Nuclear Power as a Basis for Future Electricity Generation

Professor Igor Pioro

Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science University of Ontario Institute of Technology Oshawa, Ontario, Canada

October, 2014

Dr. I. Pioro Sources for Electrical Energy Generation

It is well known that the electrical power generation is the key factor for advances in any other industries, agriculture and level of living.

In general, electrical energy can be produced by: 1) non-renewable sources such as , natural gas, oil, and nuclear; and 2) renewable sources such as hydro, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal and marine. However, the main sources for electrical-energy production are: 1) thermal - primary coal and secondary natural gas (also, in some countries oil is used); 2) hydro and 3) nuclear.

The rest of the sources might have visible impact just in some countries. In addition, the renewable sources such as wind and solar are not really reliable sources for industrial power generation, because they depend on Mother nature plus relative costs of electrical energy generated by these and some other renewable sources with exception of large hydro-electric power plants can be significantly higher than those generated by non- renewable sources. Dr. I. Pioro Electrical Energy Consumption per Capita in Selected Countries No. Country Population Energy Consumption Year HDI* (2012) Category Millions TW h/year W/Capita Rank Value 1 Norway 5 116 2603 2013 1 0.955 Very high 2 Australia 23 225 1114 2013 2 0.938 Very high 3 USA 316 3,886 1402 2012 3 0.937 Very high 3 Germany 80 607 822 2009 5 0.920 Very high 4 Japan 127 860 774 2012 10 0.912 Very high 5 Canada 33 550 1871 2011 11 0.911 Very high 6 S. Korea 50 455 1038 2012 12 0.909 Very high 7 Italy 60 310 581 2010 25 0.881 Very high 8 United Kingdom 63 345 622 2011 26 0.875 Very high 9 Russia 143 1,017 808 2013 55 0.788 High 10 Ukraine 45 182 461 2012 78 0.740 High 11 Brazil 194 456 268 2012 85 0.730 High 12 China 1,354 4,693 395 2012 101 0.699 Medium 13 World 7,035 19,320 313 2005-12 103 0.694 Medium 14 EU 503 3,037 688 2012 − − − 15 South Africa 53 212 457 2013 121 0.629 Medium 16 India 1,210 959 90 2011 136 0.554 Low 17 Afghanistan 30 0.23 1 2012 175 0.374 Very low 18 Sierra Leone 6 0.54 1 2012 177 0.359 Very low 19 Niger 17 0.63 4 2012 187 0.304 Very low 12 EEC, TW h × 10 W year 365 days × 24 h * EEC, = . Capita 6 Population, Millions × 10 ** HDI – Human Development Index by United Nations (UN); HDI is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards 3 of living for countries worldwide. HDI is calculated by the following formula: HDI= LEI×EI×II, where LEI - Life Expectancy Index, EI - Education Index, and II - Income Index. It is used to distinguish whether the country is a developed, a developing or an under-developed country, and also to measure the impact of economic policies on quality of life. Countries fall into four broad human-development categories, each of which comprises ~42 countries: 1) Very high – 42 countries; 2) high – 43; 3) medium – 42; and 4) low – 42 (Wikipedia, 2014). Dr. I. Pioro 1.0 Spain USA Norway Germany Canada Poland Japan 0.9 Italy UK S. Korea Iceland Brazil France 0.8 Argentina Kuwait Colombia Mexico Russia Iran Ukraine 0.7 Philippines China Turkey Equatorial South Africa 0.6 Guinea Kenya Thailand India Egypt

HDI Value HDI Tanzania Nigeria Vietnam 0.5 Pakistan Afghanistan Bangladesh Iraq 1.0 Very high HDI Zimbabwe Ethiopia 0.9 High HDI 0.4 Medium HDI Burma Low HDI Sierra Mozambique 0.8 Leone 0.3 0.7 Chad Democratic Republic of the Congo Niger 0.6

0.2 HDIValue 1 10 100 1000 10000 0.5 HDI  0.2581 0.088 ln EEC Accuracy  20% Energy Consumption, W/Capita 0.4

0.3

Dr. I. Pioro 0.2 1 10 100 1000 10000 Electrical-Energy Consumption, W/Capita Electricity production by source in the world & selected countries 5 (data from 2010 – 2012; Wikipedia) (population in millions) World (2012) China India

7,035 1,354 1,210 USA Germany UK

316 80 63 Electricity production by source in the world & selected countries 6 (data from 2010 – 2012; Wikipedia) (population in millions) Russia Italy Brazil

143 60 194 Canada Ukraine France

33 45 65 Top 11 Largest Power Plants of the World

No Plant Country Capacity, Ave. annual el. Capacity Plant

MWel generation, TWh factor, % type 1 Three Gorges Dam China 21,0001 84.5 46 Hydro 2 Itaipu Dam Brazil/Paraguay 14,0002 94.7 77 Hydro 3 Guri Dam Venezuela 10,235 53.4 60 Hydro 4 Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP Japan 8,2123 24.6 - Nuclear 5 Tucurui Dam Brazil 8,1254 21.4 30 Hydro 6 Bruce NPP Canada 7,2765 35.3 55 Nuclear 7 Grand Coulee Dam USA 6,809 21.0 35 Hydro 8 Longtan Dam China 6,426 18.7 33 Hydro 9 Uljin NPP S. Korea 6,157 48.0 89 Nuclear 10 Krasnoyarsk Dam Russia 6,000 20.4 39 Hydro 11 Zaporizhzhia NPP Ukraine 6,000 40.0 76 Nuclear

1 – another 1,500 MWel under construction; 2 – the maximum number of generating units allowed to operate simultaneously cannot exceed 18 (12,600 MWel); 3 – 4,912 MWel are operational, 3 units (3,300 MWel) have not been restarted since 2007 Chūetsu earthquake; 4 – another 245 MWel under construction; 5 – currently, the largest fully operating NPP in the world. Dr. I. Pioro Largest power plants by energy source

Rank Plant Country Installed Plant type Capacity,

MWel 1 Three Gorges Dam1 Power Plant China 21,000 Hydro 2 Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP Japan 7,965 Nuclear 3 Power Plant 5,780 Coal 4 Surgut-2 Power Plant Russia 5,597 Fuel oil2 5 Futtsu Power Plant Japan 5,040 Natural gas 6 Eesti Power Plant Estonia 1,615 Oil shale 7 Shatura Power Plant Russia 1,020 Peat2 7 Alta Wind Energy Center USA 1,020 Wind 8 Ivanpah Solar Power Facility USA 392 Solar (thermal) 9 Hellisheiði Power Plant Iceland 303 Geothermal 10 Alholmens Kraft Power Plant Finland 265 Biofuel2 11 Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Plant S. Korea 254 Tidal 12 Charanka Solar Park India 214 Solar (photo-voltaic) 13 Vasavi Basin Bridge Diesel Power Plant India 200 Diesel 14 Aguçadoura Wave Farm Portugal 2 Marine (wave3)

1 – another 1,500 MW under construction 2 – it should be noted that actually, some thermal power plants use multi-fuel options, for example, Surgut-2 (15% natural gas), Shatura (peat – 11.5%, natural gas – 78%, fuel oil – 6.8% and coal – 3.7%), Alholmens Kraft (primary fuel – biomass, secondary – peat and tertiary – coal) power plants Dr. I. Pioro 3 – currently, not in operation anymore. Top 6 Largest Coal-Fired Power Plants

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Taichung Power Plant Taiwan 5,780 2 Tuoketuo Power Plant China 5,400 3 Bełchatów Power Plant Poland 5,354 4 Guodian Beilun Power Plant China 5,000 4 Waigaoqiao Power Plant China 5,000 4 Guohoa Taishan Power Plant China 5,000

Photo of the largest in the world 5,780-MWel Taichung coal-fired power plant (Taiwan) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author/username 照片_064.jpg; 阿爾特斯). The plant equipped with 550 MWel × 10 coal- fired steam generators‒turbines + 70 MWel × 4 gas-fired steam generators‒turbines and is the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide with over 40 million tons per year (Source: Wikipedia). Dr. I. Pioro Genesee Power Plant (Alberta, Canada) (EPCOR coal-fired power plant) Three generating units: • Units G1 & G2 – each 381 MW net/410 MW gross (built in 1989 and 1994, respectively)

• Unit G3 (the only one in Canada supercritical-pressure coal-fired power plant) – 450 MWel net/490 MWel gross, i.e., internal needs are 40 MWel or 8.2% from gross ($695 M unit recently completed in 2005). Operating design parameters for G3: • Typical net annual production – 3,745 GWh. • Requires 1.8 million t of coal annually, therefore, large surface mine adjacent to plant. • Ash production ~41 tonnes per hour = ~360,000 tonnes annually.

• (for comparison: Fuel load into: 1300-MWel PWR – 115 t (3.2% enrichment); 1330- MWel BWR – 170 t (1.9% enrichment)). G3 Supercritical Technology • Furnace temperatures of supercritical-pressure boiler reaches 1,400°C. • G3 boiler produces steam at 26 MPa - ~50% higher than G1 & G2. Hitachi turbine information: 495 MW, TCDF-40, 3600 rpm, steam primary: 24.1 MPa & 566/566°C (reheat) Genesee Cooling Pond • Artificial pond covering 735 hectares (1 hectare 100 m × 100 m) = 7.35 km2. • Contains 34 million m3 of water.

• Can provide cooling water for up to four 400-MWel units (1,600 MWel combined). • Water level in pond maintained by pumping water from North Saskatchewan River. Information taken from EPCOR Genesee Generating Station Phase 3. Project Background. January 9, 2007. CIV E 240 Technical Communications. Dr. W. Kindzierski, Dept. Civil & Environmental Engineering Dr. I. Pioro Top 5 Conventional Hydroelectric Power Plants Dr. I. Pioro

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Three Gorges Dam China 21,000 2 Itaipu Dam Brazil / Paraguay 14,000 3 Guri Dam Venezuela 10,200 4 Tucurui Dam Brazil 8,370 5 Grand Coulee Dam United States 6,809

Photo of the largest in the world by installed power 21,100-MWel (planned power in 2012 – 22,500 MWel) hydroelectric power plant (700 MWel × 30 + 2 × 50 MWel Francis turbines) (a) and Francis-turbine runner (Yangtze River, China) (Courtesy of Chinese National Committee on Large Dams). The project costs $26 billion. Height of the gravity dam is 181 m, length – 2.335 km, top width – 40 m, base width – 115 m, flowrate – 116,000 m3/s, artificial lake capacity – 39.3 km3, surface area – 1,045 km2, length – 600 km, maximum width – 1.1 km, normal elevation – 175 m, hydraulic head – 80.6-113 m (Source: Wikipedia). Top 5 Onshore Wind Power Plants (Farms) Dr. I. Pioro

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Alta Wind Energy Center United States 1020 2 Roscoe Wind Farm United States 781 3 Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center United States 736 4 Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm United States 705 5 Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm United States 663

Photo of the second largest in the world 781-MWel onshore Roscoe wind-turbine power plant (Texas, USA) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author/username Fredlyfish4). The plant equipped with 627 turbines: 406 MHI 1-

MWel turbines; 55 Siemens 2.3-MWel turbines and 166 GE 1.5-MWel turbines. The project cost more than one billion dollars, provides enough power for more than 250,000 average Texan homes and covers area of nearly 400 km2, which is several times the size of Manhattan, New York, NY, USA (Source: Wikipedia). In general, wind power is suitable for harvesting when average air velocity is at least 6 m/s (21.6 km/h). Courtesy of DOE, USA Dr. I. Pioro Wind Energy Production During a Fine Summer Week 600

500

400

300

MW

200

100

0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 Time, h

Power generated by 650-MWel wind turbines in the Western Part of Denmark (based on data from www.wiki.windpower.org/index.php/variations_in_energy): Shown a summer week (6 days) of wind-power generation. Dr. I. Pioro In general, as of today offshore wind power plants are at least 2.5 – 3 times smaller by installed capacity than onshore wind power plants. However, offshore wind turbines can be significantly larger by power and by a rotor diameter compared to that of onshore turbines. For

example, Alstom 6-MWel net wind turbine for the Haliade Offshore Platform has a rotor with the diameter of 150 m and tower 100-m high (http://www.alstom.com/power/renewables/wind/turbines/).

Photo of the 3rd world’s largest offshore wind park, Horns Rev II (Denmark) (Siemens press photo; copyright Siemens AG, Munich/Berlin, Germany). The facility, which is located in the North Sea, has the maximum output of about 210 MWel (91 × 2.3 MWel Siemens wind turbines), enough to meet the electricity needs of approximately 200,000 households. Dr. I. Pioro Arial view of the first of such kind Gemasolar - a 19.9-MWel concentrated solar power plant with a 140-m high tower and molten-salt heat-storage system (Seville, Spain) (Wikipedia, 2012) (courtesy of SENER/TORRESOL ENERGY). The plant consists of 2650 heliostats (each 120 m2 and total reflective area 304,750 m2), covers 1.95 km2 (195 ha) and produces 110 GW h annually, which equals to 30,000 t/year carbon-dioxide emission savings. This energy is enough to supply 25,000 average Spanish houses. The storage system allows the power plant to produce electricity for 15 hours without sunlight (at night or on cloudy days). Capacity factor is 75%. Solar- receiver thermal power is 120 MWth, and plant thermal efficiency is about 19%. Molten salt is heated in the solar receiver from 260 to 565°C by concentrated sun light reflected from all heliostats, which follow the sun, and transfers heat in a steam generator to water as a working fluid in a subcritical-pressure Rankine-steam-power cycle. Dr. I. Pioro Summer During summer time, the days are long. The hot molten salt tank reaches the upper limit in the middle of the afternoon, forcing plant to reduce the collection of energy in the receiver.

Winter In winter time, the days are shorter and at the end of the day, the tank is not full.

Dr. I. Pioro Aerial view showing portions of Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) (CA, USA) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author A. Radecki). SEGS, which consist of 9 concentrated-solar-thermal plants with 354 MWel installed capacity, is the largest solar energy generating plant in the world. The average gross solar output of SEGS is around 75 MW (capacity factor of 21%). In addition, at night the turbines can be powered by combustion of natural gas. NextEra claims that the SEGS power 232,500 homes and decrease pollution by 3,800 tons per year (if the electricity had been provided by combustion of oil). The SEGS have 936,384 mirrors, which cover more than 6.5 square kilometers. If the parabolic mirrors would be lined up, they will extend over 370 km. In 2002, one of the 30-MWel Kramer Junction sites required ninety million dollars to construct, and its O&M costs are about three million dollars per year, which are 4.6 ¢/kW·h. However, with a considered lifetime of 20 years, the O&M and investments interest and depreciation triples the price, to approximately 14 ¢/kW·h (Source: Wikipedia). Dr. I. Pioro In general, the amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the Earth's surface varies according to: 1) Geographic location; 2) Time of day; 3) Season; 4) Local landscape and 5) Local weather.

Courtesy of DOE, USA Dr. I. Pioro Dr. I. Pioro Hourly Generation 4.5 Feb 19 May 09 4.0 Jun 18

3.5

3.0

2.5

kW 2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Time, h Power generated by photovoltaic system in New York State (USA) (based on data from www.burningcutlery.com/solar): Shown three mostly sunny days: February 19th; May 9th and June 18th; Drops in power generation during daytime are mainly due to clouds. Installed capacity by energy source Electricity generation by energy source

Province of Ontario (Canada), 2012-2013 (based on data from Ontario Power Authority: http://www.powerauthority.on.ca and Ontario’s Long-Term Energy Plan) Dr. I. Pioro Power generated by various sources in Capacity factor of various power sources Ontario on June 19, 2012 in Ontario on June 19, 2012

(based on data from: http://ieso.ca/imoweb/marketdata/genEnergy.asp) Dr. I. Pioro Average (typical) capacity factors of various power plants (Wikipedia, 2012) The net capacity factor of a power plant (Wikipedia, 2012) is the ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its potential output if it had operated at full the entire time. To calculate the capacity factor, take the total amount of energy the plant produced during a period of time and divide by the amount of energy the plant would have produced at full capacity. Capacity factors vary significantly depending on the type of fuel that is used and the design of the plant. No. Power Plant type Location Year Capacity factor, % 1 Nuclear USA 2010 91 UK 2011 66 2 Combined-cycle UK 2011 48 2007-2011 62 3 Coal-fired UK 2011 42 4 Hydroelectric1 UK 2011 39 World (average) - 44 World (range) - 10-99 5 Wind UK 2011 30 World 2008 20-40 6 Wave Portugal - 20 7 Concentrated-solar thermal USA California - 21 Spain - 75 8 Photovoltaic solar USA Arizona 2008 19 USA Massachusetts - 12-15 UK 2011 5.5 2007-2011 8.3 9 Concentrated solar photovoltaic Spain - 12

[1] Capacity factors depend significantly on a design, size and location (water availability) of a hydroelectric power plant. Small plants built on large rivers will always have enough water to operate at a full capacity. Dr. I. Pioro Casualties due to various accidents in power and chemical industries, transportation and from firearms (source: Wikipedia, 2013) No. Accidents / Causes of death Year Region No of deaths 1 Fukushima NPP accident (deaths due to earthquake, not radiation) 2011 Japan Few workers 2 Chernobyl NPP accident 19861 Ukraine 56 1986-now2 >>4,000 3 Kyshtym radiation-release accident (Chelyabinsk region) 19573 Russia >>200

4 Sayano-Shushenskaya hydro-plant accident (6,000 MWel power generation loss) 2009 Russia 75 5 Banqiao Dam4 1975 China >26,000 6 Vajont Dam 1963 Italy ~2,000 7 Bhopal Union Carbide India Ltd. accident 1984 India Immediate deaths (official data) / By Government of Madhya Pradesh 2,259 / 3,787 Other estimations (since the disaster) 8,000 No. of people exposed to methyl iso-cyanate gas and other chemicals 500,000 8 Car accidents5 (in (…) population in millions) 퐀퐧퐧퐮퐚퐥퐥퐲 World (7,035) ~ퟏ, ퟑퟎퟎ, ퟎퟎퟎ 퐝퐚퐢퐥퐲 ~ퟑퟓퟔퟎ 2013 USA (316) 33,808 2013 EU (503) 26,000 9 Shipwreck accidents 2011 World 3,335 10 Railway accidents 2009 EU 1,428 11 Air accidents6 2014 World >990 2013 459 2012; 2011 ~800 2010 1,130 1972 3,344 11.09.2011 USA New York >4,500 12 Firearms casualties (60% suicides and 40% homicides) Annually USA ~32,000 1 56 direct deaths (47 NPP and emergency workers and 9 children with thyroid cancer), i.e., deaths due to the explosion and initial radiation release. 2 Deaths from cancer, heart disease, birth defects (in victims' children) and other causes, which may result from exposure to radiation. Various sources provide significantly different estimations starting from 30,000-60,000 casualties and up to 200,000 and even up to 985,000 casualties. However, these deaths may also result from other causes not related to the accident, for example, pollution from non-nuclear sources - industry, transportation; etc. In general, accurate estimation of all deaths related to the Chernobyl NPP accident is impossible. 3 It is impossible to estimate accurately all casualties. Some other sources estimate casualties from cancer within 30 years after the accident up to 8,000. 4 Also, 145,000 died during subsequent epidemics and famine. Some other sources estimate casualties as high as 230,000 . About 11 million residents were affected. 5 In addition to car fatalities about 50 million people become invalid annually in the world. Therefore, driving a car is a quite dangerous mode of travel! 6 In 2000, commercial air carriers transported about 1.1 billion people on 18 million flights, while suffering only 20 fatal accidents. Therefore, air transportation remains among the safest modes of travel. Dr. I. Pioro Thermal Efficiencies (Gross) of Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants No Plant Eff., %

o 1 Combined-cycle power plant (combination of Brayton gas-turbine cycle (Tin=1650 C) and Up to 62 o Rankine steam-turbine cycle (Tin=620 C)) o 2 Supercritical-pressure coal-fired power plant (new plants) (Pin=25 – 38 MPa, Tin=540-625 C & Up to 55 o Treheat=540-625 C) 3 Carbon-dioxide-cooled reactor NPP (Generation III) (reactor coolant: P=4 MPa & T=290-650oC; Up to 42 o o steam: P=17 MPa (Tsat=352 C) & Tin=560 C) o o 4 Sodium-cooled fast reactor NPP (Generation IV) (steam: P=14 MPa (Tsat=337 C) & Tin=505 C) Up to 40

o 5 Subcritical-pressure coal-fired power plant (older plants) (Pin=17 MPa, Tin=540 & Treheat=540 C) Up to 38 6 Pressurized Water Reactor NPP (Generation III+, to be implemented within next 1-10 years) Up to 38 o o (reactor coolant: P=15.5 MPa & Tout=327 C; steam: P=7.8 MPa & Tin=293 C) 7 Pressurized Water Reactor NPP (Generation III, current fleet) (reactor coolant: P=15.5 MPa & Up to 36 o o Tout=292-329 C; steam: P=6.9 MPa & Tin=285 C) o 8 Boiling Water Reactor NPP (Generation III, current fleet) (Pin=7.2 MPa & Tin=288 C) Up to 34

o 9 RBMK (boiling, pressure-channel) (Generation III, current fleet) (Pin=6.6 MPa & Tin=282 C) Up to 32 10 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor NPP (Generation III, current fleet) (reactor coolant: Up to 32 o o P=11 MPa & T=260-310 C; steam: P=4.6 MPa & Tin=259 C) Gross thermal efficiency of a unit during a given period of time is the ratio of the gross electrical energy generated by a unit to the thermal energy of a fuel consumed during the same period by the same unit. The difference between gross and net thermal efficiencies includes internal needs for electrical energy of a power plant, which might be not so small; for example, for a medium gross capacity (~500 MWel) supercritical-pressure coal-fired power plant the internal needs can be about 40 MWel or 8% of the total electrical capacity. Dr. I. Pioro Number of nuclear-power reactors in operation and forthcoming as per March 2014 and before the Japan earthquake and tsunami disaster (March 2011) (Nuclear News) No Reactor type No. of units Installed capacity, Forthcoming

(Some details on reactors) GWel units As of Before As of Before No. of GWel March March March March units 2014 2011 2014 2011 1 Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) 270 ↑ 268 250 ↑ 248 89 93 (largest group of nuclear reactors in the world – 63%) 2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) or Advanced BWRs 81 ↓ 92 76 ↓ 84 6 8 (2nd largest group of reactors in the world – 19%; ABWRs – the only ones Gen-III+ operating reactors) 3 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) 48 ↓ 50 24 ↓ 25 9 5.8 (3rd largest group of reactors in the world – 11%; mainly CANDU-reactor type) 4 Gas Cooled Reactors (GCRs) (UK, Magnox reactor) or 15 ↓ 18 8 ↓ 9 1 0.2 Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors (AGRs) (UK, 14 reactors);

(all these CO2-cooled reactors will be shut down in the nearest future and will not be built again) 5 Light-water, Graphite-moderated Reactors (LGRs) 15 15 10 10 0 0 (Russia, 11 RBMKs and 4 EGPs; these pressure-channel boiling-water-cooled reactors will be shut down in the nearest future and will not be built again) 6 Liquid-Metal Fast-Breeder Reactors (LMFBRs) 1 1 0.6 0.6 5 1.6 (Russia, SFR – BN-600; only one Gen-IV operating reactor) In total 430 ↓ 444 369 ↓ 378 110 109

• Data in Table include 48 reactors from Japan, which are currently not in operation. • Arrows mean decrease or increase in a number of reactors. • Forthcoming GCR is a helium-cooled reactor. Dr. I. Pioro Number of nuclear-power reactors by nation (11 nations with the largest number of reactors ranked by installed capacity) as per March of 2014 and before the Japan earthquake and tsunami disaster (March of 2011) (Nuclear News)

N Nation No. of units (PWRs/BWRs) Installed capacity, GWel Changes in number of o As of March Before As of March Before reactors from March 2014 March 2011 2014 March 2011 2011 1 USA 100 (65/35) 104 101 103 ↓ Decreased by 4 reactors 2 France 58 (58/-) 58 63 63 No changes 3 Japan* 48 (24/24) 54 42 47 ↓ Decreased by 6 reactors 4 Russia 33 (17/-/151/12) 32 24 23 ↑ Increased by 1 reactor 5 S. Korea 23 (19/-/43) 20 21 18 ↑ Increased by 3 reactors 6 China 17 (15/-/23) 13 14 10 ↑ Increased by 4 reactors 7 Canada 19 (-/-/193) 22 13 15 ↓ Decreased by 3 reactors 8 Ukraine 15 (15/-) 15 13 13 No changes 9 Germany 9 (7/2) 17 12 20 ↓ Decreased by 8 reactors 10 Sweden 10 (7/3) 10 9.3 9.3 No changes 11 UK 16 (1/-/154/15) 19 9.2 10 ↓ Decreased by 3 reactors

Arrows mean decrease or increase in a number of reactors. Dr. I. Pioro 1 No of LGRs; 2 LMFBRs; 3 PHWRs; 4 AGRs; 5 GCR. 1*Currently, i.e., in October of 2014, no one reactor is in operation. However, some reactors are planned to be put into operation soon. Power Reactors by Nation (2014 March) Dr. I. Pioro

No Nation # Units Net MWel # Units Net MWel # Units Net MWel (in operation) (forthcoming) (total) 1 Argentina 2 935 2 717 4 1,652 2 Armenia 1 375 0 0 1 375 3 Bangladesh 0 0 2 2,000 2 2,000 4 Belarus 0 0 2 2,400 2 2,400 5 Belgium 7 5,885 0 0 7 5,885 6 Brazil 2 1,901 1 1,275 3 3,176 7 Bulgaria 2 1,906 0 0 2 1,906 8 Canada 19 13,472 0 0 19 13,472 9 China 17 13,658 40 40,240 57 53,898 10 Czech Republic 6 3,678 0 0 6 3,678 11 Finland 4 2,716 1 1,600 5 4,316 12 France 58 63,130 1 1,600 59 64,730 13 Germany 9 12,058 0 0 9 12,058 14 Hungary 4 1,889 0 0 4 1,889 15 India 20 4,391 9 6,174 29 10,565 16 Iran 1 915 0 0 1 915 17 Japan 48 42,277 3 3,002 51 45,279 18 Mexico 2 1,300 0 0 2 1,300 19 Netherlands 1 487 0 0 1 487 20 Pakistan 3 725 5 3,600 8 4,325 21 Romania 2 1,300 2 1,240 4 2,540 Power Reactors by Nation (2014 March)

No Nation # Units Net MWel # Units Net MWel # Units Net MWel (in operation) (forthcoming) (total) 22 Russia 33 23,643 12 9,710 45 33,353 23 Slovakia 4 1,816 2 810 6 2,626 24 Slovenia 1 666 0 0 1 666 25 South Africa 2 1,800 0 0 2 1,800 26 South Korea 23 20,697 7 9,400 30 30,097 27 Spain 7 7,068 0 0 7 7,068 28 Sweden 10 9,303 0 0 10 9,303 29 Switzerland 5 3,238 0 0 5 3,238 30 Taiwan 6 4,884 2 2,600 8 7,484 31 Turkey 0 0 4 4,600 4 4,600 32 Ukraine 15 13,107 3 2,850 18 15,957 33 United Arab Emirates 0 0 4 5,600 4 5,600 34 United Kingdom 16 9,213 0 0 16 9,213 35 United States 100 100,935 8 9,490 108 110,425 Total 430 369,368 110 108,908 540 478,276 31 Countries have operating nuclear power reactors 4 Countries plan to build nuclear power reactors 16 Countries don’t plan to build nuclear power reactors Dr. I. Pioro Number of nuclear power reactors in Capacity, No of the world by installed capacity (based MWel reactors on data from Nuclear News, ANS, 2013) <50 4 50-99 1 100-199 4 200-299 15 300-399 14 400-499 30 500-599 29 600-699 30 700-799 18 800-899 48 900-999 108 1000-1099 37 1100-1199 39 1200-1299 20 1300-1399 28 1400-1499 6 >1500 2 Overall 433

Dr. I. Pioro Age of Reactors, Years 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Dr. I. Pioro 140 130 Three Mile Island NPP Accident- March 29, 1979 Chernobyl NPP Accident - April 26, 1986 120 Fukushima Daiichi NPP Accident - March 11, 2011 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 No. ofNo. Reactors Commercialinto Put Operation 10 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 Years Number of nuclear-power reactors of the world put into commercial operation vs. years and age of operating reactors as per March of 2014 (Nuclear News, 2014, March, ANS). Five reactors have been put into operation in 1969, i.e., they operate for more than 45 years. It is clear from this diagram that the Chernobyl NPP accident has tremendous negative effect on nuclear-power industry, which lasts for decades. And currently, we have additional negative impact of the Fukushima Daiichi NPP accident. Put into operation in 1980 at Beloyarsk NPP as Unit #3. 238U and 232Th can be involved in the fuel cycle. Purity of sodium should be 99.95%. 370 bundles installed in the reactor. Reactor core has 127 fuel elements.

505oC 520oC

550oC 320oC

380oC

Sodium melting T= 97.5oC o boiling T=883 C Dr. I. Pioro Simplified scheme of Liquid-Metal Fast-Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) – Russian BN-600 (BN – Fast Neutrons) Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) (courtesy of ROSENERGOATOM). P =2.45 MPa T = 505oC 10 P = 14.2 MPa 9 Reheater T = 505oC 0

r HPT IPT LPT

o t m a 1 Condenser r

a 2 e e 3

t 4 n 5 6 Pc = 5 kPa S e 7 11 G Dearator

Pump Feed Pump

X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7

o Tfw = 240 C HPH 3 HPH 2 HPH 1 LPH 4 LPH 3 LPH 2 LPH 1

Thermodynamic layout of 600- T–s diagram for the 600-

MWel BN-600 SFR NPP MWel BN-600 SFR NPP Grigor’ev, V.A. and Zorin, V.M., Editors, 1988. Thermal and turbine cycle Nuclear Power Plants. Handbook, (In Russian), 2nd edition, Energoatomizdat Publishing House, Moscow, Russia, 625 pages.

Margulova, T.Ch., 1995. Nuclear Power Plants, (in Russian), Dr. I. Pioro Izdat Publishing House, Moscow, Russia, 289 pages. Selected Generation III+ reactors (deployment in 5-10 years) Nuclear News, April 2012

• ABWR –Hitachi-GE (Japan-USA) and Toshiba; the only one Generation III+ reactor design already implemented in the power industry: Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP Units #6 & 7 – the 1st & 2nd ABWRs in the world (1996 & 1997); 3rd – Hamaoka #5 (2005); 4th – Shika #2 (2006)); 2 ABWRs planned to be built in USA and 2 in Taiwan. • Advanced CANDU Reactor (ACR-1000) - CANDU Energy (former AECL), Canada. • Advanced Plant (AP-1000) – Toshiba-Westinghouse (Japan-USA) (6 under construction in China and 6 planned to be built in China and 6 – in USA). • Advanced PWR (APR-1400) – South Korea (4 under construction in S. Korea and 4 planned to be built in United Arab Emirates (UAE)).

• Advanced PWR (1500 MWel) – MHI (Japan) • European Pressurized-water Reactor (EPR) - AREVA, France (1 should be put into operation in Finland in 2014, 1 under construction in France and 2 - in China).

• VVER (design AES-2006 or VVER-1200 with ~1200 MWel) – GIDROPRESS, Russia (6 under construction in Russia and 4 planned to be built in Turkey) (VVER or WWER - Water Water Power Reactor and AES – Atomic Electrical Station (Nuclear Power Plant) in Russian abbreviations). Dr. I. Pioro Moisture Reactor Separator Reheater

L. P. Turbine Generator

Stack H. P. Cooling Water Turbine Off-gas Treatment Feedwater Line Main System Condenser T–s diagram for ABWR NPP turbine cycle (reheat Air L.P. Condensate Ejector pressure was assumed to be High Pressure Pump Feedwater Heaters ¼ of the main steam Grand Steam Condenser pressure) Low Pressure FW Feedwater Heaters Pump

Condensate Demineralizer H.P. Condensate Pump

H.P. Drain Tank Hollow Condensate Filter

L.P. Drain L.P. Drain L.P. Drain Pump Tank Pump

Layout of ABWR NPP (adapted and simplified from Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (ABWR), Booklet, Toshiba Corporation, 2011) Dr. I. Pioro Dr. I. Pioro AREVA EPR

Thermal efficiency 37% Defficiencies of Modern Nuclear Power Plants

In spite of all current advances into nuclear power, modern Nuclear Power Plants (NPPs) have the following deficiencies: 1) Generate radioactive wastes; 2) Have relatively low thermal efficiencies, especially, water- cooled NPPs (up to 1.6 times lower than that for modern advanced thermal power plants; 3) Risk of radiation release during severe accidents; and 4) Production of nuclear fuel is not an environment-friendly process. Therefore, all these deficiencies should be addressed. Dr. I. Pioro Generation IV nuclear reactors (deployment between 2010-2030) 1. Gas-cooled Fast Reactors (GFRs) (helium, 7 MPa, 485- 850oC)

2. Very High-Temperature gas-cooled Reactors (VHTRs) (helium, 9 MPa, 500-1000oC)

3. Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors (SFRs) (520-550oC)

4. Lead-cooled Fast Reactors (LFRs) (up to 550-800oC)

5. Molten Salt-cooled Reactors (MSRs) (sodium fluoride salt with dissolved uranium fuel, up to 700-800oC)

6. SuperCritical Water-cooled Reactors (SCWRs) (25 MPa, up Dr. I. Pioro to 625oC) Possible Applications of Supercritical-Pressure Technologies in Generation IV Nuclear-Reactor Concepts

I. Supercritical Fluids as Reactor Coolants

1. SCWRs will use SuperCritical Water (SCW) (Pcr=22.064 MPa; Tcr=373.95°C) 2. Both HTRs (GFRs) and VHTRs will use SuperCritical Helium

(Pcr=0.2276 MPa; Tcr=-267.95°C) II. Supercritical-Pressure Power Cycles 1. SCWRs with direct or in-direct cycles will use SuperCritical-Pressure- Steam Rankine Cycle; 2. LFR (Russian design) will use SuperCritical-Pressure-Steam Rankine Cycle; 3. Both HTRs (GFRs) and VHTRs might use SuperCritical-Pressure- Helium Brayton Gas-Turbine Cycle (there is a possibility that HTRs (GFRs) will use SuperCritical-Pressure-Carbon-Dioxide Brayton Gas-

Turbine Cycle (Pcr=7.3773 MPa; Tcr=30.978°C)) 4. SFRs (USA concept) and MSRs will use SuperCritical-Pressure- Carbon-Dioxide Brayton Gas-Turbine Cycle. Dr. I. Pioro 1. Gas-cooled Fast Reactors (GFRs) or High Temperature Reactors (HTRs): a fast-neutron spectrum, closed fuel cycle, reactor coolant − helium, pressure of 9 MPa, temperatures of 485−850ºC, primary thermodynamic cycle – a direct cycle based on the Brayton cycle (gas- turbine cycle), back-up cycle – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat US DOE, 2002 exchangers Dr. I. Pioro 2. Very High-Temperature gas-cooled Reactors (VHTRs): a graphite-moderated thermal cycle, once-through uranium-fuel cycle, reactor coolant − helium, 7 MPa, temperatures 500−1000ºC, primary thermodynamic cycle – a direct cycle based on the Brayton cycle (gas-turbine cycle), back-up cycle – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers. Also, proposed to be used for hydrogen co-generation through high-temperature electrolysis.

US DOE, 2002 Dr. I. Pioro 3. Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors (SFRs): a fast-spectrum, closed fuel cycle for efficient management of actinides and conversion of fertile uranium, primary coolant – sodium, temperatures 520−550ºC, primary thermodynamic cycles – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers (current Russian design) or an indirect cycle based on the Brayton cycle (SC carbon- dioxide gas-turbine cycle);

US DOE, 2002 Dr. I. Pioro 4. Lead-cooled Fast Reactors (LFRs): a fast-spectrum, closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides, coolant − lead or lead/bismuth eutectic, temperatures up to 550−800ºC, primary thermodynamic cycles – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers (current Russian design) or an indirect cycle based on the Brayton cycle (SC carbon- dioxide gas-turbine cycle);

US DOE, 2002 Dr. I. Pioro 4. Key-design parameters of LFRs planned to be built in Russia (based on NIKIET)

Reactor Parameter Unit Brest-300 Brest-1200 Reactor power (thermal/electrical) MW 700/300 2800/1200 Thermal efficiency % 43 Primary coolant - Lead Coolant melting/boiling temperatures °C 328/1743 Coolant density at 450°C kg/m3 10,520 Pressure inside reactor MPa ~0.1 Coolant inlet/outlet temperatures °C 420/540 Coolant massflow rate t/s 40 158 Maximum coolant velocity m/s 1.8 1.7 Fuel - UN+PuN Fuel loading t 16 64 Term of fuel inside reactor years 5 5–6 Fuel reloading per year - 1 Core diameter/height m / m 2.3/1.1 4.8/1.1 Number of fuel bundles - 185 332 Fuel-rod diameter mm 9.1; 9.6; 10.4 Fuel-rod pitch mm 13.6 Maximum cladding temperature °C 650 Steam-generator pressure MPa 24.5 Steam-generator inlet/outlet temperatures °C 340/520 Steam-generator capacity t/s 0.43 1.72 Term of reactor years 30 60 Dr. I. Pioro 5. Molten Salt-cooled Reactors (MSRs): Fast or epithermal-spectrum reactor, full actinide-recycle fuel cycle, reactor coolant − sodium-fluoride salt with dissolved uranium fuel, temperatures up to 700−800ºC, primary thermodynamic cycles – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers or an indirect cycle based on the Brayton cycle (SC carbon-dioxide gas-turbine cycle);

Dr. I. Pioro US DOE, 2002 6. SuperCritical Water-cooled Reactors (SCWRs): thermal spectrum (fast spectrum is possible), reactor coolant − SCW, pressure of 25 MPa, temperatures up to 625oC, primary thermodynamic cycle – a direct cycle based on the SC Rankine “steam” cycle, back-up cycle − indirect cycle based on the SC Rankine “steam” cycle through heat exchangers).

Dr. I. Pioro US DOE, 2002 Acknowledgements

The authors would like to express their great appreciation to unidentified authors of Wikipedia-website articles and authors of photos from the Wikimedia-Commons website for their materials used in this presentation in tables, figures’ captions and footnotes. Materials and illustrations provided by various companies and used in this presentation are gratefully acknowledged.

Dr. I. Pioro Literature used

Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Current Status of Electricity Generation in the World, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Energy Book Series #1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 783-795. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/783-795.pdf.

Pioro, I., 2012. Nuclear Power as a Basis for Future Electricity Production in the World, Chapter #10 in book: Current Research in Nuclear Reactor Technology in Brazil and Worldwide, Editors: A.Z. Mesquita and H.C. Rezende, INTECH, Rijeka, Croatia, pp. 211-250. Free download from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/current-research-in-nuclear-reactor-technology-in-brazil-and- worldwide/nuclear-power-as-a-basis-for-future-electricity-production-in-the-world-generation-iii-and-iv- reacto.

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Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Current Status of Electricity Generation at Thermal Power Plants, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Energy Book Series #1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 796-805. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/796-805.pdf.

Nuclear News, 2014, March, Publication of American Nuclear Society (ANS), pp. 45-78.

Nuclear News, 2011, March, Publication of American Nuclear Society (ANS), pp. 45-78. Dr. I. Pioro Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Current Status of Electricity Generation at Nuclear Power Plants, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Energy Book Series #1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 806-817. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/806-817.pdf.

Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Generation IV Nuclear Reactors as a Basis for Future Electricity Production in the World, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Energy Book Series #1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 818-830. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/818-830.pdf.

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Pioro, I., 2011. The Potential Use of Supercritical Water-Cooling in Nuclear Reactors. Chapter in Nuclear Energy Encyclopedia: Science, Technology, & Applications, Editors: S. Krivit, J. Lehr and Th. Kingery, J. Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, USA, pp. 309-347 pages.

Pioro, I.L. and Duffey, R.B., 2007. Heat Transfer and Hydraulic Resistance at Supercritical Pressures in Power Engineering Applications, ASME Press, New York, NY, USA, 328 pages. Dr. I. Pioro Thank you for your attention!

Dr. I. Pioro