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Historical Relationships Between Land Elevation and Socioeconomic Status in New York City: a Mixed Methods GIS Approach

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Historical Relationships Between Land Elevation and Socioeconomic Status in New York City: a Mixed Methods GIS Approach City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works All Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects Dissertations, Theses, and Capstone Projects 2-2014 Historical Relationships between Land Elevation and Socioeconomic Status in New York City: A Mixed Methods GIS Approach Jennifer Brisbane Graduate Center, City University of New York How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/18 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Historical Relationships between Land Elevation and Socioeconomic Status in New York City: A Mixed Methods GIS Approach by Jennifer Brisbane A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty in Earth and Environmental Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, The City University of New York 2014 © 2014 Jennifer Brisbane All Rights Reserved ii This manuscript has been read and accepted for the Graduate Faculty in Earth and Environmental Sciences in satisfaction of the dissertation requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. __________________ ________________________________________ Date Dr. Juliana Maantay, Lehman College Chair of the Examining Committee __________________ ________________________________________ Date Dr. Cindi Katz, The Graduate Center Executive Officer Dr. Allan Frei, Hunter College Dr. Andrew Maroko, Lehman College Dr. Ines Miyares, Hunter College ________________________________ Supervisory Committee THE CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK iii ABSTRACT Historical Relationships between Land Elevation and Socioeconomic Status in New York City: A Mixed Methods GIS Approach by Jennifer Brisbane Adviser: Professor Juliana Maantay The role that topography has played in the development of New York City is essential to understanding its present urban form and foreseeing its changes. Geographers and economists have generally agreed that for cities in the United States, socioeconomic status increases with land elevation. This seemingly simple relationship between elevation and class, however, is complicated by factors such as technological innovations, economic shifts, politics, cultural perceptions, and the idiosyncrasies of cities and the neighborhoods within them. The lack of comprehensive research in this area coupled with conflicting findings warranted further exploration into the complex and changing relationships between elevation and social class. This longitudinal study utilized a mixed-methods GIS approach to reveal historical relationships between land elevation and socioeconomic status in New York City, and explain factors that may mediate these relationships. This study departed from the traditional use of regression results by mapping standardized residuals clusters, which were found to be an extremely efficient way of pinpointing anomalous areas that would be appropriate case study areas for in-depth, qualitative analysis. Relative elevation was found to be a better determinant of socioeconomic status than absolute elevation for three out of ten analysis years examined. The presence of urban fringe uses on high elevation land was affirmed. The persistence of historical settlement iv patterns was also affirmed, and it was found that this persistence was able to withstand technological, economic, cultural, and significant physical topography changes. Public policy, such as through the use of zoning tools and eminent domain, was the most influential force in the transformation of historical land use and settlement patterns. Climate change is poised to become another powerful force in the transformation of cities, and should be incorporated into future studies that examine the relationship between physical topography and residential or land use patterns. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would first like to express my sincere gratitude to my committee members for their knowledge and guidance. Whether in person, over email, or on chat, I am grateful to have found professors who are so readily accessible and responsive to my never-ending questions. I owe my deepest thanks to my advisor and mentor, Professor Juliana Maantay, for her support throughout this entire process. Her enthusiasm for understanding and solving real- world problems through science is an inspiration, and it is what motivates me to continue learning and finding new ways to approach urban issues. I would like to thank the staff of the Lionel Pincus and Princess Firyal Map Division of the New York Public Library for providing me with many of the maps and tools for my research. This study would not have been possible without the National Historical Geographic Information System hosted by the University of Minnesota. I would also like to thank the Brooklyn Historical Society, the Sea View Museum, and Madelyn Kent, curator of the Seymour B. Durst Old York Library. Finally, thank you to my friends and family for their encouragement. A special thank you to my partner for her support and patience, and for allowing me to drag her to the library to be my camera and lighting assistant so I could photograph gigantic, crumbly, old maps. For my father, Linwood J. Brisbane, whose fascination with history has clearly rubbed off on me, for which I am grateful. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. x List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................xiii Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 Research Question and Hypothesis ..................................................................................................... 6 Literature Review ................................................................................................................................... 8 Significance of Research ...................................................................................................................... 17 Preliminary Analysis Results .............................................................................................................. 18 Research Approach .............................................................................................................................. 24 Data Requirements .............................................................................................................................. 28 Limitations ............................................................................................................................................ 30 Chapter 2: Quantitative Analysis ....................................................................................................... 34 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 34 Scatter Plots and Box Plots ........................................................................................... 34 Pearson Correlation and Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) Regression ..................... 36 Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) ............................................................ 39 Relative Elevation .......................................................................................................... 40 Data Preparation .................................................................................................................................. 43 Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 46 Scatter Plots and Box Plots ........................................................................................... 46 Socioeconomic Status And Outlier Maps .................................................................... 48 OLS and GWR Results ................................................................................................... 49 vii Significant Findings ............................................................................................................................. 54 Chapter 3: Qualitative Analysis ......................................................................................................... 59 Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 59 Purpose of Case Study Analysis .......................................................................................................... 59 Case Study Area Selection Justification ............................................................................................ 60 Case Study Area Analysis .................................................................................................................... 64 New York City Farm Colony – Seaview Hospital Historic District ........................
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