Harshada D. Wirkud 1
1. Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology, Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute, Yerwada, Pune‐ 411 006, Maharashtra, India (Email: [email protected])
Received: 30 August 2017; Revised: 09 October 2017; Accepted: 04 November 2017 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5 (2017): 201‐211
Abstract: Gadhegals/Gadhegāls, a unique type of land or such grant stones, generally, are inscription (inclusive of the Gadhhegāli i.e. the ass curse) bearing stones with a sculptural panel depicting sodomitic copulation between a donkey and a woman. It is from this panel that they are termed as Gadhegals (Gadhe: Donkey and Gal: Stone).Thus, Gadhegāl Stambha or simply Gadhegals are prepared, mostly unifaced stone pillars or blocks either dressed or undressed usually with three panel divisions, with one panel informing readers about the gift/donation made by a King/Ruler to a Brahmin or such worthy person/s and imprecatory verses cursing the person who dares oppose that which has been informed on the pillar, a typical scene of bestiality depicted in another panel and a sacred Kalaśa panel with sun and moon symbols denoting eternity. The depictive panel which pictorially represents the curse in toto, is perhaps a phenomena observed for the first time in case of direct correlation with the inscription. Gadhegāls of such description have been found mainly in Maharashtra and also from various others states namely Gujarat, Hyderabad, Bihar, Goa etc though with variations. In this paper the author will be discussing instances of Gadhegāls from the state of Goa namely from temple complexes and museums in colligation to the art historical details, stylistic variations and similarities with those from Maharashtra. Their provenance and other pertinent details will also be discussed.
Keywords: Gadhegal, Ass‐curse Steles, Maharashtra, Goa, Museum, Nagueshi, Zarme
Introduction The state of Goa surrounded by Maharashtra in North, Karnataka in the east and south along with the Arabian Sea in the west, has derived cultural influences from both Maharashtra and Karnataka throughout the ages. The various dynasties which ruled the state of Goa up until the Portuguese period have also helped shape up Goa as we now know though maintaining its own identity and individuality.
Several scholars, researchers and explorers have helped in establishing the antiquity of Goa and brought to light many evidences in the form of iconography, architecture, sculptures as well as literary and epigraphical sources. All these play an important role in rational understanding of the socio‐economic, religious, literary and cultural history of the period and their influence if any on the current scenario. One such extant source is the corpus of Gadhegāls/Ass‐curse steles. ISSN 2347 – 5463 Heritage: Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies in Archaeology 5: 2017
The Gadhegāls are grant bearing (sometimes stating laws); generally standalone; three panelled stone steles with a curse inscribed for the miscreants who oppose or disputes the express grant and or law. The curse is explicit in the sculptural panel that follows the inscription. The curse inscribed along with the grant states that as a punishment the miscreant’s mother will be copulated with a donkey and this is depicted in toto in the graphic panel though not essentially always. The first panel consists of sacred Kalaśa sun and moon which denote sanctity and eternity (of the grant).
Many a times there are images like a Shivalinga or an ascetic or some religious or such icons denoting the faith of the donor. There are also instances where only inscription is present sans the depiction, the other way holds true too. In case of Gadhegāls with only the depiction may have been like bespeaks. We have certain Gadhegāls where only a donkey is depicted with or without the inscription.eg; BISM, Pune (Wirkud, 2013). We also have a Gadhegāl wherein the Curse image has been carved at a later stage even at the cost of cutting in the inscription and obscuring it thus signifying the importance and the probable requirement/need e.g. Koregaon, Satara (Wirkud and Dalal, 2016).
There are permutations and combinations in the stylistic and inscriptional constituents thus leading to variations. As per the research and explorations conducted by the author over the last few seasons as well as per the ongoing one mainly in Maharashtra and other states as ancillaries like Gujarat, Goa etc, the author has come across several regional variations as well thus indicating the ingraining of the local cultures and beliefs.
The presence of Ass‐curse either in inscription or graphically or both is what has given the name to these steles. The following flow chart (Figure 1) explains the types and subtypes of Ass curse steles and the regional variations.
Figure 1: Flow Chart Explaining the Types of Gadhegals with Regional Variations
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In this paper the Ass‐curse steles from Goa will be discussed. The Gadhegāls from Goa do fulfil these set criteriaʹs however there are some additional specifications which can be attributed as aforementioned to regional variations.
Ass‐curse Steles from Goa As discussed earlier there are many variations observed as obtained from the comparatively miniscule data from Goa in comparison to the exhaustive data obtained from Maharashtra of around 120 till date (Wirkud & Dalal, 2016). However it is more ministrative and adjuvant in understanding and conceptualizing the phenomena of Gadhegāls at large.
The Gadhegāls discussed here form the data set obtained during a small exploration and museum visits in the State as a part of ancillary data collection done to denote the Gadhegāls found around Maharashtra so as to understand the phenomena in a better light and to estimate the stretch of the same occurrence if limited only to Maharashtra or whether it is a Pan Indian one. We have collected around more than hundred such instances of Gadhegāls from across Maharashtra. Also as discussed earlier we have recorded much data from Gujarat, Hyderabad and Goa. This probably signifies that Gadhegāls are a Pan Indian Phenomena though with slight regional variations, however certainty can only be established with further exhaustive work on the same through further research.
Thus it is possible that further and thorough exploration in the state may provide us with more quantifiable and hopefully more valued data. For convenience the Ass‐curse steles are discussed using two subtypes namely, those from Museums and those from temples.
Ass Curse Steles from Museums Sé Cathedral Complex, ASI Museum: There are two Gadhegāls that are in the safekeeping of the museum which is under the aegis of Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). They both were brought from Velus, Goa to be kept in the Museum. They were obtained in the vicinity of a damaged Shiva Temple dedicated to Lord Ravalnath and were first reported by Pandurang Pisurlekar.
Velus Sattari Mahal Inscription of Vijayanagara Sangama Harihara II (Date: Saka 1324: 1402 AD; Language and Script: Marathi and Devnagari): The inscription (Figures: 2 and 3) is carved on a roughly hewn stone. The sun and moon sans Kalaśa and the inscription form one panel. The Ass‐curse panel is carved in relief .It depicts two scenes as per the inscription per se the usual graphic donkey‐women copulation where the woman is shown lying on her back facing the donkey and another where a Brahmin appears to be killing a cow (Go‐Hatyā).This is the only one example of this type of depiction till date may probably be a warning to the Brahmin who is not the donee and is told not to interfere with grants given to others. As of now this seems to be only plausible explanation though through conjecture, thus probably alluding to the feud
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between the different types of Brahmins during the period (Mitragotri, 1999, 45‐63). S.G Tulpule (1963) has described this stele in his work Pracheen Marathi Koriv Lekh albeit he informs that there is a horse carved along with the ass‐curse scene and does not mention the Go‐Hatyā depicted thus creating a doubt whether this is the same stele attributed to Harihara II, 1402 AD. However on inspection of the estampage and cross‐ referencing the same and images obtained it is confirmed that this is indeed the same one belonging to Harihara II.
The inscription informs the grant given to the Temple of Ravalnāth (Tulpule, 1963, 302‐ 305). It mentions the currency of Gadyāna and Tankā. It also mentions the practice of Vethi (manual labour) which later was an atrocious practice in the feudal order. The curse mentions that one who breaks the law stated by the grant will be guilty of Go‐ Hatyā (Killing of cow), Brahmāhatyā (Killing of a Brahmin) and Bāl‐hatyā (Killing of a child) and also that his mother will be copulated with a donkey and a horse.
Figure 2: Gadhegāl of Vijayanagara Figure 3: Gadhegāl Graphic Panel of the Stele Sangama Harihara II of Vijayanagara Sangama Harihara II
Velus Sattari Mahal Inscription of Vijayanagara Sangama Devaraya I (Date: Saka c. 1330: 1408 AD; Language and Script: Marathi and Devnagari): This inscription (Figure 4) too is carved on a roughly hewn stone. The execution of the stele seems to be lacking premeditated thought. The stele is also damaged hence losing part of the inscription and part of the carved moon. There is no differentiation in panels. The moon and sun are carved at two ends with the inscription in between. The graphic details include a Brahmin and a collared donkey. This depiction too is one of a kind. Part of the inscription seems to be carved on the donkey’s side (Viewer’s Right) as well as below both the figures. Tulpule (1963) has again given a different description of the same. The inscription records the grant of an income from land given to Lord Ravalnāth (Tulpule, 1963, 359‐362). The curse mentions that one who breaks the law stated by the grant will
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Wirkud 2017: 201‐211 be guilty of Go‐Hatyā (Killing of cow), Brahmāhatyā (Killing of a Brahmin) and Bāl‐hatyā (Killing of a child) and also that his mother will be copulated with a donkey.
Figure 4: Gadhegāl of Vijayanagara Sangama Devaraya I
Figure 5: Gadhegāl from Figure 6: Gadhegāl Graphic Panelof the Pali,Bicholim,14th Century AD Stele from Pali,Bicholim,14th Century AD
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Goa State Museum Inscription from Pali Bicholim, Goa (14th Century AD): The above mentioned inscription (Figure 5) is dated to 14th c AD with the script being Nagari. Not much detail is available the inscription being highly damaged and unclear/hard to read. The execution style and preparing of the stele seems similar to the one from Nāgueshi Temple. It has no differentiation in panels. The sun and moon flank a Shivalinga on top of the inscription instead of Kalaśa. The inscription appears to be of approximately 29‐ 30 lines. The woman is seen facing the donkey whose forelegs are resting on her shoulder (Figure 6).
Figure 7: Gadhegāl of Vijayanagara Figure 8: Top Panel of the Gadhegāl of Sangama Devaraya I Vijayanagara Sangama Devaraya I
Ass‐curse Steles from Temple Complexes Bandode Inscription of Vijayanagara Sangama Devaraya I (Date: Saka 1335: 1414 AD; Language and Script: Composite Sanskrit – Marathi and Devnagari): This 42 line inscription (Figures 7‐9) is also known as the Nāgueshi Inscription as the same is now preserved in the Temple complex of Nagueshi. The inscription was originally found in this temple complex of Lord Nāgeshwar in Bandode (Bandiwade, Phonda, Goa).
The sun and moon flank a Shivalinga on top of the inscription instead of Kalaśa. The woman is seen lying on her back facing the donkey whose forelegs are resting on her shoulder (Figure 9). The ass‐curse is depicted here only in graphic and is absent in the
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Wirkud 2017: 201‐211 inscription. The curses mentioned in lieu of the usual ass‐curse is that the miscreant will be guilty of killing his parents and cows in Varanasi in front of Lord Vishweshwar during solar eclipse as well as a usual Sanskrit curse which states that the miscreant will be born as a worm in faeces for six million years. The inscription records the grant given during the reign of Vijayanagara Sangama Devaraya I (Tulpule, 1963, 306‐314).It records various grants given for the Temples of Goddess Mahālaxmi and Lord Nāganāthdeva. (Both these temples are still in worship).It mentions the currency called Tankā as well as various measurements used during the period namely; Solāsiyā, Chauth, Gid, Geedā etc. The grant was given to one Māi Shenvi Wagale who was a Sāraswat Brāhman. The temple is still managed by Sāraswat Brāhmans.
Figure 9: Gadhegāl Graphic Panel of the Stele of Figure 10: Stele from Zarme, Vijayanagara Sangama Devaraya I Valpoi, Goa
Zarme, Valpoi, Sattari, Goa This is a very different kind of stele (Figure 10) presently kept in the Sateri Temple. As per the villagers this is called a Gadheghodu (literal: Donkey and Horse). The stele has sun and moon sans Kalaśa. There are two lines that are hardly visible. The lower portion of the stele too is damaged. The donkey/horse depicted is shown with a collar and below the same we can just make out an equine outline. It is possible that this may not be an Ass‐curse stele. The same has been included taking into consideration the typologies observed till date and information provided by the villagers.
Conceptualization and Understanding the Ass‐curse Steles from Goa as Compared to Maharashtra Though they have been reported in various works with allusion to it being boundary markers having curses for invaders and trespassers (Van der Geer 1963: 255‐256), there
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has been no significant work done extensively on significance, relevance or purpose of Gadhegāls. We find references to Gadhegāls in many compilations such as Pracheen Marathi Koriv Lekh (Tulpule, 1963) and Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Volume VI (Mirashi, 1977) as well as Epigraphia Indica Volumes. However no significant work except R. C Dhere (1990), that too only for conceptualizing the reason behind constructing such steles from Maharashtra, has been undertaken to understand their possible significance, relevance and purpose conjoined with understanding the prevailing ideology and the reconstruction of the many facets of the then prevalent society, its customs, norms, to trace the continuum of tradition and to record their current status and conditions.
As per Dhere (1990: 119‐134) he is all for equating the woman with mother earth and the donkey with destructive infertility. Dhere also implies that the donkey who is the vāhana of Sheetalā the Goddess of pestilence and plague mating with the earth would leave it barren. He also goes on to say that like the sanctity of kingship which is conferred by the horse symbolically cohabiting with the queen in the Ashwāmedhā is here reversed when a donkey sleeps with the earth.
The curses on Gadhegāls from Goa mention that the miscreant will be guilty of Go‐Hatyā (Killing of cow), Brahmāhatyā (Killing of a Brahmin) and Bāl‐hatyā (Killing of a child) and also that his mother will be copulated with a donkey and a horse. In one Gadhegāl a Brahmin is shown to be killing a cow thus probably warning other Brahmins not to go against the express wishes of the grant. Thus the Ashwāmedhā theory cannot hold true if the women will be copulated by a donkey as a punishment. It is also notable that the killing of cow, Brahmin and Child are considered proper ‘Pātakas’ and a Brahmin is depicted as being guilty of the Pātaka . There is also a curse in one of the Gadhegāls from Goa wherein the person will be punished by being born as worm in faeces for six million years and the graphic ass‐curse image is only bespeak with no allusion to ass‐ curse in the inscription.
Another concept that Dhere puts forward is that the copulation is probably anal, which he arrives at by connection to Sheetalā. However as observed there are many Ass‐curse depictions especially those from Goa where the copulation does not seem to be anal. Also most of the ass‐curses found till date are devoid of Kalaśa. The Ass‐curse steles from Goa thus as mentioned above and their variations provokes us to search for other theories to conceptualize and understand the phenomena by mainly dealing with the public perception, psyche and thought process involved in erecting such steles.
Conclusion The Gadhegāls from Goa found till date mostly belong to Vijayanagara Sangamas. In Maharashtra there is just one Gadhegāl till date belonging to Vijayanagara; however that too was obtained from Ramgad in Malvan Taluka. (Dhopate, 2001, 180‐184). The ass‐curse steles thus obtained till date from Goa mostly being attributed to the Vijayanagara dynasty and with absence( not found till date) of such steles by other
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Wirkud 2017: 201‐211 ruling dynasty in Goa points to a supposition based on data obtained till now that these were probably introduced in the region by the Vijayanagara rulers. It is very much possible that if the data set increases this supposition may undergo change. It is also important to note that during the period when we find Gadhegals in Goa there are no such steles attributed to this period in Maharashtra, thus helping in building a timeline and tackling with and helping to understand the lacunae in data of the corpus of Gadhegāls from both Maharashtra and Goa. The same and the supposition mentioned above are important as we have not come across till date any Gadhegāls from Goa attributed to Kadambās or Śilāhāras or Chālukyas who boast of erecting Gadhegāls in Maharashtra during the same period. In purview of available data, this also makes us question the attitude/outlook of these rulers towards Goa and leads to the question that why no such grant steles were erected by them here.
The Pre‐Portuguese Goa thus may be a literal veritable mine of the past which can be opened up with help of explorations and surveys. With the assimilation and influence of different cultures but still maintaining its individuality over the centuries, it can prove to be great for comparative studies and otherwise. The Gadhegāls from Goa have helped understand the phenomena of these erections not limited to the area but in entirety on a larger level and thus conceptualize it by the individualistic variations yet which are assimilative, integral and influential in nature.
Acknowledgments I thank Mrs. Mugdha Karnik, Mr. Samuel Nazareth and Dr. Kurush Dalal, from Centre of Extra‐Mural Studies (CEMS), University of Mumbai, Kalina Campus for providing the opportunity of exploration and visit to Goa. This study was undertaken as an ancillary to the Project awarded by Ratan Tata Trust, titled, ‘Documentation of Gadhegals from Maharashtra’ under the aegis of CEMS. I thank Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and State Department of Archaeology and Museums, and Directorate of Museums, Panaji, Goa for the permission to record the Gadhegals in the Museums’ Safekeeping. I thank Mr. Varad Sabnis, Dr. Abhijit Ambekar (ASI, Sé Cathedral) for the help and guidance provided for the field work. I thank Mr. Sriguru Bagi, Curator Sé Cathedral Complex ASI Museum, Superintending Archaeologist (ASI, Church Complex) and Museum staff for help and support provided. I thank Mrs. Radha Bhave, Director, Goa State Museum and her staff for the courteous and prompt help. I thank Dr. Shrikant Ganvir, Dr. Abhijit Dandekar and Mr. Gopal Joge for their kind guidance. I thank the Managing committee members and the trustees of Nāgueshi temple for the permission to record the Gadhegāl in the temple complex and help provided for the same. I thank the villagers of Zarme, Valpoi, Mr and Mrs. Verekar, Ms. Jyoti Shetty, Mr. Jaffer Shaikh and my friends and family for their support and help during the exploration.
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