Terror in the Name of God

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Terror in the Name of God Article 83 Terror in the Name of God MARK JUERGENSMEYER Perhaps the first question that came to mind on Septem- struggle that every religion has within its repository of sym- ber 11 when the horrific images of the aerial assaults on the bols: the fight between good and bad, truth and evil. In this World Trade Center and the Pentagon were conveyed sense, the attack on the World Trade Center was very reli- around the world was: Why would anyone want to do such gious. It was meant to be catastrophic, an act of biblical a thing? As the twin towers crumbled in clouds of dust and proportions. the identities and motives of the perpetrators began to What is striking about the World Trade Center assault emerge, a second question arose: Why would anyone want and many other recent acts of religious terrorism is that they to do such a thing in the name of God? have no obvious military goal. These are acts meant for These are the questions that have arisen frequently in the television. They are a kind of perverse performance of post–cold war world. Religion seems to be connected with power meant to ennoble the perpetrators’ views of the violence everywhere—from the World Trade Center bomb- world and to draw us into their notions of cosmic war. ings to suicide attacks in Israel and the Palestinian Author- The recent attacks in New York City and Washington, ity; assassinations in India, Israel, Egypt, and Algeria; nerve D.C.—although unusual in the scale of the assault—are re- gas in Tokyo subways; unending battles in Northern Ire- markably similar to many other acts of religious terrorism land; abortion-clinic killings in Florida; and the bombing of around the world. In my recent comparative study of reli- Oklahoma City’s federal building. gious terrorism, Terror in the Mind of God, I have found a strikingly familiar pattern. In each case, concepts of cosmic war are accompanied by strong claims of moral justifica- Osama bin Laden is no more tion and an enduring absolutism that transforms worldly struggles into sacred battles. It is not so much that religion representative of Islam than Timothy has become politicized but that politics has become reli- McVeigh is of Christianity gionized. Worldly struggles have been lifted onto the high proscenium of sacred battle. This is what makes religious terrorism so difficult to com- What does religion have to do with this virtually global bat. Its enemies have become satanized: one cannot nego- rise of religious violence? In one sense, very little. If the ac- tiate with them or easily compromise. The rewards for tivists involved in the World Trade Center bombing are as- those who fight for the cause are transtemporal, and the sociated with Osama bin Laden’s al Qaeda, they are a small time lines of their struggles are vast. Most social and politi- network at the extreme end of a subculture of dissatisfied cal struggles look for conclusions within the lifetimes of Muslims who are in turn a small minority within the world their participants, but religious struggles can take genera- of Islam. Osama bin Laden is no more representative of Is- tions to succeed. When I pointed out to political leaders of lam than Timothy McVeigh is of Christianity, or Japan’s the Hamas movement in the Palestinian Authority that Is- Shoko Asahara is of Buddhism. rael’s military force was such that a Palestinian military ef- Still, one cannot deny that the ideals and ideas of these fort could never succeed, I was told that “Palestine was vicious activists are permeated with religion. The authority occupied before, for two hundred years.” The Hamas offi- of religion has given bin Laden’s cadres what they believe cial assured me that he and his Palestinian comrades “can is the moral standing to employ violence in their assault on wait again—at least that long,” for the struggles of God can the very symbol of global economic power. It has also pro- endure for eons. Ultimately, however, Hamas members vided the metaphor of cosmic war, an imagee of spiritual “knew” they would succeed. 1 Article 83. Terror in the Name of God In such battles, waged in divine time and with heaven’s Osama bin Laden—imagine themselves defenders of an- rewards, there is no need to compromise one’s goals. No cient faiths. But in fact they have created new forms of reli- need, also, to contend with society’s laws and limitations giosity: like many present-day religious leaders they have when one is obeying a higher authority. In spiritualizing vi- used the language of traditional religion to build bulwarks olence, religion gives terrorism a remarkable power. around aspects of modernity that have threatened them, Ironically, the reverse is also true: terrorism can give re- and to suggest ways out of the mindless humiliation of ligion power as well. Although sporadic acts of terrorism do modern life. Vital to their image of religion, however, was not lead to the establishment of new religious states, they that it be perceived as ancient. make the political potency of religious ideology impossible The need for religion—a “hard” religion as Abouhalima to ignore. Terrorism not only gives individuals the illusion called it—was a response to the soft treachery they had ob- of empowerment, it also gives religious organizations and served in the new societies around them. The modern sec- ideas a public attention and importance that they have not ular world that Abouhalima and the others inhabited was a enjoyed for many years. In modern America and Europe it chaotic and violent sea for which religion offered an an- has given religion a prominence in public life that it has not chor in a harbor of calm. At some deep and almost tran- held since before the Enlightenment over two centuries scendent level of their consciousnesses, they sensed their ago. lives slipping out of control, and they felt both responsible for the disarray and a victim of it. To be abandoned by re- EMPOWERING RELIGION ligion in such a world would mean a loss of their own indi- vidual locations and identities. In fashioning a “traditional The radical religious movements that have emerged religion” of their own making, they exposed their concerns from cultures of violence around the world have three ele- not so much with their religious, ethnic, or national com- ments in common. First, they reject the compromises with munities, but with their own personal, perilous selves. liberal values and secular institutions that most mainstream religion has made, be it Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, SSAULTS ON SECULARISM Sikh, or Buddhist. Second, radical religious movements A refuse to observe the boundaries that secular society has set These intimate concerns have been prompted by the around religion—keeping it private rather than allowing it perceived failures of public institutions. As the French soci- to intrude into public spaces. And third, these radical ologists Pierre Bourdieu has observed, social structures movements try to create a new form of religiosity that re- never have a disembodied reality; they are always negoti- jects what they regard as weak, modern substitutes for the ated by individuals in their own strategies for maintaining more vibrant and demanding forms of religion that they self-identity and success in life. Such institutions are legiti- imagine to be essential to their religion’s origins. mized by the “symbolic capital” they accrue through the One of the men accused of bombing the World Trade collective trust of many individuals. When that symbolic Center in 1993 told me in a prison interview that the critical capital is devalued, when political and religious institutions moment in his religious life came when he realized that he undergo what German philosopher Jurgen Habermas has could not compromise his Islamic integrity with the easy called a “crisis of legitimacy,” the devaluation of authority vices offered by modern society. The convicted terrorist, is experienced not only as a political problem but as an in- Mahmud Abouhalima, claimed that the early part of his life tensively personal one, as a loss of agency. was spent running away from himself. Although involved in This sense of a personal loss of power in the face of cha- radical Egyptian Islamic movements since his college years otic political and religious authorities is common, and I be- in Alexandria, he felt there was no place where he could lieve critical, to Osama bin Laden’s al Qaeda group and settle down. He told me that the low point came when he most other movements for Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Sikh, was in Germany, trying to live the way that he imagined Eu- Buddhist, and Hindu nationalism around the world. The ropeans and Americans did: a life where the superficial syndrome begins with the perception that the public world comforts of sex and inebriates masked an internal empti- has gone awry, and the suspicion that behind this social ness and despair. Abouhalima said his return to Islam as the confusion lies a great spiritual and moral conflict, a cosmic center of his life carried with it a renewed sense of obliga- battle between the forces of order and chaos, good and evil. tion to make Islamic society truly Islamic—to “struggle Such a conflict is understandably violent, a violence that is against oppression and injustice” wherever it existed. What often felt by the victimized activist as powerlessness, either was now constant, Abouhalima said, was his family and his individually or in association with others of his gender, faith. Islam was both a “rock and a pillar of mercy.” But it race, or ethnicity.
Recommended publications
  • Religious Terrorism
    6 O Religious Terrorism errorism in the name of religion has become the predominant model for Tpolitical violence in the modern world. This is not to suggest that it is the only model because nationalism and ideology remain as potent catalysts for extremist behavior. However, religious extremism has become a central issue for the global community. In the modern era, religious terrorism has increased in its frequency, scale of violence, and global reach. At the same time, a relative decline has occurred in secular terrorism. The old ideologies of class conflict, anticolonial liberation, and secular nationalism have been challenged by a new and vigorous infusion of sec- tarian ideologies. Grassroots extremist support for religious violence has been most widespread among populations living in repressive societies that do not per- mit demands for reform or other expressions of dissent. What is religious terrorism? What are its fundamental attributes? Religious ter- rorism is a type of political violence motivated by an absolute belief that an other- worldly power has sanctioned—and commanded—terrorist violence for the greater glory of the faith. Acts committed in the name of the faith will be forgiven by the otherworldly power and perhaps rewarded in an afterlife. In essence, one’s religious faith legitimizes violence as long as such violence is an expression of the will of one’s deity. Table 6.1 presents a model that compares the fundamental characteristics of religious and secular terrorism. The discussion in this chapter will review the
    [Show full text]
  • Religion and Violence
    Religion and Violence Edited by John L. Esposito Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Religions www.mdpi.com/journal/religions John L. Esposito (Ed.) Religion and Violence This book is a reprint of the special issue that appeared in the online open access journal Religions (ISSN 2077-1444) in 2015 (available at: http://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions/special_issues/ReligionViolence). Guest Editor John L. Esposito Georgetown University Washington Editorial Office MDPI AG Klybeckstrasse 64 Basel, Switzerland Publisher Shu-Kun Lin Assistant Editor Jie Gu 1. Edition 2016 MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan ISBN 978-3-03842-143-6 (Hbk) ISBN 978-3-03842-144-3 (PDF) © 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. All articles in this volume are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution license (CC-BY), which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. However, the dissemination and distribution of physical copies of this book as a whole is restricted to MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. III Table of Contents List of Contributors ............................................................................................................... V Preface ............................................................................................................................... VII Jocelyne Cesari Religion and Politics: What Does God Have To Do with It? Reprinted from: Religions 2015, 6(4), 1330-1344 http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/6/4/1330 ............................................................................ 1 Mark LeVine When Art Is the Weapon: Culture and Resistance Confronting Violence in the Post-Uprisings Arab World Reprinted from: Religions 2015, 6(4), 1277-1313 http://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/6/4/1277 .........................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Waves of Modern Terrorism: Examining the Past and Predicting the Future
    WAVES OF MODERN TERRORISM: EXAMINING THE PAST AND PREDICTING THE FUTURE A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of The School of Continuing Studies and of The Graduate School of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Liberal Studies By Erin Walls, B.A. Georgetown University Washington, D.C. April 5, 2017 WAVES OF MODERN TERRORISM: EXAMINING THE PAST AND PREDICTING THE FUTURE Erin Walls, B.A. Mentor: Joseph Smaldone, Ph.D. ABSTRACT David C. Rapoport’s “The Four Waves of Modern Terrorism,” is one of the most influential and widely debated theories in the field of terrorism studies. Following the terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001, Rapoport created his theoretical framework for modern terrorism by grouping previously indistinguishable patterns of political violence into four distinct waves, each lasting a generation and inspired by ideologies derived from anarchism, anti-colonialism, socialism, and religious fundamentalism. Since 1979 the world has existed within the fourth “Religious” wave that will dissipate by 2025 if the generational life cycle remains constant. Rapoport’s model will serve as the foundational source for this thesis. It will discuss the importance of the wave model and how it can be useful in counterterrorism efforts. Rapoport argues that academics and governments unduly focus on specific organizations and contemporary events, which make us less sensitive to generational patterns. Individual terrorist organizations will have specific defining features but understanding overarching global and generational patterns in real time can help shape thinking on the most effective ways to combat terrorism.
    [Show full text]
  • When Religion Kills: How Extremists Justify Violence Through Faith
    EXCERPTED FROM When Religion Kills: How Extremists Justify Violence Through Faith Phil Gurski Copyright © 2020 ISBN: 978-1-62637-848-3 hc 1800 30th Street, Suite 314 Boulder, CO 80301 USA telephone 303.444.6684 fax 303.444.0824 This excerpt was downloaded from the Lynne Rienner Publishers website www.rienner.com Contents 1 Religion as a Springboard for Violence 1 2 Buddhist Extremism 15 3 Christian Extremism 43 4 Hindu Extremism 77 5 Islamic Extremism 97 6 Jewish Extremism 117 7 Sikh Extremism 133 8 When Religion Kills 147 Bibliography 153 Index 177 About the Book 181 v 1 Religion as a Springboard for Violence I knew my God was bigger than his. I knew that my God was a real God and his was an idol. —US Lieutenant-General William G. Boykin 1 Religious extremism takes many forms around the world and no religion is immune from it. That is the lesson of history and, sadly, modern history as well. —Australian prime minister Scott Morrison in the wake of the November 2018 Islamic extremist terrorist attack in Melbourne 2 Caedite eos. Novit enim Dominus qui sunt eius. (“Kill them all. Let God sort them out.”) —attributed to the Cistercian monk Arnaud Amalric during the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in 1209 For more than twenty years I have been thinking and writing about ter - rorism, specifically Islamist extremism. I have studied veteran scholars and new ones, dead terrorists and those still carrying out violence, and a lot of the propaganda—there is far too much for any one person to wade through—to understand what drives terrorism.
    [Show full text]
  • THE ROLE of RELIGION in CONFLICT and PEACE- BUILDING the British Academy Is the UK’S Independent National Academy Representing the Humanities and Social Sciences
    THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN CONFLICT AND PEACE- BUILDING The British Academy is the UK’s independent national academy representing the humanities and social sciences. For over a century it has supported and celebrated the best in UK and international research and helped connect the expertise of those working in these disciplines with the wider public. The Academy supports innovative research and outstanding people, informs policy and seeks to raise the level of public engagement with some of the biggest issues of our time, through policy reports, publications and public events. The Academy represents the UK’s research excellence worldwide in a fast changing global environment. It promotes UK research in international arenas, fosters a global approach across UK research, and provides leadership in developing global links and expertise. www.britishacademy.ac.uk The Role of Religion in Conflict and Peacebuilding September 2015 THE BRITISH ACADEMY 10 –11 Carlton House Terrace London SW1Y 5AH www.britiahacademy.ac.uk Registered Charity: Number 233176 © The British Academy 2015 Published September 2015 ISBN 978-0-85672-618-7 Designed by Soapbox, www.soapbox.co.uk Printed by Team Contents Acknowledgements iv Abbreviations v About the authors vi Executive summary 1 1. Introduction 3 2. Definitions 5 3. Methodology 11 4. Literature review 14 5. Case study I: Religion and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict 46 6. Case study II: Mali 57 7. Case study III: Bosnia and Herzegovina 64 8. Conclusions 70 9. Recommendations for policymakers and future research 73 10. Bibliography 75 Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Leonie Fleischmann and Vladimir Kmec for their assistance in the preparation of this report and to Philip Lewis, Desislava Stoitchkova and Natasha Bevan in the British Academy’s international policy team.
    [Show full text]
  • PERSPECTIVES on TERRORISM Volume 9, Issue 5
    ISSN 2334-3745 Volume IX, Issue 5 October 2015 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 9, Issue 5 Table of Contents Welcome from the Editor 1 I. Articles Radicalisation to Terrorism in Kenya and Uganda: a Political Socialisation Perspective 2 by Anneli Botha Countering the (Re-) Production of Militancy in Indonesia: between Coercion and Persuasion 15 by Paul J. Carnegie Globalisation and Terrorism in the Middle East 27 by Brenda J. Lutz and James M. Lutz II. Research Notes Lost Souls Searching for Answers? Belgian and Dutch Converts Joining the Islamic State 47 by Marion van San Designing and Applying an ‘Extremist Media Index’ 57 by Donald Holbrook III. Policy Brief The Afghan Insurgency and the Uncertainty of Peace Negotiations 69 by Kambaiz Rafi IV. Resources Bibliography: Muslims and the West 73 Compiled and selected by Judith Tinnes V. Book Reviews Anne Speckhard. Bride of ISIS: One Young Woman’s Path into Homegrown Terrorism. 109 Reviewed by Anita Perešin Counterterrorism Bookshelf: 16 Books on Terrorism & Counter-Terrorism-Related Subjects 111 Reviewed by Joshua Sinai ISSN 2334-3745 i October 2015 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 9, Issue 5 V. Notes from the Editor Announcement: Dr. Anneli Botha: Winner of the Best Ph.D. Thesis 2014 Award 118 About Perspectives on Terrorism 120 ISSN 2334-3745 ii October 2015 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 9, Issue 5 Welcome from the Editor Dear Reader, We are pleased to announce the publication of the October 2015 issue (PT IX 5) of Perspectives on Terrorism at: < www.terrorismanalysts.com >. Now approaching its 10th year of publication, our journal has 5,600 e-mail subscribers and many more website visitors (287,483 in 2014), making it probably the most widely read journal in the field of terrorism- and counter-terrorism studies.
    [Show full text]
  • Critical Reflection on the Explanation of Western Homegrown Religious Terrorism (Part II) by Lorne Dawson
    PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 15, Issue 2 Bringing Religiosity Back In: Critical Reflection on the Explanation of Western Homegrown Religious Terrorism (Part II) By Lorne Dawson Abstract An unusual feature of the social scientific study of religious terrorism is the erasure of religiosity as a significant motivational factor. This article delineates and criticizes the presence of this peculiar interpretive preference, demonstrating that it is methodologically unsound and theoretically and empirically unhelpful. In Part I of the article, published by the same author under the same title in the February 2021 issue of Perspectives on Terrorism, the foundations of the critique were established. In this article, Part II, three types of arguments commonly used to minimize the role of religiosity in motivating religious terrorism are examined. These arguments are identified by the primary interpretive errors they rely on. Some arguments (1) mistakenly treat the religious background and knowledge of homegrown jihadists as a sound indicator of their religiosity; others (2) inappropriately apply a modern Western normative conception of religion to homegrown jihadists; and some arguments (3) rely on an overly dichotomized conception of the relationship of social processes and ideology in the process of radicalization. The critique argues the need to develop a more refined conception of the role of ideology, and more specifically religiosity, in the determination of the actions of religious terrorists. Keywords: Al-Qaeda, extremism, ideology, Islamic State (IS), jihadism, radicalization, religion, religious terrorism, salafism Introduction Is the primary motivation for religious terrorism political or religious? This issue continues to be a source of controversy in the study of religious terrorism.
    [Show full text]
  • Nderstanding the Religious Nature of Terrorism in India: Four Case Studies with an Analysis for Proposals and Resolution
    UNDERSTANDING THE RELIGIOUS NATURE OF TERRORISM IN INDIA: FOUR CASE STUDIES WITH AN ANALYSIS FOR PROPOSALS AND RESOLUTION BY KAILASH KUMAR CHATRY A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Theology and Religion School of Historical Studies College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham 17 October 2012. University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT India has faced the challenge of religious terrorism for almost three decades. This phenomenon – in-spite of the Indian government’s comprehensive effort to contain it – has been spreading its vicious influence and expanding its support base among the conflicting religious communities in many parts of the country. The existing views, in regard to the rise of religious terrorism, suggest that economic, socio-political or geo-political issues (that cropped up during the post-partition period) are responsible for the birth of the problem. However, so far no study is done collectively on the four (Sikh, Kashmiri Muslim, Hindu and Naga Christian) religious communities to explain the cause of the problem.
    [Show full text]
  • Terrorism, Tourism and Religious Travellers
    International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage Volume 5 Issue 1 Article 3 2017 Terrorism, Tourism and Religious Travellers Ayesha Chowdhury Leeds Law School, Leeds Becket University, UK, [email protected] Razaq Raj Leeds Beckett University, [email protected] Kevin Griffin Technological University Dublin, [email protected] See next page for additional authors Follow this and additional works at: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/ijrtp Part of the Tourism and Travel Commons Recommended Citation Chowdhury, Ayesha; Raj, Razaq; Griffin,e K vin; and Clarke, Alan (2017) "Terrorism, Tourism and Religious Travellers," International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage: Vol. 5: Iss. 1, Article 3. doi:https://doi.org/10.21427/D7BD8G Available at: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/ijrtp/vol5/iss1/3 Creative Commons License This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 4.0 License. Terrorism, Tourism and Religious Travellers Authors Ayesha Chowdhury, Razaq Raj, Kevin Griffin, and Alan Clarke This academic paper is available in International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/ijrtp/vol5/iss1/3 © International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage ISSN : 2009-7379 Available at: http://arrow.dit.ie/ijrtp/ Volume 5(i) 2017 Terrorism, Tourism and Religious Travellers Ayesha Chowdhury*, Dr Razaq Raj**, Dr Kevin A. Griffin*** and Professor Alan Clarke**** * Leeds Law School, Leeds Becket University, UK. ** Leeds Business School Leeds Beckett University, UK. *** School of Hospitality Management and Tourism, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland **** Univeristy of Pannonia Veszprém, Hungary [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]; [email protected] Curiously, while tourism is cited as the world’s largest industry (UNWTO, 2016), it is simultaneously a fragile industry that is highly vulnerable to the impact of the ongoing threat of terrorism.
    [Show full text]
  • RELIGION and CONFLICT in AFRICA with a SPECIAL FOCUS on EAST AFRICA Bjørn Møller DIIS REPORT 2006:6 DIIS REPORT DIIS
    DIIS REPORT 2006:6 RELIGION AND CONFLICT IN AFRICA WITH A SPECIAL FOCUS ON EAST AFRICA Bjørn Møller DIIS REPORT 2006:6 DIIS REPORT DIIS DANISH INSTITUTE FOR INTERNATIONAL STUDIES 1 DIIS REPORT 2006:6 © Copenhagen 2006 Danish Institute for International Studies, DIIS Strandgade 56, DK -1401 Copenhagen, Denmark Ph: +45 32 69 87 87 Fax: +45 32 69 87 00 E-mail: [email protected] Web: www.diis.dk Cover Design: Carsten Schiøler Layout: Allan Lind Jørgensen Printed in Denmark by Vesterkopi AS ISBN: 87-7605-145-5 Price: DKK 50.00 (VAT included) DIIS publications can be downloaded free of charge from www.diis.dk Hardcopies can be ordered at www.diis.dk This publication is part of DIIS’s Defence and Security Studies project which is funded by a grant from the Danish Ministry of Defence. Bjørn Møller, Senior Research Fellow, DIIS,DIIS, [email protected]@diis.dk The author holds an MA in History and a Ph.D. in International Relations, both from the University of Copenhagen. Since 1985, he has been (senior) research fellow, subsequently programme director at the Copenhagen Peace Research Institute (COPRI), which in 2003 became part of the Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS). He served as Secretary General of the International Peace Research Association (IPRA) from 1997 to 2000, and has been External Lecturer at the Institute of Political Studies, University of Copenhagen since 1994 and at the Centre of African Studies since 2002. In the academic year 2003/04, he served as Visiting Associate Professor at the research centre on Development and International Relations (DIR) at Aalborg University, where he is pres- ently external lecturer.
    [Show full text]
  • Global Religious Terrorism, a Troubling Phenomenon by Jose F
    Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: A Arts & Humanities - Psychology Volume 19 Issue 1 Version 1.0 Year 2019 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Online ISSN: 2249-460x & Print ISSN: 0975-587X Global Religious Terrorism, A Troubling Phenomenon By Jose F. Pinto Abstract- Terrorism is an ancient phenomenon, as it comes from classical Antiquity. However, its global version only started in the last decades of the 19th century, after the fall of Paris Commune and the murder of the Russian tzar, Alexander the second. Global terrorism is a phenomenon in which, according to Rapoport, we can consider four waves, with religious one as its present phase. This essay accepts the existence of several periods of global terrorism, but it seeks to prove that the designations «religious terrorism» and «Islamic terrorism» are not entirely correct and they represent myths. Besides, it shows that these myths are based on two fallacies– the clash of civilizations, and the unity of Islam world – and they are the origin of serious problems, n ot only in the western world but also in the Islamic countries refusing to follow the Islamic law. It is a ubiquitous problem because when a terrorist group is defeated it continues “to shift away from a centralized command and control structure toward a more diffused model” This strategy represents a severe threat because some terrorists choose a new battlefield while others return to the West but as radicalized as they were when they joined ISIS or any other terrorist group. The world is facing a troubling phenomenon, and its de-construction is essential for controlling a problem also related to identity.
    [Show full text]
  • Religious Terrorism, Boko Haram, and the Dynamics of State Response
    Nigeria united in grief; divided in response: Religious terrorism, Boko Haram, and the dynamics of state response Daniel E. Agbiboa and Benjamin Maiangwa* Abstract This article critically examines the current developments regarding the religious terrorism of Boko Haram, an extremist Islamist group, which operates largely in the north-east states of Nigeria. Boko Haram’s avowed aim is to wrest control from the Nigerian government and to impose a strict form of Sharia law across a country of about 170 million people. Since 2009, when Boko Haram first launched its Islamic insurgency, over 5 000 Nigerians have lost their lives in * Daniel E. Agbiboa is a doctoral scholar in the Department of International Development, Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford, UK. He holds an M.Phil. in Development Studies from the University of Cambridge, UK, an M.A. in International Relations from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, and an Advanced Certificate in Social Research from the Australian National University, Australia. His interests and expertise lie in the areas of corruption, security and development in West and East Africa. He has published widely in the fields of transnational terrorism, corruption, and organised crime. Benjamin Maiangwa holds an M.A. Degree in Conflict Transformation and a B.A. Honours in Political Science from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. He also has a B.A. degree in Philosophy from St Joseph’s Theological Institute, Cedara, South Africa. He is currently a graduate student at the Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability at the United Nations University, Tokyo, Japan.
    [Show full text]