Nuclear Power as a Basis for Future Electricity Generation in the World

Professor Igor Pioro Faculty of Energy Systems & Nuclear Science University of Ontario Institute of Technology Canada [email protected]

1 Sources for Electrical Energy Generation It is well known that the electrical power generation is the key industry for advances in any other industries, agriculture and level of living.

In general, electrical energy can be produced by: 1) non-renewable sources such as , natural gas, oil, and nuclear; and 2) renewable sources such as hydro, wind, solar, biomass, geothermal and marine. However, the main sources for electrical-energy production are: 1) thermal - primary coal and secondary natural gas; 2) nuclear and 3) hydro.

The rest of the sources might have visible impact just in some countries. In addition, the renewable sources such as wind and solar are not really reliable sources for industrial power generation, because they depend on Mother nature plus relative costs of electrical energy generated by these and some other renewable sources with exception of large hydro-electric power plants can be significantly higher than those generated by non- renewable sources. 2 Electrical energy consumption per capita in selected countries

No. Country Watts per person Year HDI* (2010) 1 Norway 2812 2005 1 (very high) 2 Finland 1918 2005 16 (very high) 3 Canada 1910 2005 8 (very high) 4 USA 1460 2011 4 (very high) 5 Japan 868 2005 11 (very high) 6 France 851 2005 14 (very high) 7 Germany 822 2009 10 (very high) 8 Russia 785 2010 65 ( high) 9 European Union 700 2005 - 10 Italy 603 2005 23 (very high) 11 Ukraine 446 2005 69 ( high) 12 China 364 2009 89 ( medium) 13 India 51 2005 119 ( medium) * HDI – Human Development Index by United Nations; The HDI is a comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standards for living worldwide. It is used to distinguish whether the country is a developed, a developing or an under-developed country, and also to measure the impact of economic policies on quality of life. Countries fall into four broad human development categories, each of which comprises ~42 3 countries: Very high – 42 countries; high – 43; medium – 42; and low – 42. Electricity production by source in the world & selected countries (data from 2005 – 2010; Wikipedia) World (2008) USA Russia

Ukraine Italy France

4 Top 11 Largest Power Plants of the World (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, Ave. annual el. Plant

MWel generation, TWh type 1 Three Gorges Dam China 21,0001 84.37 Hydro 2 Itaipu Dam Brazil / Paraguay 14,0002 94.69 Hydro 3 Guri Dam Venezuela 10,235 53.41 Hydro 4 Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP Japan 8,2123 24.63 Nuclear 5 Tucurui Dam Brazil 8,1254 21.4 Hydro 6 Bruce Nuclear Power Plant Canada 7,2765 35.26 Nuclear 7 Grand Coulee Dam United States 6,809 21 Hydro 8 Longtan Dam China 6,426 - Hydro 9 Uljin Nuclear Power Plant South Korea 6,157 47.95 Nuclear 10 Krasnoyarsk Dam Russia 6,000 20.4 Hydro 10 Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant Ukraine 6,000 40.00 Nuclear

1 – another 1,500 MW under construction 2 – the maximum number of generating units allowed to operate simultaneously cannot exceed 18 (12,600 MW) 3 – 4,912 MW are operational, 3 units (3,300 MW) have not been restarted since the 2007 Chūetsu offshore earthquake 4 – another 245 MW under construction 5 – 5,090 MW are operational, 2 units (2,186 MW) are being refurbished since 1995 and 1997 5 Largest Power Plants by Energy Source (Wikipedia, 2012) Rank Plant Country Capacity, Plant type

MWel 1 Three Gorges Dam1 Power Plant China 21,000 Hydro 2 Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP Japan 8,212 Nuclear 3 Power Plant 5,780 Coal 4 Surgut-2 Power Plant Russia 5,597 Fuel oil 5 Futtsu Power Plant Japan 5,040 Natural gas 6 Eesti Power Plant Estonia 1,615 Oil shale 7 Shatura Power Plant Russia 1,020 Peat 7 Alta Wind Energy Center USA 1,020 Wind 9 Hellisheiði Power Plant Iceland 303 Geothermal 10 Alholmens Kraft Power Plant Finland 265 Biofuel 11 Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Plant S. Korea 254 Tidal 12 Charanka Solar Park India 214 Solar 13 Vasavi Basin Bridge Diesel Power Plant India 200 Diesel 14 Aguçadoura Wave Farm Portugal 2 Marine (wave)

1 – another 1,500 MW under construction

6 Top 6 Largest Coal-Fired Power Plants (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Taichung Power Plant Taiwan 5,780 2 Tuoketuo Power Plant China 5,400 3 Bełchatów Power Plant Poland 5,354 4 Guodian Beilun Power Plant China 5,000 4 Waigaoqiao Power Plant China 5,000 4 Guohoa Taishan Power Plant China 5,000

Photo of the largest in the world 5,780-MWel Taichung coal-fired power plant (Taiwan) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author/username 照片_064.jpg; 阿爾特斯). The plant equipped with 550 MWel × 10 coal- fired steam generators‒turbines + 70 MWel × 4 gas-fired steam generators‒turbines and is the world's largest emitter of carbon dioxide with over 40 million tons per year (Source: Wikipedia). 7 Genesee Power Plant (Alberta, Canada) (EPCOR coal-fired power plant) Three generating units: • Units G1 & G2 – each 381 MW net/410 MW gross (built in 1989 and 1994, respectively)

• Unit G3 (the only one in Canada supercritical-pressure coal-fired power plant) – 450 MWel net/490 MWel gross, i.e., internal needs are 40 MWel or 8.2% from gross ($695 M unit recently completed in 2005). Operating design parameters for G3: • Typical net annual production – 3,745 GWh. • Requires 1.8 million t of coal annually, therefore, large surface mine adjacent to plant. • Ash production ~41 tonnes per hour = ~360,000 tonnes annually.

• (for comparison: Fuel load into: 1300-MWel PWR – 115 t (3.2% enrichment); 1330- MWel BWR – 170 t (1.9% enrichment)). G3 Supercritical Technology • Furnace temperatures of supercritical-pressure boiler reaches 1,400°C. • G3 boiler produces steam at 26 MPa - ~50% higher than G1 & G2. Hitachi turbine information: 495 MW, TCDF-40, 3600 rpm, steam primary: 24.1 MPa & 566/566°C (reheat) Genesee Cooling Pond • Artificial pond covering 735 hectares (1 hectare 100 m × 100 m) = 7.35 km2. • Contains 34 million m3 of water.

• Can provide cooling water for up to four 400-MWel units (1,600 MWel combined). • Water level in pond maintained by pumping water from North Saskatchewan River. Information taken from EPCOR Genesee Generating Station Phase 3. Project Background. January 9, 2007. CIV E 240. Technical Communications. Dr. W. Kindzierski, Dept. Civil & Environmental Engineering 8 Top 5 Largest Natural-Gas-Fired Power Plants (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Kawagoe Power Plant Japan 4,802 2 Higashi-Niigata Power Plant Japan 4,600 3 Futtsu Power Plant Japan 4,530 4 Tatan Power Plant Taiwan 4,384 5 Chita Power Plant Japan 3,966

Photo of the third largest in the world 4,534-MWel Futtsu natural-gas-fired combined-cycle power plant (Japan) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author Mr. Hayata). The plant consists of 5 generating units: 1,520 MWel × 1 + 1,000 MWel × 2 + 507 MWel × 2, and uses Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) (Source: Wikipedia). 9 Top 5 Nuclear Power Plants (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel

1 Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear Power Plantnot in service Japan 8,212 2 Bruce Nuclear Power Plant Canada 7,276 3 Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant Ukraine 6,000 4 Uljin Nuclear Power Plant S. Korea 5,881 5 Yeonggwang Nuclear Power Plant S. Korea 5,875

Photo of the third largest in the world and the largest in Europe fully operating plant - ~6,000-MWel Zaporizhia Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) (Ukraine) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author/username Ralf1969). The plant has 1,000 MWel × 6 units - Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) of VVER type. The plant generates about half of the country's electricity produced by NPPs and more than a fifth of total electricity produced in Ukraine. (Source: Wikipedia). 10 Top 5 Conventional Hydroelectric Power Plants (Wikipedia, 2012) Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Three Gorges Dam China 21,000 2 Itaipu Dam Brazil / Paraguay 14,000 3 Guri Dam Venezuela 10,200 4 Tucurui Dam Brazil 8,370 5 Grand Coulee Dam United States 6,809

Photo of the largest in the world by installed power 21,100-MWel (planned power in 2012 – 22,500 MWel) hydroelectric power plant (700 MWel × 30 + 2 × 50 MWel Francis turbines) (a) and Francis-turbine runner (Yangtze River, China) (Courtesy of Chinese National Committee on Large Dams). The project costs $26 billion. Height of the gravity dam is 181 m, length – 2.335 km, top width – 40 m, base width – 115 m, flowrate – 116,000 m3/s, artificial lake capacity – 39.3 km3, surface area – 1,045 km2, length – 600 km, maximum width – 1.1 km, normal elevation – 175 m, hydraulic head – 80.6-113 m (Source: Wikipedia). 11 Top 5 Onshore Wind Power Plants (Farms) (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 Alta Wind Energy Center United States 1020 2 Roscoe Wind Farm United States 781 3 Horse Hollow Wind Energy Center United States 736 4 Tehachapi Pass Wind Farm United States 705 5 Capricorn Ridge Wind Farm United States 663

Photo of the second largest in the world 781-MWel onshore Roscoe wind-turbine power plant (Texas, USA) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author/username Fredlyfish4). The plant equipped with 627 turbines: 406 MHI 1-MWel turbines; 55 Siemens 2.3-MWel turbines and 166 GE 1.5-MWel turbines. The project cost more than one billion dollars, provides enough power for more than 250,000 average Texan homes and covers area of nearly 400 square kilometers, which is several times the size of Manhattan, New York, NY, USA (Source: Wikipedia). In general, wind power is suitable for harvesting when average air velocity is at least 6 m/s (21.6 km/h). 12 Wind Energy Production During a Fine Summer Week 600

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Power generated by 650-MWel wind turbines in the Western Part of Denmark (based on data from www.wiki.windpower.org/index.php/variations_in_energy): Shown a summer 13 week (6 days) of wind-power generation. Top 8 Concentrated Solar Thermal Power Plants (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel 1 SEGS VIII, IX Power Plant United States 160 2 SEGS III-VII Power Plant United States 160 3 Solnova Solar Power Plant Spain 150 3 Andasol Solar Power Plant Spain 150 4 Extresol Solar Power Plant Spain 100 4 Palma del Rio Solar Power Plant Spain 100 4 Manchasol Power Plant Spain 100 4 Valle Solar Power Plant Spain 100

14 Aerial view showing portions of Solar Energy Generating Systems (SEGS) (CA, USA) (photo taken from Wikimedia Commons, author A. Radecki). SEGS, which consist of 9 concentrated-solar-thermal plants with 354 MWel installed capacity, is the largest solar energy generating plant in the world. The average gross solar output of SEGS is around 75 MW (capacity factor of 21%). In addition, at night the turbines can be powered by combustion of natural gas. NextEra claims that the SEGS power 232,500 homes and decrease pollution by 3,800 tons per year (if the electricity had been provided by combustion of oil). The SEGS have 936,384 mirrors, which cover more than 6.5 square kilometers. If the parabolic mirrors would be lined up, they will extend over 370 km. In 2002, one of the 30-MWel Kramer Junction sites required ninety million dollars to construct, and its O&M costs are about three million dollars per year, which are 4.6 ¢/kW·h. However, with a considered lifetime of 20 years, the O&M and investments interest and depreciation triples the price, to approximately 14 ¢/kW·h (Source: Wikipedia). 15 Arial view of the first of such kind Gemasolar - a 19.9-MWel concentrated solar power plant with a 140-m high tower and molten-salt heat-storage system (Seville, Spain) (Wikipedia, 2012) (courtesy of SENER/TORRESOL ENERGY). The plant consists of 2650 heliostats (each 120 m2 and total reflective area 304,750 m2), covers 1.95 km2 (195 ha) and produces 110 GW h annually, which equals to 30,000 t/year carbon-dioxide emission savings. This energy is enough to supply 25,000 average Spanish houses. The storage system allows the power plant to produce electricity for 15 hours without sunlight (at night or on cloudy days). Capacity factor is 75%. Solar- receiver thermal power is 120 MWth, and plant thermal efficiency is about 19%. Molten salt is heated in the solar receiver from 260 to 565°C by concentrated sun light reflected from all heliostats, which follow the sun, and transfers heat in a steam generator to water as a working fluid in a subcritical-pressure Rankine-steam-power cycle. 16 Summer During summer time, the days are long. The hot molten salt tank reaches the upper limit in the middle of the afternoon, forcing plant to reduce the collection of energy in the receiver.

Red line – net electricity in MW Blue line – storage level in %

Winter In winter time, the days are shorter and at the end of the day, the tank is not full.

(Courtesy of SENER/TORRESOL ENERGY)

17 Top 6 Flat-Panel Photovoltaic Power Plants (Parks) (Wikipedia, 2012)

Rank Plant Country Capacity, MWel

1 Charanka Solar Park India 214

2 Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park China 200 3 Perovo Solar Park Ukraine 100

4 Agua Caliente Solar Project USA 100 5 Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant Canada 97

6 Montalto di Castro Photovoltaic Power Plant Italy 84

The largest in the world 214-MWel flat-panel photovoltaic power plant is Charanka (Gujarat) Solar Park (India). Cost of construction is $2.3 billion. The park is spread over 3,000 acres (12.1 km2) of mainly wasteland located in India’s western state of Gujarat. The solar park will continue to expand to about 500-MWel by the end of 2014. (Source Wikipedia). 18 Photo of a typical flat-panel photovoltaic power plant (19-MWel) located near Thüngen, Bavaria, Germany (Photo taken from Wikimedia Commons; photographer OhWeh). 19 Hourly Generation 4.5 Feb 19 May 09 4.0 Jun 18

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0.0 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Time, h Power generated by photovoltaic system in New York State (USA) (based on data from www.burningcutlery.com/solar): Shown three mostly sunny days: February 19th; May 9th th and June 18 ; Drops in power generation during daytime are mainly due to clouds. 20 Installed capacity by energy source Electricity generation by energy source

Province of Ontario (Canada), 2010 (based on data from Yatchew, A., and Baziliauskas, A., 2011) 21 Power generated by various sources in Capacity factor of various power sources Ontario on June 19, 2012 in Ontario on June 19, 2012

(based on data from: http://ieso.ca/imoweb/marketdata/genEnergy.asp)

22 Average (typical) capacity factors of various power plants (Wikipedia, 2012) The net capacity factor of a power plant (Wikipedia, 2012) is the ratio of the actual output of a power plant over a period of time and its potential output if it had operated at full the entire time. To calculate the capacity factor, take the total amount of energy the plant produced during a period of time and divide by the amount of energy the plant would have produced at full capacity. Capacity factors vary significantly depending on the type of fuel that is used and the design of the plant.

No. Power Plant type Location Year Capacity factor, % 1 Nuclear USA 2010 91 UK 2011 66 2 Combined-cycle UK 2011 48 2007-2011 62 3 Coal-fired UK 2011 42 4 Hydroelectric1 UK 2011 39 World (average) - 44 World (range) - 10-99 5 Wind UK 2011 30 World 2008 20-40 6 Wave Portugal - 20 7 Concentrated-solar thermal USA California - 21

8 Photovoltaic solar USA Arizona 2008 19 USA Massachusetts - 12-15 UK 2011 5.5 2007-2011 8.3 9 Concentrated solar photovoltaic Spain - 12

[1] Capacity factors depend significantly on a design, size and location (water availability) of a hydroelectric power plant. Small 23 plants built on large rivers will always have enough water to operate at a full capacity. Thermal Efficiencies (Gross) of Thermal and Nuclear Power Plants No Plant Eff., %

o 1 Combined-cycle power plant (combination of Brayton gas-turbine cycle (Tin=1650 C) and Up to 62 o Rankine steam-turbine cycle (Tin=620 C)) o 2 Supercritical-pressure coal-fired power plant (new plants) (Pin=25 – 38 MPa, Tin=540-625 C & Up to 55 o Treheat=540-625 C) 3 Carbon-dioxide-cooled reactor NPP (Generation III) (reactor coolant: P=4 MPa & T=290-650oC; Up to 42 o o steam: P=17 MPa (Tsat=352 C) & Tin=560 C) o o 4 Sodium-cooled fast reactor NPP (Generation IV) (steam: P=14 MPa (Tsat=337 C) & Tin=505 C) Up to 40

o 5 Subcritical-pressure coal-fired power plant (older plants) (Pin=17 MPa, Tin=540 & Treheat=540 C) Up to 38 6 Pressurized Water Reactor NPP (Generation III+, to be implemented within next 1-10 years) Up to 38 o o (reactor coolant: P=15.5 MPa & Tout=327 C; steam: P=7.8 MPa & Tin=293 C) 7 Pressurized Water Reactor NPP (Generation III, current fleet) (reactor coolant: P=15.5 MPa & Up to 36 o o Tout=292-329 C; steam: P=6.9 MPa & Tin=285 C) o 8 Boiling Water Reactor NPP (Generation III, current fleet) (Pin=7.2 MPa & Tin=288 C) Up to 34

o 9 RBMK (boiling, pressure-channel) (Generation III, current fleet) (Pin=6.6 MPa & Tin=282 C) Up to 32 10 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor NPP (Generation III, current fleet) (reactor coolant: Up to 32 o o P=11 MPa & T=260-310 C; steam: P=4.6 MPa & Tin=259 C) Gross thermal efficiency of a unit during a given period of time is the ratio of the gross electrical energy generated by a unit to the thermal energy of a fuel consumed during the same period by the same unit. The difference between gross and net thermal efficiencies includes internal needs for electrical energy of a power plant, which might be not so small; for example, for a medium gross capacity (~500 MWel) supercritical-pressure coal-fired power plant the internal needs can be about 40 MWel or 8% of the total electrical capacity. 24 Coal-fired power plants

For thousands years, mankind used and still is using wood and coal for heating purposes. For about 100 years, coal is used for generating electrical energy at coal-fired thermal power plants worldwide. All coal-fired power plants operate based on, so- called, steam Rankine cycle, which can be organized at two different levels of pressures: 1) older or smaller capacity power plants operate at steam pressures no higher than 16 MPa (~157 technical atmospheres) and 2) modern large capacity power plants operate at supercritical pressures from 23.5 MPa and up to 38 MPa. Supercritical pressures mean pressures above the critical pressure of water, which is 22.064 MPa. From thermodynamics it is well known that higher thermal efficiencies correspond to higher temperatures. Therefore, usually subcritical-pressure plants have thermal efficiencies of about 34 – 38% and modern supercritical-pressure plants – 43 – 50% and even slightly above. Steam-generators outlet temperatures or steam-turbine inlet temperatures have reached level of about 625°C (and even higher) at pressures of 25–30 (35 – 38) MPa. However, a common level is about 535 – 585°C at pressures of 23.5 – 25 MPa. In spite of advances in coal-fired power-plants design and operation worldwide they are still considered as not environmental friendly due to producing a lot of carbon-dioxide emissions as a result of combustion process plus ash, slag and even acid rains. However, it should be admitted that known resources of coal worldwide are the largest compared to other fossil fuels (natural gas and oil). 25

Single-reheat-regenerative cycle 600-MWel Tom’-Usinsk thermal power plant (Russia) layout (Kruglikov et al., TsKTI, Russia, 2009): Cyl – Cylinder; H – Heat exchanger (feedwater heater); CP – Circulation Pump; TDr – Turbine Drive; Cond P – Condensate Pump; GCHP – Gas Cooler of High Pressure; and GCLP – Gas Cooler of Low Pressure. 26 Combined-Cycle Power Plant Courtesy and copyright of MHI Working principle of combined-cycle power plant: 1) (Brayton cycle) and 2) (Rankine cycle). Natural gas is considered as a clean fossil fuel compared to coal and oil, but still due to the combustion process emits carbon dioxide. Combined-cycle power plants are the most efficient modern thermal power plants with thermal efficiencies within a range of 50 – 60% (Brayton cycle – 30% and Rankine cycle – 40%). Current level of inlet temperatures to a gas turbine is about 1600 – 1650oC and to a steam turbine – 620oC. 27 Operating and forthcoming nuclear power reactors (in total - 433

(444) (net 371 (378) GWel) (Nuclear News, 2013); (in red) - number of power reactors before the Japan earthquake and tsunami disaster in spring of 2011) (Nuclear News, 2011).

• Pressurized light-Water Reactors (PWRs) – 271 (268) (251 (247) GWel); forthcoming – 85 (89 GWel)

• Boiling light-Water Reactors (BWRs or ABWRs) – 83 (92) (78 (78) GWel); forthcoming – 6 (8 GWel) • Pressurized Heavy-Water Reactors (PHWRs, mainly CANDU-type reactors) –

48 (50) (24 (25) GWel), Argentina 2 (one Siemens design), Canada 19, China 2, India 18, Pakistan 1, Romania 2, S. Korea 4; forthcoming – 7 (4 GWel)

• Light-water, Graphite-moderated Reactors (LGRs) – 15 (10 GWel), Russia 11 RBMKs and 4 EGPs (earlier prototype of RBMK); forthcoming – 0

• Gas-Cooled Reactors (GCRs) – 15 (18) (8 GWel), UK (AGRs – 14 and Magnox – 1); forthcoming – 0

• Liquid-Metal Fast-Breeder Reactors (LMFBRs) – 1 (0.6 GWel), Russia; forthcoming – 4 (1.5 GWel)

28 Capacity, No of Number of nuclear power reactors in MW reactors the world by installed capacity (based el <50 4 on data from Nuclear News, 2013) 50-99 1 100-199 4 120 200-299 15 300-399 14 400-499 30 100 500-599 29 600-699 30 80 700-799 18 800-899 48 60 900-999 108 1000-1099 37 1100-1199 39 40 1200-1299 20 1300-1399 28 20 1400-1499 6 >1500 2

Numberof reactors byinstalled capacity 0 Overall 433 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 29 Installed capacity, MW el The Smallest and the Largest Nuclear Power Reactors of the World (based on data from Nuclear News, 2013)

Name No of Net Reactor Commercial Reactor Country Company Units MWel Type Model start Supplier

<50 MWel Bilibino 4 11 LGR EGP-6 1974 MTM Russia, Bilibino, Chukotka Rosenergoatom

50−99 MWel Rajasthan 1 90 PHWR CANDU 1973 AECL/DAE India, Kota, Rajasthan Nuclear Power Corp. of India

1400−1499 MWel Oskarshamn 1 1400 BWR BWR 75 1985 ABB-Atom Sweden, Oskarshamn, OKG Aktiebolag Kalmar Philippsburg 1 1400 PWR 4-loop 1985 KWU Germany, Philippsburg, EnBW Kernkraft GmbH- B&W Kernkraftwerk Philippsburg Isar 1 1400 PWR Konvoi 1988 KWU Germany, Essenbach, Ba. E.ON Kernkraft GmbH Brokdorf 1 1410 PWR 4-loop 1986 KWU Germany, Brokdorf, S.-H. E.ON Kernkraft GmbH Civaux 2 1495 PWR N4 2002 Framatom France, Civaux, Vienne Electricité de France (EDF)

1500 MWel Chooz 2 1500 PWR N4 2000 Framatom France, Chooz, Ardennes Electricité de France (EDF)

30 Power Reactors by Nation (16 countries do not plan to build new reactors) 31

No Nation # Units Net MWel # Units Net MWel # Units Net MWel (in operation) (forthcoming) (total) 1 Argentina 2 935 1 692 3 1,627 2 Armenia 1 375 0 0 1 375 3 Belgium 7 5,885 0 0 7 5,885 4 Brazil 2 1,901 1 1,275 3 3,176 5 Bulgaria 2 1,906 0 0 2 1,906 6 Canada 19 13,472 0 0 19 13,472 7 China 15 11,658 42 41,840 57 53,498 8 Czech Republic 6 3,678 0 0 6 3,678 9 Finland 4 2,716 1 1,600 5 4,316 10 France 58 63,130 1 1,600 59 64,730 11 Germany 9 12,058 0 0 9 12,058 12 Hungary 4 1,889 0 0 4 1,889 13 India 20 4,391 7 4,894 27 9,285 14 Iran 1 915 0 0 1 915 15 Japan 50 44,104 3 3,002 53 47,106 16 Mexico 2 1,300 0 0 2 1,300 17 Netherlands 1 487 0 0 1 487 18 Pakistan 3 725 2 600 5 1,325 19 Romania 2 1,300 2 1,240 4 2,540 20 Russia 33 23,643 11 9,610 44 33,253 21 Slovakia 4 1,816 2 810 6 2,626 22 Slovenia 1 666 0 0 1 666 23 South Africa 2 1,800 0 0 2 1,800 24 South Korea 23 20,697 5 6,600 28 27,297 25 Spain 7 7,068 0 0 7 7,068 26 Sweden 10 9,303 0 0 10 9,303 27 Switzerland 5 3,238 0 0 5 3,238 28 Taiwan 6 4,884 2 2,600 8 7,484 29 Ukraine 15 13,107 3 2,850 18 15,957 30 United Kingdom 16 9,213 0 0 16 9,213 31 United States 103 103,198 10 11,690 113 114,888 Total 433 371,458 103 103,503 536 474,961 Current nuclear power reactors by nation (11 first nations) (Nuclear News, 2013); in ( ) - number of power reactors before the Japan earthquake and tsunami disaster in spring of 2011) (Nuclear News, 2011)

No. Nation # Units Net GWel 1. USA 103 (104) ↓ 103 (103) 2. France 58 63 3. Japan 50 (54) ↓ 44 (47) 4. Russia 33 (32) ↑ 24 (23) 5. S. Korea 23 (20) ↑ 21 (18) 6. Canada 19 (22) ↓ 13 (15) 7. Ukraine 15 13 8. Germany 9 (17) ↓ 12 (20) 9. China 15 (13) ↑ 12 (10) 10. UK 16 (19) ↓ 9 (10)

11. Sweden 10 9 32 VVER-440 Fuel el. OD 9.1 mm Wall thickness 0.65 mm Length 2.5 – 3.5 m 126 el. in one bundle

Simplified scheme of typical Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) – Russian VVER (Water 33 Water Power Reactor) cooled with fresh water (courtesy of ROSENERGOATOM). Major Parameters of Russian Power Reactors Parameter VVER- VVER- EGP-6 RBMK- RBMK- BN-600 440 1000 1000 1500*

Thermal power, MWth 1375 3000 65 3200 4800 1470

Electrical power, MWel 440 1000 12 1000 1500 600 Thermal efficiency, % 32.0 33.3 18.5 31.3 31.3 40.8 Coolant P, MPa 12.3 15.7 6.2 6.9 6.9 ~0.1 Coolant flow, t/h 40,800 84,800 600 32,000 48,000 25,000 Coolant T, oC 270/298 290/322 265 284 284 380/550 Steam flow rate, t/h 2700 5880 100 5600 8400 640 Steam pressure, MPa 4.3 5.9 6.5 6.6 6.6 15.3 Steam T, oC 256 276 280 280 280 505 Core: D/H m/m 3.8/11.8 4.5/10.9 4.2/3.0 11.8/7 11.8/7 2.05/0.75 Fuel enrichment, % 3.6 4.3 3.0; 3.6 2.0-2.4 2.0 21; 29.4 No. fuel assemblies 349 163 273 1580 1661 370

VVERs are PWRs; EGPs and RBMKs are Light-water-cooled Graphite-moderated Reactors (LGRs) or pressure-channel boiling reactors (outlet fuel-channel steam quality is 14% (maximum 20%) (in BWRs - about 10%); BN is a Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) or LMFBR. 34 * All RBMK-1500 reactors are in shut-down state. There were only 2 reactors in Lithuania. Typical parameters of US PWR (Shultis, J.K. and Faw, R.E., 2007) Power Steam generators

Thermal output, MWth 3800 Total number 4

Electrical output, MWe 1300 Pout, MPa 6.9 o Thermal efficiency, % 34 Tout, C 284 Specific power, kW/kg(U) 33 m, kg/s 528 Power density, kW/L 102 Reactor Pressure Vessel (RPV) Ave. linear heat flux, kW/m 17.5 OD, m 4.4 Rod heat flux ave/max, MW/m2 0.584/1.46 Height, m 13.6 Core Wall thickness, m 0.22 Length, m 4.17 Fuel

OD, m 3.37 Fuel pellets UO2 Reactor coolant system Pellet OD, mm 8.19 P, MPa 15.5 Rod OD, mm 9.5 o Tin, C 292 Zircaloy clad thickness, mm 0.57 o Tout, C 329 Rods per bundle (17×17) 264 Mass flow rate (m), kg/s 531 Bundles in core 193 35 Simplified scheme of typical Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) (courtesy of NRC USA).

36 37 Typical parameters of US BWR (Shultis, J.K. and Faw, R.E., 2007)

Power Reactor coolant system

Thermal output, MWth 3830 Core flow rate, kg/s 14,167

Electrical output, MWel 1330 Core void fraction ave/max 0.37/0.75 Thermal efficiency, % 34 Specific power, kW/kg(U) 26 Power density, kW/L 56 Reactor PV Ave. linear heat flux, kW/m 20.7 ID, m 6.4 Rod heat flux ave/max, MW/m2 0.51/1.12 Height, m 22.1 Core Wall thickness, m 0.15 Length, m 3.76 Fuel

OD, m 4.8 Fuel pellets UO2 Reactor coolant system Pellet OD, mm 10.6 P, MPa 7.17 Rod OD, mm 12.5 o Tfeedwater, C 216 Zircaloy clad thickness, mm 0.86 o Tout steam, C 290 Rods per bundle (8 × 8) 62 Outlet steam flow rate, kg/s 2083 Bundles in core 760 Typical parameters of US BWR (Shultis, J.K. and Faw, R.E., 2007)

Fuel Fuel loading, ton 168 Enrichment, % 1.9 Reactivity control No. control assemblies 193 Shape Cruciform Overall length, m 4.42 Length of poison section, m 3.66 Neutron absorber Boron carbide

Soluble poison shim Gadolinium

38 Simplified scheme of CANDU-6 reactor nuclear power plant (courtesy of AECL). 39 Courtesy of AECL

40 Simplified scheme of PHWR NPP (Siemens design) (Atucha, Argentina) (based on Nuclear

Engineering International, Sept. 1982, England). Currently, only Unit 1 (335 MWel) is in operation. Unit 2 (692 MWel) should be put into operation in 2014. 41 Simplified scheme of Light-water-cooled, Graphite-moderated Reactor (LGR) – Russian RBMK (Reactor of Large Capacity Channel type (boiling reactor)) (courtesy of ROSENERGOATOM). 42 EGP (Power Heterogeneous Loop) Reactor – graphite-moderated, boiling light-water- cooled with natural circulation (also, Light-water-cooled, Graphite-moderated Reactor (LGR)), pressure-channel power reactor for production of electricity and heat, air-cooled condenser; prototype of RBMK

(Courtesy of ROSENERGOATOM)

Mass of fuel – 7.1 t 273 bundles

43 Reactor Wylfa – the last operating Magnox reactor: 1875 MWth / 490 MWel & thermal efficiency 31.5%; core: diameter 17.37 m, height 9.14 m & volume 2166 m3; Average linear fuel rating 33 kW/m.

Simplified scheme of Magnox nuclear reactor (GCR – Gas Cooled reactor) showing gas flow (source: Wikipedia). The heat exchanger is located outside the concrete radiation shielding. This represents an early Magnox design with a cylindrical, steel, pressure vessel. 44 Reactor Hinkley B – 1500 MWth / 624 MWel & thermal efficiency 41.6%; core: diameter 9.1 m, height 8.3 m, & volume 540 m3; Average linear fuel rating 16.9 kW/m.

Simplified scheme of Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR) (source: Wikimedia). The heat exchanger is contained within the steel-reinforced concrete combined pressure vessel and radiation shield 45 Selected parameters of Gas-Cooled Reactors (UK)

Natural Uranium Graphite-Moderated (Magnox) Reactors Coolant – carbon dioxide; pressure - 2 MPa; outlet/inlet temperature – 414/250oC; core diameter – up to 14 m; height – up to 8 m; natural uranium fuel; magnesium alloy sheath with fins; thermal efficiency – 31.5%.

Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors (AGRs) (design similar to Magnox reactors) Coolant – carbon dioxide; pressure - 4 MPa; outlet/inlet temperature – 650/292oC; steam – 17 MPa and 560oC; stainless- steel sheath with ribs; hollow fuel pellet; enriched fuel 2.3%; thermal efficiency – 41.6% (the highest in nuclear power industry). Hewitt, G.F. and Collier, J.G., 2000. Introduction to Nuclear Power, nd 2 ed., Taylor & Francis, New York, NY, USA, 304 pages. 46 Put into operation in 1980 at Beloyarsk NPP as Unit #3. 238U and 232Th can be involved in the fuel cycle. Purity of sodium should be 99.95%. 370 bundles installed in the reactor. Reactor core has 127 fuel elements.

505oC 520oC

550oC 320oC

380oC

Sodium melting T= 97.5oC boiling T=883oC

Simplified scheme of Liquid-Metal Fast-Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) – Russian BN-600 47 (BN – Fast Neutrons) Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor (SFR) (courtesy of ROSENERGOATOM). Selected Generation III+ reactors (deployment in 5-10 years) Nuclear News, April 2012

• ABWR –Hitachi-GE (Japan-USA) and Toshiba; the only one Generation III+ reactor design already implemented in the power industry: Kashiwazaki-Kariwa NPP Units #6 & 7 – the 1st & 2nd ABWRs in the world (1996 & 1997); 3rd – Hamaoka #5 (2005); 4th – Shika #2 (2006)); 2 ABWRs planned to be built in USA and 2 in Taiwan. • Advanced CANDU Reactor (ACR-1000) - CANDU Energy (former AECL), Canada. • Advanced Plant (AP-1000) – Toshiba-Westinghouse (Japan-USA) (6 under construction in China and 6 planned to be built in China and 6 – in USA). • Advanced PWR (APR-1400) – South Korea (4 under construction in S. Korea and 4 planned to be built in United Arab Emirates (UAE)).

• Advanced PWR (1500 MWel) – MHI (Japan) • European Pressurized-water Reactor (EPR) - AREVA, France (1 should be put into operation in Finland in 2014, 1 under construction in France and 2 - in China).

• VVER (design AES-2006 or VVER-1200 with ~1200 MWel) – GIDROPRESS, Russia (6 under construction in Russia and 4 planned to be built in Turkey) (VVER or WWER - Water Water Power Reactor and AES – Atomic Electrical Station (Nuclear Power Plant) in Russian abbreviations). 48 Generation IV Nuclear Reactors

Currently, there are six Generation IV nuclear- reactor concepts under development worldwide

49 1. Gas-cooled Fast Reactors (GFRs) US DOE, 2002 or High Temperature Reactors (HTRs): a fast-neutron spectrum, closed fuel cycle, reactor coolant − helium, pressure of 7 MPa, temperatures of 485−850ºC, primary thermodynamic cycle – a direct cycle based on the Brayton cycle (gas- turbine cycle), back-up cycle – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam Helium P =0.2276 MPa, T =-267.95oC cycle through heat cr cr exchangers 50 2. Very High-Temperature gas-cooled Reactors (VHTRs): a graphite-moderated thermal cycle, once-through uranium-fuel cycle, reactor coolant − helium, 9 MPa, temperatures 500−1000ºC, primary thermodynamic cycle – a direct cycle based on the Brayton cycle (gas-turbine cycle), back-up cycle – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers. Also, proposed to be used for hydrogen co-generation through high-temperature electrolysis.

US DOE, 2002

Helium o 51 Pcr=0.2276 MPa, Tcr=-267.95 C 3. Sodium-cooled Fast Reactors (SFRs): a fast-spectrum, closed fuel cycle for efficient management of actinides and conversion of fertile uranium, primary coolant – sodium, temperatures 520−550ºC, primary thermodynamic cycles – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers (current Russian design) or an indirect cycle based on the Brayton cycle (SC carbon-dioxide gas-turbine cycle). The only one Generation IV reactor, which is currently under operation in Russia.

Sodium melting T= 97.5oC boiling T=883oC

US DOE, 2002 52 4. Lead-cooled Fast Reactors (LFRs): a fast-spectrum, closed fuel cycle for efficient conversion of fertile uranium and management of actinides, coolant − lead or lead/bismuth eutectic, temperatures up to 550−800ºC, primary thermodynamic cycles – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers (current Russian design) or an indirect cycle based on the Brayton cycle (SC carbon- dioxide gas-turbine cycle);

US DOE, 2002

Lead melting T= 328oC 53 boiling T=1743oC Key-design parameters of LFRs planned to be built in Russia (based on NIKIET, Russia)

Reactor Parameter Unit Brest-300 Brest-1200 Reactor power (thermal/electrical) MW 700/300 2800/1200 Thermal efficiency % 43 Primary coolant - Lead Coolant melting/boiling temperatures °C 328/1743 Coolant density at 450°C kg/m3 10,520 Pressure inside reactor MPa ~0.1 Coolant inlet/outlet temperatures °C 420/540 Coolant massflow rate t/s 40 158 Maximum coolant velocity m/s 1.8 1.7 Fuel - UN+PuN Fuel loading t 16 64 Term of fuel inside reactor years 5 5–6 Fuel reloading per year - 1 Core diameter/height m / m 2.3/1.1 4.8/1.1 Number of fuel bundles - 185 332 Fuel-rod diameter mm 9.1; 9.6; 10.4 Fuel-rod pitch mm 13.6 Maximum cladding temperature °C 650 Steam-generator pressure MPa 24.5 Steam-generator inlet/outlet temperatures °C 340/520 Steam-generator capacity t/s 0.43 1.72 Term of reactor years 30 60 54 5. Molten Salt-cooled Reactors (MSRs): Fast or epithermal-spectrum reactor, full actinide-recycle fuel cycle, reactor coolant − sodium-fluoride salt with dissolved uranium fuel, temperatures up to 700−800ºC, primary thermodynamic cycles – an indirect cycle based on the Rankine steam cycle through heat exchangers or an indirect cycle based on the Brayton cycle (SC carbon-dioxide gas-turbine cycle);

55 US DOE, 2002 6. SuperCritical Water-cooled Reactors (SCWRs): thermal spectrum (fast spectrum is possible), reactor coolant − SCW, pressure of 25 MPa, temperatures up to 625oC, primary thermodynamic cycle – a direct cycle based on the SC Rankine “steam” cycle, back-up cycle − indirect cycle based on the SC Rankine “steam” cycle through heat exchangers).

Pressure Channel or Pressure Tube Reactor

US DOE, 2002

Pressure Vessel Reactor

Courtesy of AECL 56 Possible Applications of Supercritical Pressures in Generation IV Nuclear Power Plants

• All Generation-IV nuclear reactors can be connected to SC “steam” Rankine cycle through heat exchangers; • SC carbon dioxide Brayton cycle can be used for SFRs, LFRs and MSRs and even proposed for GFRs.

57 Conclusion

What is the best solution for a country, a region, etc.???

Energy Mix is the Best for a Sustainable and Bright Future

58 Recommended Literature

The following chapters are on general aspects of power / nuclear engineering (first 4 Chapters are an extension of the Chapter 5), which can be downloaded for free from the corresponding websites:

1. Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Current Status of Electricity Generation in the World, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Vol. 1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 783-795. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/783-795.pdf. 2. Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Current Status of Electricity Generation at Thermal Power Plants, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Vol. 1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 796-805. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/796-805.pdf. 3. Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Current Status of Electricity Generation at Nuclear Power Plants, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Vol. 1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 806-817. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/806-817.pdf. 4. Pioro, I. and Kirillov, P., 2013. Generation IV Nuclear Reactors as a Basis for Future Electricity Production in the World, Chapter in the book: Materials and Processes for Energy: Communicating Current Research and Technological Developments, Vol. 1, Editor: A. Méndez-Vilas, Publisher: Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp. 818-830. Free download from: http://www.formatex.info/energymaterialsbook/book/818-830.pdf . 5. Pioro, I., 2012. Nuclear Power as a Basis for Future Electricity Production in the World, Chapter #10 in the book: Current Research in Nuclear Reactor Technology in Brazil and Worldwide, Editors: A.Z. Mesquita and H.C. Rezende, INTECH, Rijeka, Croatia, pp. 211-250. Free download from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/current-research-in-nuclear-reactor-technology-in-brazil-and- worldwide/nuclear-power-as-a-basis-for-future-electricity-production-in-the-world-generation-iii-and-iv-reacto.

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