MINISTRY OF WATER THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF

THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN REGION IN THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

FINAL REPORT

SUMMARY

MAY 2011

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE CO., LTD JAPAN TECHNO CO., LTD. KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD. GED

JR

11-105 MINISTRY OF WATER THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN IN THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

FINAL REPORT

SUMMARY

MAY 2011

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY

EARTH SYSTEM SCIENCE CO., LTD JAPAN TECHNO CO., LTD. KOKUSAI KOGYO CO., LTD.

In this report, project costs are estimated based on prices as of November 2010 with an exchange rate of US$1.00 = Tanzania Shilling (Tsh) 1,434.66 = Japanese Yen ¥ 88.00.

Executive Summary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. BACKGROUND OF THE PROJECT AND CURRENT SITUATION OF THE STUDY AREA

The government of Tanzania started the Rural Water Supply Project in 1971 aiming to provide safe and clean water to the entire nation within a 400m distance. The Ministry of Water (MoW) has been continuing efforts to improve water supply coverage formulating a “Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)” in 2000 and “MKUKUTA (National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP) in 2005. NSGRP targets are to improve water supply coverage from 53% to 65% in the rural area and from 73% to 100% in the urban area up to the year 2010. However, it is probably difficult to realize the target. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MoWI) formulated the “Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP)” in 2006 to improve water supply coverage using the basket fund based on a Sector Wide Approach for Planning (SWAp). The WSDP intends to realize 74% of water supply coverage of the rural area in 2015 and 90% in 2025, and 95% in 2015 and 100% in 2025 for the urban area. The water supply coverage of the Tabora Region, the Study Area, is low, 49.1% in 2008 against the national average of 58.3%. Its major reason is the hydrogeological difficulty of developing groundwater. Furthermore, many water supply schemes are left un-functioning due to improper operation and maintenance. In order to overcome these situations, Tanzania requested Japan to implement a study in the Tabora Region on groundwater potential evaluation, construction of a database, formulation of rural water supply plan following the WSDP concept and feasibility study of priority projects to be formulated through the study. In response to the request, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) carried out a preparatory study in February 2009 and concluded the Scope of the Work of the Study. Accordingly, the Study is commenced in August 2009.

2． SOCIO-ECONOMY

The population in the rural area of the Tabora Region (547 villages) is about 1,884 thousand persons (as of November 2009) and is projected to increase to about 2,801 thousand persons in the target year, 2020. The population growth rate is high in (5.0%), low in (2.5%) and 3.4-3.5% in other districts. The GDP per capita in the Tabora Region in 2008 was Tsh 429,605 (US$ 340.0), the 14th among the whole nation. Fetching water is a role of women. The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA) set the target time of fetching water from water facilities at 65 % of rural areas as less than 30 minutes by 2010. In the rainy season, more than 80% of the villages in all districts said that time for fetching water including queuing were less than 30 minutes. However, it decrease in the dry season. Especially, faces the most difficult situation. More than 70% of the villages there stated that it took more than 90 minutes to fetch water.

3． METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

The climate of the Tabora Region is savannah. Precipitation is distinctly separated into rainy season (October to May) and dry season (June to September). The average annual precipitation is about 1,000mm. The maximum temperature (32.2 degrees Celsius) is observed in September and October and the minimum temperature (14.7 degrees Celsius) was observed in June and July.

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The Tabora Region is a part of three (3) catchments: Internal Drainage Basin, Lake Lukwa Basin and the Basin. However, there exists no perennial river. The river water is observed only in rainy season. The maximum flow rate (26.6 m3/sec) was observed in 1978. The annual groundwater recharge was estimated low (60 to70 mm/year) in the northern area and high (200 to 250 mm/year) in the southern area.

4． TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

The plateaus with an altitude of 1,000 to1,300m are widely distributed in the Tabora Region. The inserbergs where the basement rocks crop out, and wetlands are distributed. The plutonic rocks and metamorphic rocks in the Precambrian period are widely distributed as the basement rocks against sedimentary rocks in Mesozoic and sediments in Miocene, Pleistocene and Holocene. Apparent lineament with N-S and NW-SE directions are observed in the basement rocks. The aquifer in Tabora Region is divided into two (2) main parts as the stratum aquifers in sediments and the fractured aquifers in the basement rocks. Groundwater in Igunga District, the north-eastern part of the region and in Nzega, adjacent to Igunga District is deteriorated by high content of Fluoride. The deep wells in Tabora Region are concentrated in three (3) districts, Igunga, Nzega and Urambo: It is about 84% of the total.

5． CURRENT CONDITIONS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY

According to the Water Sector Performance Report (2009) prepared by MoW, the water supply coverage was 49.1% in the fiscal year 2007/2008. However, the inventory survey revealed that it was 11.8% in November 2009 in the rural area of Tabora Region. There were 1,469 water supply schemes in the study area in 2009. Among them, 677 schemes (46.1%) were working and the remaining 792 schemes were not functioning. The Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP) is the only national project by MoW in the water sector. A total of 74 villages were selected for the target of WSDP from five (5) districts and one (1) Municipality in the Tabora Region. Water Aid is actively supporting water supply in the region, however assistance by other organizations is not vigorous.

6． RURAL WATER SUPPLY PLAN AND SELECTION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

The Rural Water Supply Plan was formulated for 423 villages excluding 124villages of those in the Forest Reserves, Natural Reserves, other reserved areas, and the target villages of WSDP and other projects (Table 1). The target year of the project is 2020 as agreed in the Scope of Work of the Study. The target population in 2020 is projected to be about 2,062 x 103 persons. The water demand is estimated at about 51 x 103 m3/day, considering the unit water demand, 25 L/capita/day.

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Table 1 Number of Target Villages and Population for Rural Water Supply Plan Target of Study Excluded Vilalge Target of Rural Water Supply Plan District/ Population Population Population Population Population Population Municipality Village Village Village (2009) (2020) (2009) (2020) (2009) (2020) Igunga Dist. 97 363,188 524,687 15 71,122 102,746 82 292,066 421,941 Nzega Dist. 152 469,112 615,589 23 90,494 118,749 129 378,618 496,840 Sikonge Dist. 53 164,219 239,779 25 82,833 120,947 28 81,386 118,832 Tabora Rural Dist. 109 393,552 574,633 20 79,992 116,798 89 313,560 457,835 Tabora Mun. 24 58,842 101,710 11 32,933 56,923 13 25,909 44,787 Urambo Dist. 112 435,277 744,528 30 130,508 223,227 82 304,769 521,301 Total 547 1,884,190 2,800,926 124 487,882 739,390 423 1,396,308 2,061,536 The water source is groundwater. Alternatives for the water supply scheme are (1) piped water supply scheme with public water points (Level-2), (2) deep wells with hand pumps (Level-1), (3) rehabilitation of existing hand pumps and (4) rehabilitation of existing piped water supply schemes (only in the Igunga District). The formulated rural water supply plan is shown in Table 2. Table 2 Summary of the Rural Water Supply Plan District New Facility Rehabilitation Well Total /Municipality Level-1 Level-2 Level-1 Level-2 Igunga Dist. 0 117 4 17 138 Nzega Dist. 4 1,143 0 158 1,305 Sikonge Dist. 3 251 0 15 269 Tabora Rural Dist 6 1,135 0 48 1,189 Tabora Municipality 1 125 0 15 141 Uranbo Dist 4 1,368 0 79 1,451 Total 18 4,139 4 332 4,493 The service population will increase to 1,754 x 103 persons in 2020 from 2,68 x 103 persons in 2009, if the entire water supply plan is implemented. The implementation cost is about 281 x 106 US$. Each village was given district/municipal wise priority based on the result of evaluation using the criteria: (1) urgency to provide water supply scheme, (2) groundwater development potential and (3) water quality. A total of 20 villages were selected as the target villages for the priority project considering the criteria: (1) emergency to provide water supply scheme, (2) possibility of groundwater development and (3) appropriate scale of the project. 7. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FOR RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

The National Water Policy (NAWAPO) is the national basic policy for water resource management and water supply, of which principles in operation and maintenance for rural water supply system are to promote decentralization in implementation of water supply and sanitation projects to the lowest appropriate institutions, introduction of user-pay principle to recover the cost for operation and maintenance, and promotion of community-based management (CBM) to sustain the supply system. COWSOs are community-based organizations, which are vested with legal status by registering them under the Local Government Authorities (LGAs) and duly facilitate the community’s sense of ownership. The roles and responsibilities of COWSO set out in the basic strategy and program can be summarized as follows: − Own and manage water supply assets − Operate and maintain water supply assets − Determine consumer tariffs

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− Collect revenue for the provision of services District/Municipal Water and Sanitation Teams (DWST/MWST) are established under local government authorities (i.e. Municipal and District Council) in order to support and strengthen the capacity of local government authorities in planning, implementation, and monitoring of water supply services. Although a total of 1,093 hand pumps were constructed, 475 hand pumps, 43% of the total, are not functioning. This fact means that it is an important issue to maintain and operate the schemes properly. The Socio-Economic Condition Survey conducted under the Study, which was implemented in all the target villages (549 villages in total) in the Study area, revealed 38 villages (6.9% in the total number of villages) formed WUG, while only 16 villages established WUA (2.9% in the total number of villages). Otherwise, most of the villages (338-73.8% of the total number) own a conventional VWC. In the field survey under the Study, it was observed that VWCs cannot properly cope with breakdowns of supply facilities without collecting water fees for covering operation and maintenance costs. The project operation and maintenance plan under the Study adopts the basic framework of; 1) facilitation of participatory model of community-based operation and maintenance through formation and capacity development of the community-based organization, and, 2) enhancement of preparedness in provision of technical guidance by local councils. Taking into consideration problems in operation and maintenance of the existing water supply scheme, the following issues shall be given significance in preparation of the project operation plan. Survey results and findings, gained through the Study and experiences of NGOs involved in the capacity development community in the Study area identify the training needs for the target communities and suggest provision of training for improvement of their capacity in the following concerns to assure sustainability in the community-based operation and management; − Leadership skill − Community communication skills − Organizational/Institutional management skills − Tariff setting and collection methods User-Pay Principle (UPP) is introduced in the country for operation and maintenance of rural water supply facilities. 8. PUBLIC HEALTH AND HYGIENE

As for the outpatient department, malaria is the most common disease in the Tabora Region, followed by acute respiratory infection (ARI), pneumonia, diarrhoea, eye infections and intestinal worms. Malaria is also the most common in inpatient departments, followed by anaemia, pneumonia and diarrhoea. The composition of major diseases in the Tabora Region is not much different from that of the Tanzania Mainland. According to a socio-economic survey by the JICA Study Team, 259 (82.7%) out of 313 cases utilised health facilities: 77.8% of diarrhoea cases, 88.1% of malaria cases and 79.3% of non-communicable Disease (NCD) cases. In all districts except Sikonge, more than 80% of the respondents regard “drinking contaminated water” as a cause of diarrhoea. However, community people have limited knowledge on causes of diseases. Although many of the community people have knowledge that using safe clean water will prevent diarrhoea, it does not lead to the proper behaviour to prevent diarrhoea such as washing hands. In the frontline level, health education is done by VHW or Village Health Committees (VHC) in

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village level, while “Health Teachers” facilitate it at school level. Their activities are regularly supported and supervised by health workers at dispensaries or health centres and the Council Health Management Team (CHMT). The District Education Officer or District Community Development Officer also participates in supportive supervision in some districts. VHWs or VHCs cannot always perform well. As a tool for dissemination of knowledge on health, leaflets and posters are utilised at all districts, but it is not effective for illiterates. VHWs or VHCs are forced to provide health education depending on their memories and experiences due to the absence of teaching guides or educational aids. There is room for improvement of health education at any phases of the cycle. In the planning stage it is necessary to review the current approach for health education to seek what is most effective. Reinforcement of the evaluation mechanism is a requisite. In the phase of implementation, it is essential for VHWs/VHCs and Health Teachers to have teaching guides and educational aids for health education. It is also necessary to seek a diversity of tools for health education and sensitisation. It can also be effective to share experiences regularly. As for monitoring and supportive supervision of health education, it is necessary to reschedule involving other relevant sectors. The District Water and Sanitation Team (DWST), a district inter-sectoral body, is a good opportunity to enable such collective approaches. 9. DETAILED SURVEY AND OUTLINE DESIGN OF PRIORITY PROJECT

Test well drilling was carried out in the target villages for construction of the piped scheme to evaluate the availability of deep groundwater sources. Water quality was evaluated applying the WHO Guideline (2008) for “Items related to Health Significance” except for Fluoride contents and the Tanzania Health Standard (2008) for Fluoride contents and others. As a result, a suitable water source from view points of yield and water quality was obtained at four (4) villages: Isanga village in , Mpumbuli and Mabama Villages in Tabora Rural District, and Kakola Village in Tabora Municipality. A piped water supply scheme (Level-2) is not necessarily capable to cover the entire area of the village, some Sub-villages are not covered by the scheme judging from the results of the field survey and the facility layout plan.. Such Sub-Villages will be covered by hand pump schemes (Level-1), The field survey was carried out on the target villages for the hand pump schemes (Level-1) to evaluate topographical, geological, and hydrogeological conditions, and the dwelling type of the community. The water supply plan shown in Table-4 was formulated considering the results of the field survey. It will take about 35 months for implementation starting from the detailed design study to the completion of the construction of the water supply schemes. Operation and maintenance costs for the water supply schemes were estimated as shown in Table 4. Table-4 Operation and Maintenance Costs for Level-2 and Level-1 Type Village O&M Cost/Year O&M Cost (x103 Tsh) (Tsh /capita/month) Level-2 Isanga 21,944 935 Level-2 Mpumbuli 42,281 1,326 (continued) Mabama 37,655 574 Kakola 45,930 1,400 Level-1 Each scheme 841 280

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Table-3 Water Supply Plan for the Priority Project

Population Population Population Population Coverage* Coverage by Coverage by To be served Number of Number of Population Total Coverage (by District served by served by served by (Target Ward Village existing WSS existing WSS by the project Level-2 Sub- Level-1 Sub- served by the Population the Project: /Municipality existing WSS Level-2 Level-1 Population: 2009 2020 (2009) (%) (2020) (%) (2020) projects projects Project (2020 ) served (2020 ) (2020) (%) (2009) (2020) (2020) (2020) (%)

Mwisi Busomeke 3,618 5,227 250 7 5 4,977 0 0 7 1,750 1,750 2,000 34 38 Igunga Mwisi Kalemala 2,429 3,509 0 0 0 3,509 0 0 5 1,250 1,250 1,250 36 36 Ijanija Makomelo 1,005 1,319 250 25 19 1,069 0 0 6 1,069 1,069 1,319 81 100 Lusu Isanga 1,491 1,956 0 0 0 1,956 1 1,956 0 0 1,956 1,956 100 100 Nzega Miguwa Kitangili 2,664 3,496 0 0 0 3,496 0 0 10 2,500 2,500 2,500 72 72 Wela Wela 1,753 2,301 500 29 22 1,801 0 0 7 1,750 1,750 2,250 76 98 Igigwa Kasandalala 2,282 3,332 250 11 8 3,082 0 0 7 1,750 1,750 2,000 53 60 Sikonge Kipanga Usunga 1,894 2,766 250 13 9 2,516 0 0 5 1,250 1,250 1,500 45 54 Pangale Mpombwe 3,435 5,015 250 7 5 4,765 0 0 8 2,000 2,000 2,250 40 45 Kizengi Mpumbuli 2,157 3,148 0 0 0 3,148 1 2,658 3 490 3,148 3,148 100 100 Tabora Rural Mabama Mabama 4,329 6,321 500 12 8 5,821 1 5,471 2 350 5,821 6,321 92 100 Ufuluma Ufuluma 5,741 8,382 250 4 3 8,132 0 0 7 1,750 1,750 2,000 21 24 Kakola Kakola 2,015 3,483 0 0 0 3,483 1 2,983 2 500 3,483 3,483 100 100 Tabora Urban Misha Misha 759 1,312 0 0 0 1,312 0 0 5 1,250 1,250 1,250 95 95 Uyui Uyui 3,138 5,424 250 8 5 5,174 0 0 8 2,000 2,000 2,250 37 42 Imalamakoye Imalamakoye 2,509 4,292 1,000 40 23 3,292 0 0 4 1,000 1,000 2,000 23 47 Kapilula Kapilula 1,568 2,682 0 0 0 2,682 0 0 5 1,250 1,250 1,250 47 47 Urambo Kiloleni Kalembela 3,131 5,356 0 0 0 5,356 0 0 7 1,750 1,750 1,750 33 33 Kiloleni Kiloleni 1,653 2,828 250 15 9 2,578 0 0 6 1,500 1,500 1,750 53 62 Uyowa Nsungwa 6,91111,821 250 4 2 11,571 0 0 10 2,500 2,500 2,750 21 23 Total 54,482 83,970 4,250 7.8 5.1 79,720 4 13,068 114 27,659 40,727 44,977 48.5 53.6

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10. SOCIO-ECONOMY IN TARGET VILLAGES OF PRIORITY PROJECT

The primary income source of the target villages of the priority project is agriculture (96.3%). Other income sources such as livestock rising (1.0%), waged income (1.0%), or small business (0.7%) are minor. In Nsungwa village in Urambo District, there is a gold mine and workers work for wages. The median household income was categorised as 150,001 - 200,000 Tsh/month, with a share of 22.6%, followed by 200,001 - 300,000 Tsh/month comprising 16.9%. Differences among districts reveal Urambo as the wealthiest district with 200,001 - 300,000 Tsh/month, followed by Igunga, Tabora Rural and Tabora Municipality with 150,001 - 200,000 Tsh/month, and Nzega and Sikonge with 60,001 - 100,000 Tsh/month, respectively. Fetching water is primarily work for adult women (93.3%). A minority of males (3.3%) take charge of the task. Water is fetched on foot by more than 60% of women, while 30% are allowed to use a bicycle. With regards to queuing time at water points, as shown in Figure 10.5, waiting time in the rainy season was less than 10 minutes (79.7%), while the proportion decreased to 29.4% in the dry season. 46% of people wait for more than 30 minutes. The mean time required for fetching the water, including time for travelling and queuing, was 20 minutes during the rainy season and 63 minutes during the dry season respectively. 11. ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS

The National Environmental Management Council (NEMC) developed “Tanzania Environmental Impact Assessment Procedure and Guidelines (2002) for EIA processes. However, in 2008, a water sector guideline was promulgated for projects by MoW under WSDP. The PEA report was submitted through the EIA division of MoW at the end of November 2010. NEMC reviewed the PEA report, and evaluated the project as “Category C”. Since “Category C” projects do not require the EIA process under NEMC, further evaluation of environmental impact assessment in Tanzania was waived. 12. EVALUATION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

Results of the economic and the financial evaluation were summarized in Table-6. Table-6 Summary of Economic and Financial Analyses Item NPV B/C Ratio EIRR FIRR Economic Analysis US$ 3,762,466 1.77 18% － Financial Analysis US$ 239,423 1.26 － － As summarized in Table-6, the economic benefit will exceed the cost in case the project is implemented. The priority project could generate a financial surplus, thus financially viable, in running and management of the scheme with a realistic revenue collection ratio. The institutional framework, and the operation and maintenance system proposed in the Study was evaluated to meet the strategy of the water sector. The implementation of the priority project will contribute to attain the target of WSDP and realize the policy of MoW. The construction works of the Priority Project require no special techniques. These will be carried out by conventional methods and machinery widely applied in Tanzania. Equipment and materials required for the Priority Project are generally procured in Tanzania, although some of them are imported from abroad such as EU countries, South and Japan. Therefore the technique and materials applied to the project are considered as appropriate. 13. GIS AND DATABASE

The basic data collected by the Study Team were integrated into the database using MS-Excel.

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The ArcGIS was applied for the data analyses. The list of analyzed maps are shown in Table-7. Table-7 List of Base Maps, Database, Survey Results and Analyzed Maps No. Base Map and Database Survey Result Analyzed Map 1 Regional boundary Village location Lineament and dyke 2 District boundary Location of water supply Main lineament facility 3 Ward boundary Distribution of water Interpreted fault quality 4 Cities in Tabora Intepreted dyke 5 Geological map Drainage system 6 Vegetation map Drainage boundaries 7 National forest map Water body 8 Water body River system 9 Lithology 10 Well data 11 Hydrogeology 14. URBAN WATER SUPPLY PLAN

Tabora Municipality and small township, the centres of the districts, were receiving service of water supply and sewerage by the Urban Water Authorities (UWSAs). The summary of each UWSA is shown in Table-8. Table-8 Outline of UWSAs Service Item IGUWASA NZUWASA SUWASA TUWASA UUWASA Population of town 18,000 32,075 11,411 175,557 30,104 Served population 6,900 18,000 3,800 151,000 4,800 Ratio of served population 38% 56% 33% 86% 16% Improvement of water supply facilities and management system are on-going under WSDP and SECO project assisted by the Swiss government. 15. REPAIRING OF EXISTING HAND PUMP

The inventory survey of the existing water supply schemes carried out in the Study revealed that there exist 1,431 hand pumps in the rural area of Tabora (Study area) and 765 hand pumps were not functioning (November 2009). Then, the survey for repairing of hand pumps was carried out and it was confirmed that 27 Afridev type and 19 Tanira type hand pumps among the malfunctioned hand pumps would recover their function by simple repairing (March 2010). Repairing was carried out by the Study Team targeting those hand pumps. In addition, guidance to the community people on the importance of collection of water tariffs, and operation and maintenance of the facilities.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUMMARY LOCATION MAP TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES ABBREVIATIONS PHOTOGRAPHS IN THE STUDY AREA

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study ------1 - 1 1.2 Objectives of the Study ------1 - 2 1.3 Study Area and Study Target Villages ------1 - 2 1.3.1 Study Area------1 - 2 1.3.2 Target Village of the Study ------1 - 2 1.3.3 Target Population of the Study ------1 - 3 1.4 Implementation of the Study ------1 - 3 1.5 Composition of the Report ------1 - 3 CHAPTER 2 SOCIO-ECONOMY

2.1 Administrative Structure ------2 - 1 2.2 Population and Ethnic Groups ------2 - 1 2.3 Dwelling Type ------2 - 2 2.4 Economic Situation ------2 - 2 2.5 Gender Issues ------2 - 2 CHAPTER 3 METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

3.1 Meteorology ------3 – 1 3.1.1 Precipitation------3 - 1 3.1.2 Temperature------3 - 1 3.1.3 Solar radiation and Sunshine Hours ------3 - 1 3.2 Hydrology ------3 - 1 3.2.1 Catchment Classification in Tanzania ------3 - 1 3.2.2 Drainage System in Tabora Region------3 - 1 3.2.3 Flow Rate------3 - 2 3.3 Water Balance ------3 - 2

i CHAPTER 4 TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

4.1 Topography ------4 - 1 4.2 Geology ------4 - 1 4.2.1 Geology of the Study Area ------4 – 1 4.2.2 Lithofacies Maps ------4 – 1 4.2.3 Geologic Structure Maps ------4 – 2 4.3 Hydrogeology ------4 - 5 4.3.1 Groundwater in the Study Area ------4 - 5 4.3.2 Present Conditions of------4 - 5 4.3.3 Groundwater Level ------4 - 7 4.3.4 Water Quality ------4 - 7 4.4 Groundwater Potential ------4 - 8 4.4.1 Aquifer in the Study Area ------4 - 8 4.4.2 Groundwater Yield by Geological Formation ------4 - 8 4.4.3 Groundwater Potential Evaluation ------4 - 8 CHAPTER 5 CURRENT CONDITIONS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY

5.1 General Status of Rural Water Supply in Tabor Region ------5 - 1 5.2 Number of Water Supply Schemes and Their Operational Status ------5 - 1 5.3 Water Supply Coverage ------5 - 1 5.4 Water Quality ------5 - 2 5.5 Existing Plans related to Rural Water Supply in Tabora Region ------5 - 8 CHAPTER 6 RURAL WATER SUPPLY PLAN AND SELECTION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

6.1 Target Villages ------6 - 1 6.2 Project Target Year and Population to be Secured ------6 - 1 6.3 Water Demand ------6 - 1 6.4 Water Source ------6 - 1 6.5 Rural Water Supply Plan ------6 - 2 6.6 Approximate Cost Estimation------6 - 4 6.7 Implementation Plan ------6 – 5 6.8 Priority Project ------6 - 5 CHAPTER 7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FOR RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

7.1 Policy and Institutional Framework ------7 - 1 7.1.1 National Water Policy and National Water Sector Development Strategy ----- 7 - 1 7.1.2 Water Sector Development Program ------7 - 1

ii 7.1.3 Institutional Framework for Community-Owned Water Supply ------7 - 1 7.2 Development Issues for Operation and Maintenance ------7 - 2 7.2.1 Functionality of Rural Water supply schemes ------7 - 2 7.2.2 Community-Owned Water Supply Organization (COWSO) ------7 - 3 7.2.3 Water Fund and Water Fee Collection ------7 - 3 7.2.4 District/Municipal Water and Sanitation Team ------7 - 3 7.3 Strategy for Development of Operation and Maintenance Plan ------7 - 4 7.3.1 Formation of Community-Owned Water Supply Organization with Enhanced Awareness on Community Ownership ------7 - 4 7.3.2 Capacity Building of Community in Operation and Maintenance ------7 - 4 7.3.3 Interfacing COWSO with Local Administrations ------7 - 5 7.3.4 Cost Recovery for Operation and Maintenance ------7 - 5

CHAPTER 8 PUBLIC HEALTH AND HYGIENE

8.1 Morbidity in Tabora Region ------8 - 1 8.2 Perception, Knowledge and Practice of People on Health and Hygiene ------8 - 1 8.3 Current Situation of Health Education in Tabora Region ------8 - 1 8.4 Access to Health Service, Safe Water and Sanitation ------8 - 2 8.5 Discussions – Problem Identification ------8 - 2 8.6 Conclusion – Implication for Better Health Promotion ------8 - 3 CHAPTER 9 DETAILED SURVEY AND OUTLINE DESIGN ON THE PRIORITY PROJECT

9.1 Detailed Survey ------9 – 1 9.1.1 Test Well Drilling ------9 - 1 9.1.2 Field Survey in the Target Villages for Level-2 Water Supply Scheme ------9 - 3 9.1.3 Field Survey in the Target Villages for Level-1 Water Supply Scheme ------9 - 3 9.2 Revision of Water Supply Plan for the Priority Project ------9 - 3 9.3 Outline Design of Water Supply Schemes------9 - 5 9.3.1 Basic Concept ------9 - 5 9.3.2 Design Conditions ------9 - 5 9.3.3 Facility Plan for Level-2 Water Supply Scheme ------9 - 6

9.4 Implementation Plan------9 - 12 9.5 Project Cost Estimation ------9 – 12

iii CHAPTER 10 SOCIO-ECONOMY IN TARGET VILLAGES OF PRIORITY PROJECT

10.1 Economics and Industry------10 - 1 10.2 Household Income ------10 - 1 10.3 Responsibility of Women’s Activities------10 - 2 10.4 Priorities for Communication Development------10 - 4 10.5 Willingness to Pay and Mode of Payment ------10 - 4 CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATION

11.1 Environmental Laws and Related Regulation in Tanzania------11 - 1 11.2 Guideline for Environmental and Social Consideration------11 - 1 11.3 Initial Environmental Examination------11 - 1 11.4 Categorization------11 - 4 11.5 Environmental and Social Consideration Schedule Onward ------11 - 5 CHAPTER 12 EVALUATION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

12.1 Economical and Financial Evaluation ------12 - 1 12.1.1 Economic Evaluation ------12 - 1 12.1.2 Financial Evaluation ------12 - 2 12.2 Institutional and Organizational Evaluation ------12 - 3 12.3 Management and Maintenance Evaluation ------12 - 3 12.4 Evaluation from Viewpoint of Policy ------12 - 4 12.5 Environmental and Social Evaluation ------12 - 4 12.6 Technical Appropriateness ------12 - 4 CHAPTER 13 GIS AND DATABASE

13.1 Construction of the GIS and Database------13 - 1 13.2 GIS and Database for the Study------13 - 1 13.3 Collected Data and Analyzed Thematic Map------13 – 3 13.4 Recommendations------13 - 4 CHAPTER 14 URBAN WATER SUPPLY PLAN

14.1 Urban Water Supply Plan and Superior Plan ------14 - 1 14.2 Existing Conditions of the Urban Water Supply and Sewerage Authorities ------14 - 1 14.3 Water Supply Improvement Plan ------14 - 2 CHAPTER 15 REPARING OF EXISTING HAND PUMP

15.1 Water Supply Improvement Plan ------15 - 1 15.2 Method of Repairing ------15 - 1

iv LIST OF TABLES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Table 1.1 Numbers and Population of Target Villages of the Study ------1 - 2 CHAPTER 2 SOCIO-ECONOMY

Table 2.1 Population and Household Size of Target Villages ------2 - 7

CHAPTER 3 METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

CHAPTER 4 TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

Table 4.1 Geology of Tabora Region ------4 - 1 Table 4.2 Number of Boreholes by Depth ------4 - 6 Table 4.3 Number of Boreholes by Yield ------4 - 7 CHAPTER 5 CURRENT CONDITIONS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY

Table 5.1 Number of Water Supply Scheme and Operational Status ------5 - 1 Table 5.2 Reasons for Unfunctioning of Level-1 Water Supply Schemes ------5 - 1 Table 5.3 District-Wise Water Supply Coverage (Population Served) (2009) ------5 - 2 Table 5.4 Water Quality Measured/Analyzed and Water Quality Standards------5 - 3 Table 5.5 Summary of the Water Quality Analysis Results ------5 - 4 Table 5.6 Summary of the Existing Reports ------5 - 5 CHAPTER 6 RURAL WATER SUPPLY PLAN AND SELECTION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

Table 6.1 Number of Target Villages and Population for the Rural Water Supply Plan ------6 - 1 Table 6.2 Summary of the Rural Water Supply Plan------6 - 3 Table 6.3 Increasing of Service Population by the Rural Water Supply Plan ------6 - 3 Table 6.4 Requirements for Level-2 Water Supply Facilities ------6 - 3 Table 6.5 Requirements for Level-1 Water Supply Facilities ------6 - 4 Table 6.6 The Total Number of Water Supply Schemes ------6 - 4 Table 6.7 Total Cost Estimation for Construction of Water Facilities ------6 - 5 Table 6.8 Implementation Plan of Rural Water Supply Plan ------6 - 5 st Table 6.9 List of the 1 Priority Project (Alternative-1B: Revised) ------6 - 6 CHAPTER 7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FOR RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

Table 7.1 Ratio of Operation and Maintenance Cost in Household Income (Level-2) ------7 - 6

v CHAPTER 9 DETAILED SURVEY AND OUTLINE DESIGN ON THE PRIORITY PROJECT

Table 9.1 Result of Test Well Drilling ------9 - 1 Table 9.2 Result of Water Quality Analyses ------9 - 2 Table 9.3 Water Supply Plan for the Priority Project------9 - 4 Table 9.4 Water Demand and Pumping Plan for the Target Villages of Level-2 ------9 - 5 Table 9.5 Specification of Deep Wells ------9 - 5 Table 9.6 Design Conditions of the Level-2 Water Supply Schemes ------9 - 6 Table 9.7 Design Conditions of the Level-1 Water Supply Schemes ------9 - 6 Table 9.8 Implementation Schedule of the Project ------9 - 12 Table 9.10 Operation and Maintenance Costs for Level-2 and Level-1 ------9 - 13 CHAPTER 10 DETAILED SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY

Table 10.1 Basic Data for Examining Level-2 Introduction ------10 - 5 CHAPTER 11 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL CONSIDERATION

Table 11.1 IEE Check List ------11 - 1 CHAPTER 12 EVALUATION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

Table 12.1 Estimated Economic Benefit ------12 - 1 Table 12.2 Summary of Results of the Economic Analysis ------12 - 2 CHAPTER 13 GIS AND DATABASE

Table 13.1 List of Base Data ------13 - 3 Table 13.2 List of Point Data from the Result of the Surveys ------13 - 3 Table 13.3 List of Polyline and Polygon Data for Analysis ------13 - 4 CHAPTER 14 URBAN WATER USUPPLY PLAN

Table 14.1 Outline of UWSAs ------14 - 2 CHAPTER 15 REPARING OF EXISTING HAND PUMP

Table 15.1 Status of Existing Hand Pumps and Number of Target Hand Pumps ------15 - 1

vi LIST OF FIGURES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Figure 1.1 Administrative Structures of the Local Governments in the Study Area ------1 - 3 CHAPTER 2 SOCIO-ECONOMY

Figure 2.1 Population Forecast from 2009-2025 ------2 - 1 Figure 2.2 Dwelling Type in Village in Tabora Region ------2 - 2 Figure 2.3 Times Taken for Fetching Water in Igunga District ------2 - 3 Figure 2.4 Times Taken for Fetching Water in Nzega District ------2 - 3 Figure 2.5 Times Taken for Fetching Water in ------2 - 3 Figure 2.6 Times Taken for Fetching Water in Tabora Rural District ------2 - 3 Figure 2.7 Times Taken for Fetching Water in Tabora Municipality ------2 - 3 Figure 2.8 Times Taken for Fetching Water in Urambo District ------2 - 3 CHAPTER 3 METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

Figure 3.1 Groundwater Recharge Estimation Map ------3 - 3 CHAPTER 4 TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

Figure 4.1 Lithofacies Map ------4 - 3 Figure 4.2 Geologic Structure Map ------4 - 4 Figure 4.3 Numbers of Boreholes by District in Tabora Region ------4 - 5 Figure 4.4 Distributions of Boreholes in Tabora Region ------4 - 6 Figure 4.5 Numbers of Boreholes by Geological Formation ------4 - 8 Figure 4.6 Hydrogeological Maps ------4 - 10 CHAPTER 5 CURRENT CONDITIONS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY

Figure 5.1 Estimated Distribution of Fluoride (F) Contents by Deep Well ------5 - 7 Figure 5.5.6 Milky Colored Water from a Deep Well ------5 - 18 Figure 5.5.7 Distribution of Iron (Fe) Contents ------5 - 20 CHAPTER 6 RURAL WATER SUPPLY PLAN AND SELECTION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

Figure 6.1 Locations of Priority Villages ------6 - 7 CHAPTER 9 DETAILED SURVEY AND OUTLINE DESIGN ON THE PRIORITY PROJECT

Figure 9.1 Layout Plan of Isanga Village, Nzega District ------9 - 7 Figure 9.2 Layout Plan of Mpumbuli Village, Tabora Rural District ------9 - 8

vii Figure 9.3 Layout Plan of Mabama Village, Tabora Rural District ------9 - 9 Figure 9.4 Layout Plan of Kakola Village, Tabora Municipality ------9 - 10 Figure 9.5 Well Structure of Deep Well for Level-2 and Level-1 Schemes ------9 - 11 CHAPTER 10 DETAILED SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY

Figure 10.1 Monthly Household Income ------10 - 1 Figure 10.2 Month of Income ------10 - 1 Figure 10.3 Existing Water Sources for Drinking ------10 - 2 Figure 10.4 Time Taken to Fetch Water ------10 - 4 Figure 10.5 Queuing Time at Water Points ------10 - 4 CHAPTER 13 GIS AND DATABASE

Figure 13.1 Design of the GIS Data Folder ------13 - 2

viii ABBREVIATIONS

ARI Acute Respiratory Infection AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome B/C Ratio Benefit/Cost Ratio CHMT Council Health Management Team COWSO Community-Owned Water Supply Organization CWSD Community Water Supply Division DP Development Partner DWE District Water Engineer DWL Dynamic Water Level DWSP District Water Sanitation Plan DWST District Water and Sanitation Team EC Electric Conductivity EIRR Economic Internal Rate of Return E/N Exchange of Notes ESMF Environmental and Social Management Framework FIRR Financial Internal Rate of Return GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS Geographic Information System G.L Ground Level GPS Global Positioning System HDPE High Density Polyethylene HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IEE Initial Environmental Examination JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency MKUKUTA Mkakati wa Kukuza Uchumi na Kupunguza Umaskini Tanzania MoW Ministry of Water MoWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation MWE Municipal Water Engineer MWST Municipal Water and Sanitation Team NAWAPO National Water Policy NBS National Bureau of Statistics NEMC National Environmental Management Council NGO Non-Governmental Organization NOx Nitrogen Oxide NPV Net Present Value O&M Operation and Maintenance PEA Preliminary Environmental Assessment PVC Polyvinyl Chloride

ix PWP Public Water Point SECO Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs SOx Sulfur Oxide S/W Scope of Work SWAp Sector Wide Approach to Planning TASAF Tanzania Social Action Fund TDS Total Dissolved Solid Tsh Tanzania shilling TUWASA Tabora Urban Water Supply and Sewerage Authority UNDP United Nation Development Programme UWSA Urban Water Supply Authority VHC Village Health Committee VHW Village Health Worker WHO World Health Organization WSDP Water Sector Development Programme WSPR Water Sector Performance Report WUA Water User Association WUG Water User Group

＜単位＞ C Celsius cm centimeter kWh Kilowatt hour L liter m meter masl meter above sea level mbgl meter below ground level mg milligram mH meter Head min Minute ml milliliter mS millisiemense 2 m square meter 3 m cubic meter sec second

x PHOTOGRAPHS IN THE STUDY AREA

1: Inserberg of the basement rock 2: Typical residence form in Tabora region (Tabora Municipality） (residences are scattered around a hill) (Tabora Municipality)

3: Weathering of a bedrock (Urambo District） 4: A woman fetching water from a hole dug near a river (Igunga District)

5: A piped water supply water supply scheme 6: A girl fetching water from unprotected under repairing (Level-2) (Nzega District) traditional water source (Sikonge District)

P - 1 7: A woman fetching deteriorated water 8: A girl pumping water from a shallow well (Tabora Rural District) with a hand pump (Tabora Municipality)

9: The water source in Igunga District 10: The Office of NZUWASA, operated by (Bulenya Dam) (Igunga District) private sector (Nzega District)

11: An abandoned distribution tank 12: A functioning piped water supply scheme (Sikonge District) (Tabora Rural District)

P - 2 13: Water venders (Tabora Municipality) 14: A malfunctioned piped water supply scheme (Urambo District)

15: The water source of SUWASA (Mtyatya 16: Girls fetching water from a shallow well Dam) (Sikonge District) (hand pump was stolen soon after the installation) (Tabora Municipality)

17: Socio-economic survey at a village 18: The weather observation site at Tabora airport (Tabora Municipality)

P - 3 19: Geophysical Survey (Radon method) 20: Two-dimensional resistivity survey

21: Test well drilling (development work） 22: Repairing of a hand pump (Nata village, Nzega District)

23: A malfunctioned hand pump 24: Mpumbuli village (Tabora Rural District) (Isanga village, Nzega Distrit)

P - 4 25: People fetching water from a shallow well 26: Kakola village (Nzega District) (Mabama village, Tabora Rural District)

27: Busomeke village (Igunga District) 28: Makomelo village (Nzega District)

29: Kasandalala village (Sikonge District) 30: Imalamakoye village (Urambo District)

P - 5 Chapter 1 Introduction

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The United Republic of Tanzania (hereinafter referred to as “Tanzania”) is located in the eastern part of Africa covering 884,000 km2. The total population reaches 33.58 million according to the result of census in 2002. The GNP was US$330/capita in 2004 (estimation). The Study Area, the Tabora Region, lies in the central part of Tanzania and occupies 76,700 km2 of the area. The population is projected as 2,140 x 103 in 2008. Annual precipitation is 952.3mm (average between 1999 and 2008). There is a rainy season from November to April and a dry season from May to October. The Government of Tanzania started the Rural Water Supply Project in 1971 aiming to provide safe and clean water to the entire nation within a 400m distance. The Ministry of Wateri (MoW) has been continuing the efforts to improve the water supply coverage formulating a “Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP)” in 2000 and “National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP)/MUKUKUTA” in 2005. NSGRP targets to improve water supply coverage from 53% to 65% in the rural area and from 73% to 100% in the urban area up to the year 2010. However, it is likely difficult to realize the target. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MoWI) formulated the “Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP)” in 2006 to improve the water supply coverage using the basket fund based on the Sector Wide Approach for Planning (SWAp). The WSDP intends to realize 74% of water supply coverage of the rural area in 2015 and 90% in 2025, and 95% in 2015 and 100% in 2025 for the urban area. The water supply coverage of the Tabora Region, the Study Area, is low, 49.1% in 2008 against the national average of 58.3%. Its major reason is the hydrogeological difficulty of developing groundwater. Furthermore, many water supply schemes are left un-functioning due to improper operation and maintenance. Many people are using deteriorated water sources and not using safe and clean water sources. It is said a lot of community people suffer from water borne diseases. Therefore, it is requested to develop water supply schemes as well as to improve people’s awareness of public health and hygiene. In order to overcome these situations, Tanzania requested Japan to implement a study in the Tabora Region on groundwater potential evaluation, construction of a database, formulation of rural water supply plan following the WSDP concept and feasibility study of priority projects to be formulated through the study. In response to the request, Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) carried out a preparatory study in February 2009 and concluded the Scope of Work of the Study. Accordingly, the Study commenced in August 2009. 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objectives of the Study are; (1) Formulation of water supply plan for theTabora Region, (2) Preliminary design of priority projects and to carry out a feasibility study, and

1 - 1 Chapter 1 Introduction

(3) To develop the capacity of counterpart personnel of Ministry of Water and other authorities concerned in the course of the Study. 1.3 STUDY AREA AND STUDY TARGET VILLAGES

1.3.1 STUDY AREA

The Study covers the one (1) Municipality and five (5) Districts as shown in Figure 1..1: Tabora Municipality, Igunga, Nzega, Tabora Rural, Sikonge and Urambo.

1.3.2 TARGET VILLAGES FOR THE STUDY

The administrative structure of the Local Governments in the Study Area is shown in Figure 1.1. The total number of Streets, Small Townships and Villages (hereinafter referred to as “Villages”) is 666 as shown in Table 1.1. Among them, the number of target villages for the Study is confirmed to be 547 confirmed in December 2009. These are subdivided into 2,918 Sub-Villages. Table 1.1 Number and Population of Target Villages of the Study District Street Small Village Sub Population in Population /Municipality (A) Township (C) Villages Target Villages Ratio (B) (2009) (%) Igunga 0 1 97 630 363,188 19.3 Nzega 0 1 152 978 469,112 24.9 Sikonge 0 0 53 229 164,219 8.7 Tabora Rural 0 0 109 467 393,552 20.9 Tabora Urban 117 0 24 117 58,842 3.1 Urambo 0 0 112 497 435,277 23.1 Total 117 2 547 2,918 1,884,190 100.0 Total (A+B+C) 666 - - -

1 - 2 Chapter 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1 Administrative Structure of the Local Governments in the Study Area 1.3.3 TARGET POPULATION OF THE STUDY

The Study Area includes the entire rural area and a part of the urban area. The population of the target 547 villages is 1,884 x 103 persons in 2009. It is projected to become 2,801 x 103 persons in the target year of the Study 2020. 1.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF THE STUDY

The Community Water Supply Division (CWSD) of the Ministry of Water (MoW) was assigned as the counterpart organization by the Government of Tanzania, while the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) was assigned as the official agency responsible for the implementation of the technical cooperation program of the Government of Japan. The study was conducted by the Japanese study team, comprised of members of Earth System Science Co., Ltd. in association with Japan Techno Co. Ltd and Kokusai Kogyo Co., Ltd. , officially retained by JICA for the Study, and the counterpart staff provided by MoW, Tabora Region and, five (5) Districts and one (1) Municipality.. The total schedule of the Study is shown in the Flow Chart (See, Figure 1.4.1). The Study was commenced in August 2009 and was completed in May 2011.

1 - 3 Chapter 2 Socio-Economy

CHAPTER 2 SOCIO-ECONOMY

2.1 ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE

The Tabora Region has the following administrative divisions: district; ward. Ward is sub-divided into village and sub-village in rural areas, or small townships and streets in urban areas. 2.2 POPULATION AND ETHNIC GROUPS

The population of the Tabora Region is about 1,884 x 103 persons in December 2009 and it is projected to increase to about 2,801 x 103 persons in 2020, the target year of the study. The population growth rate and projected population are shown in Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1, respectively. Table 2.1 Population and Household Size of Target Villages District/Municipality Number of Population Growth Rate Average villages 2009 census 2002 household size (1988-2002) Igunga District 97 363,188 3.4% 7.7 Nzega District 152 469,112 2.5% 5.8 Sikonge District 53 164,219 3.5% 6.3 Tabora Rural District 109 393,552 3.5% 5.8 Tabora Municipality 24 58,842 5.1% 4.8 Urambo District 112 435,277 5.0% 6.8 Total 547 1,884,190 3.6% 6.3

Population 1,000,000 Igunga

900,000 Nzega Sikonge

800,000 Tabora Rural

Tabora Municipality 744,528 700,000 Urambo 615,589

600,000 574,633 469,112 500,000 524,687 435,277 400,000 393,552 300,000 363,188

200,000 239,779

164,219 100,000 101,710 58,842 0 20092010 2015 2020 2025 Year

Figure 2.1 Population Forecast from 2009 to 2025

2 - 1 Chapter 2 Socio-Economy

The population growth rate is large in Tabora Municipality and Urambo District: They are 5% or more. On the other hand, it is low in Nzega: It is 2.5%. There are two main ethnic groups in the Tabora Region: Nyamwezi and Sukuma. Nyamwezi are primarily engaged in agriculture, and Sukuma are both farmers and livestock keepers. As minorities, there are Ha in Urambo and Wanyiramba and Taturu in Igunga, who are purely livestock keepers. Wakimbu live in Sikonge. refugees are based in Urambo. 2.3 Dwelling Type The dwelling type of the village, ie, distribution of sub-villages and homesteads, is an important parameter to determine the level of water supply schemes to the village. In the field survey, the following four dwelling types were observed: 1) Concentrated type: most households are close to one another as well as to sub-villages; 2) Linear type: households and sub-villages are developed along roads; 3) Clustered type: distance to sub-villages is long, but households are in a compact area; and 4) Scattered type. The most common dwelling type in Tabora is the Scattered type, with 34% as shown in Figure 2.2. The Concentrated and Linear types, the preferable types for Level-2, remain 18% within the region.

Concentrated 8% Linear 10% Mixed 25%

Clustered Schattered 23% 34%

Figure 2.2 Dwelling Type in Village in Tabora Region 2.4 ECONOMIC SITUATION

Tabora’s regional Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2008 was Tsh 932,640 million (738,199,000 USD: 1 USD=Tsh 1,263.4), which accounts for 4.2% of the national GDP, Tsh 22,452,059 million (17,771,141,000 USD). This amount is ranked 10th among the 21 , excluding . GDP per capita of the Tabora region in 2008 was Tsh 429,605 (340.0 USD), the 14th among the 21 regions. Tabora’s GDP per capita was 24.5% less than GDP per capita of Tanzania Mainland excluding Zanzibar which is Tsh 568,771 (450.2 USD). (Source: GDP amount: Tabora Regional Economist, Exchange rate: Bank of Tanzania, Annual Report 2008/09). 2.5 GENDER ISSUES

The low coverage rate of the safe water supply in Tabora means that people mainly use water from ponds or streams, causing the burden of fetching water for women and children. It also decreases women’s access to primary education and health care facilities, and leads to more water-borne diseases and a higher infant mortality rate. Based on this background, gender issues related to water were researched and analyzed. 1) Time Taken for Fetching Water As stated in the previous section, needs for improving the water situation are strong. The

2 - 2 Chapter 2 Socio-Economy

reasons for the needs and difficulties of the community can be found by analyzing the time taken for fetching water. The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA) set the target time of fetching water from water facilities in 65 % of rural areas as less than 30 minutes by 2010. As shown in Figures 2.3 to 2.8, in the rainy season, more than 80% of the villages in all districts said that time for fetching water including queuing was less than 30 minutes. In the dry season, the picture is very different. Igunga District faces the most difficult situation. More than 70% of the villages there stated that it took more than 90 minutes to fetch water, while other districts such as Nzega District, Sikonge District, Tabora Municipality and Urambo District need less than an hour. The best district was Tabora Rural where only 16.5% of the villages spent more than 90 minutes, and most of the rest spend 30 to 60 minutes.

80.0% 80.0% 80.0% Rainy Season Rainy Season Rainy Season Dry Season Dry Season Dry Season 60.0% 60.0% 60.0%

40.0% 40.0% 40.0%

20.0% 20.0% 20.0%

0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Figure 2.3 Time Taken for Figure 2.4 Time Taken for Figure 2.5 Time Taken for Fetching Water in Igunga Fetching Water in Nzega Fetching Water in Sikonge District District District

80.0% 80.0% 80.0% Rainy Season Rainy Season Rainy Season Dry Season Dry Season Dry Season 60.0% 60.0% 60.0%

40.0% 40.0% 40.0%

20.0% 20.0% 20.0%

0.0% 0.0% 0.0%

Figure 2.6 Time Taken for Figure 2.7 Time Taken for Figure 2.8 Time Taken for Fetching Water in Tabora Fetching Water in Tabora Fetching Water in Urambo Rural District Municipality District

2 - 3 Chapter 3 Meteorology and Hydrology

CHAPTER 3 METEOROLOGY AND HYDROLOGY

3.1 METEOROLOGY

The climate of the Tabora Region is equatorial savannah with dry winter. Generally, its climate is characterized by a limited daily temperature range, clearly defined rainy and dry seasons, and grasslands (savannah) sparsely dotted with trees tolerant of dry conditions.

3.1.1 PRECIPITATION

There is a clear rainy season (October to May) and dry season (June to September) in the Tabora Region. Relatively large variations are observed in yearly precipitation. Whereas annual precipitation was approximately 700 mm in 2005, it was 1,200 mm in 2006, almost double of that in 2005. The average precipitation is just less than 1,000 mm, which is about the same as the national average of 1,100 mm.

3.1.2 TEMPERATURE

The annual range of temperature is relatively small. The maximum temperature (32.2°C) was observed in September and October, and the minimum temperatures (14.7 to 14.8°C) were observed in the dry season, June and July. Difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures is approximately 10 to 15 degrees throughout the year.

3.1.3 SOLAR RADIATION AND SUNSHINE HOURS

Few of the weather stations in the Tabora Region are observing solar radiation or sunshine hours. Even when observations are made, data is often missing or includes seemingly abnormal values. However, we acquired only reliable data, observed over the past ten years. According to the data of the Tabora Meteorological station, solar radiation is the highest around October, and the mean value was 5.75 kWh/m2/day. The lowest value is 4.6s 5 kWh/m2/day in December. The mean annual value is about 5 kWh/m2/day. 3.2 HYDROLOGY

3.2.1 CATCHMENT CLASSIFICATION IN TANZANIA

There are nine (9) catchments in Tanzania and there is a Basin Water Office in each basin. The Tabora Region is a part of three (3) catchments: Internal Drainage Basin (VI), Basin (VII) and Lake Tanganyika Basin (VIII). The ratio of these areas is: VI : VII : VIII=0.70 : 0.25 : 0.05

3.2.2 DRAINAGE SYSTEM IN TABORA REGION

The Tabora Region mainly belongs to two (2) major catchments, the Malagarasi and the Manonga Rivers. However, there is no perennial river, river flow is observed only in the rainy season.. The Malagarasi River flows into Lake Tanganyika and then flows out to the Atlantic Ocean. The flows into Lake Eyasi in the Internal Drainage Basin. The northern and northwestern parts of the Tabora Region (whole areas of Urambo District and Tabora Municipality, and a part of Nzega and Tabora Rural Districts) are located in the catchment of the Malagarasi River which includes three (3) major tributaries, the Igombe, Ugalla and the Wara Rivers. On the other hand, the eastern part of Tabora Region (the whole of Igunga District and a part of Nzega and Tabora Rural Districts) is included in the Wembere catchment. The flows into Lake Eyasi located in the southern Serengeti Plains.

3 - 1 Chapter 3 Meteorology and Hydrology

The eastern part of the Tabora Region is in the Rungwa catchment. The Rungwa River flows along the southern border between Tabora and Mbeya Regions, and flows into Lake Rukuwa.

3.2.3 FLOW RATE

A total of 10 observatory stations were constructed in the Tabora Region, however none of these stations are currently operating. The duration of the collected observation data is 12 to 13 years in the longer case while most of them are three (3) to four (4) years. Relatively continuous observation was made in the Nkululu River, a tributary of the Ugalla River. Obvious water flow is observed from February to May and no water flow is observed in May. The maximum flow rate was observed in 1978: It was 26.6 m3/sec (catchment area = 3,051 km2). 3.3 WATER BALANCE

The groundwater recharge in the Tabora Region is considered as follows. (i) The upper reaches of the Igombe River (part of Nzega District, Tabora Municipality, and Tabora Rural District) have a groundwater recharge of 60 to 70 mm per year, a relatively small amount in the Region. (ii) The upper reaches of the Wara River (part of Tabora Municipality and Tabora Rural District) have a groundwater recharge of a little over 60 mm per year, a relatively small amount in the Tabora Region. (iii) The Nkululu River Basin (Sikonge District) has a groundwater recharge of over 250 mm per year, a considerably abundant water resource situation. (iv) The Internal Drainage Basin (Sikonge District and Tabora Rural District) shows 200 mm per year, a substantial groundwater recharge. (v) The groundwater recharge for Urambo District in the western part of theTabora Region cannot be calculated because no flow rate observation data is available. However, it is reported that the district has a relatively high annual precipitation (900 to 1,000 mm per year) and, the surface condition is relatively good. Therefore, this area is thought to have a groundwater recharge of about 100～200 mm. (vi) The mean groundwater recharge is estimated at about 85 mm/year, approximately the same value obtained using the arithmetical computation method; but with the year-to-year variation taken into account the groundwater recharge is thought to be about 50 to 100 mm per year. The groundwater recharge estimation is shown in Figure 3.1.

3 - 2 Chapter 3 Meteorology and Hydrology

FIGURE 3.1 GROUNDWATER RECHARGE ESTIMATION MAP THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION JICA

3 - 3 Chapter 4 Topography, Geology and Hydrogeology

CHAPTER 4 TOPOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND HYDROGEOLOGY

4.1 TOPOGRAPHY

The Tabora region is situated on a high plateau of the central part in the United Republic of Tanzania between latitude 4-7° south and longitude 31-34° east. The region shares a border with the in the north, in the east, Mbeya and Rukwa regions in the south and the western border is shared with the region. Most of the altitude in the region ranges between 1,000 and 1,300m with an approximately flat plateau. The inselbergs which the basement rock exposed and the lowlands which become marshes in the rainy season also exist in places so gently undulations are found. The hilly terrain that exceeds 1,600m altitude is located in the southeastern area. The Tabora region is divided into three basins (Lake Tanganyika Basin, Internal Drainage Basin and Lake Rukwa Basin). The watershed which divides Lake Tanganyika Basin and the Internal Drainage Basin runs from the northern part of the Nzega district to the east in Sikonge town via south of Nzega town, and then it stretches to the region outside in a southeasterly direction. In the Lake Tanganyika Basin, the altitude declines gently from east to west. Beyond the watershed with about 1,200 to 1,500m altitude, the altitude falls from west to east in the Internal Drainage Basin. The Lake Tanganyika Basin has 68% of the land area of the region, the Internal Drainage Basin has 28% and the Lake Rukwa Basin has 4%. 4.2 GEOLOGY

4.2.1 GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

In the Tabora region, Precambrian Archean plutonic rocks and metamorphic rocks are widely distributed. Overlying these rocks, sedimentary rocks in the Paleozoic era, Continental deposits of Miocene, lacustrine deposits and old alluvium in the Pleistocene, and recent alluvium of Holocene are distributed in places. The geological feature of the Tabora region is shown in Table 4.1. Table 4.1 Geology of Tabora Region Era System Rock Type Lithology Quaternary Alluvium Clay Unconsolidated Sand , clay Neogene Pleistocene sediment Cenozoic Lacustrine Limestone, Calcareous mudstone Continental Silcrete, Duricrust and others Neogene Miocene deposits Paleozoic Bukoban Sedimentary rocks Sandstone Ubendian Metamorphic rocks Gneiss, Amphibolite Quartzite, Sandstone, Mudstone, Kavirondian Sedimentary rocks Siltstone Metamorphic rocks, Banded ironstone, Schist, Lava, Tuff, Archean Nyanzian Metavolcanic rock Phyllite,Sandstone Intrusive/ Plutonic Granite, Granodiorite - rocks Dodoman Metamorphic rocks Gneiss, Amphibolite, Migmatite, Schisit Source: “Tanzania Tabora Region Integrated Development Project, Land Use Component, Land Unit Atlas” Land Resources Development Centre, 1982 (1) Archean and Paleozoic

The Dodoman system is composed of metamorphic rocks such as gneiss, amphibolite, migmatite, schist and so on. It is distributed in a belt shape of 100km width from the south to the west of the

4 - 1 Chapter 4 Topography, Geology and Hydrogeology region. The Nyanzian system and the Kavirondian system are composed of metamorphic rocks such as banded ironstone, schist, quartzite, phyllite and sedimentary rocks. It is situated in the Igunga and Nzega districts in the northeast of the region. The Ubendian system is composed of metamorphic rocks such as gneiss and amphibolite, and located at the west end of the region. Additionally, the Archean intrusive rocks which are composed of mainly granite and granodiorite are distributed in the vast area of the eastern part of the region. The intrusive rocks have developed joints and are weathered strongly. The Paleozoic Bukoban system which consists mainly of sandstone is distributed in the limited area of the west end of the region. The Mesozoic stratum is not admitted in Tabora region. (2) Cenozoic

The stratum in the Cenozoic period in this region is composed of the continental deposits of the Miocene, lacustrine sediments and the old alluvium of the Pleistocene, and the recent alluvium of Quaternary in chronological order. The continental deposits of the Miocene consist of various materials such as silcrete which is a kind of conglomerate, duricrust and so on. It is distributed in the east of the region mainly in the eastern part of the Tabora Rural district. The lacustrine sediments of Pleistocene are mainly composed of limestone and calcareous mudstone and is found in the northern part of Igunga district which is located in the northeast of the region. The alluvial sediment in the region is divided into old alluvium of the Pleistocene and recent alluvium of the Quaternary. They are distributed mainly in the riverbeds, the marshes, the swamps and the low altitude areas of the region.

4.2.2 LITHOFACIES MAP

A Lithofacies map is shown in Figure 4.1 Lithofacies here in Tabora Region was discriminated into seven geologic units as follows in ascending order, - Unconsolidated materials in Quaternary (unit name Q): loose materials like sand and mud distributed along drainages and in swamps - Sedimentary rock (unit name Sr): horizontally structured deposits distributed in the most south-western part of the region - New granite (unit name Ng): showing intermediate resistance against surface erosion and being distributed in the south-western part of the region - Greenstone (unit name Gs): showing rough topography and dense vegetation and emplacing in the north-eastern part of the region - Schist (unit name Sc): showing low resistance against surface erosion and being distributed in the western and the southern part of the region - Gneiss derived from granite (unit name Gn): showing rough topography and many lineaments developed and being distributed in NW-SE direction belt at the center of the region - Granite as a basement (unit name Gb): showing high resistance against surface erosion in the northern part and low resistance in the southern part of the region

4.2.3 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE MAP

A Geologic structure map is shown in Figure 4.2. Major faults trending N-S and NW-SE in addition to trending NE-SW and E-W are distributed in the Tabora region. Other lineaments of NW-SE and ENE-WSW are concentrated in the surrounding area of the major faults. Dykes which have N-S and ENE-WSW direction are distributed in the entire area of the Tabora region.

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FIGURE 4.1 LITHOFACIES MAP THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION JICA

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FIGURE 4.2 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE MAP THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION JICA

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4.3 HYDROGEOLOGY

4.3.1 GROUNDWATER IN THE STUDY AREA

The aquifer in the study area is divided into two main parts as the stratum aquifer and the fractured aquifer. The aquifer of Recent Alluvium and two Pleistocene Layers are categorized as a stratum aquifer. Basement rocks in those consist of Archean rocks categorized as a fractured aquifer.

4.3.2 PRESENT CONDITIONS OF THE EXISTING BOREHOLES IN TABORA REGION (1) Distribution of the Existing Boreholes The numbers of boreholes in each district are shown in Figure 4.3. This figure shows that 106 boreholes (38.1%) are located in the Nzega district, 25.6% in the Urambo district, and 20.7% in the Igunga district. 83.8% of the boreholes are in these three districts and the boreholes in the Tabora region are distributed nonuniformly. Figure 4.4 shows the distribution of the boreholes in the Tabora region. Many boreholes are distributed over the populated area, the urban areas around the district capitals and the area along the main road. (2) Depth of Boreholes 277 boreholes have the information of the depth out of the 289 boreholes which have positional data or village name. The numbers of the boreholes classified by 20m depth are shown in Table 4.2. The boreholes that have depths from 40 to 60m are the most frequent, 60 to 80m boreholes are second, 20 to 40m boreholes are third. The boreholes with less than 60m depth account for 56.7 % of the all at 157, and the boreholes with less than 100m depth account for 94.9 % at 263. In the Tabora region, most boreholes have a depth less than 100m. Only one borehole exceeds 200m in depth.

20.1% 24.2%

58 Boreholes 70 Boreholes Total 289 Boreholes (boreholes the location comfirmed)

24 Boreholes 8.3% Igunga 22 Boreholes 36.7% Nzega 106 Boreholes Sikonge 7.6% 9 Boreholes Tabora Rural Tabora Urban 3.1% Urambo Boreholes in Tabora Region Figure 4.3 Number of Boreholes by District in Tabora Region

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Figure 4.4 Distribution of Boreholes in Tabora Region

Table 4.2 Number of Boreholes by Depth Depth (m) Number of Accumlated Ratio (%) Boreholes Ratio (%) 0 - 20 28 10.1 10.1

20 - 40 42 15.2 25.3

40 - 60 87 31.4 56.7

60 - 80 65 23.5 80.1

80 - 100 41 14.8 94.9

100 - 120 9 3.2 98.2

120 - 140 2 0.7 98.9

140 - 160 2 0.7 99.6

160 - 180 0 0 99.6

180 - 200 0 0 99.6

200 - 220 1 0.4 100

Total 277 100 -

No Data 12 - -

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(3) Yield 177 boreholes have a yield data out of the 289 boreholes that have the positional data or village 3 name. Table 4.3 shows the numbers of the boreholes classified by a yield of 1 m /hour. The 3 boreholes with a yield less than 1 m /hour including dry boreholes account for 37 % of the entire 3 boreholes and are the most frequent. The boreholes with a yield less than 2 m /hour account for approximately half of the whole. Table 4.3 Number of Boreholes by Yield Number of Accumlated Yield (m3/hour) Ratio (%) Boreholes Ratio (%) Dry 38 21.5 21.5 - 1 28 15.8 37.3 1 - 2 25 14.1 51.4 2 - 3 23 13.0 64.4 3 - 4 17 9.6 74.0 4 - 5 10 5.6 79.7 5 - 6 11 6.2 85.9 6 - 7 8 4.5 90.4 7 - 8 0 0 90.4 8 - 9 0 0 90.4 9 - 10 2 1.1 91.5 10 - 11 2 1.1 92.7 11 - 12 1 0.6 93.2 12 - 13 3 1.7 94.9 13 - 14 3 1.7 96.6 14 - 15 2 1.1 97.7 15 - 16 4 2.3 100 Total 177 100 - No Data 112 - -

4.3.3 GROUNDWATER LEVEL

The groundwater distribution in the Tabora region was estimated on the basis of the static water level from existing borehole data. The estimated groundwater level seems to be the water head of the artesian aquifer because the collected borehole inventories covered the boreholes or deep wells. If the borehole had no data of the altitude, the altitude of the ground level was estimated from SRTM data based on the positional information and then the altitude of the groundwater level was calculated from the estimated ground level. The groundwater in the study area is supposed to be distributed and flowing along the landscape. In the south and the west part of the region, the data of the groundwater level are not sufficient because of the lack of existing boreholes.

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4.3.4 WATER QUALITY (1) General The results of the water quality analysis implemented in the Tabora region were collected and reviewed from a hydrogeological viewpoint. Water quality analysis was also carried out for 82 samples (72 existing water sources and 10 test wells) in the entire Tabora region in this study. The method and the detailed results of the water quality survey in this study are described in Chapter 5. (2) Fluoride There are some water sources that have a higher concentration of fluoride more than the guideline values of World Health Organization (WHO) in Igunga District, Nzega District, Tabora Rural District and Tabora Municipality. The distribution of the fluoride contents in the Tabora region is described in the Chapter 5 in detail. (3) Electric Conductivity (EC) The measurement values of electric conductivity (EC) range from 1.5 to 986.7 mS/m in the study area. Comparatively high values of EC are detected in the Internal Drainage Basin which includes the Igunga District, north-eastern part of the Nzega District and the eastern part of Tabora Rural District. The distribution of EC is similar to the distribution of the fluoride contents. 4.4 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL

4.4.1 AQUIFER IN THE STUDY AREA

The numbers of boreholes in each geological formation in the study area are shown in Figure 4.5. The aquifer of Recent Alluvium and two Pleistocene Layers are categorized as a stratum aquifer. Basement rocks consisting of Archean rocks are categorized as a fractured aquifer. This figure shows that nearly 90% of the boreholes in the study area were drilled to the fractured aquifers in the basement rocks.

3.8% 12.5% 6.6%

2.1% 11 19 Aquifer Category 6 36 Stratum Aquifers in Sedimentary Layers

Recent Alluvium

18.0% Old Alluvium (Pleistocene)

52 Lake Beds (Pleistocene)

Fractured Aquifers in Basement Rocks Metamorphic Rocks & Sedimentary Rocks 57.1% (Kavirondia-Nyanzian)

165 Intrusive RocksGranite, Granodiorite Metamorphic Rocks(Dodoman) Figure 4.5 Number of Boreholes by Geological Formation

4.4.2 GROUNDWATER YIELD BY GEOLOGICAL FORMATION

It is difficult to recognize a significant difference of the yield among the geological formations based on the existing data at present.

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4.4.3 GROUNDWATER POTENTIAL EVALUATION (1) Yield A clear difference of the yield among the aquifers especially in the basement rocks of the study area can not be recognized from the existing data at present. Therefore the groundwater potential was assumed from the existing borehole data and the geological structures that is the result of satellite image analysis. The groundwater yield is classified into three categories and the study area is divided into the following three areas. Topographical features and geological structures have effects on the groundwater potential. The classification of the area yielding groundwater was modified from the viewpoint of these features. Especially fault zones and lineaments have much effect on the groundwater yield, so these zones of the major fault of an existing borehole that has a yield 3 5m /hour and above are classified as “Area 1”. The area of the forest reserves and the game reserves are excluded from this evaluation. 1) Area which has a yield of 5 m3/hour and above is assumed 3 The surrounding areas of the existing borehole that have a yield of 5 m /hour and above. 2) Area where a yield of 1 – 5 m3/hour is assumed 3 The surrounding areas of the existing borehole that have a yield of 1 – 5 m /hour. 3) Area where a yield of below 1 m3/hour is assumed This area is an area that is not included in Area 1 and Area-2 as referred to above. (2) Water Quality Based on the value of fluoride content from this study and the existing data, the study area is divided into the following three areas. 1) Area where the fluoride content is below 1.5 mg/L Groundwater in this area is suitable for drinking. 2) Area where the fluoride content is 1.5 – 4.0 mg/L Groundwater in this area exceeds the upper limit of WHO Guideline but satisfies the Tanzania standard. Precautions against the seasonal variation of fluoride content will be necessary. 3) Area where the fluoride content is 4.0 mg/L or above Groundwater in this area is unsuitable for drinking. A hydrogeological map (Figure 4.6) shows the above areas for fluoride content. (3) Water Level (Depth to Groundwater) The depth to the groundwater is shown in Figure 4.6 from the static water level of the existing borehole. The water levels of most boreholes are situated about 20m below the ground or above. Therefore the water level is not a critical factor to evaluate the groundwater potential in the study area. (4) Hydrogeological Map The hydrogeological map is shown in Figure 4.6. The map contains the information on geological features, groundwater yield, depth to the groundwater table and groundwater quality data especially the fluoride content.

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FIGURE 4.6 HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION JICA

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CHAPTER 5 CURRENT CONDITIONS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY

5.1 GENERAL STATUS OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION

TheTabora Region is one of the least developed Regions in Tanzania in terms of water supply. According to the “Water Sector Performance Report (September 2009)”, water supply coverage in the abora Region is 49.1%, however the inventory survey carried out in November 2009 in the Study revealed that only 46% of existing water supply schemes were functioning and water supply coverage was estimated at about 12%. 5.2 NUMBER OF WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES AND THEIR OPERATIONAL STATUS

It was confirmed in the inventory survey that there were 49 piped water supply schemes (Level-2) and 1,420 wells with hand pumps, totaling 1,469 schemes in the Region. Table 5.1 shows the district-wise number of water supply scheme and their operational situation. The number of Level-2 water supply schemes is only 3.3% and remaining 96.7% of the schemes are Level-1 schemes. Among the total number of schemes (1,469 schemes), 677 schemes (46.1%) were functioning and 792 schemes (53.8%) were not functioning. Functioning rates of the Level-2 and the Level-1 are 34.7% and 46.5%, respectively. Table 5.1 Number of Water Supply Scheme and Operational Status District Level-2 Level-1 Total Not Not Not /Municipality Total Functional Total Functional Total Functional Functional Functional Functional Igunga 9 5 4 100 21 79 109 26 83 Nzega 7 0 7 521 255 266 528 255 273 Sikonge 2 2 0 127 56 71 129 58 71 Tabora Rural 10 3 7 189 92 97 199 95 104 Tabora 2 1 1 85 56 29 87 57 30 Municipality Urambo 19 6 13 398 180 218 417 186 231 Total 49 17 32 1,420 660 760 1,469 678 792 (%) 100 34.7 65.3 100 46.5 53.5 100 46.1 53.9 The reasons for unfunctioning of the Level-1 scheme are summarized in Table 5.2. Table 5.2 Reasons for Unfunctioning of Level-1 Water Supply Schemes District Dried up Mal-water Corruption Low Problems Unknown Others /Municipality quality of well dischage of pump Igunga 0 1 0 0 12 6 0 Nzega 101 0 0 0 49 4 0 Sikonge 27 0 0 3 23 7 1 Tabora Rural 21 0 0 0 27 13 0 Tabora Municipality 9 0 0 0 2 8 0 Urambo 63 0 2 4 39 11 0 Total 221 1 2 7 152 49 1 (%) 48.9 0.2 0.4 1.5 35.6 10.8 0.2 The major reason for unfunctioning is “dried up of water sources” (221 schemes, 48.9%) followed by “Problems of pump” (152 schemes, 35.6 %). These two (2) reasons occupy 84.5 % of reasons for unfunctioning. 5.3 WATER SUPPLY COVERAGE

Water supply coverage in November 2009 was estimated as shown in Table 5.3 based on the result of the Inventory Survey. The average water supply coverage was 11.8%.

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Table 5.3 District-wise Water Supply Coverage (November2009) No. of Population No. of Population Total Water Supply District Population operating served by operating served by population Coverage /Municipality (2009)* Level-2 Level-2 Level-1 Level-1 served (%) Igunga Dist. 363,188 5 19,800 21 5,250 25,050 6.9% Nzega Dist. 469,112 0 0 255 63,907 639,07 13.6% Sikonge Dist. 164,219 2 5,044 56 13,933 18,977 11.6% Tabora Rural Dist. 393,552 3 11,365 92 21,998 33,363 8.5% Tabora 1,131 56 13,480 14,611 24.8% 58,842 1 Municipality. Urambo Dist. 435,277 6 20,905 180 45,000 65,905 15.1% Total 1,884,190 17 58,245 660 163,568 221,813 11.8% (%) 100 - 3.1% - 8.7% 11.8% - The protected wells are considered as the reliable water sources in WSDP. The water supply population and coverage by the Level-2, the Level-1 and the protected wells were 267,958 persons and 14.2%. Tabora Municipality and Nzega District showed high water supply coverage: They were 24.8% and 20.1%, respectively. In contrary to these, water supply coverage was the least in Igunga District (6.9%). 5.4 WATER QUALITY

The water quality of existing water supply schemes were measured at the sites in the Inventory Survey. Measured items were Temperature (T), pH, Electric Conductivity (EC) and Fluoride (F). Among them, 90 samples were collected and analyzed in the laboratory (Table 5.4). Applied water quality standards for evaluation were as follows. - Items related to health significance except Fluoride: WHO Guideline (2008) - Other items and Fluoride: Tanzania Health Standards (2008) The standard to be applied for Fluoride was initially the WHO Guideline. However, MoW requested JICA to change the standard for Fluoride from the WHO Guideline to the Tanzania Health Standards to keep more number of recipients considering the result of the test well drilling. JICA accepted this request under the conditions to enlighten community people to mitigate toxicity of Fluoride and to consider suitable standard for Fluoride in the future. Table 5.5 shows the summary measured water quality in the field and Table 5.6 shows the results of water quality analyses in the laboratory

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Table 5.4 Water Quality Measured/Analyzed and Water Quality Standards *1 *2 Items of Water Quality Analysis Unit Tanzania Standard (2008) WHO Guideline (2008) 1 Total Coliforms count/100ml 0 -

aspects 2 Escherichia Coli. count/100ml 0 0 Microbial 3 Cadmium: Cd mg/L 0.05 0.003 4 Lead: Pb mg/L 0.1 0.01 5 Arsenic: As mg/L 0.05 0.01 6 Fluoride: F mg/L 4.0 1.5

7 Nitrate: NO3 mg/L 75 50

health significance *3 Chemicals that are of 8 Nitrite: NO2 mg/L - 3.0 / 0.2 9 Manganese: Mn mg/L 0.5 0.4

10 Total Hardness (as CaCO3 mg/I) mg/L 600 600 11 Calcium: Ca mg/L 100 - 12 Magnesium: Mg mg/L 100 - 13 Iron: Fe mg/L 1.0 - 14 Zinc: Zn mg/L 15 - 15 Copper: Cu mg/L 3.0 2.0 - 16 Chloride: Cl mg/L 800 - 17 Total dissolved solids - 2000 -

18 Ammonium: NH3+NH4 mg/L - 1.5 19 pH - 6.5 - 9.2 -

Acceptability aspects Acceptability 20 Taste - Not Ojectionable - 21 Odour - Not Ojectionable - 22 Colour TCU mg Pt/l 50 15 23 Turbidity: Tr NTU 25 5.0 24 Temperature ℃ -- 25 Conductivity mS/m - - 26 Residual chlorine: Cl mg/L - - 27 Sodium: Na mg/L - - 28 Potassium: K mg/L - - - 29 Bicarbonate: HCO3 mg/L - - roundwater g Water quality 2-

characteristics of 30 Sulfate: SO4 mg/L - - items related to the Note: *1: "National Environmental Standards Compendium" Tanzania Bureau of Standards, 2008 *2: "WHO Guideline for Drinking Water Quality Third Edition", World Health Organization, Genova, 2008 *3: Short term / Long term : Items adopted for water quality evaluation

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Table 5.5 Summary of Water Quality Analyses Results District/Municipality Water Quality Parameter Igunga Nzega SikongeT. Rural T. Urban Urambo Source Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Number of Sample 24 13 3 107 154 4 12 65 2 17 109 4 14 40 10 114 99 3 Maximum 30.8 28.0 29.0 29.7 29.7 26.9 30.0 29.9 29.2 29.7 29.9 27.0 30.0 29.0 30.2 30.0 28.8 28.3 Temperature Minimum 23.0 24.0 23.0 26.0 23.7 26.5 24.0 22.9 28.0 24.0 22.0 22.0 21.9 23.1 25.0 24.1 24.1 25.0 (°C) Average 26.9 26.2 25.5 27.2 27.7 26.7 26.5 26.3 28.6 26.6 26.7 24.6 26.8 26.4 26.9 26.5 26.2 27.0 Median 27.1 26.4 24.6 27.0 27.8 26.7 26.0 26.3 28.6 26.8 26.6 24.7 27.3 26.8 26.7 26.6 26.3 27.8 Maximum 9.0 8.3 8.5 8.4 9.2 7.7 8.4 7.6 8.1 7.9 8.8 7.7 8.1 7.4 7.9 8.4 8.5 7.8 Minimum 5.9 5.9 8.1 4.9 4.5 6.2 7.2 4.4 7.6 5.8 4.7 5.9 5.5 5.2 5.2 4.5 4.6 7.4 pH Average 7.3 7.0 8.3 6.7 6.3 6.7 7.9 6.0 7.9 6.8 6.3 7.0 6.8 6.2 6.3 6.3 6.1 7.6 Median 7.3 6.6 8.3 6.7 6.3 6.5 7.9 6.0 7.9 6.7 6.2 7.3 7.0 6.1 6.2 6.2 6.1 7.5 Over TZ STD 6 6 0 51 109 2 0 47 0 8 73 1 6 32 7 89 87 0 Maximum 239.0 114.6 28.8 399.9 299.1 97.9 93.7 67.7 17.9 123.5 500.0 33.3 147.2 215.0 42.3 132.0 104.0 10.4 Electric Minimum 8.2 5.1 16.8 4.0 4.2 12.0 7.6 4.6 9.9 6.6 2.0 8.2 5.3 2.6 1.5 4.5 3.3 6.6 Conductivity Average 96.7 39.0 21.6 29.3 41.2 52.0 18.0 13.9 58.7 58.4 17.8 34.8 33.1 16.4 34.3 26.7 9.1 (mS/m) 60.8 Median 97.2 18.0 19.2 25.0 11.0 27.4 50.7 11.7 13.9 41.2 43.8 14.8 12.6 15.8 9.7 24.4 18.2 10.3 Maximum 10.30 4.30 4.30 6.21 3.91 0.80 2.53 0.98 0.80 2.24 7.94 1.11 3.95 1.20 0.80 1.11 1.20 0.65 Minimum 0.24 0.30 2.50 ND ND 0.40 0.40 ND 0.11 ND ND 0.26 0.00 ND ND ND ND 0.40 Fluoride Average 3.00 1.48 3.43 0.72 0.42 0.52 0.87 0.15 0.46 0.81 0.68 0.74 0.76 0.44 0.42 0.24 0.18 0.50 (mg/L) Median 2.40 1.10 3.50 0.40 0.40 0.45 0.60 0.08 0.46 0.69 0.42 0.80 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.18 0.14 0.44 Over WHO GL 16 4 3 14 7 0 1 0 0 3 5 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 Over TZ STD7 212 0 00 000 200 000 0 0 T. Rural: Tabora Rural, T. Municipality: Tabora Municipality WHO G.L: The number of samples, which exceed the WHO Guideline. TZ STD: The number of samples, which exceed the Tanzania Standard. ND: Not detected.

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Table 5.5.3 Summary of the Existing Reports District/Municipality Water Quality Parameter Igunga Nzega SikongeT. Rural T. Urban Urambo Source Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Deep Well Shallow Well Surface Number of Sample 5 22121132181 1274 1454 6 15 302 Maximum 28.6 N/A 29.3 30.1 27.6 30.1 N/A N/A 26.0 26.0 25.8 27.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Temperature Minimum 24.3 N/A 22.2 26.5 23.9 20.8 N/A N/A 26.0 23.1 24.2 27.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A (°C) Average 26.5 N/A 25.5 28.5 25.8 24.4 N/A N/A 26.0 24.6 25.0 27.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Median 26.1 N/A 25.2 28.8 25.8 23.2 N/A N/A 26.0 24.6 25.1 27.0 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A Maximum 9.2 9.8 9.4 8.6 8.5 9.5 7.4 7.6 7.5 7.2 7.1 8.2 8.7 6.9 6.2 8.0 8.1 7.9 Minimum 7.3 4.9 6.0 4.3 4.7 5.8 7.4 6.4 5.8 5.5 4.4 5.9 8.1 6.1 6.2 6.6 4.9 7.6 pH Average 7.9 7.7 7.8 7.4 6.6 7.5 7.4 7.0 6.9 6.7 6.2 7.3 8.4 6.5 6.2 7.4 6.6 7.7 Median 7.7 7.9 7.9 7.5 6.5 7.4 7.4 7.1 7.1 7.0 6.6 7.3 8.3 6.6 6.2 7.5 6.5 7.7 Over TZ STD14211620211610210150 Maximum 179.6 158.3 191.0 189.0 240.0 100.0 310.0 135.0 35.0 202.0 65.4 19.0 142.5 45.0 10.0 148.0 90.0 25.0 Electric Minimum 20.4 10.0 12.0 6.8 5.0 9.1 310.0 9.8 7.4 8.5 3.4 8.5 61.0 9.5 10.0 24.0 4.8 10.0 Conductivity Average 103.6 36.0 117.2 95.4 31.1 29.6 310.0 43.5 15.0 140.8 25.4 13.3 116.9 23.8 10.0 76.8 27.4 17.5 (mS/m) Median 96.5 27.5 125.0 107.9 14.6 20.0 310.0 29.5 10.5 176.3 20.4 11.8 132.0 22.0 10.0 78.0 18.5 17.5 Maximum 3.00 3.00 21.32 3.00 3.75 1.95 1.65 1.40 0.69 3.00 4.50 0.68 1.70 0.90 0.85 1.45 0.90 0.69 Minimum 0.80 0.32 0.30 0.40 ND ND 1.65 0.20 0.10 0.80 ND ND 1.30 0.10 0.85 0.50 0.15 0.60 Fluoride Average 1.68 0.88 3.43 1.18 0.60 0.72 1.65 0.62 0.45 1.50 0.80 0.37 1.53 0.59 0.85 0.90 0.45 0.65 (mg/L) Median 0.80 0.80 0.80 0.88 0.40 0.68 1.65 0.55 0.50 1.09 0.48 0.30 1.55 0.63 0.85 0.80 0.48 0.65 Over WHO GL254231100110200000 Over TZ STD0 3 00 0 00 000 100 000 0 0 T. Rural: Tabora Rural, T. Urban: Tabora Municipality WHO G.L: The number of samples, which exceed the WHO Guideline. TZ STD: The number of samples, which exceed the Tanzania Standard. ND: Not detected. N/A: Not Available

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(1) Temperature By the existing reports and the result of the inventory survey, the range of the highest groundwater temperature is in a range from 25.8 to 30.8 °C. The lowest temperature distributed between 20.8 and 28.0 °C. The average and the median temperatures are from 24.3 to 28.6 °C and from 23.2 to 28.6 °C. (2) pH The total of 524 samples do not satisfy the Tanzania Standard (6.5 - 9.2) in 794 total samples in the Study Area. Especially, the largest percentage above the Tanzania Standard was in Tabora: it was 176 samples (81.5%) in 216 samples in Urambo by the inventory survey and 15 samples (40.5%) in 37 samples in Urambo in the existing report. (3) Electric Conductivity (EC) The maximum value of electric conductivity is in a range between 10.4 and 500.0 mS/m by the inventory survey and between 10.0 and 300.0 mS/m by the existing reports. The largest parameter of the electric conductivity detected from shallow wells at Ilalwasimba village in Tabora Rural District by the data of the inventory survey and at Kipanga village in Sikonge District by the data of the existing reports. (4) Fluoride (F) The entire Igunga District, the northeastern part of Nzega District and the east part of Tabora Rural District are included in the Internal Drainage Basin. According to existing reports, groundwater pollution by fluoride is widely spread, especially located inside the Internal Drainage Basin. The result of the measurement was 23 in 40 samples in Igunga District and 21 in 265 samples in Nzega District over the WHO Guideline. For the other districts, it exceeds few samples over the WHO Guideline except Urambo District. In addition, 10 samples in Igunga District, two (2) samples from deep well in Nzega District and two (2) samples from shallow well in Tabora Rural District exceeded the Tanzania Standard. It considered that outside of the Internal Drainage Basin was relatively safe against fluoride pollution. However, among 10 samples from the drilling wells, three (3) wells at Mabama Village in the southern east part of Tabora Rural District, and one (1) well at Usunga Village in Sikonge District detected the exceeded parameters over the WHO Guideline. In Igunga and Nzega Districts, higher content of Fluoride was observed in the deep wells rather than shallow wells. In contrary to these, higher content of Fluoride was observed in the shallow wells rather than deep wells in Tabora Municipality, and Tabora Rural and Sikonge Districts.

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FIGURE 5.1 ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF FLUORIDE (F) CONTENTS BY DEEP WELL THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION JICA

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5.5 EXISTING PLANS RELATED TO RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION

(1) Water Sector Development Programme (WSDP) The Water Supply Development Programme (WSDP) is a National development plan to attain the goals of NSGRP and MDG. A basket fund was established in 2006 based on the concept of Sector Wide Approach to Planning (SWAp). WSDP aims to improve rural water supply coverage up to 79% in 2015 and 90% in 2025. The total implementation cost is assumed to be 2,054.12 x 109 Tsh. 26% of the total cost will be borne by the Government of Tanzania and the remaining 76% is expected from assistance by Donors. Construction of water supply schemes by the WSDP is basically carried out in 10 villages selected in each District after the study by the consultant. The duration of the implementation period from selection of target villages to completion of construction of schemes is about three (3) to four (4) years. The target villages have already been selected in each District of the Tabora Region. The consultant will start the study soon. More than 10 villages were selected in some Districts. The total of 74 villages were selected in the Region. (2) District Water and Sanitation Plan (DWSP) Formulation of the District Water Supply Plan was requested from each District in order to promote the WSDP, however, only Igunga District formulated the plan in 2007. The DWSP of Igunga District is for the physical years from 2007/2008 to 2009/2010. According to the action plan, it is planned to construct 59 deep wells or shallow wells, 11 piped water supply schemes (Level-2), eight (8) charco dams and nine (9) rain harvesting tanks and 19 cattle troughs during the three (3) years. In addition, 19 WATSUN committees will be organized. Rehabilitation of existing water supply schemes is also planned for 11 piped water supply schemes and 15 charcoal dams. (3) Expansion Plan of Urban Water Supply Tabora Municipality Water Supply Authority (TUWASA) and other Urban Water Authorities(UWSAs) are responsible for the water supply to the urban area. Although they are supplying water by piped water supply schemes, some areas in the urban area are not covered due to insufficient water sources and lack of funds. Each UWSA has an extension plan of the water supply scheme. However, it seems to take a long period for UWAs to implement it, except for TUWASA. (4) Tanzania Social Action Fund (TASAF) The Tanzania Social Action Fund (TASAF) is a government funded organization. TASAF is assisting the water supply in the villages by constructing mainly handpump water supply schemes. Such schemes can be confirmed in every district. However, detailed information has not been obtained because data and information have not been transferred to each District/Municipal Water Engineer’s Office in most cases. Efforts to collect such data and information will be continued during the phase-1 survey. (5) Assistance by NGO and Others NGOs such as Water Aid and Africare are supporting the water supply in the Tabora Region. Water Aid is the most active NGO assisting water supply sector both construction of water supply schemes and organizing Water User Groups (WUGs) or Water User Associations (WUAs). The type of water supply schemes is mainly handpumps however piped water supply schemes are constructed in some places where enough quantity of the water source is available. Other NGOs are constructing

5 - 8 Chapter 5 Current Conditions of Rural Water Supply only handpump water supply schemes and shallow wells. Although Water Aid had been assisting Nzega and Urambo Districts, their assistance was recently concentrated mainly in the Nzega District. As for other organizations, the Anglican Church, a mining company, etc. are assisting but are not so active. (6) Millennium Villages Project The Millennium Villages Project has been implementing under the assistance by UNDP in Tabora Rural. Mbola village is the cluster village of the project in the 11 target villages. Specific objectives are: (1) to reduce the incidence of water and environmental health/sanitation related diseases for poor communities in the project areas through effective implementation of the planned activities from 80% to 30% by the year 2011 and (2) to reduce the walking distance to fetch water from 1-3 km to within 400m in the project areas by the year 2011 (UNDP, 2008).

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CHAPTER 6 RURAL WATER SUPPLY PLAN AND SELECTION OF PRIORITY PROJECT

6.1 TARGET VILLAGES

A rural water supply plan is formulated for the villages in the rural area excluding the following villages agreed in the 2nd Steering Committee held on 22 December 2009. - Target villages for the WSDP - Target villages for other projects such as TASAF - Target villages for projects by NGOs - Target villages for the Millennium Villages Project - Target villages for expansion of the Urban Water Supply Schemes - Villages located in the Forest Reserves and Game Reserves (In case some sub-villages are outside of the Forest Reserves and Game Reserves, such sub-villages will be included in the target of the Study). The number of the target villages became 419 excluding 124 villages as shown in Table 6.1. Table 6.1 Number of Target Villages and Population for Rural Water Supply Plan Target of Study Excluded Vilalge Target of Rural Water Supply Plan District/ Population Population Population Population Population Population Municipality Villag e Village Village (2009) (2020) (2009) (2020) (2009) (2020)

Igunga Dist. 97 363,188 524,687 15 71,122 102,746 82 292,066 421,941 Nzega Dist. 152 469,112 615,589 23 90,494 118,749 129 378,618 496,840 Sikonge Dist. 53 164,219 239,779 25 82,833 120,947 28 81,386 118,832 Tabora Rural 109 393,552 574,633 20 79,992 116,798 89 313,560 457,835 Dist. Tabora Mun. 24 58,842 101,710 11 32,933 56,923 13 25,909 44,787 Urambo Dist. 112 435,277 744,528 30 130,508 223,227 82 304,769 521,301 Total 547 1,884,190 2,800,926 124 487,882 739,390 423 1,396,308 2,061,536 6.2 PROJECT TARGET YEAR AND POPULATION TO BE SERVED

The target year for the rural water supply plan was determined as the year 2020 as agreed in the Scope of Work of the Project. Population to be covered by the Study is confirmed as about 1,384 x 103 in 2009 and is projected at 2,045 x 103 in 2020 as shown in Table 6.1. In the projection of population , the growth rate used is shown in Table 2.1 in Chapter 2 (page 2-1). 6.3 WATER DEMAND

In the formulation of the rural water supply plan, the unit water demand 25 liter/capita/day is applied following the Design Manual (MoWI, 2007). Total water demand in 2020 is estimated at 51 x 103 m3/day. 6.4 WATER SOURCE

Groundwater sources are mainly considered as the water source of the water supply scheme to be planned in the Study. Potential of groundwater source is evaluated in Chapter 5 whether or not it is suitable as water source for the water supply schemes to be planned in the Study. Water quality was evaluated using mainly Fluoride contents because wide areas of Igunga Region are known as the deteriorated area by high Fluoride contents. As described in Chapter 5, deteriorated area by Fluoride is wide spread in Igunga District, and a part of Nzega and Tabora

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Rural Districts. Groundwater development is difficult in such areas. Therefore, shallow wells or rain water harvesting is proposed as the alternative water sources in the deteriorated areas by Fluoride. 6.5 RURAL WATER SUPPLY PLAN

The rural water supply plan was formulated considering the population to be served and groundwater potential. (1) Alternative of Typified Water Supply Scheme Following four types of water supply schemes were selected as the alternatives of Water Supply Plan. 1) Piped Water Supply Scheme (Level-2) 2) Hand Pump (Level-1: Deep Tube Well) 3) Rehabilitation of existing scheme (Level-1) 4) Rehabilitation of existing water supply scheme (4 piped schemes in Igunga) (2) Concept for the Formulation of the Rural Water Supply Plan The rural water supply plan should be the one to contribute the implementation of the WSDP. Therefore, the contents of the plan should be harmonious to the concept of the WSDP. In formulation of the rural water supply plan following concept was applied. 1) The water source is principally groundwater to be developed by deep well (borehole). 2) Type of water supply schemes are basically piped water supply scheme (Level-2) and deep well with Handpump (Level-1). 3) Service population for a Level-1 is 250 persons in principal. The number of Level-1 is decided by the groundwater potential and the influence radius of boreholes to avoid interference. 4) In case of theLevel-2 water supply scheme, no new scheme is planned as far as its source is surface water. Notwithstanding this concept, there is an exception in four (4) villages in Igunga where transmission lines from the Bulenya Dam were rehabilitated and no alternative water sources are expected. Only rehabilitation of distribution pipelines are planned in the villages. 5) Deterioration by Fluoride was not confirmed in some villages in Igunga. Level-1 schemes are planned in such villages. However, it seems to be difficult to construct adequate number f Level-1 schemes in such villages. Therefore, a Level-1 scheme is planned in one (1) sub-village. Protected wells and rainwater harvesting are planned as the alternative water sources to compensate the lack of water supply. 6) Water supply schemes of which water source are surface water, are not planned because they require the treatment systems in the schemes and it will requires high technique and high cost for operation and maintenance. (3) Rural Water Supply Plan in Tabora Region The summary of the “Water Supply Plan” is shown in Table 6.2.

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Table 6.2 Summary of the Rural Water Supply Plan District New Facility Rehabilitation Well Total /Municipality Level-2 Level-1 Level-2 Level-1 Igunga Dist. 0 117 4 17 138 Nzega Dist. 4 1,143 0 158 1,305 Sikonge Dist. 3 251 0 15 269 Tabora Rural Dist 6 1,135 0 48 1,189 Tabora Municipality 1 125 0 15 141 Uranbo Dist 4 1,368 0 79 1,451 Total 18 4,139 4 332 4,493 If the rural water supply plan is implemented the service population is much increased as shown in Table 6.3. Table 6.3 Increasing of Service Population by the Rural Water Supply Plan District Service Population District/ Service Population /Municipality 2009 2020 Municipality 2009 2020 Igunga Dist. 25,050 80,816 Tabora Rural Dist. 36,717 337,269 Nzega Dist. 94,089 403,425 Tabora Mun. 14,611 43,764 Sikonge Dist. 21,477 81,773 Urambo Dist. 76,014 406,632 Total 267,628 1,753,679 Note: Service population by the alternative water sources is not included.. (4) Preliminary Design of Water Supply Schemes 1) Concept of Preliminary Design In this study, villages are typified by the number of population and dwelling type, and the preliminary design of water supply facilities, Level-2 (Piped Water Supply System) and Level-1 (Hand pump), is planned. The design is basically based on the Design Manual made by MoWI (Third edition, March 2009). For certain technical matters, which are not covered by this manual, the Guideline for Design of Water Supply facilities in Japan (2000) is applied. 2) Preliminary Design The water supply facilities for the Level-2 and the Level-1 schemes were preliminarily designed according to the conditions shown in Table 6.4 and Table 6.5.. The target year was set as 2020. Table 6.4 Requirements for Level-2 Water Supply Facilities 1. Time period of water consumption: 6 hours (from 6:00 to 9:00a.m. and 3:00 to 6:00p.m.) 2. Design Flow (1) Daily average flow Daily average flow = Daily water demand + Distribution losses (2) Daily maximum Daily maximum flow = Daily average flow x 110% flow Hourly maximum flow = Daily maximum flow / 6 hours (3) Hourly maximum flow 3. Distribution Losses 25% of Daily average flow 4. Facilities Specification (1) Intake facilities Water source Groundwater (Deep well) Daily operation hours Average: 10 hours (=600 min.) Maximum: 12 hours (=720 min.) Capacity (m3/min.) Daily maximum flow (m3/day)/ 10 (hour./day) Type of pump Submersible pump (Centrifugal pump) Power source Generator (diesel engine with generator) (2) Transmission Line Design flow Daily maximum flow (m3/day)/ 10 (hour./day) Method of water supply Pressure flow Material of pipes PVC pipe

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Earth covering depth 0.9 m (minimum) (3) Storage tank Capacity (m3) Daily maximum flow (m3/day) x 50%(60 or 100 m3) (Distribution tank) Type of tank Elevated Tank (10 m) Low water level G.L. +10.50 m No. of tank 1 tank / scheme Material of tank Reinforced concrete (4) Distribution Line Design flow Hourly maximum flow Method of water supply Gravity flow Material of pipes PVC pipe Earth covering depth 0.9 m (minimum) (5) Public water point Number of tap per PWP One tap per PWP (PWP) Maximum number of user 250 persons per tap Water head at PWP 5～25m Maximum distance of Around 400 m from household access Table 6.5 Requirements for Level-1 Water Supply Facilities 1. Design Flow Maximum Discharge 0.72 m3/hour/borehole (maximum) 2. Facilities Hand Pump Specification Water source Deep well Daily operation hours Average: 10 hours (=600 min.) Maximum: 12 hours (=720 min.) Pump head 90 m (maximum) Maximum number of user 250 persons per hand pump Maximum distance of access Around 400 m from household The total number of water supply facilities which are formulated by the rural water supply plan is shown in Table 6.6. Table 6.6 The Total Number of Water Supply Schemes District/Municipality Level-2 Level-1 Others Igunga Dist 0 117 4 Nzega Dist 4 1,143 0 Sikonge Dist 3 251 0 Tabora Rural Dist 6 1,135 0 Tabora Mun 1 125 0 Urambo Dist 4 1,368 0 Total 18 4,139 4

6.6 APPROXIMATE COST ESTIMATION

The total cost to construct is approximately 281 million US$ as shown in Table 6.7.

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Table 6.7 Total Cost Estimation for Construction of Water Facilities Construction Cost Direct Common Engineerin Grand Item Field Administrative Construction Temporary g Service Total Expenses Expenses Total Cost Works Level-2 18,048 1,444 2,166 1,624 23,282 4,194 27,476 Level-1 158,667 14,280 23,800 15,867 212,614 38,270 250,884 Rehabilitation of existing piped 790 63 95 71 1,019 184 1,203 schemes Rehabilitation of existing hand 889 80 133 89 1,191 214 1,405 pump Total 178,394 15,867 26,194 17,651 238,106 42,862 280,968 Unit: 103 US$

6.7 IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

The development plan of new water supply schemes, rehabilitation of the existing water supply facilities, and hand pump schemes shall be coincidentally scheduled. The construction period of these projects is supposed to be nine (9) years from 2012 to 2020, and implementation plan is shown in Table 6.8. Table 6.8 Implementation Plan of Rural Water Supply Plan Project 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Priority Project (1) Priority Project (2) Other Level-2 and Level-1 WSDP NGO

6.8 PRIORITY PROJECT

The Priority Project for implementation was selected by following two steps-wise procedure assuming Japan’s Grant Aid.  1st step: Evaluation of villages  2nd step: Selection of Priority Project (1) Criteria for Evaluation of Villages Following three (3) criteria were provided for the evaluation of villages for priority. - Urgency to provide water supply schemes - Groundwater development potential - Water quality Weighting was given to the criteria, groundwater development potential, because it is impossible to construct water supply schemes without a suitable water source. Therefore, the score of groundwater development potential was doubled in calculation of the evaluation score of each village. The evaluation formula becomes; (Evaluation point of village) = (Evaluation point for water supply coverage) x 1 + (Evaluation point for groundwater development potential) x 2 The maximum points are 15.

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(2) Selection of Priority villages The priority villages were composed of 16 villages which are evaluated as priority-1 in each District/Municipality. However, four (4) villages were added to adjust the intolerant number of villages. Finally, a total of 20 villages was selected as the target of the Priority Project are shown in Table 6.9. Location of the target villages of the Priority Project are shown in Figure 6.1. st Table 6.9 List of the 1 Priority Project (Alternative-1B: Revised) Population Served by Served by Target No. of No. of Total No. Ward Village Level-2 Level-1 2009 2020 Population Level-2 Level-1 (2020) (2020) (2020) 1 Mwisi Busomeke 3,618 5,227 4,977 0 0 7 1,750 2,000 2 Mwisi Kalemela 2,429 3,509 3,509 0 0 5 1,250 1,250 3 Ijanija Makomelo 1,005 1,319 1,069 0 0 5 1,069 1,069 4 Lusu Isanga 9,084 11,919 11,669 1 3,000 22 5,500 8,750 5 Miguwa Kitangili 2,664 3,496 3,496 0 0 1 250 250 6 Wela Wela 1,753 2,301 1,801 0 0 7 1,801 1,801 7 Igigwa Kasandalala 2,282 3,332 3,332 0 0 14 3,332 3,332 8 Kipanga Usunga 1,894 2,766 2,766 1 2,766 0 0 2,766 9 Pangale Mpombwe 3,435 5,015 4,765 1 2,500 10 2,265 4,765 12 Kizengi Mpumbuli 1,820 2,658 2,408 1 2,408 0 0 2,408 10 Mabama Mabama 4,329 6,321 6,071 1 5,000 4 1,071 6,071 11 Ufuluma Ufuluma 5,741 8,382 8,382 0 0 13 3,250 3,250 13 Kakola Kakola 2,015 3,483 3,233 1 3,064 1 169 3,233 14 Misha Misha 759 1,312 1,312 0 0 6 1,312 1,312 15 Uyui Uyui 3,138 5,424 5,174 0 0 20 5,174 5,174 16 Imalamakoye Imalamakoye 2,509 4,292 4,292 0 0 12 3,000 3,000 17 Kapilula Kapilula 1,568 2,682 2,682 0 0 9 2,250 2,682 18 Kiloleni Kalembela 3,131 5,356 5,106 0 0 21 5,106 5,106 19 Kiloleni Kiloleni 1,653 2,828 2,828 0 0 10 2,500 2,828 20 Uyowa Nsungwa 6,911 11,821 11,571 0 0 7 1,750 2,000 Total 61,738 93,443 90,443 6 18,738 174 42,799 63,047

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FIGURE 6.1 LOCATION OF PRIORITY VILLAGES THE STUDY ON RURAL WATER SUPPLY IN TABORA REGION JICA

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CHAPTER 7 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE FOR RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

7.1 POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

7.1.1 NATIONAL WATER POLICY AND NATIONAL WATER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY

The National Water Policy (NAWAPO) is the national basic policy for water resource management and water supply, of which principles in operation and maintenance for rural water supply system are to promote decentralization in implementation of water supply and sanitation projects to the lowest appropriate institutions, introduction of user-pay principle to recover the cost for operation and maintenance, and promotion of community-based management (CBM) to sustain the supply system. In NAWAPA, beneficiary communities are defined as users as well as owners of the supply system responsible for its operation and maintenance. The National Water Sector Development Strategy sets the institutional framework of the water sector for implementation of national sector policy and strategy, which stipulates that the Government’s role will be limited to co-ordination, policy and guideline formulation, and regulation, while determining that community organizations will own and manage rural water supply schemes.

7.1.2 WATER SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation is also responsible for creating enabling environment and regulatory framework that harness the efforts of cooperation partners. To ensure a coordinated and harmonized approach to invest planning and implementation, the Ministry has embarked on a long-term Water Sector Development Program (WSDP), using a sector wide approach to planning – a framework where financial resources for capital investment, from both Government and development partners, is provided in support of jointly agreed strategies and plans, under the leadership of the Goverrnment. Financial year of 2009/2010 is the third year WSDP implementation. The objective of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Component in WSDP is described as; “to improve the quality of drinking water and sanitation services for the rural population sustained through improved district capacity, effective local water user entities, private sector participation and good hygiene and sanitation practices anchored in comprehensive district water supply and sanitation plans”.

7.1.3 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR COMMUNITY-OWNED WATER SUPPLY

The following sections provide an overview of key rural water sector institution and entities and how these institutions and entities are interrelated. (1) Ministry of Water (MoW) Following the provision of National Water Policy and National Water Sector Development Strategy, and the ongoing reforms in the water sector, the Ministry of Water including in particular the Directorate of Policy and Planning and the Directorate of Administration and Human Resources are key actors in terms of supporting sector level planning, resource mobilization, coordination and implementation follow-up. Implementation management and executive functions are decentralized to the lowest appropriate levels and responsibility for regulation has been separated from the allocation and prioritization of capital investment funds. (2) Local Government Authorities Since community water supply services are decentralized to the local government level, local government authorities are expected to execute coordination, financing and facilitation functions. Local government authorities are responsible for the planning and management of their rural water and sanitation plans, as well as for the procurement, financing, management and monitoring of

7 - 1 Chapter 7 Operation and Maintenance for Rural Water Supply Schemes contractors, consultations and other local service providers. (3) District/Municipal Water and Sanitation Team (DWST/MWST) District/Municipal Water and Sanitation Teams (DWST/MWST) are established under local government authorities (i.e. Municipal and District Council) in order to support and strengthen the capacity of local government authorities in planning, implementation, and monitoring of water supply services. DWST/MWST shall be composed of; 1) District/Municipal Executive Officer as chairperson, 2) DWE/MWE as Secretary, 3) District/Municipal Planning Officer, 4) District/Municipal Health Officer, and 5) District/Municipal Community Development Officer. This composition and membership can allow integrated and sector-wide approaches in their planning, activities, and monitoring. One of important task for DWST/MWST, on behalf of local government authorities, is to provide technical and managerial guidance and monitoring services for Community-Owned Water Supply Organizations (COWSOs) in their organizational management, and operation and maintenance of the rural water supply schemes. (4) Community-Owned Water Supply Organization In the National Water Sector Development Strategy (NWSDS, 2006-2014) developed to determine the strategy for realization of NAWAPO, and in the National Water Sector Development Program (WSDP, 2006-2025) prepared for the strategic implementation of the project according to NWSDS, a Community-Owned Water Supply Organization (COWSO) is advocated. The roles and responsibilities of COWSO set out in the basic strategy and program can be summarized as follows: − Own and manage water supply assets − Operate and maintain water supply assets − Determine consumer tariffs − Collect revenue for the provision of services COWSOs are community-based organizations, which are vested with legal status by registering them under the Local Government Authorities (LGAs) and duly facilitate the community’s sense of ownership. COWSO has deferent legal forms. There are several options for rural water supply and sanitation management systems for both small scale and large schemes. These COWSOs are in the form of a Water User Group (WUG), Water User Association (WUA), Water User Trust/Cooperative, Water Company by Guarantee, and Water Company by Share. Among these organizational options, the ones that are most generally introduced for improved community-based management are WUAs and WUGs. WUA is formed per village which manage the entire community piped water scheme (Level-2) with several numbers of public standposts. On the other hand WUG are formed per domestic water points, and its representatives are selected among users of the particular domestic point. 7.2 DEVELOPMENT ISSUES FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

7.2.1 FUNCTIONALITY OF RURAL WATER SUPPLY SCHEMES

The inventory survey on the existing rural water supply schemes in all six District/Municipality in the Tabora Region conducted under the Study (JICA, 2009) revealed that the functionality rate of Level-1 schemes amounts to 47% in average, while one of Level-2 schemes amounts only to 37%. It shall be noted that functionality rates of Level-1 schemes constructed in 2000s in all six districts/municipality are not higher than assumed. Indeed, among 1,093 hand pumps, 475 numbers of hand pumps (43%) are reported as not functional. The breakdown rate of 43%, all of

7 - 2 Chapter 7 Operation and Maintenance for Rural Water Supply Schemes which hand pumps were installed 2000s, suggests that lack of maintenance is a major issue. Indeed, 36% of non-functional Level-1 schemes attributed its non-functionality to problems with pumps. A JICA inventory survey (2009) also revealed that only 40 numbers of Level-1 schemes out of 1,431 experienced repair. A total of 51 Level-2 schemes are confirmed in the Tabora Region under the JICA inventory survey (2009) . Verifying 19 schemes are functional and 32 other schemes are not functional, the functionality rate of Level-2 schemes is lower than one of Level-1 schemes, amounting to only 37%. The major reasons for non-functionality of Level-2 schemes are broken down as mechanical pump units (12 schemes, 21%), followed by theft of pumps (nine (9) schemes, 16%), dried-up or less yield of water sources (seven (7) schemes, 13%), and pipe leakage (four (4) schemes, 7%). It is obvious that the non-functionality of Level-2 schemes is much attributed to capacity of community in operation and maintenance including security for the scheme rather than natural conditions.

7.2.2 COMMUNITY-OWNED WATER SUPPLY ORGANIZATION (COWSO)

Conventional Village Water Committees (VWCs) have been established under the Village Government as community-based organizations for operation and maintenance of rural water supply schemes in the country. However, without development of their capacity in operation and maintenance, considerable numbers of VWCs have not been functioning as expected. Currently, the national sector strategy and program advocate introduction and establishment of COWSO has improved the sense of ownership. However, the Socio-Economic Condition Survey conducted under the Study, which was implemented in all the target villages (549 villages in total) in the Study area, revealed 38 villages (6.9% in the total number of villages) formed WUG, while only 16 villages established WUA (2.9% in the total number of villages). Otherwise, most of the villages (338-73.8% of the total number) own a conventional VWC. In the field survey under the Study, it was observed that VWCs cannot properly cope with breakdowns of supply facilities without collecting water fees for covering operation and maintenance costs.

7.2.3 WATER FUND AND WATER FEE COLLECTION

The JICA Inventory Survey (2009) revealed that among 545 numbers of communities which own Level-1 schemes, only 154 communities (28% in total) create water funds, while among 74 communities which possess Level-2 schemes, 35 communities (47% in total) establish their water fund. Amounts accumulated in community water fund differ considerably among communities, which range from Tsh. 50,000 to Tsh. four (4) million. On the other hand, among 351 numbers of communities which possess Level-1 schemes, 131 communities (24% in total) carried out periodical or regular fee collection on a daily or monthly basis, while among 74 communities which own Level-2 schemes, 35 numbers of communities (47% in total) have the practice of periodical of regular user fee collection. In most cases where periodical or regular fee collections are practiced in the communities, Tsh 20 per 20-litre container (i.e. 1 Tsh/L) is charged as user fee.

7.2.4 DISTRICT/MUNICIPAL WATER AND SANITATION TEAM

District/Municipal Water and Sanitation Team (DWST/MWST) is indispensable for successful introduction of COWSO in the Study area. However, some of the DWSTs/MWST in the Study area are inactive, and some of them are not functioning as expected. Their activities are often limited in decision making in preparation and implementation of the district development plan that is not accompanied by field operations

7 - 3 Chapter 7 Operation and Maintenance for Rural Water Supply Schemes conducted by the managers themselves. It is also pointed out that lack of human and financial resources and equipment has a negative impact on the activities of DWST. The fundamental problems of the DWST/MWST revolve around its membership and less clarity of task responsibility. 7.3 STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE PLAN

The project operation and maintenance plan under the Study adopts the basic framework of; 1) facilitation of participatory model of community-based operation and maintenance through formation and capacity development of the community-based organization, and, 2) enhancement of preparedness in provision of technical guidance by local councils. Taking consideration of problems in operation and maintenance of existing water supply schemes, the following issues shall be given significance in preparation of project operation plan.

7.3.1 FORMATION OF COMMUNITY-OWNED WATER SUPPLY ORGANIZATION WITH ENHANCED AWARENESS ON COMMUNITY OWNERSHIP

In the Study area, conventional Village Water Committee (VWC), which is appointed by and formed under the Village Council, has been expected to be functional in operation and maintenance of the rural water supply scheme. While the limited capacity of VWCs in operation and management of the supply scheme has been pointed out, various forms of community-based water supply organizations have been developed and introduced, among which those organizations have become established in the country, such as the Water User Group (WUG), Water User Association (WUA), Water Trust/Cooperative, Water Company by Guarantee, and Water Company by Share. Those community-based water supply organizations were established by the beneficiary group and legal ownership of the scheme it is vested with, facilitating their awareness and capacity in scheme management through processes such as community consensus building on management options, election of executive members, preparation of constitutions, registration of organizations under appropriate authority, training by local authority or NGOs/local consultant for capacity development of the community-based organization in the scheme management. Through those processes of formation, community awareness and capacity in the scheme management and sense of ownership is enhanced, which can be regarded as a feature of those community-based water supply organizations. The National Water Sector Development Strategy 2005-2015 advocates establishment of community-based operations and maintenance in rural water supply development, which are defined as “Community-Owned Water Supply Organization (COWSO)”. Concept of COWSO, defined in the National Water Sector Development Strategy, is introduced in the operation and maintenance plan under the Study.

7.3.2 CAPACITY BUILDING OF COMMUNITY IN OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

While establishment of COWSO is facilitated it is expected to take initiative in operation and maintenance of the supply scheme, capacity development of the organization in the scheme management is also desirable. However, most of the target communities have less experience in organizational management of the supply scheme. Survey results and findings, gained through the Study and experience of NGOs involved in the capacity development community in the Study area identify the training needs for the target communities and suggest provision of training for improvement of their capacity in the following concerns to assure sustainability in the community-based operation and management; − Leadership skill − Community communication skills − Organizational/Institutional management skills

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− Tariff setting and collection methods − Financial management skills such as budget preparation, accounting, and fund management − Technical operation and maintenance, and trouble shooting − Participatory monitoring and evaluation with preparation of monitoring check list 7.3.3 INTERFACING COWSO WITH LOCAL ADMINISTRATIONS

Lack of institutional support, such as technical guidance for the community in formation of community-based organizations, organizational management, financial management and accounting, and follow-up and monitoring, has been regarded as one of major problems in operation and maintenance of the rural water supply scheme, which is also regarded as one of the causes for the low functional rate of the supply scheme in the Study area. Although MoW is the implementing agency responsible for the Project, in the operation and maintenance stage, District/Municipal Water Engineer office (DWE/MWE) under District/Municipal Council is responsible for provision of technical guidance to the communities. Thus, capacity development of DWE/MWE in provision of technical guidance to the community is indispensable for the sustainability of the Project. Prior to the implementation stage, capacity development of District/Municipal Council is facilitated, through strengthening of and provision of training packages to the District/Municipal Water and Sanitation Team (DWST/MWST). In the operation and maintenance plan of the Study, capacity of DWST/MWST is improved to form community-based operation and maintenance structures, and functional roles and responsibilities of the organization to provide technical guidance and monitoring for the communities in the subsequent stages are also enhanced.

7.3.4 COST RECOVERY FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

The User-Pay Principle (UPP) is introduced in the country for operation and maintenance of rural water supply facilities. Operation and maintenance cost for Level-1 (borehole fitted with hand pump) is estimated at 586.5 USD per hand pump per year, by using experiences from similar projects, and dividing it nto maintenance cost, remuneration for accountants as management cost, replacement cost, and risks and inflation. Setting the served population per Level-1 supply facility at 250 persons, from an indicated figure of 586.5 USD/year as the entire operation and maintenance cost in the above table, it can be converted to 2.34 USD as operation and maintenance cost per person. Assuming an average household size at 6.3 persons based on the detailed socio-economic survey (JICA, 2010), operation and maintenance cost per household becomes 1.23 USD/month, or 1,765 Tsh/month (1 USD = 1,435 Tsh). This amount of operation and maintenance cost per household indicates 1.5% of mean household income (i.e. 121,204 Tsh) in the Tabora region, which stays with in 5% of household income recommended by international institutions, such as world bank, as maximum indicator set as amount affordable to pay (ATP) for water by household. In the estimation of operation and maintenance costs for Level-2 facilities (small-scale piped water scheme with domestic water points), in addition to the operation cost such as fuel and labor cost, remuneration for formed COWSO members and cost for overhaul of motor pump shall be included as maintenance cost, as well as office cost for COWSO and replacement of the facility, in order to calculate a realistic cost that assures sustainability of the Level-2 facility. Based on the estimation above, analysis of each target community on affordability to pay (ATP) and sustainability of operation and maintenance shall be made in the preparation stage of the project. The following table shows the ratio of operation and maintenance costs in household income according to the size of served population, based on the calculation basis above and assuming the mean monthly household income at 200,000 Tsh/month.

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Table 7.1 Ratio of Operation and Maintenance Cost in Household Income (Level-2)

As observed in the table above, the more the served population is increased, the higher the construction is. However, it also observed that when the served population exceeds more than 2,000, the ratio of operation and maintenance cost become less than 5%. Thus, considering there are less communities in the Project area that regularly and customary collect water fees and the ATP is higher while WTP is lower, measures, such as advocacy, to increase their awareness and willingness in the user-pay principle is incorporated in the operation and maintenance plan.

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