner’s burro, mule, or horse strayed or genfelter 1986, 289). Wells provided water was left behind when no longer needed.

78 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada Photograph 26. Burros of Death There is a population of burros to this day sheep during the past 2,000 years, and the Valley National Park. Abandoned by prospectors who brought them to that survives in the park. Burros have been two animals have never seriously competed Death Valley, these animals stayed and are detrimental to the conditions of for range in Death Valley. This conclusion and thrived so well that Death Val- ley has been faced with a popula- many springs and, as a result, to the native is made by C. B. Hunt (1975) who mapped tion explosion. This is not very good fauna, particularly mountain sheep, that the geology, vegetation, and archaeology of grazing land, but the burros have depend on springs for their water supply. Death Valley in the 1960s and who states thoroughly adapted to it. Burros have been accused of fouling water An NPS document from the 1970s includes that the conclusion is in accord with the holes and driving bighorn sheep notes on the conditions and rehabilita- findings of Ralph and Florence Wells who off some of the range. However, in the burros’ defense, the evidence tion needed at springs, some degraded by made the first complete survey of wildlife and observations show that the burros. The original inventory of springs water resources in the park in the 1950s. burros occupy land that has been little used by sheep during the past (1976) and the recent inventory of springs 2,000 years, and the two animals (2006) provide information on the use of have never seriously competed for range in Death valley, according to springs by burros and native species and Ralph and Florence Wells who made the detrimental effect of burros on spring the first complete survey of wildlife conditions. However, the contention that water resources in the park in the 1950s and C. B. Hunt who mapped burros compete with bighorn sheep for the geology, vegetation, and arche- forage is obviated by the evidence and ology of Death Valley in the 1960s. Photograph from C. B. Hunt, USGS observations that show that the burros files, circa 1960; caption information occupy land that has been little used by from C. B. Hunt 1975.

National Park Service 79 80 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada

2.5 -2.0 3.8 -7.6 -5.2 -8.0 1.7 -9.7 -2.7 11.1 1.8 -1.2 -2.0 2.2 2.2 4.3 -0.6 -1.1 -1.7 8.8 -1.4

Spring–Amb Air³

7.8 12.3 11.5 10.8 10.9 12.8 12.1 12.3 12.0 12.6 13.2 13.2 13.2 14.6 15.2 14.4 13.2 17.1 13.8 12.7 8.0 9.5 9.7 17.2 7.8 7.7 18.6 12.3 12.3 12.2 12.6 14.7 13.2 15.3 14.4 11.8 Amb Air²

15.1 11.2 17 7.6 9.2 11.2 14.5 18.9 9.5 17.4 10.3 14.5 14.4 16.9 14.1 12.1 13.6 23.2 10.4

0.5 2 1 7 1 2 1 3 1 8 4 2 2 3 <1 <1 10 >1 20 15 <1 75

851 2194 2209 2186 645 1543 1653 1764 1751 1478 1544 1577 1540 1545 1564 1582 1507 1506 1416 1414 1421 1213 1200 1132 1243 1413 1423 861 1110 1245 1335 1481 1622 2156 1940 1918

15 NW 21 NW 21 NW 21 NW 24 SW 26 SW 36 NE 36 SW 36 SW 30 SE 35 SW 35 SW 35 NW 2 NW 2 NW 3 NE 34 SE 34 SE 34 NE 34 NE 35 NW 27 SE 27 SE 27 NE 21 SW unclear 15 NW 16 NE 8 SE 8 SE 23 SW 16 SW 29 NE 31 NW 31 NE 31 NE

44 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 42 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 45 E 45 SE 45 E 44 E 44 E 44 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

13 S 13 S 11 S 13 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 17 S 17 S 17 S 18 S 18 S 18 S 17 S 17 S 17 S 17 S 18 S 17 S 17 S 17 S 17 S 13 S 13 S 14 S 14 S

4066452 14 S 4071666 13 S 4071705 4071657 4093281 4070547 4049739 4049288 4049402 4050256 4028208 4028376 4028661 4028058 4027966 4027930 4028254 4028258 4028915 4028935 4028963 4031108 4031170 4032153 4032309 4073565 4074076 4066455 4068158 4068201 14 S 4072032 13 S 4073523 13 S 4090073 11 S 4087885 11 S 4087889 11 S 4088139 11 S

502941 459770 459705 459835 468398 455956 458483 458785 458649 459775 483175 483176 483195 483209 483135 482729 482794 482793 482830 482837 482950 482673 482650 482512 480103 503283 502927 502315 500529 500010 505093 502553 503101 491581 493028 493118

UTM

o Spring

illow Spring

ew Spring ed Spring og Spring o Spring B o Spring A o Spring C dwood ns Spring (Lower) ns Spring (Upper) e Spring ee Spring Hole in Rock Spring (New) Burr Burr Burr Ranger Spring Quartz Spring Horsetail Spring Thicket Spring Goldbelt Grade Spring Goldbelt Spring Cover W Ed Spring Bur Bur Emigrant W Chukar Spring Centennial Spring Canyon Spring A Canyon Spring B (Main) Emigrant Burr T Emigrant Spring (Upper) Emigrant Spring (Lower) Jayhawker Spring Bullfr Daylight W Hole in the Rock Spring (Old) Fir Corkscr Baccharis Bunch (Daylight Pass) Bindle Spring Buck Spring #1 Cor Brier Spring A Brier Spring B

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Appendix: Springs of Death Valley Spring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Spring ree 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 ¹ ² ³ Number Spring Name Easting¹ Northing¹ Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Number Spring Name Easting¹ Northing¹ Township

National Park Service 81 ³ -20.7 -4.7 12.9 -2.5 1.8 2.9 -2.0 -2.6 -0.8 -5.1 -4.7 1.6 1.2 -13.0 -2.9 -3.8 5.2 -0.5 1.0 -1.6 0.5 0.2 -2.3 -1.4 Spring–Amb Air

20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.8 12.8 9.8 12.9 13.2 19.6 20.3 20.8 20.8 20.9 20.5 20.9 20.7 9.6 9.6 12.3 11.5 11.9 12.9 13.6 19.4 20.5 20.8 20.8 20.7 20.6 20.8 21.0 21.0 21.0 21.1 21.1 Amb Air

8.2 33.2 18.4 22.3 12.5 7.6 9.7 10.7 6.8 8.2 15.2 20.6 7.5 17.9 17 25.9 20.1 21.8 19.4 21.5 21.2 18.8 19.7

5 0 0.5 1 1 7 0 5 1 5 6 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 <1 200 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 40

1932 1539 1479 1896 1666 1462 1607 1459 1365 1410 537 507 402 380 338 334 332 336 337 315 347 353 332 299 298 299 289 292 372 339 344 344 350 336 312 344 1933

32 NW 25 NE 25 NE 10 NE 11 SW 24 SE 28 NE 24 SE 22 NE 34 NE 30 SE 32 SW 1 SE 1 SW 1 SW 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SW 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 32 NW

44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 45 E 44 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 1 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 44 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

4088228 11 S 4080405 12 S 4079999 12 S 4084252 12 S 4084279 12 S 4091297 11 S 4089815 11 S 4091459 11 S 4091506 11 S 4088584 11 S 4062317 14 S 4058140 29 N 4058698 15 S 4058949 15 S 4058785 15 S 4058777 15 S 4058766 15 S 4058776 15 S 4058770 15 S 4058647 15 S 4058606 15 S 4058612 4058393 15 S 4058184 4058177 4058217 4058223 4058237 4058890 4058817 4058809 4058790 4058762 4058737 4058562 4058461 4088127 11 S Northing ¹

493318 499091 500282 496628 498439 500726 502846 500486 506602 507049 499264 509058 507094 506555 506661 506664 506658 506672 506678 506661 506979 507008 507192 506960 506951 506947 506878 506874 506568 506654 506693 506707 506745 506693 506764 507206 493252

UTM

ell onder Spring Main onder Spring A onder Spring b onder Spring c onder Spring d onder Spring E onder Spring F onder Spring G onder Spring H onder Spring I onder Spring J onder Spring K onder Spring L onder Spring M onder Spring N onder Spring O onder Seep A onder Seep B onder Seep C onder Seep D onder Seep E onder Seep F onder Seep G onder Seep H ells ood Camp Potholes oodcamp Spring Brier Spring D Cave Rock #1 Cave Rock #2 McDonald #1 McDonald #2 W Buck Spring #2 W Currie W Goldbar W Bebbia Potholes Pr Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Brier Spring C

82 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ 4.6 -1.2 -2.6 -0.6 3.9 3.9 -7.2 3.0 -6.9 15.8 2.3 -3.0 1.0 -9.3 16.5 2.5 3.4 -5.1 -2.2 Spring–Amb Air

21.1 20.9 21.0 21.0 21.1 21.2 19.9 20.6 20.9 21.0 20.6 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 15.1 15.1 15.3 15.5 13.6 13.5 13.4 20.5 20.5 20.5 20.6 17.9 21.0 23.1 20.5 14.9 18.9 17.9 18.1 14.3 12.6 Amb Air

25.2 19.5 18.1 20.1 24.6 24.6 7.9 18.3 6.7 33.7 23.3 20.1 18.3 15.9 9.6 34.4 20.6 17.7 7.5

30 1 1 1 1 0.5 2 3 25 6 5 >2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1

750 289 314 320 309 303 304 300 285 274 369 366 338 343 345 349 342 465 1172 1139 1148 1116 <1 1086 1361 1378 1394 371 369 368 363 364 595 747 719 1258 1501

5 NW 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SW 1 SW 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 1 SE 32 SW 8 NW 8 SW 8 SW 7 SE 18 NE 26 SE 26 SE 28 SE 9 NE 9 NE 9 NE 9 NE 9 NE 12 SW 5 NW 5 NW 23 NE 12 SW 1 SE

47 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 47 E 47 E 45 E 45 E 46 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 29 N 30 N 30 N 30 N 30 N 30 N 30 N 30 N 30 N 26 N 26 N 26 N 26 N 26 N 26 N 22 S 22 S 22 S 21 S 21 S 15 S

4058419 4058454 4058445 4058417 4058440 4058459 4058464 4058556 4058420 4058887 4058828 4058724 4058579 4058603 4058599 4058443 4058028 4066605 4066084 4066036 4065921 4065080 4061150 4061132 4061072 4028563 4028541 4028428 4028368 4028220 4026230 3980246 3980234 3980186 3975425 3975050 4058343 Northing ¹

506794 506694 506643 506593 506558 506524 506493 506472 506273 506166 506563 506616 506719 506956 506968 507005 507212 508882 508730 508522 508575 508299 507806 514781 514704 511582 520965 520956 520912 520834 520865 525505 506111 506110 506303 492350 491220

ell B

UTM

ell

onder Seep J onder Seep K onder Seep L onder Seep M onder Seep N onder Seep O onder Seep P onder Seep Q onder Seep R A onder Well B onder Well C onder Well D onder Well E onder Well F onder Well G onder Well onder Seep I s Pothole Spring s Well arm Spring C arm Spring B arm Spring A Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane W Keane Seep Keane Spring Hopeful Spring #1 Hopeful Spring #2 Pump House W Jingle Seep Rice’ Rice’ East of Chloride City W Sedge Seep A Sedge Seep B Sedge Seep C Sedge Seep D Sedge Seep E Navel Spring Again W W W Anvil Spring Quail Spring Keane W

National Park Service 83 ³ -4.2 -4.5 -6.0 -2.0 -10.0 0.8 2.2 -7.3 -9.9 -8.4 -7.0 1.1 -0.3 -9.1 -7.1 -4.4 1.3 -3.6 -6.2 -10.9 -11.5

Spring–Amb Air

13.4 14.0 13.9 13.9 13.9 13.9 14.6 13.8 13.9 15.8 15.7 16.1 16.2 16.7 16.2 18.6 23.2 23.2 23.2 23.9 23.9 23.8 23.9 23.9 20.7 20.6 13.8 14.1 15.7 16.6 16.3 18.6 18.4 23.2 23.2 23.9 Amb Air

9.8 9.4 10.2 16.6 13.2 24.7 26.1 16.6 14 12.3 13.6 14.9 13.8 6.6 9.5 11.9 19.9 14.8 17 12.3 12.4

4 1 3 1 1 6 4 0 0 1 0 <1 12 <1 <1 >1 <1 <1

1386 1307 1316 1314 1312 1325 1322 1292 1218 1333 1313 1043 1061 1059 996 984 929 911 975 984 643 644 672 -15 -18 -18 -8 -8 -109 -109 -100 -109 -111 -107 351 355

14 SW 23 SE 23 SE 23 SW 23 SW 23 SW 23 SW 23 SW 26 NE 23 SW 23 SW 35 SW 30 NW 29 SE 29 NW 29 NW 27 NW 27 NW 27 SW 27 SW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 19 NW 19 NW 19 NW 19 NW 19 SE 28 NW 22 SW 22 NE 1 NW 1 NW 15 SE 1 NE 1 NE

45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 47 E 46 E 46 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 2 E 1 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 22 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 24 N 23 N 22 N 22 N 22 N 28 N 28 N 21 S

3974612 3974573 3974561 3974532 3974370 3974334 3974654 3973913 3974727 3974676 3981363 3974020 3974134 3975354 3975443 3975523 3975654 3974542 3974783 4097652 4097698 4097941 4064399 4064658 4064631 4064067 4063665 4010963 25 N 4002399 3993797 3988634 3988691 3984600 4048625 4048650 3975694 Northing ¹

491476 492131 492094 492091 492087 491986 491946 492214 492835 492020 492111 501322 494646 495439 498202 498157 498192 498210 498285 498125 464641 464582 464591 488089 487851 487887 488409 488794 510651 512407 513647 515519 515540 522991 516325 516348

UTM

ell

ell s Well illow

oss from Little Spring oss from eater View D eater View C eater View B eater View A eater View E Gr Gr Gr Gr Russel Camp B Russel Camp A Gr Jubilee Mill Spring A Mill Spring B Grubstake Anvil W Unnamed Manly Peak Spring A Five Mile Spring A Five Mile Spring b Five Mile Spring C Five Mile Spring D Little Spring Acr Grapevine Ranch 001 Grapevine Ranch 002 Grapevine Ranch 005 T T T T Stovepipe Palm T Bennett’ Gravel W Hawk Spring C Hawk Spring A Coyote W T T Hatchet Spring

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 riangle Spring C 138 riangle Spring A 139 riangle Spring B 140 riangle Spring D 141 142 ule Springs 143 144 145 146 able Spring B ¹ able Spring A ² ³

84 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -8.5 -6.8 -4.7 -8.2 -4.5 -7.4 -2.4 -9.4 1.3 -5.0 -6.2 -1.8 0.4 -3.5 7.2 -7.7 -9.6

-10.1 Spring–Amb Air

20.3 20.3 19.2 16.1 20.6 20.5 20.6 20.5 19.8 20.1 20.3 20.3 20.4 20.6 19.2 19.2 18.2 19.5 19.5 19.5 18.1 19.1 23.4 19.5 13.6 23.0 23.0 20.8 19.7 19.2 18.2 19.2 19.3 16.2 16.1 16.1 19.2 Amb Air

12 13.5 14.5 9.9 14.6 6.2 20.6 12.9 11.4 21 14.2 12 17.4 19.6 12.7 8.9 8.4 9.6

3 2 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 3

<1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 10 10 <1 <1 <1

361 368 354 378 491 476 430 397 396 395 396 393 353 563 562 560 557 704 696 554 552 512 510 511 981 1003 998 1008 714 578 565 -38 513 1365 15 17 334

6 SW 6 SW 7 NW 7 NW 6 SE 6 SE 7 NW 7 NW 7 NW 7 NW 7 NW 7 NW 7 NW 22 NW 22 NW 22 NW 22 NW 6 NE 6 NE 10 SE 10 SE 15 SE 15 SE 15 SE 10 SE 10 SE 10 SE 10 SE 27 SW 34 NW 13 SW 32 NW 15 SE 28 SW 27 NE 27 NE 1 NE

2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 4 E 4 E 4 E 4 E 4 E 4 E 4 E 5 E 5 E 5 E 5 E 3 E 3 E 2 E 45 E 4 E 46 E 1 E 1 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 22 N 22 N 26 N 15 S 21 N 13 S 27 N 27 N 28 N

4048051 4047812 4047648 4047500 4047804 4047711 4047511 4047389 4047401 4047409 4047419 4047449 4047199 4093663 4093635 4093599 4093524 3978882 3978883 3976621 21 N 3976593 3974833 3974841 3974846 3976479 3976389 3976387 3976362 3981021 3980799 4026230 4051100 3974822 4071794 4033141 4033124 4048553 Northing ¹

516709 516813 516983 517248 518335 518301 517737 517549 517519 517510 517492 517449 517110 465105 465129 465152 465214 537342 537395 542848 542849 542890 542856 542823 552496 552500 552463 552438 532371 531789 525505 490700 542809 501634 513829 513824 516286

UTM

ell

s Spring n Seep A n Spring A n seeps B-I n Spring B Scraper Spring A Scraper Spring B Scraper Spring C Scraper Spring D USGS Spring A USGS Spring B Scraper (Upper) Scraper Spring I Scraper Spring H Scraper Spring G Scraper Spring F Scraper Spring E Scraper (Lower) Lanter Lanter Lanter Lanter V V Rhodes Spring Rhodes well Bradbury A Bradbury B Bradbury C Salsberry A Salsberry B Salsberry C Salsberry D T Scotty’ Navel Seeps (Upper) Dune Salt W Bradbury well Owl Spring Spider Spring B Spider Spring C Table Spring C Table

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 irgin Spring A 169 irgin Spring B 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 impapah Spring 180 181 182 183 ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 85 ³ -5.2 -10.7 -11.4 -11.3 -7.0 -10.5 -11.8 -11.3 -10.2 -1.1 -6.9 -6.7 -2.0 -4.1 -2.7 -2.7 -6.6 -5.9 5.5 -9.8 -6.0 -5.3 -14.2 -6.4 -8.0 -6.7 -2.9 1.0 -4.0 -0.4 -4.5 -7.4 Spring–Amb Air

23.4 17.9 18.0 18.3 23.0 23.1 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.4 23.4 23.4 23.4 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.3 23.4 23.4 23.5 23.4 23.4 23.4 23.5 23.5 23.5 16.0 23.4 23.4 19.8 19.8 18.9 19.4 18.7 17.9 23.9 Amb Air

17.9 12.6 11.9 12 16.4 12.9 11.6 12.1 13.1 22.2 16.4 16.6 21.3 19.3 20.7 20.8 16.8 17.5 28.9 13.7 17.5 18.2 1.8 17 15.4 13.1 16.9 19.9 15.4 18.3 13.4 16.5

<1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 1 1 1 2 1 <1 <1 <1 1 1 2 12 1 <1 <1 <1 <1

7 -20 -21 -25 -40 -43 -45 -40 -35 -29 -30 -21 -21 -21 -38 -39 -49 -41 -43 -44 -56 -55 -59 1010 -46 -46 468 478 601 530 633 749 749 725 687 -114 11

27 NE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SW 3 SW 3 SW 3 SE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SE 3 SW 3 SW 3 SW 2 SW 1 SW 3 SE 3 SW 3 SW 3 S 11 NW 3 SW 3 SW 23 NW 23 NW 23 NE 23 NE 20 NW 32 SE 32 SE 32 SE 32 SE 21 NE 27 NE

1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 3 E 1 E 1 E 12 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 3 E 3 E 3 E 3 E 3 E 2 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 22 N 27 N 27 N 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 22.5 N 23 N 23 N 23 N 23 N 24 N 27 N

4033160 4038397 4038390 4038384 4038459 4038416 4038422 4038416 4038395 4038377 4038374 4038363 4038355 4038330 4038361 4038362 4038360 4038371 4038399 4038466 4038387 4038375 4038376 3987986 4038552 4038517 4083773 4083832 4084154 4083882 3992733 3992940 3992922 3992870 3992844 4003349 4033114 Northing ¹

513784 512684 512653 512634 512370 512406 512397 512529 512564 512542 512531 512567 512599 512547 512482 512432 512360 512358 512337 512347 512175 512089 511973 550140 512280 512283 475793 475829 476451 476530 528297 529264 529233 529024 528691 521223 513804 UTM

eek A

eek C eek B

Spider Spring A Gnome Spring 4A Gnome Spring 4B Gnome Spring 4C Gnome Spring 1 Gnome Spring 2A Gnome Spring 2B Gnome Spring 3 Gnome Spring 4D Gnome Spring 4E Gnome Spring 4F Gnome Spring 5B Gnome Spring 5A Gnome Spring 6 Gnome Spring G Gnome Spring H Gnome Spring I Gnome Spring J Gnome Spring K Gnome Spring L Gnome Spring M Gnome Spring N Gnome Spring O Miller Spring Gnome North #1 Gnome North #2 Lost Cr Lost Cr QA Spring Forgotten Cr Sheep Spring E Sheep Spring A Sheep Spring B Sheep Spring C Sheep Spring D T Spider Spring D

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 ¹ inaja Baja ² ³

86 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ 0.8 -8.0 5.0 -3.0 -4.5 -6.1 3.6 -2.0 0.5 -5.9 8.4 -3.7 -6.9 -3.1 -7.4 -2.9 0.1 -3.3 -0.8 1.3 -13.7 -14.5 -11.6 -11.3 -10.0 Spring–Amb Air

17.3 23.5 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 16.6 16.7 16.9 18.1 18.2 17.9 12.0 13.2 13.3 18.2 18.6 19.8 17.0 17.2 23.6 23.7 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 16.7 Amb Air

17.4 8.7 21.9 15.1 13.7 11.8 15.6 11.2 13.8 12.3 27 16.1 10.1 14.1 16.2 10 21 24 20.6 23.1 9.4 12.3 12.6 13.9 18

<1 0 10 12 12 2 1 4 <1 8 20 <1 <1 1 1 12 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 3

921 929 920 893 833 717 699 747 1589 1423 1403 -53 695 649 468 875 849 -65 -85 -113 -114 -110 -108 -109 -108 -111 -111 -107 -107 -106 -107 -106 -106 -107 -108 -106 -107

4 NE 4 NE 3 NW 3 SE 31 SE 31 SW 31 SE 23 E 24 E 24 E 21 NW 19 NW 19 NW 7 NW 24 NE 24 NE 10 NE 10 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 4 NE

41 E 41 E 41 E 44 E 3 E 3 E 3 E 3 E 3 E 3 E 2 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 41 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 19 S 19 S 19 S 17 S 22.5 N 22.5 N 22.5 N 22.5 N 22.5 N 22.5 N 25 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 22 S 22 S 16 S 16 S 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 19 S

4018874 4018872 4019237 4037312 3989474 3989568 3989572 3992497 3992250 3992378 4012830 3973711 3974023 3977561 3984053 3984110 4051036 4049594 4044984 4044952 4044950 4044928 4044936 4044908 4044898 4044886 4044873 4044863 4044850 4044836 4044817 4044807 4044778 4044776 4044752 4044729 4018901 Northing ¹

452249 452242 452229 452631 482313 527447 534690 535841 536183 520514 507219 507841 508118 505443 505515 498160 500306 509172 509190 509205 509197 509238 509290 509283 509282 509283 509315 509343 509351 509352 509380 509378 509394 509395 509405

UTM

den B den Well den A

alc Mine Spring alc Mine Spring eek illow Spring B (Gold Valley) illow Spring C (Gold Valley)527331 illow Spring A (Gold Valley)527828 China Gar China Gar Unnamed Darwin Hills T W W W Br Hidden Spring Pool Spring Badwater Potholes Ram Spring Lost Spring Anvil Mesquite Spring Upper T Lower T McLean Spring Salt Cr East Salt Spring A East Salt Spring B East Salt Spring C East Salt Spring D East Salt Spring E East Salt Spring F East Salt Spring G East Salt Spring H East Salt Spring I East Salt Spring J East Salt Spring K East Salt Spring L East Salt Spring M East Salt Spring N East Salt Spring O East Salt Spring P East Salt Spring Q East Salt Spring R China Gar

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 elephone Spring 229 230 231 232 own Spring 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 87 ³

-8.9 -10.1 -6.9 -4.1 -1.0 -2.0 -1.0 -4.2 -1.7 -4.9 -5.7 -11.9 -3.7 -11.4 -13.0 -11.4 -10.5 Spring–Amb Air

23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 Amb Air

15 13.8 17 19.8 22.9 21.9 22.9 19.7 22.2 19 18.2 12 20.2 12.5 10.9 12.5 13.4

<1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1

-107 -107 -107 -108 -106 -107 -108 -108 -108 -107 -107 -107 -107 -108 -109 -109 -109 -109 -110 -109 -109 -110 -110 -109 -108 -110 -110 -110 -108 -108 -107 -107 -109 -109 -109 -108 -109

18 NE 18 NE 18 NE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 18 NE

1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N

4044668 4044641 4044622 4044568 4044551 4044515 4044483 4044462 4044416 4044375 4044337 4044327 4043765 4043720 4043704 4043700 4043617 4043558 4043543 4043513 4043459 4043411 4043367 4043332 4043285 4043248 4043274 4043194 4043886 4043175 4043150 4043121 4043048 4043009 4042816 4042834 4044697 Northing ¹

509420 509419 509431 509468 509451 509468 509484 509479 509499 509515 509542 509584 509632 509949 510015 510036 510063 510074 510081 510105 510082 510085 510074 510099 510102 510110 510129 510167 510205 509876 510217 510246 510196 510177 510163 510049 510085

UTM

d Spring B d Spring C d Spring D d Spring E d Spring F d Spring G d Spring H d Spring I d Spring J d Spring K d Spring L d Spring M d Spring N d Spring O d Spring P d Spring Q d Spring A d Spring R d Spring S d Spring T d Spring U d Spring V d Spring W d Spring X East Salt Spring T East Salt Spring U East Salt Spring V East Salt Spring W East Salt Spring X East Salt Spring Y East Salt Spring Z East Salt Spring AA East Salt Spring BB East Salt Spring CC East Salt Spring DD East Salt Spring EE Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar East Salt Spring S

88 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -10.5 -9.3 -10.0 -6.3 -16.2 -16.2 -16.2 -14.1 -13.5 -9.8 -9.9 -9.9 -9.5 -5.1 -1.1 0.6 -2.1 8.3 2.0 -4.9 -1.6 -3.5 -2.8 -5.4 -5.1 6.8 -11.3

Spring–Amb Air

23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 21.4 23.3 23.4 23.4 23.4 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 19.1 19.0 19.6 21.8 21.8 21.7 21.7 21.4 21.4 21.4 21.4 21.3 23.2 23.1 23.9 Amb Air

13.4 14.6 13.9 17.6 7.7 7.7 7.7 9.8 10.4 14.1 14 14 9.6 13.9 18.5 22.4 19.7 30 23.7 16.5 19.8 17.9 18.6 15.9 18.1 29.9 12.6

<1 1 0 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 3 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 4 0 <1 <1 10 3 10 12 <1 2 5 2 2 1 <1 20 <1

-108 -109 -107 -108 -109 -108 -108 -108 -107 -108 -108 -108 -108 -109 -106 -106 -107 -108 567 581 495 192 202 198 247 247 250 250 248 254 -13 -31 0 -36 -35 -35

21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 21 SW 37 N 18 SW 26 NE 36 SW 189 36 SW 36 SW 36 SW 36 NW 36 NW 36 NW 36 NW 36 NW 36 NW 13 NW 36 SW 36 SE 36 NE 36 NE 36 SE 21 SW

1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 47 E 47 E 46 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 45 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 21 S 21 S 20 S 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 14 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 28 N

4042676 4042583 4042559 4042536 4042499 4042424 4042350 4042277 4042175 4042134 4042104 4041983 4041913 4041841 4041680 4041579 4041367 3994482 3994776 4005298 4040451 4040391 4040372 4040319 4040567 4040551 4040505 4040452 4040409 4040359 4066764 4051301 4050721 4051512 4051430 4051355 4042787 Northing ¹

510120 510053 510114 510036 509986 510051 510066 510049 510024 509988 510045 510052 510094 510131 510150 510153 510154 510164 504716 504297 503915 515253 515284 515378 515381 516041 516057 516102 516120 516108 516136 486426 486026 486806 487256 487257 487307

ell

ell #1 ell #2 ell #3

UTM

ell #1

d Spring Z d Spring AA d Spring BB d Spring CC d Spring DD d Spring EE d Spring FF d Spring GG d Spring HH d Spring II d Spring JJ d Spring KK d Spring LL d Spring MM d Spring NN d Spring OO d Spring PP d Spring Y s Well ank Potholes anks n Seep A n Seep B n Seep C n Seep D n Seep E n Seep F Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar Buckboar White T White T Benny Spring Shootemup Spring Bangbang Spring Annie Oakley Spring Ratatatat Spring Bighor Bighor Bighor Bighor Bighor Bighor Surveyor’ Stovepipe Airstrip W Stovepipe W Stovepipe Ranger W Stovepipe Ranger W Stovepipe Ranger W Buckboar

National Park Service 89 ³ -4.5 -6.5 -4.9 -5.8 -3.0 1.4 2.0 1.5 -1.8 -9.0 -2.5 0.1 -7.5 1.0 3.7 0.7 2.6 -2.1 2.7 6.1 1.5 0.3 -4.2

Spring–Amb Air

15.1 23.9 12.3 14.0 16.1 20.9 21.0 21.0 20.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 14.4 14.4 14.6 14.9 15.2 12.9 16.7 15.0 23.9 14.8 15.1 14.0 13.1 15.7 21.0 16.7 21.0 21.0 23.9 Amb Air

16.4 17.4 19 18.1 11.4 15.8 16.6 16.4 13.4 3.9 14.2 15.1 16.4 15.8 18.8 14.7 15.7 13.6 23.7 22.8 22.5 21.3 19.7

<1 <1 1 25 15 4 12 15 <1 <1 4 <1 8 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 30 10 0 0 5 5 <1

-113 -110 -112 -112 1238 1248 1146 1213 1180 1129 1458 910 1157 -113 -111 1190 1143 1301 1543 1304 1430 1065 1008 298 911 317 309 299 301 309 314

33 NW 33 NW 33 NW 19 NE 19 NE 19 NE 20 SW 20 NW 20 NW 8 NW NONE 30 SW 33 NW 9 NW 19 NE 30 SW 8 SW NONE 2 NW NONE NONE NONE 27 NW 2 SW 35 NW 22 NW 15 NE 10 NE 2 NE 9 NW 33 NW

2 E 2 E 2 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 45.5 E 46 E 2 E 44 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 45.5 E 45 E 45 E 45.5 E 45.5 E 38 E 45 E 38 E 38 E 38 E 38 E 38 E 38 E 2 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 25 N 25 N 25 N 20 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 25 N 15 S 20 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 12.5 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 14 S 12.5 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 25 N

4009557 4009550 4009536 4004324 4004586 4004700 4003901 4003976 4004284 4076078 4070899 4072444 4009572 4058306 4004593 4072436 4074915 4075623 4078927 4077005 4075080 4075155 4061534 4077242 4059776 4063263 4064960 4066797 4068086 4066478 4009658 Northing ¹

520973 520934 520931 520927 496997 496930 497606 498020 498022 498073 498641 497168 498660 520953 481774 497333 498591 498548 497206 495552 496489 492674 492043 425835 491882 427046 425687 425992 426378 427424 424171

UTM

ell

ell A ell C

ell 4066600 ell ell

ell (Craig Canyon) uesday (Unnamed Well) e Spring n (Upper) n (Lower) Badwater Spring #3 Badwater Spring #4 Badwater Spring #5 (Main) Main Hanaupah Spring #1 Main Hanaupah Spring #2 Main Hanaupah Spring #4 South Hanaupah Spring #1 South Hanaupah Spring #2 (Middle) South Hanaupah Spring #3 (Lower) Overlook Seep Lostman Spring Fer Badwater Spring #2 Indian Map W Main Hanaupah Spring #3 (Middle) Fer Potlicker Seep T Leadfield Spring Upper Leadfield Spring T Poacher Unnamed W (Craig Canyon) Klar Salt W Gervais W Flowing W Artesian W Fat T Unnamed W (Craig Canyon) Badwater Spring #1

90 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ 1.7 3.7 -8.7 -5.4 -2.6 -3.0 -2.8 -2.1 -4.6 -4.2 -1.2 3.1 -0.2 1.4 2.8 3.4 1.9 -0.5 -1.4 -3.5 -4.3 5.3 -1.4 2.3 Spring–Amb Air

14.3 12.9 20.9 20.6 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.7 20.6 20.6 20.6 13.9 13.7 11.3 11.7 11.7 13.1 11.2 11.5 11.7 11.7 11.9 13.9 13.3 Amb Air

16 16.6 12.5 13.1 11.9 15.3 18.1 17.7 17.9 18.6 16 16.4 19.4 17 13.5 12.7 14.5 15.1 15 10.7 10.1 8.2 7.4 17.2 12.5 15.6

<1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 20 10 <1 12 20 8 25 10 10 5 3 1 2.5 100 200

315 355 352 345 349 345 351 354 355 354 1263 1311 1338 1693 1635 1629 1456 1428 1705 1660 1628 1625 1605 1513 1310 1434 1404

30 NW 30 NE 30 NE 30 NE 30 NE 30 NE 30 NW 30 NW 30 NW 33 NE 33 NE 33 NE 33 NW 32 SE 32 SE 32 NE 33 NW 19 NW 18 SW 18 SW 18 NE 18 NW 18 NW 1 SW 6 SW 1 SW 9 NE

39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 40 E 38 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 14 S

4071509 4071393 4071238 4071328 4071383 4071409 4071610 4071693 4071703 3991342 3991087 3991116 3990346 3990987 3991023 3991398 3991405 4042927 4043391 4043507 4043509 4043570 4044307 4047039 4047476 4047430 4066577 Northing ¹

424362 430896 431570 431433 431296 431072 431003 430759 430708 430622 498896 498724 498643 497280 496970 497002 497725 497929 449993 449712 449622 449631 449512 449182 448128 450093 449690

UTM

ell D

arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs arm Springs

eenleaf Spring A eenleaf Spring B eenleaf Spring C (Craig Canyon) Lower W South Shelf Spring D Lower W South Shelf Spring I Lower W South Shelf Spring H Lower W South Shelf Spring G Lower W South Shelf Spring F Lower W South Shelf Spring E Lower W South Shelf C Lower W South Shelf B Lower W South Shelf Spring A Gr Gr Gr Cloud Spring High Dog Spring B High Dog Spring A Dog Spring Low Dog Spring Jack 17 Jack 20 Jack 19 Jack 18 Jack A Jack 29 Jack 42 Jack 46 Jack 45 Unnamed W

National Park Service 91 ³ 1.3 -4.3 -5.8 -2.8 -0.5 -0.2 -0.3 4.7 -0.2 2.5 2.1 3.4 0.9 -0.9 -0.7 3.2 -2.6 2.4 -0.8 0.6 -4.8 1.2 0.2 0.0 -2.3 3.7 -0.9 0.9

Spring–Amb Air

15.6 11.8 14.7 15.2 9.5 9.9 23.5 23.4 23.4 23.4 21.1 14.0 14.0 13.0 13.0 12.6 13.2 11.1 12.3 15.6 16.0 16.5 10.0 10.0 11.4 10.2 9.3 9.1 23.0 23.3 23.4 23.4 23.4 23.4 15.2 13.3 14.7 Amb Air

16 15.3 11.2 13.5 12.8 12.7 17.3 13 13.6 14.4 19 16.9 15.6 9.3 13.2 8.8 12.5 8.5 9.7 18.2 24.5 23.6 23.4 21.1 19.1 18.9 12.4 15.6

1.5 1.5 7 <1 5 2 40 25 50 6 7 2 75 <1 1 1 8 2 4 1 1 15 <1 <1 2 1 <1 <1 2 2 3 100

1196 1299 1299 1452 1070 1445 1611 1507 1422 1196 1132 1718 1548 1068 1023 950 1869 1868 1669 1852 1979 1946 1885 2007 -53 11 -35 -26 -38 -42 -36 -37 -39 -37 1132 294 1403

2 NE 1 NW 11 NW 28 SE NE NE NE NE 29 NW 29 NW 30 SW 30 SW 29 NE 29 NE 28 NW 32 NE 32 NE 36 SW 32 NE 32 NE 32 NE 29 SE 30 SE 34 SW 34 SE 34 SW 34 SW 34 SW 34 SW 34 SW 34 SW 34 SW 34 SW 25 SW 22 SE 12 NW 14 NW

40 E 40 E 40 E 43 E 45.5 E 45.5 E 45.5 E 45.5 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 44 E 44 E 43 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 46 E 38 E 40 E 40 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 11 S 11 S 10 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 21 S 14 S 16 S 16 S

4046065 4046030 4045708 4040235 4077685 4077664 4077592 4076518 4012650 4012707 4012068 4012059 4012639 4012438 4012274 4088497 4088525 4096743 4088518 4087891 4088547 4088815 4089115 4039770 4039935 4039875 4039899 4039946 4040045 4040149 4040290 4040328 4040443 3991796 4062309 4047169 4046696 Northing ¹

447150 447924 447913 449107 471752 496106 496297 496179 495711 498318 498409 496412 496607 498780 499051 499409 494334 494410 481143 494466 493901 493987 494372 492439 511960 512612 512128 512063 511958 511933 511988 511847 511850 511830 501216 426533 449730

UTM

est)

e Seep alley Marsh illow eek Urban Spring A eek Urban Spring B eek Urban Spring C eek Urban Spring D eek Urban Spring E eek Urban Spring F eek Urban Spring G eek Urban Spring H eek Urban Spring I

ow Spring inter Spring Jack 32 Jack 33 Jack 35 Arr Scout Spring (W Scout Spring (Upper East) Scout Spring (Lower East) Butterfly Spring Shotgun Spring A Shotgun Spring B Uppermost Spring Pistol Spring Mossy Spring Second Spring Machette Spring T T Bonnie Clair T Larkspur Spring Little W Knoll Spring Black Spot Spring Cow Cr Koramatsu Spring Cow Cr Cow Cr Cow Cr Cow Cr Cow Cr Cow Cr Cow Cr Cow Cr W Saline V Jack 41 Jack 43

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 ule George Spring A 410 ule George Spring B 411 412 ule George Spring C 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 ¹ ² ³

92 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -2.1 3.4 8.4 1.5 -3.7 2.8 -0.8 2.9 3.5 4.4 4.5 -3.4 4.4 1.1 0.2 1.7 -1.8 2.0 0.9 1.2 0.5 -1.3 -0.7 2.4 -3.1 0.4 -2.9 -1.2 2.6 1.4 Spring–Amb Air

14.1 9.1 10.0 12.5 16.3 17.3 10.3 9.7 15.6 12.3 14.1 12.9 13.1 11.6 12.3 12.6 12.8 13.5 13.5 14.1 13.5 14.3 13.1 13.4 13.9 12.6 12.4 11.5 9.0 8.6 9.6 12.7 12.8 13.0 13.8 9.6 14.7 Amb Air

12 19.7 25.7 15.6 9.2 15.9 10.8 15.2 16.1 17.2 18 10.1 18.5 14.6 14.5 14.8 11.6 15.9 13.5 13.6 12 7.7 7.9 12 9.6 13.2 10.1 12.6 12.2 16.1

2 1 2 8 15 1 35 30 <1 18 <1 <1 3 <1 12 <1 <1 <1 40 2 18 2 4 15 2 <1 <1 200 >1000 >150

1540 1291 1287 1458 1435 1640 1546 1501 1473 1375 1380 1286 1377 1257 1435 1384 1321 1509 1530 1660 2020 2068 1924 2000 1875 1520 1494 1477 1441 1329 968 836 1932 1831 1920 1071 1202

32 NE 33 NW 28 NE 28 SE 26 SW 27 SE 27 SE 27 SW 27 SW 34 NW 34 NW 34 NW 34 NW 29 SE 29 SE 32 NE 29 SW 30 SE 30 SE 15 NW 15 SE 13 SW 14 NE 26 SE 3 NE 3 NE 3 NE 3 NE 35 NE 5 SE 18 SE 29 SW 32 NE 32 NW 21 SE 16 SW 26 SW

41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 45 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 45 E 43 E 43 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 44 E 44 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 19 S 18 S 18 S 18 S 18 S 13 S 11 S 11 S 13 S 19 S 19 S 30 N

4039708 4039911 4041023 4040911 4042120 4041761 4041516 4041286 4040908 4040664 4040276 4040383 4040086 4041125 4040680 4040190 16 S 4040466 16 S 4040589 4040814 4091789 4090893 4091934 4091846 11 S 4011248 4028483 4028572 4028670 4028735 4071470 4098555 4095004 4070316 4069082 13 S 4068846 13 S 4013002 4014374 4060725 Northing ¹

514150 452506 452644 453488 453831 454581 454417 454300 454341 454115 454325 454019 455004 454073 452126 452395 452468 450783 450685 450264 489050 489754 490423 491020 490255 482310 482441 482493 482527 505619 471230 469461 461118 461383 460770 480884 480459

ell A

UTM

d Spring ildhorse Spring (Station) Spring ildrose agon Spring Jack 02 Mill Canyon Spring Jack 06 Jack 05 Jack 14 Keir Spring Jack 12 Jack 13 Mill Cottonwood Jack 04 Shannon Spring Jack 03 Heinz Spring Mendoza Spring Jack 07 Jack 08 Jack 09 Jack 10 Jack 11 Jaybir Pine Spring Log Spring C-B Spring W Malapi Spring a Malapi Spring b Malapi Spring c Malapi Spring d Daylight Pass Spring Staininger Spring Surprise Spring NPS Red Rock Spring W R W Mud Spring East Chloride City W

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 ye Grass Spring ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 93 ³ -10.9 -10.7 -2.7 4.0 2.0 5.7 -0.5 -1.4 -2.3 -3.2 1.6 -2.8 -2.1 0.9 0.3 -1.9 -3.6 2.5 -10.1 0.1 1.6 2.5 4.1 3.0 2.1 -0.9 -0.5 Spring–Amb Air

12.5 16.8 15.1 19.3 17.1 17.2 18.2 18.8 10.9 10.7 10.9 11.1 11.1 14.9 14.7 14.5 7.0 19.0 19.3 19.9 14.4 15.6 17.0 16.5 19.3 17.0 13.8 10.9 10.9 10.9 10.9 11.1 11.2 11.1 11.4 11.8 11.5 Amb Air

8.4 18.9 16.7 20.2 6.5 17.6 17 16.7 16 12.8 14.9 17.4 19.6 15.1 10.2 13.4 0.8 11 12.5 13.6 15.3 14.1 13.5 10.9 11

1 60 4 >1 1 <1 2 <1 5 >5 5 4 <1 10 2 <1 2 <1 2 2 <1 2 10 5 100

1168 1198 1224 2305 1516 902 582 544 466 1240 1138 1077 871 952 540 540 857 849 877 695 615 1336 1743 1748 1767 1747 1746 1746 1739 1719 1706 1717 1714 1716 1680 1617 1654

20 SE 20 SE 35 SW 12 NE 20 SW 13 SW 13 SW 13 SW 30 NE 30 NE 30 NE 24 SE 24 SE 5 NE 4 SE 16 SW 20 NW 17 SE 31 NE 31 NE 18 NW 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 20 SE

44 E 44 E 45 E 3 E 3 E 2 E 2 E 2 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 46 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 40 S 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 44 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 19 S 19 S 19 S 23 N 25 N 26 N 26 N 26 N 16 S 16 S 16 S 14 S 14 S 12 S 12 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 19 S

4013400 4013422 4009948 4000814 4015659 4026217 4026424 4026259 4043931 4044113 4044250 4064024 4064669 4088494 4087811 x 4093915 4094186 4091802 4090575 4125438 4126114 4126165 4126186 4126221 4126208 8 S 4126199 4126211 4126202 4126169 4126192 4126190 4126224 4126108 4126025 4126057 4013265 Northing ¹

482317 482634 482639 493295 533820 529035 525463 524956 523905 489565 489581 489593 506929 507378 472260 473186 x 472208 472076 471489 470461 443668 440921 441002 411052 441059 441056 441059 441080 441143 441170 441180 441205 441265 441226 441668 441481

UTM

in Spring

ch Spring ndike Spring eenwater Spring est Twin Spring est Twin Poplar Spring (b) Poplar Spring (a) Thor Gr Y Navel Spring Salty Navel Spring Fossil Spring W T Gypsum Monar Bed Spring b Unnamed East T Shrike Spring Whisker Spring Bee Seep Mortar Spring Bushy Seep (Upper) Bushy Seep (Lower) Unnamed LCM 005 Last Chance Springs A Last Chance Springs B Last Chance Springs C Last Chance Springs F Last Chance Springs E Last Chance Springs D Last Chance Springs G Last Chance Springs H Last Chance Springs I Last Chance Springs J Last Chance Springs K Last Chance Springs L Last Chance Springs M Last Chance Springs T Last Chance Springs S Roadside Spring

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 oung Spring 473 474 475 476 477 ucki Spring 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 ¹ ² ³

94 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -6.6 -2.5 -1.8 -1.0 0.9 3.9 3.0 4.8 -0.1 -0.1 -1.4 -6.9 -0.2 -1.6 8.5 -5.9 1.6 -5.3 -9.6 0.4 -6.7 -5.2 1.4 -2.5

Spring–Amb Air

11.4 16.6 16.6 16.7 16.7 16.7 17.3 17.4 17.4 17.4 13.9 13.5 13.2 18.7 18.7 18.6 11.6 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.1 12.0 16.6 16.6 16.6 16.9 16.9 17.5 16.8 17.3 17.3 17.4 17.5 18.6 12.7 18.6 19.1 Amb Air

10 16.2 16.9 17.6 12.4 15.4 14.5 15.9 11.9 16.5 15.2 9.7 16.7 15.3 26 10.9 18.9 12 7.8 17.9 11.9 7.5 20 16.6

1 20 20 10 7 6 3 2 40 3 1 12 2 3.5 1 <1 2 <1 1 10 5 1 <100 100 100

1645 1663 1663 1666 1668 1713 1586 931 932 922 917 917 929 926 926 890 887 800 898 829 826 823 825 820 820 817 805 648 1317 1373 1420 1483 638 636 636 640 567

2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SE 2 SW 2 SW 7 SE 7 SW 7 SE 7 SE 7 SE 7 SE 7 SE 7 SE 17 SE 17 SE 12 SW 7 SE 18 NW 18 NW 18 NW 18 NW 18 NW 18 NW 18 NW 18 NW 24 NW 6 SW 29 SW 29 SW 29 SE 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 2 SE

39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 42 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 39 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 8 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 9 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 8 S

4126061 4126048 4126055 4126065 4125695 4125560 4116201 4116283 4116024 4115962 4115892 4115930 4115935 4115885 4114205 4114117 4096542 4096445 4095153 4095138 4095137 4095124 4095098 4095087 4095072 4095035 4094285 4055745 4050399 4050057 4050215 4097647 4097702 4097698 4097793 4097950 4126023 Northing ¹

441449 441426 441404 441390 441358 441224 441748 450394 450324 450495 450459 450587 450802 450854 450919 452108 452215 468986 469790 469325 469314 469305 469313 469316 469316 469313 469298 467602 460681 461127 460679 460196 464644 464590 464581 464603 464591

UTM

ree Spring ree s Cottonwood o Slide Spring Last Chance Springs Q Last Chance Springs P Last Chance Springs O Last Chance Springs N Unnamed LCM 003 Unnamed LCM 004 Unnamed Sand Seep b Unnamed Sand Seep a Unnamed Sand Seep c Unnamed Sand Seep d Unnamed Sand Seep e Sand Spring a Sand Spring b Sand Spring c Little Sand Spring a Little Sand Spring b Scotty’ Gargoyle Spring Surprise Springs a Surprise Springs b Surprise Springs c Surprise Springs d Surprise Springs e Surprise Springs f Surprise Springs g Surprise Springs h T Unnamed Harris Hill Spring Single T Fry Pan Spring Burr Grapevine Ranch Spring o Grapevine Ranch Spring n Grapevine Ranch Spring m Grapevine Ranch Spring l Grapevine Ranch Spring j Last Chance Springs R

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 raderat 532 533 534 535 536 537 ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 95 ³ 1.6 -1.7 -1.2 -11.3 -4.1 -4.8 -3.5 -2.1 -8.7 -3.7 -11.0 -1.8

Spring–Amb Air

18.5 18.5 18.5 18.5 18.4 18.4 18.4 18.4 18.4 18.4 18.4 18.3 18.3 18.3 18.3 18.3 18.2 18.2 23.2 23.2 23.2 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 23.9 18.5 18.5 18.5 18.4 18.4 18.4 18.3 23.9 23.9 18.4 Amb Air

20 22.2 17.3 7.2 14.4 13.6 14.9 16.3 9.6 20.2 12.9 16.6

60 60 <1 <1 2 <1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 1.5 <1 <1 <1 1 60 >10

668 661 654 664 665 664 661 664 674 674 674 680 678 679 678 671 674 679 682 683 683 681 681 683 699 702 -16 -19 -18 -106 -112 -111 -112 -107 -106 -108

3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 19 NW 19 NW 19 NW 33 SW 9 NE 9 NE 9 SE 2 SW 14 NW 23 NE 3 NW

42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 42 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 20 S 20 S 25 N 23 N 23 N 23 N 11 S

4097988 4097901 4098090 4098096 4098103 4098109 4098110 4098121 4098109 x 4098134 4098142 4098170 4098179 4098175 4098190 4098194 4098208 4098216 4098224 4098240 4098273 4098346 4098439 4098388 4064404 4064631 4064650 4009089 25 N 4006225 4006211 4006098 3997227 3995457 3992195 4097957 Northing ¹

464608 464574 464507 464557 464551 464542 464535 464531 464547 464569 x 464568 464542 464533 464505 464468 464440 464457 464444 464434 464419 464405 464382 464364 464391 464446 488101 487887 487856 510747 511957 511988 511939 514060 514161 515036

UTM

orks Well orks Spring

ell a ell s Well Grapevine Ranch Spring i Grapevine Ranch Spring g Grapevine Ranch Seep o Grapevine Ranch Seep m Grapevine Ranch Spring h Grapevine Ranch Seep l Grapevine Ranch Seep i Grapevine Ranch Seep k Grapevine Ranch Seep n Grapevine Ranch Seep p Grapevine Ranch Seep j Grapevine Ranch Spring f Grapevine Ranch Spring e Grapevine Ranch Seep h Grapevine Ranch Spring d Grapevine Ranch Seep f Grapevine Ranch Spring C Grapevine Ranch Seep g Grapevine Ranch Seep e Grapevine Ranch Seep D Grapevine Ranch Seep C Grapevine Ranch Seep B Grapevine Ranch Spring A Grapevine Ranch Spring b Grapevine Ranch Seep A T T T Shorty’ Eagle Borax W Eagle Borax W Sowbelly W Salisbury Spring Mesquite W Unnamed Mormon Point Spring Grapevine Ranch Spring k

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 riangle Spring B 568 riangle Seep 569 riangle Spring A 570 571 572 573 ¹ ² ³

96 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -11.1 -9.4 2.2 -2.0 -4.3 1.8 -10.0 Spring–Amb Air

23.9 19.3 23.3 23.3 23.0 22.3 20.9 20.9 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.3 19.2 19.2 19.3 19.5 19.5 19.3 19.5 23.9 23.9 19.4 19.3 19.2 19.3 23.9 Amb Air

12.8 14.5 21.6 17.3 14.9 21 13.9

1 1 1 1 1 1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 5 1

-109 -110 -113 -111 528 550 549 554 -21 -29 13 116 317 315 560 553 561 560 557 561 554 554 556 556 554 552 553 552 555 548 518 516 541 519

1 NE 12 NW 3 SW 16 NE 16 NE 16 NE 16 NE 28 NE 9 NW 21 SW 25 NW 2 NE 2 NE 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 15 SW 1 SW 15 SW 15 SW 22 SW 26 SE 26 SE 26 SE 1 NW

1 E 1 E 2 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 3 E 4 E 4 E 5 E 5 E 5 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 22 N 22 N 22 N 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 21 N 20 N 19 N 19 N 19 N 19 N 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 22 N

3988587 3987288 3987145 4093218 4093154 4093079 4093066 3972772 3966265 3953225 3952592 3958899 3958866 4092270 4092255 4092212 4092194 4092186 4092181 4092166 4092146 4092132 4092119 4092106 4092099 4092085 4092058 4092017 4091908 4091298 4090906 4090843 4090894 3989035 Northing ¹

515368 515634 515411 522240 465402 465431 465467 465478 530986 539415 542795 555336 553298 553269 465979 465991 466019 466021 466026 466028 466031 466026 466032 466047 466060 466061 466066 466081 466084 466134 466620 466926 467091 467332

UTM

ell

ound ound ound

ank B

ow Spring ow Seep ell d Well ell (Mormon Point) Hawk Spring b Salt W Bicentennial Spring Wheelbarr Wheelbarr Horsefly Spring (a) Horsefly Spring (b) Ashfor Confidence Mill W Blister W Superior Mine T Ibex Spring #1 Ibex Spring #2 BlackJack Spring (a) BlackJack Spring (b) BlackJack Spring (c) BlackJack Spring (d) BlackJack Spring (e) BlackJack Spring (f) BlackJack Spring (g) BlackJack Spring (h) BlackJack Spring (i) BlackJack Spring (j) BlackJack Spring (k) BlackJack Spring (l) BlackJack Spring (m) BlackJack Spring (n) Main BJ BlackJack Spring (o) BlackJack Spring (p) Hobo Spring (a) Mesquite Campgr spring (a) Mesquite Campgr spring (b) Mesquite Campgr spring (d) Lone Hawk Spring

National Park Service 97 ³ -14.6 -11.7 3.1 -3.9 -7.9 -3.8 -9.0 -5.2 -1.8 -6.1 -9.9 -3.6 -10.2 -3.0 -4.2 1.4 -6.3 -3.9 Spring–Amb Air

19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 19.2 18.6 18.5 23.1 23.2 16.2 16.5 19.3 19.5 19.2 22.9 23.4 23.3 23.2 23.2 20.7 19.5 15.9 23.2 19.7 19.7 19.7 19.1 19.1 19.5 22.9 23.0 18.9 23.2 20.1 19.2 19.1 Amb Air

8.6 11.6 22.6 12 15.3 15.9 10.7 14.5 17.3 13 9.6 19.3 12.8 15.9 19 21.5 12.9 15.2

1 2 <1 1 5 1 2 1 1 2 1 10 2 4 1 5 5 2 >1000

519 560 562 562 562 556 650 656 1 -6 1035 983 942 552 -11 517 484 482 488 579 558 570 511 29 29 14 603 -9 -44 -20 -15 -14 346 429 553 577

26 NE 26 NE 26 NE 26 NE 26 NE 11 SE 11 NW 24 SE 24 NW 4 SW 4 SW 18 NW 14 SW 19 NW 22 SW 23 NW 23 NW 23 NW 23 NE 23 NE 23 NE 23 NE 3 NW 3 NW 3 NW 24 SW 18 NW 15 NW 14 SE 14 SW 14 NW 36 NW 25 SE 30 SE 30 SE 26 SE

42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 4 E 4 E 5 E 5 E 45 E 2 E 45 E 42 E 12 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 1 E 1 E 1 E 43 E 45 E 46 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 1 E 1 E 2 E 2 E 42 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 19 N 19 N 21 N 21 N 30 N 26 N 14 S 11 S 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 27 N 27 N 27 N 12 S 14 S 15 S 14 S 14 S 14 S 29 N 29 N 29 N 29 N 11 S

4092208 4092174 4092140 4092103 4092060 4095112 11 S 4096224 3953058 3953712 3978274 3978406 4064765 4026372 4064069 4091200 4083833 4083898 4083773 4083745 4083748 4083827 4083748 4039554 4039581 4039530 4083629 4066716 4057052 4065512 4065238 4066604 4050883 4051323 4051604 4051452 4090954 Northing ¹

467233 466431 466384 466326 466257 466237 467037 466204 544525 543746 549691 550099 507374 525028 488405 466698 475829 475857 475795 476694 476759 476860 476417 513324 512863 512960 477670 487827 492884 485785 484906 484845 515550 516364 517527 517717

ell

UTM

ound

eek B

ell 2

ell

ell eek B eek A eek C spring (c) Blackjack Annex a Blackjack Annex b Blackjack Annex c Blackjack Annex d Blackjack Annex e Grapevine Palm Grapevine Niblet V Amargosa River Montgomery Spring Unnamed Salsberry Peak Bed Spring a Salty Navel T Hobo Spring (b) Lost Cr Lost Cr Lost Cr T T T Forgotten Cr Cow Springs Calf Spring b Calf Spring a Jacknife Spring Midway W Stovepipe W T Ruiz W Unnamed Mesquite Flat W Moth Spring Maidenhair Spring Poison Spring Point Spring Mesquite Campgr

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 alley Spring 620 621 622 623 624 625 riangle Spring c 626 627 628 629 630 rickling Spring A 631 rickling Spring B 632 rickling Spring C 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 iger Beetle Creek 641 642 643 ¹ ² ³

98 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -5.6 11.4 0.2 -7.5 -2.7 -3.1 -6.2 -3.7 -1.4 -10.1 -10.6 1.3 1.1 6.3 5.0 -1.2 -0.5 -3.2 22.7 -3.7 -3.2 -1.1 -2.6 26.9 14.2 -2.0 -4.9 Spring–Amb Air

17.5 16.4 15.3 19.5 12.0 12.2 19.4 19.5 20.4 15.3 15.4 15.6 20.2 18.3 17.6 12.5 13.3 13.6 11.1 11.2 12.6 14.2 13.5 13.4 14.9 14.9 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.4 19.5 20.2 20.4 20.3 18.9 Amb Air

9.7 26.8 15.8 12.7 15.6 14.5 6.3 9.6 12.2 1 0.6 13.9 15.3 19.8 18.4 13.7 14.4 16.2 42.1 15.7 16.2 18.3 16.9 47.1 34.6 18.3 14

3 <1 2 <1 <1 0 11 6 4 5 4 15 5 4 10 1 <1 2 1 1 >2 1 1 3 2 30 2 <1 4 2

603 796 955 1110 1110 1107 420 518 684 784 1583 1523 1397 1355 1718 1704 1498 1273 1556 1378 1389 1173 1174 532 532 528 531 531 531 520 517 423 394 393 396

29 SW 17 SW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 1071 19 NE 35 SE 28 NE 28 NW 11 NW 2 SE 2 NW 2 NW 11 NW 11 NW 6 NW 5 SW 27 NE 34 SE 34 SE 3 NW 3 NW 9 NW 9 NW 4 SW 5 SE 5 SE 5 SE 5 SE 5 SE 18 NE 18 SE 18 SE 18 SE 30 SE

2 E 46 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 46 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 13 E 39 E 39 E 39 E 2 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 29 N 29 N 10 S 10 S 10 S 10 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 20 S 20 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 12.5 S 12.5 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 18 S 18 S 18 S 13 S 18 S 18 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 25 N

4051323 4054542 4101933 4101943 4101947 4101737 4000576 4002979 20 S 4002461 4002327 4017469 4017809 4018362 4018743 4017083 4017143 4008852 4008219 4082442 4080510 4080533 4079267 4079265 4076549 4076532 4076647 4076680 4076750 4076809 4076732 4076597 4074419 4073392 4073474 4073614 4051349 Northing ¹

518009 520060 518531 468216 468201 468160 467833 504880 503861 502329 501639 493129 493581 493750 493756 493377 493372 496640 498868 494601 494650 494677 494095 494106 434242 434201 433812 433484 432965 432924 432758 431692 431155 431124 431093

UTM

o Spring

est of

arm Spring a arm Spring b arm Mesquite Spring434025 arm Springs D arm Springs C arm Springs A f B f A rail Spring oglyph Spring on Spring Petr Copperbell Spring Shanche Spring d Shanche Spring c Shanche Spring b Shanche Spring a Whisper Spring Arsenic Spring Panamint Burr Panamint Mule Spring Dry T Apr T High Noon Spring Blue Clif Blue Clif Flicker Spring Noggin Spring T Epipactus Spring a Epipactus Spring b Hohum Spring a Hohum Spring b Upper W Upper W Upper W T Unnamed W T Stone Spring Dry Stone Seep Doggie Spring Palm Spring Lower W Lower W Lower W Indian Pass Potholes Spring

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 arantula Spring 661 662 663 664 665 666 in Can Spring 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 ravertine Seep 674 675 eakettle Junction 676 677 678 679 ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 99 ³ -15.8 -11.3 -1.6 4.9 5.2 0.3 -7.7 -5.7 8.1 9.4 -8.7 0.2 -1.0 -2.8 -3.2 -3.2 -2.3 0.3 -1.5 -2.5 1.0 4.4 6.4 0.3 -3.0 3.1 -1.7 -0.3 -3.6 -2.1 0.0 0.9 8.1 22.3 Spring–Amb Air

15.1 13.5 15.8 11.3 15.0 12.7 10.7 10.6 15.4 16.0 17.1 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.7 15.9 15.4 14.9 15.7 16.2 16.2 16.3 16.7 13.4 12.7 11.6 13.6 10.9 10.5 10.9 11.8 15.8 13.8 14.5 15.0 12.3 20.3

1 1 Amb Air

13.4 17.6 8.3 11.4 24.2 25.6 7.6 16.9 14.9 12.6 11.7 12.5 13.9 16.5 14.8 14.2 14.4 17.1 18 13.9 7.9 13.6 15.9 10.9 9.2 11.5 12.2 11.7 14.5 15.9 20.4 42.6

1 1 8 5 1 2 5 4 1 12 12 1 3 12 1 4 50 12 30 7 <1 8 5 6 >1 1 2 2 10 1 30 >40 >50

395 1141 1015 860 1373 995 992 970 919 1033 1105 1172 1059 1044 993 982 976 919 1690 1157 1387 1491 1489 1639 1365 1738 1800 1772 1794 1743 1622 1103 1045 1337 1229 1153 1541

1 SE 35 NE 26 SE 12 SE 11 NE 11 NE 11 NE 11 SW 34 NW 34 NW 34 NW 34 NW 27 SW 28 NE 28 NE 28 NE 28 NE 17 SE 22 SW 20 SW 20 SW 20 SW 20 NW 21 SW 18 SW 17 SE 17 SE 17 SW 18 NE 18 NW 1 NW 1 NE 6 NW 1 NE 36 SE 13 NW 18 SE

2 E 25 E 2 E 40 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 34 E 34 E 34 E 34 E 34 E 34 E 35 E 35 E 34 E 35 E 34 E 35 E 39E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 25 N 25.5 N 25.5 N 16 S 20 N 20 N 20 N 20 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 21 N 22 N 23 N 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 23 N 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S

4016585 4019535 4020288 4045732 3968651 3968604 3968415 3968370 3972128 3971825 3971863 3972360 3972563 3973768 3973974 3974067 3974258 3985524 3993863 3994100 3994206 3994441 3995100 3994134 4043534 4043969 4043869 4043524 4044196 4044196 4048187 4048473 4048335 4048413 4049016 4044365 4073601 Northing ¹

431038 526036 524875 525348 448553 492509 492515 492169 491287 500025 499638 499463 499701 499657 499107 499152 499035 499145 497288 499325 497496 496802 496802 496131 497629 450693 451104 451115 451225 450690 449690 447913 447714 450078 449115 448687 448166

UTM

arm Springs B

e Spring dough Spring ilson Spring ard Spring ard Lemonade Spring W Monument Canyon Spring Jack 35 SOSP 04 (Myers Ranch) SOSP 03 (Meyers Ranch) SOSP 02 Sour Jacobs Spring Nopah Spring Nopah Falls Spring Needle Spring Strummer Spring Squaw Spring D Squaw Spring C Squaw Spring B Squaw Spring A Arrastr W Fang Spring Hungry Bill Spring B Hungry Bills Spring A T Mint Spring Jack 22 Jack 23 Lee Pump Jack 25 Jack 28 Jack 21 Jack 44 Jack 51 Jack 48 Little Dodd Spring Big Dodd Spring Jack 31 Lower W

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 owhee Spring 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 ¹ ² ³

100 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ -2.1 -15.1 2.2 -11.3 -11.6 0.1 0.2 0.6 -0.7 1.0 2.0 -2.7 4.6 3.3 4.3 -14.7 -2.7 4.9 5.2 2.0 5.7 7.9 -1.6 0.4 3.3 0.4 0.6 Spring–Amb Air

14.3 10.9 9.2 15.7 15.1 7.4 9.8 14.1 14.2 11.3 11.6 12.8 16.7 8.5 13.0 13.6 16.3 13.3 12.2 13.3 13.1 14.0 16.4 17.8 9.0 14.7 15.4 15.1 11.9 12.3 10.7 16.6 16.6 10.2 8.7 10.3 10.3 Amb Air

12.2 9.6 13.7 16.5 13.9 11.5 14.3 15.1 11.3 21 21.1 13.3 0 12.7 20 17.1 14.3 16.4 24.5 15 10.6 12 10.7 10.9

1 3 3 >3 >3 8 3 2 <1 2 0 1 2 >6 <1 15 0 <1 1 <1 <1 >2 6 >20 600

1447 1358 978 1266 1399 1557 1404 1424 1297 957 754 1748 2015 1982 1056 1199 1096 1146 1143 2248 1907 1291 1274 1609 1682 1651 1544 1469 1774 936 936 917 1844 2058 2087 1824 1832

12 NW 3 NW 5 SE 5 SE 31 NW 5 SE 5 NW 5 NE 15 NE 1 SE 3 NE 5 SE 31 SE 10 NE 4 NW 18 SW 8 NE 6 SW 16 SE 3 NE 10 NE 3 NW 4 SW 5 SE 9 NW 9 NW 3 NW 21 SW 7 NW 7 NW 7 NW 19 NE 22 SW 22 SE 20 SW 8 NE 13 NW

35 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 45 E 45 E 43 E 46 E 46 E 1 E 46 E 46 E 45 E 45 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 46 E 35 E 47 E 47 E 47 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 41 E 35 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 13 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 12 S 12 S 12 S 21 S 21 S 30 N 20 N 20 N 20 S 12 S 22 S 22 S 22 S 22 S 22 S 22 S 22 S 13 S 18 S 18 S 18 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 16 S 13 S

4045493 3998404 3999404 4000061 4000478 3999999 3999408 3999149 3996699 3998144 4086836 4086003 4087277 3998184 3999145 4064340 3968782 3969356 4005149 4086780 3987813 3989560 3988913 3988624 3988149 3988477 3989025 4042081 4026922 4026931 x 4091427 4090486 4091185 4090327 4046366 4044848 Northing ¹

448267 448386 499863 497521 498581 495927 496703 496374 497202 500522 503235 497094 493528 492848 500521 498181 507936 497305 495158 490804 494878 500857 499990 497656 497526 497603 497966 499240 443490 496402 496389 x 493084 490314 490735 493548 452019

UTM

ch Canyon

ock Well ose Spring d Spring es Ranch Spring f Spring ch Spring idow Spring indy Spring ombat Spring etfork Spring Jack 34 W Lower Snake Spring Upper Snake Spring Phantom Spring Middle Snake Spring Primr Road Runner Spring Flor Quartzite Spring Mexican Camp Spring Alkali Spring W Ghost Spring W Unnamed Monar SOSP 06 SOSP 05 Bir Mexican Spring Drum Spring Six Spring Canyon Sidehill Spring Jigger Spring Lizar Liar Spring Edge Spring Blackr Blackwater Spring B Blackwater Spring A W Clif Delfs Spring #1 Delfs Spring #2 Rabbit Brush Spring Jack 40 (Unnamed) Jack 30

National Park Service 101 ³ 6.8 3.5 4.4 3.5 4.1 3.5 -0.4 4.5 3.1 1.6 2.0 3.5 -0.9 1.4 5.6 2.2 4.8 3.8 1.4 -0.9 3.4 1.8 -1.0 Spring–Amb Air

9.2 9.1 15.4 14.5 6.5 14.1 15.3 15.1 23.1 13.6 7.5 11.5 10.7 17.2 9.0 9.4 10.2 8.7 10.0 9.1 9.4 9.9 11.9 12.0 12.6 16.0 15.1 12.0 9.2 8.4 11.2 10.8 9.1 9.2 8.5 8.7 8.6 Amb Air

16 10 15.9 14.2 14.1 12.6 9 14.4 15 13.6 14.6 19.5 14.2 13.4 14.8 10.6 16 14.6 10.5 8.3 11.9 10.5 7.6

1 12 1 2 3 20 5 10 30 2.5 12 50 0.5 20 50 20 12 12 200 180 100 >100 >200

1872 1990 1996 1954 2003 1891 1606 1592 1499 1012 1108 1141 1234 2374 1594 1288 1114 1147 -2 1360 1981 2229 2097 1696 1659 1774 1764 842 2010 2005 1991 1964 1846 2055 2084 2053 2071

11 SE 11 SE 2 SW 1 SE 6 SW 5 SW 5 E 4 SW 11 NW 2 NE 3 NE 11 NW 15 SW 13 NW 23 SE 21 SW 22 SW 23 NW 32 NE 13 NW 30 NW 19 NE 34 NE 34 NE 27 SE 10 SE 8 NE 7 SE 7 SE 7 SE 9 NE 33 SE 11 SW 11 SW 11 SE 14 NE 13 NE

41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 45 E 45 E 44 E 44 E 44 E 1 E 3 E 45 E 37 E 37 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 18 S 37 E 37 E 37 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 20 S 20 S 19 S 19 S 19 S 27 N 28 N 20 S 11 S 11 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 22 S 46 E 11 S 11 S 11 S 16 S 15 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S

4045694 4045734 4047340 4047225 4046928 4047101 4047068 4047189 4047630 4047433 4047640 4046677 4005038 4005580 4013385 4013302 4013298 4034107 4040719 4008219 4092026 4093277 3991689 3991865 3992126 3987673 4026068 4095038 4095061 4095276 4046257 4048944 4044781 4044781 4044762 4044548 4045425 Northing ¹

458300 457330 457241 457618 458807 459232 461206 461500 462522 466153 465695 465033 465659 491216 486959 484166 481247 481872 513873 528792 497868 412652 413447 490694 490374 490868 491223 497724 412780 412770 413208 453507 454260 456265 456265 456365 456052

UTM

ell)

eek

s Spring

n Spring d aterholes

nace Creek Inn Well nace Creek ildrose Ranger Station Well ildrose aucoba 3B aucoba 3A aucoba 04 ACA 01 ACA 02 Hunter Spring Cr Niebyl Spring Claussen Spring Dirty Fingers Early Bir Muska Spring Badman Spring Flycatcher Longhor Deadhorse Horseshoe Lightning Jail Spring Y W Antimony Spring Roadside Spring Fur Echo W Naghipah Spring W W Panamint A Lightfoot Spring Panamint B Stone Corral South Fork Spring W W W Jack 39 Spanish Spring (W Hunter Cabin Hunter Spring Hunter Corral Panic Pete’ Zawada Spring

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 ellowjacket Spring 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 ¹ ² ³

102 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ 4.0 -18.0 4.4 0.7 0.0 -4.2 -3.4 0.7 -2.4 1.3 0.8 1.3 4.0 1.3 2.1 3.2 -0.5 1.0 -2.5 -1.4 -0.1 0.9 -1.5 0.7 1.0 1.3 0.9 Spring–Amb Air

8.4 12.5 10.4 13.7 13.5 13.7 14.0 5.8 18.0 7.6 14.2 23.1 7.6 8.8 8.9 8.9 8.1 8.6 8.9 9.6 10.0 10.4 10.6 12.7 12.9 6.5 7.8 15.6 16.6 16.8 9.2 9.5 9.5 9.6 9.7 10.3 8.7 Amb Air

14.4 12 9.5 8.9 4.7 4.7 9.3 6.5 10.9 10.8 11.7 14.6 14 15 9.7 7.3 16.6 14.1 15.4 9.1 10.4 8 10.3 10.7 11.6 9.6

30 12 30 1 1 0.3 0.5 1.25 1.5 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 5 2 15 25 2.5 1 0.4 3 4 4 1.3 20

2220 2060 2044 2028 2102 2028 2148 1514 2070 2024 1811 1934 1870 1810 1787 1346 1489 1375 1459 1346 1299 2379 2480 2184 1074 935 896 1986 1947 1943 1932 1910 1837 730 1273 2214

11 SE 10 NW 10 NW 16 NW 16 SW 35 SW 3 NW 14 NE 8 SE 12 SE 7 NE 1 SW 7 NW 7 SE 10 SE 9 NE 16 NE 16 SE 15 NW 15 SW 9 NE 9 NE 4 SW 26 SW 19 SW 19 NW 13 NE 12 SW 13 NE 13 NE 12 SE 12 SE 3 NW 5 SW 25 SW 5 NW 10 SE

45 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 45 E 44 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 42 E 41 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 16 S 43 E 43 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 43 E 46 E 45 E 46 E 41 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 19 S 18 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 42 E 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 12 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 21 S 16 S

4045594 4045908 4044378 4044015 4011415 4028972 4044787 4045048 4045546 4046379 4046666 4046734 4046762 4044696 4046549 4044532 4043949 x 4043390 4007683 4007795 4008536 4040786 4042279 4043028 4044863 4045021 4044932 4044937 4045033 4045074 4089087 4006728 4008219 4002995 4000045 4045417 Northing ¹

454623 454581 454381 453523 453322 493533 482260 456928 457782 458980 458081 459081 459467 459750 464795 463125 463740 463402 x 463920 490695 490911 490273 466264 468815 468961 458395 458301 458597 458583 458527 458809 474151 493257 499868 490520 487020

UTM

d Spring

uber Spring

een Spring alrus Spring Quail Spring Jack 36 Jackass Spring Jack 26 Johnnie Shoshone Gr Newfound Spring Amos Spring W Bottle Spring Colin Spring Jolley Spring Duke Spring Open Spring Panther Spring Heather Spring Poorman Spring Rising Sun T T Upper T Hummingbir Cottonwood Spring Sidewinder Spring Lower Cottonwood Sister D Sister A Sister E Sister C Sister B Sister F Obsidian Seeps (a, b, c) Mahogany Spring A Noggin Spring Late Spring Upper Hall Canyon Pipe Jack 38

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 iny Tank 814 uber Spring 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 103 ³ 4.0 0.9 1.8 3.3 1.7 -0.3 0.9 -1.9 1.1 -1.1 0.6 -0.9 -3.0 0.7 -3.6 5.0 0.3 -0.3 -3.9 16.1 2.5 -1.4 1.0 0.2 -2.3 -0.8 -1.8 -4.1 Spring–Amb Air

12.7 8.9 7.4 7.3 11.7 12.3 10.5 7.8 11.1 13.9 14.3 15.4 14.5 15.8 11.1 11.4 11.7 10.9 10.5 10.5 10.5 8.5 9.5 9.5 12.2 14.3 17.9 11.0 17.7 12.7 13.8 14.1 14.2 14.4 15.2 9.8 23.1 Amb Air

16.7 12.6 16.1 17.8 17.5 10.8 12.3 9.8 12 9.4 11.1 9.6 5.5 10.2 5.9 17.2 14.6 17.6 7.1 33.8 15.2 12.4 15.1 14.4 12.1 14.4 8 19

>1 >6 >1 >1 >1 4 <1 <1 <1 0 <1 5 3 6 2 1 7 5 1.5 15 6 <1 <1 1 <1 <1 10 >20 >10

1490 1235 1050 1718 1672 1630 1739 1799 1804 1808 2029 2083 2238 2253 1630 1950 1951 1562 1257 744 1731 776 1490 1546 1798 2189 1330 1713 1292 1272 1322 1249 1255 100 1096 1125 1902

1 SW 2 SW 3 SW 20 NW 20 SW 20 SW 1 NE 5 NW 5 NW 5 NW 6 SE 6 SW 7 NW 7 NE 31 SW 1 SW 13 SW 5 NE 12 NW 33 SW 21 NE 2 SW 31 NE 32 NW 7 E 1 NW 32 NE 31 NW 33 NW 33 NW 21 NW 33 NE 33 NW 34 NE 34 NW 35 SE 36 NW

45 E 45 E 45 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 41 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 41 E 41 E 43 E 42 E 47 E 47 E 7 SE 42 E 42 E 42 E 45 E 45 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 42 E 43 E 45 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 20 S 20 S 20 S 16 S 16 S 16 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 13 S 16 S 11 S 16 S 19 S 19 S 39 E 11 S 15 S 15 S 12 S 11 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 15 S 10 S 20 S

4008123 4008445 4007981 4042574 16 S 4042428 4042241 4048367 4076660 4076638 x 4076199 4076047 4075100 4074600 4048454 4047323 4014937 4047324 4019523 4019726 4132038 4097486 4049528 4048852 4086486 4089751 4049098 4049347 4049125 4049751 x 4049719 4049015 4049140 x 4097065 x Northing ¹

x 484974 483270 481787 451188 451240 451316 458883 461126 461113 x 459905 459561 495950 460700 459245 457618 494473 461719 495737 499175 437539 465820 460222 460975 489741 488877 461913 458840 462250 462287 x 462443 462622 464573 x 489769

UTM

illow Spring

own Spring

uber Canyon Spring uber Spring illow Spring

n Spring 1 n Spring 2 n Spring 3 ning Glory Spring oll Spring ahguyhe Spring Middle T Ideal Spring Lower T Jack 16 Jack 15 Jack 15b Lamb Spring Bighor Bighor Bighor Sheep Spring Y Sheepwater Spring Pinyon Spring Paintbrush Spring Upper Lamb Mor Dose Spring Dripping Spring Wheel Spring LCM W Mound Spring White Cr Bull Spring W Doe Spring Bechtold Spring Coyote Hole Kr Highison Spring Marble Potholes Pate Spring Tjonakwie Spring Pussywillow Spring Schwab Spring Grapevine W Upper Hall Canyon Spring

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 Spring ashiro 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 ¹ ² ³

104 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ 12.9 -22.5 -22.5 4.9 5.9 -0.1 -0.2 -4.2 -3.9 14.9 16.5 17.2 16.4 12.5 5.4 0.6 -0.2 13.1 0.6 10.0 -1.0 Spring–Amb Air

13.0 10.0 14.0 22.5 22.5 22.5 11.4 9.1 14.7 9.1 8.7 22.6 13.9 18.1 20.7 11.5 16.1 2.9 4.2 2.7 8.8 8.8 8.8 11.0 21.3 21.3 21.3 21.3 21.3 10.3 9.8 9.7 22.5 22.5 22.4 9.8 Amb Air

35.4 13.6 28.5 8.7 8.6 4.6 7.1 36.2 37.8 38.5 37.7 33.8 15.7 10.4 9.5 35.6 23.1 32.4 8.8

<1 3 <1 20 1.5 0.5 1 <1 <1 <1 6 3 5 <1 <1 19 12 1 1000 700 200

1895 1870 2052 2045 2040 1298 1731 260 260 260 264 261 1834 1903 1914 92 92 91 94 88 99 1676 1448 1999 1204 1999 2060 70 1313 714 343 1658 1000 2885 2704 2918

35 SE 16 SE 9 SW 16 SE 4 SE 21 NE 36 NE 36 NE 36 NE 36 NE 36 NE 8 SE 8 SW 8 SW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 4 NW 16 NW 16 NW 17 NW 11 SW 11 NW 2 NW 6 NE 9 NW 29 NW 34 22 NE 23 SW 29 NW 35 SE

43 E 43 E 43 E 43 E 44 E 39 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 37 E 37 E 37 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 42 E 45 E 45 E 4 SE 45 E 45 E 5 E 43 E 43 E 44 E 46 E 45 E 45 E 45 E 43 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 10 S 11 S 11 S 11 S 12 S 7 S 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 28 N 11 S 11 S 11 S 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 13 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 21 S 18 N 14 S 14 S 12 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 20 S 10 S

4097114 4092394 4092411 4092231 4088387 4132038 4040823 4040823 4040784 4040791 4040797 4095777 4095381 x 4033091 4033090 4033068 4033096 4032874 4033113 x 3996651 3997298 3996280 3997070 3997547 3948596 x x x x x x x x 4097142 Northing ¹

489736 489826 486482 486461 486315 482791 437539 516023 516020 516042 516039 516028 416673 414628 x 515432 515453 515466 515476 515553 515506 x 488216 491132 486485 491780 492293 552341 x x x x x x x x

anks

UTM

anks

illow Tank illow 2

n Spring es A es B es E es D es C dough Spring illow Spring (LCM) aucoba Spring aucoba 06 aucoba 05 ater Canyon/ Grapevine W Nelson Spring Nelson B Spring Funston Spring Ramhor W Nevar Nevar Nevar Nevar Nevar W W W T T T T T T Leaning Rock T Br Sour Unnamed Panamint C Jody Spring W Thompson Spring Saratoga Springs Falcon Seep Unnamed Dry Bone T Unnamed* (East Salt Flat) Palmer Seep Spur Spring Eagle Spring T Dixon Spring Grapevine W

5 Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 86 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 ravertine F 884 ravertine G 885 ravertine H 886 ravertine I 887 ravertine J 888 ravertine K 889 890 ewery Spring 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 elescope Spring ¹ ² ³

National Park Service 105 ³ 18.3 11.2 Spring–Amb Air

22.2 22.6 22.7 22.8 22.0 23.2 22.8 22.1 22.6 12.7 12.4 6.7 22.9 23.1 23.6 23.7 23.1 23.1 23.1 23.1 23.1 23.6 23.1 13.8 15.1 23.1 15.9 23.1 14.7 23.1 23.1 23.1 21.7 21.8 17.5 Amb Air

40 33

210 150 20 25

804 79 56 45 153 -8 51 144 72 2347 37 6 -75 -78 1036 1200 127 195 185

26 NE 23 SW 23 SW 24 NW 33 SW 19 NE 33-36 4 NW 34 NW 1 NE 36 SE 28 NE 27 NE 2 26 NE 31 SW 23 NE` 36 NE 36 NE 26 NW

1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 45 E NE1/4 1493 46 E SE1/4 NE1/4 1524 44 E 44 E 44 E 46 E 46 E 1 E 1 E SE1/4 NW1/4 -76 46 E 26 NE1/4 44 E 23 NW1/4 SE1/4 1325 44 E 22 SW1/4 SE1/4 1146 2 E 46 E 33 NE1/4 46 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 3 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

Township Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature (ºC) (ºC) Temperature (ºC) Temperature Range Section (meters) (liters/minute) Temperature Township 27 N 27 N 27 N 27 N 28 N 27 N 28 N 27 N 13 S 13 S 11 S 16 S 15 S 16.5 S 16.5 S 23 N 28 N 20 S 19 S 17 S 27 N 21 S 18 S 27 N 28 N 28 N 19 N

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 4040300 x x x x x x x x x x x x 4019250 x x x x 4040543 4040469 x Northing ¹

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x 502550 x x x x x x x x x x x x 496350 x x x x 516114 515989

UTM

anks A

ildrose Peak ildrose ells (Hotel) es (12)

ell B nace Creek Wash x Wash nace Creek

ell

ile FC Wash

s Well ell #1 ell ell es Spring (5) es Spring Cave rench nace Creek Inn Tunnel Inn Tunnel nace Creek Ranch Ponds nace Creek Wash nace Creek area nace Creek ired Rock Spring ired Stock Tank ildrose Sump in Fur Fur NPS T NPS W Sewer Lagoon Fur Lower Nevar Saltbush (sewer) W White Pass Gate Seep Shell Spring Stovepipe W NPS RO W Salt Spring Sulfur Spring Fur Monitoring Site Confidence Pry W Mesquite W Salt W Charlie’ Pr W Pioneer Spring Unnamed W Buried T Feather Spring Highgrade Spring T 27 Undeveloped springs in Fur Black Spring #4495 T Nevar Nevar Superior Mine T

Ambient air temperature at spring outlet. Ambient air temperature Spring temperature minus ambient air temperature at spring outlet. minus ambient air temperature Spring temperature Universal Transverse Mercator projection, Zone 11, NAD27; in meters. projection, Mercator Universal Transverse Number Spring Name Easting ¹ Appendix continued Spring 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 ospector 927 928 929 930 931 932 exas Springs (9) 933 934 935 rail Spring ¹ ² ³

106 Groundwater Geology and Hydrology of Death Valley National Park, California and Nevada ³ Spring–Amb Air

23.1 23.1 23.1 23.1 23.1 14.4 23.1 Amb Air

1250

25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 25 NW 8 NW 25 NW

1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E 1 E Quarter Elevation Discharge Spring

45 E

x x x x x 4007300 x Northing ¹

x x x x x x 488450 UTM

T T T T Grapevine Ranch Redtail Spring T

ravertine A

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EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICA™ Plate 1. Regional potential for flow of groundwater in the Death Valley regional groundwater flow system, Nevada and California. After Bedinger and Harrill 2010. Plate 2: Stuctural setting of Death Valley showing thrust faults, detachment faults, strike-slip faults, and major normal faults. From Potter et al. 2002.