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The Creation of a Public Identity For The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts PATRIOTS OR PARANOIDS? THE CREATION OF A PUBLIC IDENTITY FOR THE MODERN MILITIA MOVEMENT A Thesis in Speech Communication By Heather M. Norton Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2005 ii The thesis of Heather M. Norton was reviewed and approved* by the following: J. Michael Hogan Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee Thomas W. Benson Professor of Speech Communication Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Rhetoric Stephen H. Browne Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences John D. McCarthy Professor of Sociology James P. Dillard Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Head, Department of Communication Arts and Sciences *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School. iii ABSTRACT The Oklahoma City bombing brought the modern Militia Movement to the forefront of the nation’s consciousness. After uncovering accused bomber Timothy McVeigh’s anti-government sentiments and his connections to the Michigan Militia, the federal government and the news media rushed to investigate the dangers posed by this movement—a movement that criticized the government for allegedly seeking to disarm law-abiding Americans and to limit their constitutional rights. The struggle that ensued over the public identity of the militias is the focus of this study. The study investigates the public debate over the militias beginning with the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995, and ending in 1996, when the militias disappeared from the headlines. Focusing on the “portraits” of the militias produced by the movement’s own leaders, so-called “watchdog” groups, and the Clinton administration, it examines how a variety of advocates worked to shape public perceptions of the movement. In addition, it considers images of the militias in news coverage and popular culture. Ultimately, the public image of the militias as dangerous domestic terrorists was the product of several factors. First, their perceived involvement in the Oklahoma City bombing fused the militias’ identity with violence and terrorism. Second, the movement’s lack of leadership and rhetorical sophistication gave an advantage to its critics in the public debate. Finally, the media’s reliance upon the watchdog groups for “expert testimony” gave the militias’ critics a decided advantage in the contest to shape public perception of the movement. iv In exploring the contest over the militias’ public image, this study reveals the difficulties faced by radical social movements in establishing a positive public image in mainstream news media and the power of professional watchdog groups and mainstream politicians in shaping media coverage. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements........................................................................................................ vii Chapter One: Introduction: The Modern Militia Movement ...................................... 1 Scholarship on the Militia Movement ............................................................... 8 Plan of this Study .............................................................................................. 16 Notes ................................................................................................................. 22 Chapter Two: Under Fire: The Militias Go Public ..................................................... 27 Militia Leaders Take the Stage: Embracing the Paranoid Style ...................... 31 Militia Leaders Respond to the Bombing: Retreat and Reconstruction ........... 38 The Militia Leaders on Capitol Hill ...................................................... 45 Moderates vs. Militants ..................................................................................... 56 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 61 Notes ................................................................................................................. 66 Chapter Three: Managing the Crisis: The Clinton Administration Responds to the Militia Movement ....................................................................... 72 A Rhetoric of Resolve and Reassurance ........................................................... 74 Reframing the Oklahoma City Bombing .......................................................... 79 The Crusade Against Radical Rhetoric ................................................. 82 Clinton Implicates the Militias ............................................................. 85 Clinton Calls for Anti-Terrorism Legislation ....................................... 89 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 93 Notes ................................................................................................................. 96 Chapter Four: On The Attack: “Anti-Hate” Watchdog Groups Sound the Warning 102 A Brief History of the Anti-Hate Watchdog Groups ........................................ 106 A Dangerous New Movement .......................................................................... 109 The Watchdog Groups and the Oklahoma City Bombing................................. 114 Assigning Blame: Militia Complicity in the Bombing ......................... 116 Vilification by Association: The Militias as Racist ............................... 118 A Maligning of Motives: The Militias as Paranoid ............................. 121 Engendering Fear: The Militias as Armed and Dangerous ................ 123 Redefining “Patriot”........................................................................................... 126 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 131 Notes ................................................................................................................. 134 vi Chapter Five: “Feeding Frenzy”: The News Media’s Depiction of the Militia Movement .................................................................................................. 140 The Militias as Harmless ................................................................................. 142 The News Media Goes on the Attack ............................................................... 145 Revealing Untenable Motives: The Militias as Paranoid and Racist... 148 Establishing the Threat: The Militias as Armed and Dangerous ........ 152 Sources that Shaped the Media Coverage ............................................. 157 News Media Coverage of the Militias One Year Later ..................................... 161 Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 164 Notes .................................................................................................................. 167 Chapter Six: Crackpots and Terrorists: Representations of The Militia Movement in Popular Fiction and Film .................................................................. 172 The Militias in Popular Fiction: Criminals and Crackpots ............................... 174 The Maggody Militia ............................................................................. 174 Brothers.................................................................................................. 178 The Militias in Hollywood Film: Dangerous Terrorists ................................... 181 Militia .................................................................................................... 182 Arlington Road....................................................................................... 187 The Militias in Military Fiction: Principled and Formidable Foes................... 192 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 196 Notes ................................................................................................................. 198 Chapter Seven: The Development of the Militia Movement’s Public Identity ............ 200 Larger Implications: The Militia Movement and Public Identity .................... 204 Postscript............................................................................................................ 208 Notes ............................................................................................................... 212 Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 216 vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “What made you think that you could do this?” a woman from my small Indiana hometown asked me recently. “You’re from here.” To me, the answer was obvious. It is the people that we encounter—not the place that we begin—that allow us to go beyond what is known and expected. It is with that in mind that I acknowledge the following people for their assistance along the way. My advisor, Dr. J. Michael Hogan, read numerous drafts of this project, pushing me to refine both my thinking and writing. He has convinced me that there is no excuse for not “sweating the details,” and this project is infinitely better for his careful guidance. The coursework and conversations that I enjoyed with my other committee members also prepared me for this undertaking. Although the late Dr. Richard Gregg was unable to witness the completion of this project, he still feels to me to be a part of it. The administration
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