AP European History Mr. Blackmon

The and

I. on the Eve of the Revolution A . Major Social Groups 1. First Estate 2. Second Estate 3. Third Estate B . The First Estate: The Clergy 1. 130,000 clergymen (priests, monks, and nuns) 2. Higher Clergy: Bishops, Archbishops, Abbots a. Drawn from b. Large incomes c. Generally supportive of the Second Estate 3.Lower Clergy: Parish priests a. Drawn from the Third Estate b. Quite poor c. Tended to identify with their flock d. Rural parishioners often devout and devoted to their priest e. Initially will support the Revolution C . The Second Estate: The Nobility 1.Noblesse d’epée: Ancient families 2. Nobility of the Robe: Families which had purchased or earned titles through service to the monarch. a. 400,000 out of 25,000,000 3. Court Nobility a. Centered at Versailles, wealthier, influenced by the Enlightenment b. Serve as Tax Farmers, ministers c. Some are very Reactionary: Charles, duc d’Artois (later , who had “learned nothing and forgotten nothing.” d. Some are strongly influenced by the Enlightenment (1) Louis-Phillippe, duc d’Orleans (Phillippe Egalite) (2) Marquis de Lafayette (3) Comte de Mirabeau (4) Duc de Talleyrand (5) Condorcet 4. Provincial Nobility a. Much poorer b. Quite conservative D. The Third Estate 1. Peasants: 80% a. 1,500,000 were serfs b. Peasants owned 50% of the land in France c. The peasantry is not united! AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 2

(1) Village life was quite hierarchical (a) At the top were big farmers, who owned their own land and farmed estates as tenants. i) These farmers, called the “cock of the village” controlled the village council and parish decisions. ii) These farmers might have as many as 50 others working for them, usually for wages. (b) Landless Peasants i) More than half of the peasants had no land of their own and worked as tenant farmers, sharecroppers, or agricultural laborers. ii) In some areas, these families would supplement income by the putting out system: spinning and weaving cloth at home. (c) Geographic Differences i) Farming in Northern France was more profitable than in the South, where peasants were often particularly miserable. (2) Vestiges of Feudalism (a) Only peasants paid the taille, on their produce (b) Only peasants paid the gabelle, the salt tax (which was not only a government monopoly on the price usually given to tax farmers, but the tax farmer could set how much salt a peasant had to buy) (c) Only peasants had to provide the corvée (labor on local roads) (d) Typical restrictions on peasants included i) A ban on hunting (an aristocratic privilege) including trapping rabbits who destroyed gardens and doves, who ate seed ii)Banalités: seigneurial monopolies on mill, oven, and wine press iii) Hearth and death taxes (3) The Threat of Famine (a) A crop failure, such as in 1788 due to a massive hail storm followed by drought, still threatened people with starvation. (b) The staple food for 75% of French men and women were 4 lbs loaves of bread. (c) Two loaves were needed to feed a family of 4, with AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 3

a daily average wage of 20-30 sous (d) A journeyman mason might make 40 sous. (e) The cost of a 4 lbs loaf in good times was 8 sous (f) The cost of food would therefore be half one’s income. (g) By October, 1788, the cost was 12 sous (h) By February, 1789, the cost was 15 sous (i)“Let them eat cake!” (j) It is questionable whether ever said that. (k) The quote has been attributed to Mde. Pompadour (l) The quote reveals a very serious issue as well as a fierce hatred of the foreign queen. 2. Middle Classes (): 5% a. Rich merchants and high-ranking government officials tried to emulate the nobility, and aspired to join that class. b. Property owners, doctors, lawyers, merchants, officials saw themselves as superior all manual laborers. c.They therefore tended to support Liberalism (1) Natural Rights (2) Sovereignty of the People (3) Equal Rights (by which they meant that all were equal before the ) (4) Laissez-faire–freedom from state control over the economy (5) Property is sacred d. Artisans were divided into masters and journeymen or apprentices. (1) Master artisans tended to be loyal to the guilds, opposed economic innovation (after all, guilds tried to ensure profits for their own members, not to improve quality while lowering prices.) 3. Urban workers: 10% a. Journeymen, apprentices, day laborers, servants, were lowest on the rung, and most exploited. b. They were also hit the hardest with high food prices. c.The Sans-culottes (1) The term means “without breeches” referring to the tight, knee length garments worn by the wealthy (including Robespierre!) (2) They come from the world of the workshops. (3) The Sans-culottes are radically egalitarian, anti-capitalist, anti-modern, anti-liberal. (4) They will urge the overthrow of the educated elite of the AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 4

Constituent Assembly. (5) They will oppose economic individualism, demanding government regulation of grain prices, the death penalty for hoarders and speculators (flexible terms!), and acceptance of the assignat at full face value (a) That is, they are anti-Liberal (6) The Enragés (a) Led by and Jacques-René Hébert. (b) Mobilization of the Sans-culottes i) They demand common ownership of goods and strict economic controls. ii) Robespierre and the will try to use the Sans-culottes, and also to preempt them and lead them iii) The Sans-culottes of , mobilized through the 48 Sections of the city Commune, are consistently the most radical element in the Revolution II. Major Interpretations of the French Revolution A . A Marxist View: Albert Soboul 1. “The Revolution marks the advent of bourgeois, capitalist society in French history. Its essential achievement was the creation of national unity through the destruction of the seigneurial system and the privileged orders of feudal society; as [Alexis ] de Tocqueville [note: de Tocqueville is not only a very important commentator on the French Revolution, but also of Jacksonian America] observed in The Old Regime and the Revolution (published in 1856), the Revolution*s “real purpose was to do away everywhere with what remained of the institutions of the Middle Ages. Its final outcome, the establishment of liberal democracy, provides a further clue to its historical meaning. From this double point of view, and considered within the perspective of world history, it may be regarded as the definitive model of all bourgeois revolutions.” 2. “By the eighteenth century the bourgeoisie had taken the lead in finance, commerce, and industry, while it also provided the monarchy with the administrative personnel and resources required by the developing machinery of the state.” 3. “This [political] consciousness was positive; a rising class, with a belief in progress, the bourgeoisie saw itself as representing the interests of all and carrying the burdens of the nation as a whole.” 4. “In France during the second half of the eighteenth century, the growth of capitalism, which formed the basis of bourgeois power, was held in check by the feudal structure of society and by traditional systems of regulation AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 5

affecting property rights, production and exchange.” 5. “The bourgeoisie, however, wanted more than just equality with the aristocracy. It demanded liberty; not just political liberty, abut even more, the idea of economic liberty, of free enterprise and profit. 6. “Capitalism required liberty in all its forms as an essential condition for its development; personal liberty as the condition permitting the emergence of a work-force of wage-earners; liberty of property to guarantee its free mobility and disposal; intellectual liberty as the necessary condition for the pursuit of scientific and technological discovery.”

7. This Marxist model is the best fit for the provincial nobility, who often squeezed peasants very hard in order to maintain their incomes a. Reactionaries, such as Charles d’Artois also fit this model. 8. But recent research also shows that many nobles were engaged in entrepreneurial activities, recognized the need for reform, and were strongly influenced by the Enlightenment. Furthermore, the ranks of the Second Estate were growing. a. The August Decrees, which abolished feudalism, were introduced by the Vicomte de Noailles and seconded by the Duc d’Aiguillon. b. The Decrees provided that all citizens should pay taxes, abrogated feudal dues, and abolished the Corvée III. The Aristocratic Revolt A. French “Constitutionalism” 1. There was a desire by many of the Nobility, working through the , to reverse the Absolutist trend and restore their own local power in the name of a fictive French Constitution. 2. and play a significant role in this development due to their praise of the English constitution. 3. “Parlements were courts, not an assembly like the English Parliament. They had the power to register from King 4. There were 13 Parlements in all throughout France, but the of Paris was the most important. They began to claim, with no really good reason, a right of veto. Traditionally a King could always override Parlements with a lit de justice.” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism) 5. The Second Estate could dress up their old fashioned attempt to seize power in the guise of a struggle for “Liberty. 6. Many of the aristocrats were genuinely convinced of the need for Enlightenment inspired reforms. 7. The specific issue over which the final battle was fought was over the need to revise the tax system in order to end the financial crisis which France’s war with England had created. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 6

8. The Aristocratic Revolt got completely out of hand! 9. The demand to call the Estates-General opens Pandora’s Box B. American War of Independence 1. The cost of the American War was so great that the French government, already insolvent, was unable to escape bankruptcy. 2. This is the real significance of Louis XV’s phrase, “Apres moi, le deluge?” 3. Although France was wealthy, the government’s ability to collect revenue was extremely inefficient. C. Fall of Turgot 1. As a Physiocrat, he had advocated the abolition of import tariffs, allowing foreign grain to compete with French grain. 2. The result was rapid and sharp swings in the price of grain. 3. This in turn led to food riots. But in 1776, this did not lead to revolution. 4.Assembly of Notables February - May 1787 demanded that the Estates- General be called for the first time since Louis XIII as the price for fiscal reform. 5. “Louis XVI and Calonne had an economic reform plan to tax landed property. It was based on provincial assemblies and allowed no evasion by nobles. a. [Note that monarchs were the modernizers until the French Revolution only afterwards did they become archaic, and supported by their hitherto enemies, the nobles and the clergy]” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism) 6. Charles Alexandre de Calonne dismissed and replaced by Lomenie de Brienne April 1787 7. Abortive reform of the Parlements; government restricts their powers, but then restores them. Victory of the aristocracy. May-September 1788 8.“Day of the Tiles” at Grenoble: riot in support of Parlement. June 7, 1788 9. The Estates of Dauphiné met at Vizille and demand reform July 21, 1788 10. Government orders the Estates-General to meet next year. August 8, 1788 a. Had not met since 1614 b. Government asks for cahiers de doléances , Official complaints drawn up and presented to the Crown, to be prepared 11. becomes Controller-General of Finance. August 25, 1788 12. Food riots in France soon turning into peasant revolt against “feudalism” December 1788 IV. The Bourgeois Revolt A. The cahiers de doléances – an example 1. “That no citizen lose his liberty except according to law, that AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 7

consequently, no one be arrested by virtue of special orders. . . . “ 2. “That the property of all citizens be inviolable.” 3. “That every personal tax be abolished; that thus the capitation and the taille . . .be merged with the Vingtièmes in a tax on land and real or nominal property.” 4. “That such taxes be borne equally, without distinction, by all classes of citizens and by all kinds of property.” 5. “That the tax substituted for the Corvée be borne by all classes.” 6. That the venality [sale of] offices by suppressed. . . .”That the tax of the gabelle be eliminated. . . . 7. “That the right to hunt may never affect the property of the citizen . . . . ‘ 8. That individuals as well as communities be permitted to free themselves from the rights of Banalité [peasants were required to use the lord’s mill, winepress and oven], and Corvée by payments in money or in kind.” B . Abbé Sieyès publishes his pamphlet, What Is the Third Estate: 1.“What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing. What does it want? To become something.” 2. “Who then shall dare to say that the Third Estate has not within itself all that is necessary for the formation of a complete nation? It is the strong and robust man who has one arm still shackled. If the privileged order should be abolished, the nation would be nothing less, but something more. Therefore, what is the Third Estate? Everything; but an everything shackled and oppressed. What would it be without the privileged order? Everything, but an everything free and flourishing. Nothing can succeed without it, everything would be infinitely better without the others” 3. “The Third Estate embraces then all that which belongs to the nation; an all that which is not the Third Estate, cannot be regarded as being of the nation. What is the Third Estate? It is the whole.” (Sieyes) a. “The ideas feed on themselves. This is part of the structure of revolutions: a long period of preparation, then developments at an intense speed leading to conclusions none of those at the beginning could have envisaged.” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism) C. Rural and urban unrest increases, 1. Example, April 27, a Riot in the Faubourg St. Antoine (Paris) destroys Réveillon’s wallpaper works. D. The Estates-General 1. Opened May 5th 2. Voting by Order or by Head? a. Traditionally, each Estate voted by Order, which meant that each Estate had the same number of delegates, and each Estate voted AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 8

separately. (1) The Third Estate thus had only one third of the votes, and could always be outvoted by the other two Estates. b. The Third Estate demanded that they vote by Head, with the Third Estate having as many delegates as the other two combined, and that they all vote together. (1) This would obviously favor the Third Estate. c. The Crown tried to compromise by doubling the number of delegates to the Third Estate, but continuing to vote by Order. 3. Social make-up of the delegates from the Third Estate a. Government officials, lawyers, representatives of the bourgeoisie, the rising merchant and entrepreneurial class. b. They therefore tended to support Liberalism 4. The Third Estate assumes the title of National Assembly, June 17th, 1789 a. Note the influence of the Abbé Sieyès 5.The a. Locked out of their meeting place (by accident, not by design, we now know), the National Assembly gathered in a near by tennis court, June 20th. b.Oath of the Tennis Court: The Third Estate pledged not to disband until France had received a constitution. c. Louis XVI gives in to the Third Estate’s demands and orders all three Estates to deliberate together, June 27th, 1789 d.National Assembly proclaims itself the Constituent Assembly, July 9th. (1) Changes in the name of the Assembly–from Estates General to National Assembly to Constituent Assembly–reveal the evolution of political self-conception. E . The Constituent Assembly 1. Chief issues facing the Constituent Assembly are a. the Declaration of Rights b. the royal veto c. the suffrage d. new system of local government e. finances f. The Church 2. Louis XVI misjudges the moment a. Troops are moved near Paris, heightening anxiety by their mere presence b. Marie Antoinette urged him to reassert his authority c. “King acts stupidly - tries to undermine [the Constituent Assembly] but not effectively - creates anxiety amongst its AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 9

supporters - d. The King abandoned the bourgeoisie, which monarchs had supported for a century and now supported the nobility e. Now to revolt against the nobility the Third Estate also had to revolt against the King. f. But Two Mass Uprisings of the Masses saved the [Constituent] Assembly” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism) 3. July 11, Necker is dismissed; he is perceived as a supporter of the Third Estate, and this leads to riots in Paris a. Sans-culottes attacked customs barriers to lower the price of grain b. Sans-culottes stormed the Invalides to arm themselves when rumors spread of an attack by the army. 4.Fall of the Bastille a. July 14th, b. Paris mob was seeking weapons to use against the feared assault by Royal regiments. (1) The members of this particular mob were overwhelmingly Sans-culottes. c. The Bastille was used as a prison, but only had 2 prisoners at the time. d. The Bastille is also a symbol of Royal authority. e. The garrison was quite small, but defended itself; 98 persons were killed. f. The crowd stormed the fort and massacred the garrison. g. The commander successfully surrendered himself, but was seized by the mob, beheaded, and his head paraded on a pike. h. For the first time, the violence of the Paris mob has re-directed the course of the Revolution. i. Emigration of the nobles begins. j. Rural revolts gather momentum. k.National Guard, made up of bourgeois youth and led by Lafayette, formed. (1) The National Guard is a response to fears of the mob. (2) The National Guard adopts the Tricolor: red and blue for Paris, and white for the Bourbon. l. Paris Commune set up and other municipalities revolutionized. Paris is organized in such a way that mobs can be produced quickly. Power in the Paris Commune is held by the Sans-culottes. (1) Old civil government swept away. (2) is the new mayor of Paris 5. The : peasant revolt against feudalism a. Vague threat of an armed “they” AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 10

b. Rumors spread very quickly c. Peasants organize to defend themselves, but also begin attacking manors and local courts d. A prime target were the legal documents establishing the various feudal dues. 6.The August Decrees August 4th 1789 a. A direct response to the Great Fear b.Provided that all citizens should pay taxes, c. abrogated feudal dues, and d. abolished the Corvée (1)Introduced by aristocrats such as Vicomte de Noailles and the Duc d’Aiguillon (both friends of Lafayette). (2)“[Article] 1. The National Assembly abolishes the feudal system entirely. (3) 2. The exclusive right of fuies [allowing birds to graze] and dovecotes is abolished. (4) 3. The exclusive right of hunting is also abolished. (5) 4. All seigneurial justices are abolished with no compensation. Nevertheless the officers of these justices will go on with their duties until the National Assembly decides on a new judicial order. (6) 5. Any kind of tithes and fees, under any denomination that they are known or collected . . . are abolished. . . (7) 7. Venality of judicial fees and municipal offices is abolished.. (8) 9. Financial, personal, or real privileges are abolished forever. Every citizen will pay the same taxes on everything. (9) 10. . . . Every specific privilege of provinces, principalities, regions, districts, cities and communities of inhabitants, either in the form of money or otherwise, are abolished. (10) 11. Every citizen, whatever their origins are, can hold any ecclesiastic, civilian, or military job. “ e. From this point on, the peasants have what they basically wanted, the land and abolition of feudal dues. They will now be rather a conservative, rather than a force. 7. August 26, 1789, Assembly votes the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen a. 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good. [Equality before the Law] b. 2. The aim of all political association is the preservation of the AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 11

natural and imprescriptible rights of man. These rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression. [Natural Rights] c. 3. The principle of all sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body nor individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. [Sovereignty resides in the Nation] d. 4. Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law. . [Equality before the Law] e. 5. Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. Nothing may be prevented which is not forbidden by law, and no one may be forced to do anything not provided for by law. . [Equality before the Law] f. 6. Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate personally, or through his representative, in its foundation. It must be the same for all, whether it protects or punishes. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities, and without distinction except that of their virtues and talents. [Law is the expression of the General Will] g. 7. No person shall be accused, arrested, or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. Any one soliciting, transmitting, executing, or causing to be executed, any arbitrary order, shall be punished. But any citizen summoned or arrested in virtue of the law shall submit without delay, as resistance constitutes an offense. [Due Process] h. 8. The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one shall suffer punishment except it be legally inflicted in virtue of a law passed and promulgated before the commission of the offense. . [Due Process] i. 9. As all persons are held innocent until they shall have been declared guilty, if arrest shall be deemed indispensable, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner's person shall be severely repressed by law. . [Due Process] j. 10. No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including his religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the public order established by law. [Freedom of Religion] k. 11. The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 12

most precious of the rights of man. Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. [Freedom of Speech] l. 12. The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military forces. These forces are, therefore, established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be intrusted. m. 13. A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means. n. 14. All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the public contribution; to grant this freely; to know to what uses it is put; and to fix the proportion, the mode of assessment and of collection and the duration of the taxes. [Representative Government] o. 15. Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration. [Representative Government] p. 16. A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all. Separation of Powers] q. 17. Since property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified. . [Due Process] 8.October Days a. The Parisian women march on Versailles; b. they demand that the king accept the Declaration of Rights and also cheap bread. c. Louis XVI and the court are installed at the Tuileries in Paris. d.“The baker, the baker’s wife, and the baker’s little boy” . e. Government now operates under the constant threat of mob violence 9. Government under the Constituent Assembly a. Administrative Reform (1) Local government reform in 1789: 83 departments established, each divided into districts and communes. (a) This is today’s political map of France (b) Departments were made smaller than older provinces deliberately, to make government more AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 13

accessible to people living away from the district capitals. (2) The old governmental structures are swept aside. b. Finances (1) The state debt could not be repudiated since most of the members of the Assembly were property owners and many would have held government bonds (2) In November 1789, Church lands were confiscated. (3) In December, creation of a paper money, assignats, secured on national (church) lands. c. Economic Liberalism (1)D’Allarde law abolishing guilds. A bourgeois, laissez-faire bill. (2)Le Chapelier law outlawing unions and strikes. Another bourgeois, laissez-faire bill (3) Tariffs are abolished to permit free trade d. The Church (1) July 12th, 1790 Civil Constitution of Clergy voted by the Assembly. (2) Parish priests and bishops were to be elected; (3) old dioceses abolished, (4) the pope would have no authority in France; (5) bishops and priests become employees of the state; (6) clergy must take an oath of fealty to the constitution. (7) In separate bills, religious orders were abolished e.Constitution of 1791 (1) Royal veto (a)suspensive veto (as opposed to an absolute) for the king. He could veto a bill twice, but the third time a bill could be passed by simple majority,. (2) Suffrage (a) a constitutional distinction between “active” and “passive” citizens. (b) All male Frenchmen over 25 were citizens. (c) However, unless one paid 3 days’ unskilled wages in taxes, one was a passive citizen and ineligible to vote. (d) Active citizens could vote for the primary assembly. (e) To be eligible for the secondary assemblies, which actually elected deputies, one had to pay 10 days’ wages. (f) To be eligible for the national assembly, one had to AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 14

pay 50 days’ wages–one silver mark. (g) Only 50,000 persons could vote (h) This is obviously a bourgeois voting structure. (3) The delegates to the Constituent Assembly disqualified themselves to serve in the Legislative Assembly, which was foolish and led to a lack of continuity between the two governments. 10. The Legislative Assembly a. The : (June 20-21, 1789) (1) Louis XVI and his family tries to flee the country. He is stopped and returned to the capital. This is a fatal mistake, and dooms the monarchy. (2) It also eventually dooms the . (3) Assembly suspends him, but then votes to reinstate him on condition that he accept the Constitution. b.Massacre of the Champs de Mars: (July 17th) troops led by Lafayette fire on crowd of Republican sympathizers. This is followed by the “Tricolor Terror” directed against the democratic movements. c.Legislative Assembly takes over on September 30, 1789 11. Foreign Reaction a. Intellectuals and Artists (1) Saw the Revolution as applying the Enlightenment to France, and were very supportive (a) Adam Smith (b) (c) Ludwig van Beethoven b. Conservatives (1), Reflections on the Revolution in France November 1790 (a) Father of modern conservatism (b) “Burke is not a supporter of tyranny or despotism, rather he says in opposition to liberals (c) people are not good - they are what they are and you cannot make things better over night (d) Populism should not be trusted (e) Good government is going to come about through long experience and should not be overthrown (f) Government is complicated and simple schemes can never be satisfactory” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism) i) Thomas Paine’s Rights of Man 1791 is a AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 15

response to Burke c. Women (1), Declaration of the Rights of Man and Woman, 1791 (a) “Man alone has raised his exceptional circumstances to a principle. Bizarre, blind, bloated with science and degenerated - in a century of enlightenment and wisdom - into the crassest ignorance, he wants to command as a despot a sex which is in full possession of its intellectual faculties; he pretends to enjoy the Revolution and to claim his rights to equality in order to say nothing more about it.” (b) “Woman, wake up; the tocsin of reason is being heard throughout the whole universe; discover your rights. The powerful empire of nature is no longer surrounded by prejudice, fanaticism, superstition, and lies. The flame of truth has dispersed all the clouds of folly and usurpation. Enslaved man has multiplied his strength and needs recourse to yours to break his chains. Having become free, he has become unjust to his companion. Oh, women, women! When will you cease to be blind? What advantage have you received from the Revolution? A more pronounced scorn, a more marked disdain. In the centuries of corruption you ruled only over the weakness of men. The reclamation of your patrimony, based on the wise decrees of nature - what have you to dread from such a fine undertaking? “ (c) “I take up my text again on the subject of morals. Marriage is the tomb of trust and love. The married woman can with impunity give bastards to her husband, and also give them the wealth which does not belong to them. The woman who is unmarried has only one feeble right; ancient and inhuman laws refuse to her for her children the right to the name and the wealth of their father; no new laws have been made in this matter. “ i) Olympe de Gouges efforts to assert the rights of women led to her accusation and conviction of in 1793. She was AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 16

executed by the guillotine. (2), Vindication of the Rights of Women, 1792 (a) “In the book Wollstonecraft attacked the educational restrictions that kept women in a state of "ignorance and slavish dependence." She was especially critical of a society that encouraged women to be "docile and attentive to their looks to the exclusion of all else." Wollstonecraft described marriage as "legal prostitution" and added that women "may be convenient slaves, but slavery will have its constant effect, degrading the master and the abject dependent." (b) “The ideas in Wollstonecraft's book were truly revolutionary and caused tremendous controversy. One critic described Wollstonecraft as a "hyena in petticoats". Mary Wollstonecraft argued that to obtain social equality society must rid itself of the monarchy as well as the church and military hierarchies. Mary Wollstonecraft's views even shocked fellow radicals. Whereas advocates of parliamentary reform such as Jeremy Bentham and John Cartwright had rejected the idea of female suffrage, Wollstonecraft argued that the rights of man and the rights of women were one and the same thing.” (Wollstonecraft) i) Mary Wollstonecraft died in 1797 as a result of complications in the birth of her second child, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, the future author of Frankenstein. d. Foreign Governments (1) Monarchs were not unhappy to see France weakened, but they did not want the Revolution to spread. (2) Enlightened despots become a great deal more despotic and a great deal less Enlightened. (3) Russia, Austria, and Russia took the opportunity to partition Poland in 1793 and 1795. V. The Radical Revolution A. Development of political clubs 1. Club: Originally more moderate, they became more radical with time, demanding an end to the monarchy and the establishment of a republic. Led by . AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 17

2.Girondins, led by Jacques-Pierre Brissot. Sometimes called Brissotins. They favor a less centralized government than the Jacobins (with more power in the departments), a limited monarchy, and revolutionary war. 3. Foundation of the Feuillants Club: (seceding from the Jacobin Club) rallying point for the moderates. Feuillant Club: more conservative which favored a limited monarchy. B. Resistance to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy 1. Half of the French clergy refused to swear oath to the government. They are referred to as non-juring clergy. They tend to be from the lower clergy, more rural, more traditionally faithful. 2. In 1791, Papal Brief and Bull condemning Civil Constitution of the Clergy; beginning of counter-revolution by “non-juring” clergy [] 3. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy thus will trigger a bitter civil war. Many peasants remained loyal to the Church, and had now gotten all that they wanted from the Revolution. 4. The anti-clericalism of the Revolution creates a deep division that lasts well into the 20th century, with Paris being more radical and the countryside more conservative. 5. The Pope’s condemnation of Revolution, Liberalism, and the Rights of Man sets the tone for political conflict for more than a century–and, in the eyes of many, places the Church on the wrong side of the issues of modernization and reform. C . (August 27, 1791) issued by Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia, indicating their readiness to intervene in France if other sovereigns would support them. 1. Avignon annexed to France 2. Ministry formed by the Girondins, who see war as a way of rallying support behind the king and country. a. The king supported the war, hoping that France would lose and he would be restored. b. Robespierre opposed the war because he was afraid that France would lose. D . Declaration of war against Emperor Francis II. 1. French armies, having lost its aristocratic officers and in serious disarray (royal regiments were not trusted) soon begin to suffer defeats. E. Radicalization 1. Music reveals the sense of crisis a.Ça ira The most popular of the Revolutionary songs Ça Ira! We Will Win! Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win", Le peuple en ce jour sans cesse repète: The people of this day neverendingly sing AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 18

Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win, Malgré les mutins tout réussira! In spite of the traitors, all will succeed"

Nos ennemis confus en restent là, Our confused enemies are staying low et nous allons chanter Alleluya! But we are going to sing "Alleluia!" Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win",

Quand Boileau jadis du clergé parla When Boileau once spoke about the clergy Comme un prophète, il a prédit cela, "Like a prophet he predicted as much., En chantant ma chansonnette, By singing my ditty, Avec plaisir on dira: With pleasure I will say: Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,

Malgré les mutins tout réussira. In spite of the traitors, all will succeed" Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Pierrot et Margot chantent à la guinguette, Punch and Judy sing at the show Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Réjouissons-nous, le bon temps viendra. Let us rejoices, for the good times are coming

Le peuple français jadis "a quia" The French people were once nobodies L'aristocratie dit: "Mea culpa." But now the aristocrats say "we are guilty" Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Le clergé regrette le bien qu'il a. The clergy now regrets all its wealth . Par justice la nation l'aura, Through justice the nation will have it all, Par le prudent LaFayette Through the wise LaFayette Tout trouble s'apaisera, All trouble will be quieted, Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,

Malgré les mutins tout réussira. In spite of the traitors, all will succeed" Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Petits comme grands sont soldats The weak as well as the strong are soldiers dans l'âme, in their souls Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Pendant la guerre aucun ne trahira. During the war, not one will be a traitor. Avec coeur tout bon Français combattra, With their hearts, all good Frenchmen will fight, AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 19

S'il voit du louche, hardiment And when he sees a slacker, il parlera. he will boldly speak up Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Lafayette dit: "Vienne qui voudra." Lafayette says, "Let he who will follow me!" Le patriotisme leur répondra And patriotism will respond, Sans craindre ni feu ni flamme, Without fear of fire or flame. Les Français toujours vaincront, The French will always conquer Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,

Malgré les mutins tout réussira. In spite of the traitors, all will succeed" Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Les aristocrates à la lanterne! Let's string up the aristocrats on the lampposts! Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Les aristocrates, on les pendra! We'll string up the aristocrats! Le despotisme expirera, Despotism will die, La liberté triomphera, Liberty will triumph Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Nous n'avions plus ni nobles, ni prêtres, And we will no longer have nobles or priests Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"" L'égalité partout régnera. Equality will reign throughout the land/world L'esclave autrichien le suivra, And the Austrian slave will follow it. Ah! ça ira, ça ira, ça ira, "We will win, we will win, we will win,"

Et leur infernale clique And their hellish clique Au diable s'envolera. will be sent to the devil.

b.The Marseillaise by Rouget de Lisle Allons enfants de la Patrie Let us go, children of the fatherland Le jour de gloire est arrivé. Our day of Glory has arrived. Contre nous, de la tyrannie, Against us stands tyranny, L'étandard sanglant est levé, The bloody flag is raised, l'étandard sanglant est levé, The bloody flag is raised. Entendez-vous, dans la compagnes. Do you hear in the countryside Mugir ces farouches soldats The roar of these savage soldiers Ils viennent jusque dans nos bras They come right into our arms Egorger vos fils, To cut the throats of your sons, AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 20 vos compagnes. your country.

Aux armes citoyens! To arms, citizens! Formez vos bataillons, Form up your battalions Marchons, marchons! Let us march, Let us march! Qu'un sang impur That their impure blood Abreuve nos sillons. Should water our fields

Amour sacré de la Patrie, Sacred love of the fatherland Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs, Guide and support our vengeful arms. Liberté, liberté cherie, Liberty, beloved liberty, Combats avec tes defénseurs; Fight with your defenders; Combats avec tes défenseurs. Fight with your defenders. Sous drapeaux, que la victoire Under our flags, so that victory Acoure à tes mâles accents; Will rush to your manly strains; Que tes ennemis expirants That your dying enemies Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire! Should see your triumph and glory

Aux armes citoyens! To arms, citizens! Formez vos bataillons, Form up your battalions Marchons, marchons! Let us march, Let us march! Qu'un sang impur That their impure blood Abreuve nos sillons. Should water our fields

1. Factions within the Legislative Assembly a. Monarchists, led by Lafayette b. Jacobins, led by Robespierre c. Girondins, led by Brissot 2. Demonstrations against Louis XVI at Paris June 20 a. the crowd invades the Tuileries, forcing Louis XVI to wear a (red bonnet) symbolizing the Revolution 3. Lafayette tries to close the Jacobin Club and overawe the Assembly, June 27 4. Assembly votes La patrie en danger! “The fatherland in danger.” Demands grow for removal of the king. a. Note the very modern sense of nationalism displayed here; the Wars of the French Revolution will pit old-style armies of the ancien régime against the armies of a modern nation-in-arms 5. Manifesto issued by the Duke of Brunswick, commanding the allied armies, threatening total destruction of Paris. July 25 6. 47 of 48 Paris Sections vote for abolition of the monarchy August 3 7. Attack on the Tuilerie overthrows the monarchy, August 10. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 21

a. is summoned b. Dismissed Girondin ministers reinstated. 8. Royal family incarcerated in the Temple under supervision of the commune, August 13 9. Lafayette flees (August 14) after trying to persuade his army to march on Paris. 10. Establishment of the Extraordinary Tribunal to judge counter- (August 17). 11. Lafayette defects to the Austrians (August 19), who intern him. 12. A series of defeats in August and early September leaves France in extreme danger of invasion. a.Georges-Jacques Danton declares that France needs “l’audace, l’audace, toujours l’audace.” b.Jean-Paul Marat in L’Ami du peuple and Jacques-René Hébert in Le Père Duchesne demand the slaughter of the Paris prisoners. B. The (September 2-6, 1792 1. The “September Massacres”: massacre of prisoners in Paris. a. A relatively small number of murderers actually committed the atrocity. b. The victims numbered about 1,200, 1/3 of whom were priests, the rest civil criminals. c. The murders were sadistically ferocious–many hacked to pieces. d. Among the victims were “Marie Gredeler, a young woman who kept an umbrella . . . depository. Charged with mutilating her lover, she was herself mutilated, her breasts were cut off, her feet nailed to the ground and a bonfire was set alight between her spreadeagled legs. . . .[and] the Princess de Lamballe . . .[who] had been stripped, and raped; her breasts had been cut off; the rest of her body mutilated; and ‘exposed to the insults of the populace.’ . . . “ (Hibbert 174-175) One of her legs was shot out of a cannon. Her head and her genitals were impaled on pikes and paraded around the city, specifically under the Queen’s window. The head was placed on the counter of a café where the customers drank her health. 2.Valmy September 20, 1792 a. French victory at Valmy averts threat of invasion. b. This is the beginning of the French attempt to spread the ideological ideals of liberté, egalité, fraternité throughout Europe c. Military developments (1) French attack the Austrian Netherlands and capture Brussels by November (2) That same month Savoy is attacked, and France offers AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 22

assistance to all revolutionary groups in Europe (3) The Convention abolished feudalism in all territories occupied by French armies on December 15 (4) In January, Danton proclaims the goal of France’s “natural frontiers”–the Rhine (5) Decree ordering levy of 300,000 men for the army: levee en masse (6) France declared war on England and the Netherlands, and Spain in March. (7) By the end of March, France was at war with all of Europe. (8) French defeat at Neerwinden; General Dumouriez conspires with Austrians, then goes over to them (April 5) Dumouriez was friendly with many Girondins, which led to suspicion that they were traitors (see contemporaneous domestic events) (9) By the spring of 1794, France had 800,000 men under arms, which outnumbered the combined armies of their opponents. C. Domestic Turmoil 1.Girondins and the Montagnards [Jacobins] struggle over a. the September Massacres b. the trial of the king c. the new constitution, d. the conduct of the war e. prosecution of Marat f. the Commission of Twelve. 2. The Girondins supported a federalist concept of the nation (as opposed to the Jacobins, who favored Paris) and also were committed to liberal economics, including a laissez-faire approach to the war time economy. 3. Convention votes to abolish the monarchy (September 21, 1792) : Year I of the Republic begins. 4. In November, a proposal to try the king for treason. a. The Montagnards had found the king’s correspondence with Austria. b. “The condemnation of King also put Girondists in a bind - if they supported it they lost moderate support, if they opposed it they lost patriot support. Robespierre saw this.” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism) 5. December 11, Louis XVI placed on trial before the Convention. The Girondins seem to have felt that most of the country was still royalist (which was most likely true) but whips through the votes. The death penalty was voted by a majority of one vote. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 23

6. On January 21, 1793, Execution of Louis XVI 7. Emergence of the Enragés, led by Jacques Roux and Jacques-René Hébert. They demand common ownership of goods and strict economic controls. 8. February saw food riots in Paris 9. March saw more riots at Paris against Girondin governments 10. Outbreak of rebellion in the Vendée. (March 10, 1793) a. Unrest had existed already due to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; b. Government attempts to conscript peasants was what led to outright violence: a bitter Civil War breaks out. 11. Establishment of the Committee of Public Safety. (April 5) a. Members included Danton, Robespierre, Marat, and Bertrand Barère and (“the organizer of victory”)–a “sort of dictatorship in commission.” b. The Committee of Public Safety begins supervising public policy.

c. Convention also begins to send out Representatives on Mission. These men were often more radical than Paris itself. 12. Girondins indict Marat; a serious political error. 13. Marat acquitted by the , a severe blow to the prestige of the Girondins. 14. Anti-Jacobin agitation at Marseilles, Lyons, Rennes 15. Decree of the Maximum of grain prices (May 4, 1793). Victory for the Enragés 16. Girondins create a Commission of Twelve to investigate the Paris Commune, a center of power for the Enragés. 17. On May 24, Commission of Twelve has Hébert and Jean Varlet (of the Enragés) arrested 18. Later that month, there is an outbreak of counter-revolutionary revolt at Lyon 19. Parisian uprising (May 31-June 2), the invaded by the mob. a. The Girondins are overthrown and the Montagnards (Jacobins) emerge victorious. 20. “Federalist” revolts erupt in Normandy, at Bordeaux, and elsewhere 21. In June, the Convention votes a new Jacobin Constitution of 1793 and a new Declaration of the Rights of Man 22. The next day, on behalf of the Club, Jacques Roux presents the Enragés manifesto 23. Murder of Marat by (July 13, 1793) 24. Series of defeats on northern frontier renews threat of invasion, heightening the sense of fear and crisis.. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 24

25. July 26 Decree authorizing death penalty for hoarders and speculators in grain– victory for the .Enragés 26. Maximilien Robespierre and Louis St. Just elected to Committee of Public Safety 27. August 23 Decree ordering the levée en masse (full conscription) “Young men will go to the front; married men will forge arms and transport foodstuffs; women will make tents, clothes, will serve in the hospitals; children will tear rags into lint; old men will get themselves carried to public places, there to stir up the courage of the warriors, hatred of kings and unity in the republic.” a. This means total mobilization of the nation-state’s resources for war. 28. In August, Counter-revolutionaries at Toulon hand the city over to the English 29. September 4-5 Popular uprising at Paris: a. the Convention makes the Terror the order of the day.” b. Jacques Roux arrested. 30. Establishment of a national maximum price for grain September 11-- victory for the .Enragés D . The September 17, 1793-1794 1. Convention votes the The Reign of Terror begins. 2.National maximums fixed for prices and wages Hoarders will be executed -victory for the .Enragés 3. A revolt in Lyons is suppressed in October 4. On Louis St.-Just’s motion, government is voted “revolutionary until peace” 5. Trial and execution of Marie Antoinette, October 16, conducted in a vicious circus atmosphere. 6.Cronos Begins Devouring His Children: October 24: Trial and execution of Brissot and the other Girondin leaders. a. Angered by their able defense, Hébert complained “Need there be so much ceremony about shortening the lives of wretches already condemned by the people?” b. One Girondin stabbed himself to death upon the conviction; Hébert had the corpse taken to the guillotine and beheaded anyway. 7. Women’s societies and clubs banned 8.Philippe Egalité, former duc d’Orleans, execute 9.Mme. Roland executed. “The time has come which was foretold, when the people would ask for bread and be given corpses.” (Hibbert 229) 10. Olympe de Gouges is also executed that same month. 11. Execution of Bailly, November 12. Execution of Barnave. , November AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 25

13. About 3,000 people will be executed this fall and winter in Paris alone, and about 14,000 in the provinces. (Hibbert 224-225) a.Louis St. Just will insist, “You have no more grounds for restraint against the enemies of the new order, and liberty must prevail at any price. . . . We must rule by iron those who cannot be ruled by justice . . . You must punish not merely traitors but the indifferent as well.” (Hibbert 225) b. An 18 year old was executed for having cut down a liberty tree. c. A publican was executed for supplying the army with sour wine. d. A woman was executed for having wept at the execution of her husband. (Hibbert 226, 229) e. December 4, Decree establishing the Revolutionary government f. publishes Vieux Cordeliers to attack the Jacobins. (1)Danton and Desmoulins represent the Indulgents, who favored an end to the Terror. (2)Saint-Just regards Danton as a traitor: “A man is guilty of a crime against the Republic when he takes pity on prisoners. He is guilty because he has no desire for virtue. He is guilty because he is opposed to the Terror.” (3) When a Jacobin called Danton a “fat stuffed turbot,” Danton replied that he would eat his brains out and “shit in his skull” (Hibbert 236) 14. December 12, Defeat of Vendée rebels at Le Mans 15. December 19 Recapture of Toulon by General Napoleon Bonaparte. a. This marks his first step on the way to power 16. “Ventôse decrees” to aid “needy” patriots–sequestration of suspects’ goods and distribution to the needy 17. March, Abortive revolt by Cordeliers Club against the Revolutionary Government. a. The Hébertists are accused of being traitors and foreign agents (!!!) and arrested. 18. March 24 Execution of the Sans-culottes leaders known as the Enragés or Hébertists. a.Hébert fainted repeatedly on his way to the guillotine and had to be carried up to the scaffold.. 19. March 30 Arrest of Georges Jacques Danton, Camille Desmoulins and his supporters. a. On the scaffold Danton said, “If I left my balls to that eunuch Robespierre, . . . the Committee of Public Safety might last a bit longer. But as it is, . . . Robespierre is bound to follow me . . . . Above all, don’t forget to show my head to the people. It’s well worth having a look at.“ (Hibbert 244) AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 26

b. Soon afterward, Robespierre sent Lucille Desmoulins, Camille’s widow, to the guillotine for appealing for her husband’s life, despite the fact that he was godfather to their baby son. (Hibbert 241) 20. Assassination attempts against Robespierre and Collot d’Herbois 21. The : (June 10) a. Permitted the Revolutionary Tribunal to convict suspects without hearing substantial evidence. b. Defense lawyers were dropped, and interrogation of the accused before a public trial no longer necessary. c. Juries were to be satisfied by “moral proof” rather than positive proof. d. The only sentence was death. 22. Paris Commune fixes maximum levels for wages E. Women in the Revolution 1. Women were granted the right to divorce in September 1792 2. Women granted equal rights to inheritance in March 1793 3.The Reign of Terror a. Women’s societies and clubs banned in October 1793 b.Mme. Manon Roland executed. “ c.Olympe de Gouges executed the same month (1) From The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Woman (a) Article 6: “The laws must be the expression of the general will; all female and male citizens must contribute either personally or through their representatives to its formation; it must be the same for all: male and female citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, must be equally admitted to all honors, positions, and public employment according to their capacity and without other distinctions besides those of their virtues and talents.” (b) Article 7 : “No woman is an exception: she is accused, arrested, and detained in cases determined by law. Women, like men, obey this rigorous law.” (c) Article 8: “ The law must establish only those penalties that are strictly and obviously necessary, and no one can be punished except by virtue of a law established and promulgated prior to the crime and legally applicable to women.” (d) Article 9: “Once any woman is declared guilty, complete rigor is [to be] exercised by the law.” (e) Article 10: “ No one is to be disquieted for his very AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 27

basic opinions; woman has the right to mount the scaffold; she must equally have the right to mount the rostrum, provided that her demonstrations do not disturb the legally established public order.” d. Jacobins on Women’s Political Clubs (1) Jean Baptiste Amar: “Man is strong, robust, born with a great energy, audacity, and courage; . . . He is suited for the arts and difficult labors. . . . In general, women are hardly capable of lofty conceptions and serious cogitations. . . . Do you want in the French Republic to see them coming up to the bar, to the speaker’s box, to political assemblies like men, abandoning both the discretion that is the source of all virtues of this sex and the care of their family?” (2) Pierre Gaspard Chaumette: “. . . . Since when is it permitted to renounce one’s sex? Since when is it decent to see women abandon the pious cares of their household, the cradle of their children, to come into public places, to the galleries to hear speeches,, to the bar of the senate? Remember that haughty wife of a foolish and treacherous spouse, the Roland woman, who thought herself suited to govern the republic and who raced to her death. Remember the shameless Olympe de Gouges, who was the first to set up women’s clubs, who abandoned the cares of her household to involve herself in the republic, and whose head fell under the avenging blade of the laws. Is it for women to make motions? Is it for women to put themselves at the head of our armies?” F. Revolutionary Culture: 1. spread of tutoiement, 2. replacement of Monsieur with Citoyen, 3. change in clothing to simpler forms, use of trousers, abandonment of powdered hair, women giving up jewelry, christening with Revolutionary names a. Of course, Maximilen Robespierre dressed fastidiously, wore breeches, and powdered his hair. 4. Adoption of the : Politicization of Space a. Based on a decimal system b. Replaced the numerous, ancient weight and measures. 5.The Revolutionary Calendar 1794: Politicization of Time a. 12 months of 30 days each b. 5 public holidays at the end of the year c. Week becomes a “decade” of 10 days. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 28

d. Each tenth day was a day of rest. e. The Revolutionary Calendar 1794: The Months (1) Vendémaire (2) Brumaire Floréal (3) Frumaire Prairial (4) Nivôse Messidor (5) Pluviôse Thermidor (6) Ventôse Fructidor 6. February 4, 1794 Convention abolishes slavery in French colonies 7. De-Christianization a. State sponsored festivals to replace Catholic festivals (1)Festival of Federation 14 July 1790 (2)Festival of Unity 10 August 1793 (a) The painter David became the planner for such festivals b.Festival of Reason at Notre Dame de Paris November 10, 1793 c. Robespierre institutes the Cult of the Supreme Being June 8, 1794 (1) Robespierre feared that the would generate opposition to the Revolution (2) He also rejected outright atheism substituting a Rousseauesque deism (3) “He [the Supreme Being] did not create kings to devour the human species. Neither did he create priests to harness us like brute beasts to the carriages of kinds, and to give the world the example of baseness, pride, perfidy, avarice, debauchery and falsehood. But he created the universe to celebrate his power; he created men to help and to love one another, and to attain happiness through the path of virtue.” Robespierre, Speech at the Festival of the Supreme Being, 8 June 1794

VI. The Thermidorean Reaction A. Robespierre strongly hinted at a new wave of executions in a speech to the Convention on July 26th. 1. Survivors of the Terror now feared for their own lives, and decide to get Robespierre before he could get them. B. July 27 (9 Thermidor by the Revolutionary calendar, hence the name), Robespierre and his supporters were arrested. 1. Robespierre tried to commit suicide, but succeeded only in blowing most of his lower jaw off. C. Robespierre, St. Just and others are executed on July 28, 1794 D . The Directory AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 29

1. “The Directory was a 5 man executive body - aim was to avoid dictatorship and excessive democracy. 2. This was a four-year period of lack of strong government and a series of coup d'etats. The leaders were not strongly ideological, but did not want to turn the clock back. 3. The new people in control were again rich bourgeois liberals - chief aim was to perpetuate their own rule. 4. Girondist deputies allowed to take seats 5. Paris Commune outlawed 6. Law of 22 Prairial revoked 7. People involved in the Terror were now attacked 8. the White Terror 9. economic liberalism revived + inflation E. A frivolous culture came into being - fashions etc. Salons re-opened (recall - story of relatives of terror victims going to parties wearing red scarves around their neck) F. There was also a revival of Catholicism 1. although cult of reason and the new calendar were kept. 2. 1795 August 22 - Constitution of the Year III 3. The first formally constituted Republic. 4. But this was a totally different world from only six years before (1789) a. property and wealth, not birth were now important. 5. France now had great national consciousness - no more could "L"etat, c'est moi" ever be said. 6. Peasants now were a major landowning group in society. 7. The Sans-culottes were removed from political life. 8. Riots by the poor were now put down - October 1795 - a Paris mob was put down. a. Napoleon commanded the cannon. b.[“The whiff of grapeshot” Napoleon was present, and seized his opportunity aggressively; his decisive action brought him to the attention of the Directory, and is the second step on his ascent to power.] 9. The Poor had been victims of the Terror so some loss of fervor for revolution. G. Political pressures on the Directory 1. There was continuing pressure from the left, from the old Jacobins + there were food riots. 2. There were strong movements to have the Monarchy restored a. The Monarchists actually won a majority in the election of 1797 b. The Directory staged a coup against them, supported by Napoleon - Coup of 18 Fructidor/Sept 4, 1797 AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 30

c. The problem for Monarchists was when Louis (XVII), the young son of Louis XVI died. The new legitimate heir to the Throne, was an unrepentant conservative who wanted to restore the 1789 constitution - not acceptable to the Peasants (who had gained land), or even the moderate Middle Class. d. It was also not acceptable to Napoleon who had his own ambitions. 3. To keep control Directory increasingly depended on the Army - opens way to Napoleon.” (The Frnech Reovlution: Liberalism and Radicalism)

VII. Napoleon Bonaparte A. Early Campaigns: From General to Emperor (1796-1804) 1. The Italian Campaign a. Napoleon Bonaparte appointed to command Army of Italy, March 1796 (1) He finds an army in rags, starving and demoralized. b. Napoleon Bonaparte begins his brilliant campaign against the Austrians in Northern Italy in April c. Napoleon wins a victory over the Austrians at Lodi May 10, 1796 d. Napoleon wins a victory over the Austrians at Castiglione August 10,1796 e. Napoleon wins a victory over the Austrians at Roverdo September 4, 1796 f. Napoleon wins a victory over the Austrians at Bassano September 8, 1796 g. Napoleon Bonaparte wins the decisive battle of Arcola in Northern Italy November 17, 1796 h.Treaty of Campoformio with Austria, negotiated by Napoleon Bonaparte October 18, 1797 2. Directory politics a. Napoleon returned to France, and supported the Directory in the Coup of 22 Floréal 3. The Egyptian Campaign a. Napoleon Bonaparte sails to invade Egypt May 19, 1798 b. Formation of the Second Coalition (Britain, Austria, Russia) against France c. France forced into the defensive, losing ground in Italy and Germany. d. At battle of Aboukir Bay, Horatio Nelson cuts Bonaparte off in Egypt. (1) After this, Napoleon may win battles, but he cannot win the campaign AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 31

e. Coup d’état by assembly against Directory: ministry overthrown May 1798 f. Napoleon returns to France in October, having abandoned his army in Egypt. (1) He senses his political opportunity 4.First Consul a. Coup d’état by Napoleon on November 10, 1799, who is named First Consul (1) The support of the army, based upon his victories, secures him power b. New Constitution with Bonaparte as First Consul, February 1800 c. Napoleon now turns his attention to defeating the Second Coalition, defeating the Austrians at Marengo on June 14, 1800 5.Peace of Amiens with Britain, 1800 a. France had de facto control over the Scheldt estuary and Antwerp. b. Napoleon “virtually annexed Piedmont, Parma, Elba and Holland” (Gates 16) c. In 1803, the British refused to give up Malta, and insisted that France give up Holland and Switzerland. 6. War renewed between France and Britain, 1803 a. Napoleon moves his army to northern France and makes preparations to invade Great Britain–if he can avoid the Royal Navy! 7.Duc d’Enghien kidnaped from Germany and executed. a. Napoleon’s Minister of Police, the sinister Joseph Fouché commented, “It was more than a crime, it was a mistake.” b. This murder horrified and enraged European royal households 8. Napoleon crowns himself Emperor of the French 1804 9.Third Coalition of Great Britain, Austria, Sweden and Russia formed against Napoleon B. Napoleonic Reforms 1800-1803 1.Governmental and Administrative Reform : a. “Authority from above, confidence from below” b. Hostility to the “mob”: (1) The “Whiff of Grapeshot” c. Overthrow of the Directory, (1) new Constitution with himself as First Consul (2) Ratified by plebiscite d. Crowned himself Emperor e. Made his relatives kings, attempted to create a new Bonapartist dynasty f. Repressed political liberty AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 32

(1) Censored newspapers, restricted freedom of speech g. Orderly, efficient, centralized government h. Prefects and subprefects to administer laws. 2. Religious Reform a.Concordat with the Pope in 1801 (1) Restored freedom of worship to Catholics (2) Declared Catholicism to be the religion of most Frenchmen (3) State named bishops (4) State paid priests (5) Clergy swore allegiance to the state (6) Church gave up claims to confiscated properties b. Ended the civil war within France between anti-clerical Revolutionaries and peasants c. Protestants and Jews were also granted religious freedom (1) Protestant clergy and Jewish rabbis are also paid by the state 3. Economic and Fiscal Reform: a. Reorganized and centralized tax collection. b. Called in and paid bonds. c. Established the Bank of France (1) All of this appealed to the bourgeois d. Constant wars placed heavy burdens on the tax base. e.The Continental System —attempted to block England from continental trade (1) This is hardly a “reform” but Napoleon’s insistence upon enforcing the System not only led to great hardship on the continent, but led Napoleon into his greatest military blunders, and, ultimately, defeat. (2)Berlin Decree—1806 Prohibited trade with England (3)British Orders in Council required all vessels trading with France to purchase a license. (4)Milan Decrees —1807 Any ship which had traded or even been stopped by the British Navy was to be confiscated. (5) Customs revenues plummeted (6) French manufacturing was wholly unable to make up for the loss of British goods (7) French manufacturers and merchants began to resent the restrictions (8) French dependants and allies resented the restrictions even more. (9) The Dutch economy is devastated. (10) Regarded his allies and conquered territories as a source for AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 33

raw materials, conscripts, and a market for French goods. (a) Conquered territories and allies expected to provide very heavy contributions to his wars. (b) Trade agreements strongly favored France. (c) Eventually, this contributes to his fall, as other countries began to view the French as oppressors. 4. Social Reforms: a. French armies (1) liberated the serfs (2) Gave peasants the right to own land (3) Gave peasants right to travel (4) Gave peasants the right to school their children 5. Educational : a. Established the Lycées, state run elite secondary schools b. Curriculum designed to glorify Napoleon and teach obedience c. Founded the École Polytechnique, an engineering school. d. A catechism in primary schools: (1)Question: What are the duties of Christians with respect to the princes who govern them, and what are, in particular, our duties toward Napoleon? (2) Answer: Love, respect, fidelity, military service. . . . We also owe him fervent prayers for his safety and for the spiritual and temporal prosperity of the State. 6. Legal Reform: The Code Napoleon a. Codified and reconciled the customary law of northern France with Roman law of the South b. Rights of property made sacrosanct. Most articles concerned property c. Provided for equality of all before the law d. Provided for religious freedom e. Provided for “freedom of work,” which reaffirmed the Le Chapelier law banning workers’ associations (1) Workers were not allowed to strike, and were required to carry passports which might be checked by officials, police, or employer f. The Code Napoleon and the Family (1) “Napoleon considered the family as the most important intermediary between the state and the individual, a means of guaranteeing social order.” (2) Reasserts patriarchal family (3) Women and children legally dependant upon husbands and fathers. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 34

(4) Men control family property (5) A woman could not buy or sell property or start a business without her husband’s permission (6) A woman’s income would pass to her husband’s descendants, not hers. (7) A woman workers wages belonged to the husband. (8) Women had no control over children’s wages; the father did. (9) Divorce became more difficult to obtain. (10) Penalties for a woman who committed adultery were more severe than for men. (11) A woman could not witness a legal document (12) Parents could put children in jail (13) Parents retained control over children’s marriages (14) Primogeniture was ended. (a) (families began to have fewer children in order to avoid breaking property up)

(15)“In France, women are considered too highly. They should not be regarded as equal to men. In reality they are nothing more than machines for producing children.” 7. Military Reforms: a. Napoleon’s Art of War will be discussed in another section b. Promotion by merit: “Every private carries a marshal’s baton in his knapsack” c. Creation of a new aristocratic elite based on merit d.The Legion of Honor

C. Napoleon’s Art of War 1.Inherited Doctrine a.Levee en masse b. Soldiers were capable of living off the land (1) This works in Western Europe, where farming was better; it does not do well in Poland and Russia. c. Earlier wars a nation-in-arms against a dynastic state. 2. Tactics a. Impulse—non-linear tactics, with highly articulated units gave Napoleon the ability to flexibly apply pressure where ever needed. b. While his opponents still used linear tactics, they simply could not respond to a changing situation adequately. c. Napoleon increased the number of guns to infantry, and concentrated those guns in massive batteries. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 35

(1) Most casualties were caused by artillery, not musketry or edged weapons. d. The French preceded their attacks by swarms of skirmishers who masked the approach of the main body, and weakened the enemy lines. (1) The Revolutionary soldier, fighting for a cause, could be relied upon to engage the enemy as a skirmisher, and not just run away, as men in the armies of the ancien régime would likely do. e. The French would then (ideally) advance quickly in columns, smash through the enemy line, and create a gap for the heavy cavalry f. Heavy cavalry would exploit the gaps. g. Eventually, the light cavalry would conduct the pursuit. h. Napoleon always sought to destroy, not just defeat, his enemy. i. He never stood on the tactical defensive, even if the campaign was defensive; he always sought the initiative. j. Such tactics could be defeated (the British consistently did so) but for 15 years, the French generally outfought their opponents in battle after battle. 3. Strategy a. Sought swift, crushing victories by destroying enemy forces in the field and dictating an political peace b. Three typical strategies (1)la manoeuvre sur les derrières (advance of envelopment) (a) His favorite strategy, used when he had superior forces. (b) Promised swift victory and end of the war. (c) The Ulm campaign is a good example (d) Operation Desert Storm was a classic la manoeuvre sur les derrières (2)Battle of Central Position (a) His strategy when his forces were inferior. (b) A risky strategy but one which gave the best chance for victory. (c) The Waterloo campaign is the best example. (3)The Strategical Penetration (a) Used when the enemy was stretched out over a wide area; (b) Would not be decisive in itself, but intended to lead to a la manoeuvre sur les derrières (c) Opening of the Russian campaign is a good AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 36

example. (Chandler 162-175 c. Beginning with Spain, followed by Russia and Prussia, later faced nations-in-arms himself. 4. The Cost a. 2,000,000 men served in his armies b. At least 400,000 Frenchmen died fighting for Napoleon c. 600,000 were listed as prisoners or disappeared d. 20% of all Frenchmen born between 1790-1795 died e. Over all, some 5,000,000 men died during the Napoleonic Wars, which is proportionately the same as World War I (Gates xi) D. Austerlitz to Tilsit 1. Napoleon crowns himself King of Italy and absorbs Genoa and Savoy. 2.Horatio Nelson destroys the combined Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar on October 21, 1805 a. Battle secures British command of the seas b. Napoleon can no longer defeat Great Britain c. Secures British economic growth that will contribute greatly to Napoleon’s defeat. 3. Even before Trafalgar, when Napoleon learned that his fleet had taken refuse in Ferrol, he decided to shift his attention to the rest of the Third Coalition a. He turns la Grande Armée to the East 4. The Austerlitz Campaign a. Napoleon executed a wheeling movement to the east and south, enveloping the Austrian army at Ulm before they realized he was there, forcing them to surrender. b. He next drove east to capture Vienna c. Austrian and Russian armies combined in Bohemia, and Napoleon turns to catch them. d. On December 2, 1805, Napoleon crushes the Austrian/Russian army at Austerlitz. (1) It is regarded as his greatest battle, and one of the greatest tactical masterpieces of all time. e. Peace is signed with Austria, but not with Russia or Great Britain f. Napoleon creates the Rhenish Confederation, which reduced over 300 separate German principalities to 30 g. His brother Joseph is proclaimed King of the Two Sicilies and another brother, Louis, is proclaimed King of Holland 5. The Jena Campaign 1806 a. Belatedly, Prussia declares war on France in October (1) King Friedrich Wilhelm III is indecisive and weak. He is pressed to declare war by Queen Louise, who, Napoleon AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 37

once said, “is the only man in Prussia.” (Gates 52) b. Napoleon marches north in battalion carré c. On October 14, Napoleon crushes the Prussians at the twin battles of Jena and Auerstädt . (1) His pursuit destroys the Prussian army d. Napoleon dictates harsh terms to Prussia e.The Continental System (1)Berlin Decrees establishing the Continental System, forbade the importation of British goods into France, territory controlled by France, or its Allies (2)British Orders in Council (1807) ordered all neutral vessels trading with the continent to first put in to British ports (3)Milan Decree (1807) strengthens Continental System, threatened confiscation of any neutral vessel putting into a continental port that first put in to a British port or submitted to search by a British vessel. f. Prussian military reform (1) In the aftermath of this devastating loss, the Prussians begin a reform that will influence all future European armies. (2) The leaders are (a)Karl Freiherr vom Stein as the king’s chief adviser (b)Gerhard von Scharnhorst, a great military reformer who created a modern staff system (c)Neidhardt von Gneisenau, who led the Military Reorganization Committee (d)Carl von Clausewitz, whose post-war treatise On War became the most influential study of the nature of war ever written in the West i) Clausewitz is required reading at US military academies. (3) Austria’s Archduke Karl also began implementing reforms. Napoleon’s opponents are beginning to learn from their defeats. 6. The Eylau / Friedland Campaign a. Winter 1806-7, Napoleon invades Poland in a campaign against the Russians. (1) The Continental System won’t work if the British can continue to trade in the Baltic b. Bloody and inconclusive Battle of Eylau, fought in a raging blizzard February 7-8 c. Napoleon defeats the Russians at Friedland June 14 AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 38

d.Treaty of Tilsit ends the war between France and Russia (1) Napoleon and Tsar Alexander II meet on a barge in the middle of the Nieman River (2) Russia agrees to join the Continental System E . The Spanish Ulcer 1. Napoleon wants to close off all European ports from Great Britain. a. He tells the Portuguese ambassador that “The House of Braganza will not be reigning in Eu4rope in two months’ time. I will no longer tolerate a single English envoy in Europe. I will declare war on any power that has one two months’ from now.” (Gates 102) 2. September / October 1807, French armies, after first occupying Spain, invade Portugal in-an attempt to seal the Continent to British trade. a. Napoleon manipulated the hatred felt by the Crown Prince Ferdinand for King Charles IV’s minister, Godoy, to gain entry into Spain. 3. Napoleon contemptuously places his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, and makes his brother in law, Marshal King of the Two Sicilies. 4. Spanish populace rises against the French in Madrid, French reprisals commemorated in Goyas’s painting Dos de Mayo. a. Napoleon faces guerrilla warfare with an aroused nation, not the corrupt Bourbon régime. b. Until 1814, Napoleon will bleed men and money steadily from the “Spanish Ulcer.” 5. The British will send an army under the Duke of Wellington to defend Portugal. a. Wellington skillfully uses Portuguese and Spanish regulars with Spanish guerrillas. b. He also perfects the British tactics to defeat the French method of war. F. The Wagram Campaign 1. The Austrians, thinking that Napoleon is tied up in Spain, declare war. 2. Napoleon reacts with his usual speed, but suffers a defeat at Aspern-Eßling 3. Napoleon forces Austria to sue for peace after the bitter battle of Wagram a. Napoleon will continue to win most of his battles, but this is the last campaign that he will win 4. Napoleon divorces Josephine and marries the Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria in order to obtain a male heir. G. The Russian Campaign: 1812 1. The most important reason for the Russian Campaign was Napoleon’s attempts to extend the Continental System. a. In December 1810, he annexed Holland, Hamburg, and the entire AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 39

North German coast (including Oldenburg, whose Duke was Tsar Alexander’s sister) b. Alexander II was under heavy pressure to abandon the Continental System. (1) The ban on trade with Britain hurt Russia’s economy badly, as well as the government’s income. (2) He allows Russia to become an entrepôt for British goods, which created a massive hole in the Continental System. c. Napoleon’s marriage to Marie Louise of Austria concerned Alexander greatly as well, since a Franco-Austrian alliance would be dangerous to Russian interests as well. (1) Napoleon had asked for one of Alexander’s sisters in marriage, and had abruptly switched to Marie Louise, which of course was seen as a personal insult. (Gates 202- 4) 2.Napoleon invades Russia with 600,000 men (the largest in European history to his point) on June 22, 1812. a. 325,000 were French b. 278,000 were Allies 3. The Russian armies conduct a strategic retreat utilizing a scorched earth defensive policy. a. Napoleon is unable to force the decisive victory that he badly needs (1) The critical failure to trap the Russians was at Smolensk. b. With every mile, his logistical problems increase c. September 7, 1812, Battle of Borodino: a brutal, very bloody slugging match; (1) Russian army is defeated but withdraws in good order. d. Napoleon enters Moscow September 14, 1812; (1) waits in vain for Russian peace overtures. e. The Russians deliberately burn Moscow, denying the French shelter for the winter. f. Too late, Napoleon begins a retreat from Russia on October 19. He now must face the Russian winter in addition to the Russian armies. g. The Russian peasantry is also enraged, and will slaughter any Frenchman they can. h. By December, temperatures had dropped to -37.5 E C. (1) The winter of 1812-1813 was actually relatively mild in Russia! i. Only 30-40,000 men made it back to the Beresina, and only 8,823 men remained in the ranks 3 days after the disastrous crossing. j. His army is virtually destroyed. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 40

k. He will never recover from this defeat H. The Liberation of Germany: 1813 1. Napoleon tried to hold on to his German conquests in a campaign against Prussia, Russia, and Austria. 2. October 16-19, Napoleon suffers a heavy defeat at Leipzig, the Battle of Nations. a. Some 570,000 troops were engaged this battle, the largest Europe had ever witnessed to that date. b. Some 92,000 men were killed or wounded (plus 15,000 French prisoners) (Gates 164, 251) c. He must withdraw to metropolitan France. I. The Invasion of France: 1814 1. France invaded by Russian, Prussian, Austrian and British armies. 2. Military historians believe the 1814 is one of Napoleon’s most brilliant, considering the odds against him. 3. Nevertheless, when his Marshals are no longer willing to keep fighting in a hopeless cause, Napoleon is forced to abdicate the throne on April 6, 1814. a. He is exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean b. The Bourbons are restored to power with Louis XVIII 4.Congress of Vienna convenes to write a peace treaty J . The Hundred Days: 1815 1. Napoleon returns from Elba and marches on Paris to recapture the throne. The Hundred Days begins. 2. June 1815, Napoleon launches his last campaign. a. He succeeds brilliantly in placing himself between the Anglo- Dutch army of the Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army of Marshal Gebhardt von Blücher. b. Napoleon drives the two apart in the twin battles of Ligny-Quatre Bras c. But he is finally defeated by the combined Anglo-Dutch and Prussian armeis at Waterloo / La Belle Alliance 3. He is exiled to St Helena May 5, 1821 AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 41

Bibliography

(When I did the research for this outline, I did not anticipate putting it into this particular form, so I do not have everything in it referenced as I should have. For this reason, I am placing a Bibliography instead of a Works Cited on this page. If I were grading this outline, I would have to give myself an “F” for MLA Style)

Amann, Peter. The Eighteenth-Century Revolution: French or Western? Boston: D. C. Heath, 1963.

Brinton, Crane. The Anatomy of Revolution. New York: Vintage, 1965.

"Section 7: The French Revolution: Liberalism and Radicalism ." Brooklyn College Core Curriculum. Brooklyn College. 17 Jan. 2005 .

Censor, Jack R. And Hunt, Lynn. Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. University Park, Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2001.

Chandler, David G. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company, 1966.

Connelly, Owen, and Hembree, Fred. The French Revolution. Wheeling, Illinois: Harlan Davidson, 1993.

Furet, François. The French Revoluton 1770-1814. Trans. Antonia Nevill. Oxford, UK: Blackwell, 1996.

Gates, David. The Napoleonic Wars: 1803-1815. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Gates, David. The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press, 1986.

Hamilton-Williams, David. The Fall of Napoleon. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1994.

Hamilton-Williams, David. Waterloo: New Perspectives. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1993.

Hibbert, Christopher. The Days of the French Revolution. New York: William Morrow, 1980

Horne, Alistair. How Far from Austerlitz? New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 42

Hunt, Lynn. The French Revoluton and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996

Jones, Archer. The Art of War in the Western World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1987.

Kennedy, Paul. The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. New York: Vintage Books, 1987.

Lefebvre, Georges. The Coming of the French Revolution. Trans. R. R. Palmer. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1942.

"The Law of Suspects." 1793. 17 Jan. 2005 .

"The Levee en Masse." The Modern History Sourcebook. 08 1793. 17 Jan. 2005 .

"The Maximum." 1793. 17 Jan. 2005 .

McNeill, William H. The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force and Society since AD 1000. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.

Nafziger, George F. Napoleon’s Invasion of Russia. Noveto, California: Presidio Press, 1984.

Nosworthy, Brent. With Musket, Cannon and Sword. New York: Sarpedon, 1996.

Riehn, Richard K. 1812: Napoleon’s Russian Campaign. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1991.

Robespierre, Maximilien. "On the Festival of the Supreme Being." The History Place: Great Speeches Collection. 1794. 17 Jan. 2005 .

Robespierre, Maximilien. "Justification of the Use of Terror." Modern History Sourcebook. 1793. 17 Jan. 2005 .

Robespierre, Maximilien. "On the Principles of Public Morality." Modern History Sourcebook. 1794. 17 Jan. 2005

Roux, Jacques. Manifesto of the Enrages. 1793. 17 Jan. 2005

EuroCourse/Readings-Open/ Reading-FrRevol-Manifesto OfEnrages-1793.htm>.

Rudé, George. The French Revolution. New York: Grove Press, 1988.

Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.

Sieyes, Emmanuel Joseph. "Abbé Sieyes: What is the Third Estate?." Modern History Sourcebook. 17 Jan. 2005 .

Soboul, Albert. A Short History of the French Revolution 1789-1799. Trans. Geoffrey Symcox. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1977.

Weigley, Russell F. The Age of Battles. Bloomington, Illinois: Indiana University Press, 1991.

Wollstonecraft, Mary. Vindication of the Rights of Women. 17 Jan. 2005 .

Wright, D. G. Revolution and Terror in France 1789-1795. New York: Longman, 1974. AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 44

Appendix: Napoleon’s Art of War

Napoleonic Battle Chandler p. 187 AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 45

The Battalion Carré Chandler 152 Battle of Central Position Chandler 173 AP European History Mr. Blackmon The French Revolution and Napoleon Page 46

Manouevre sur les derrierès Chandler p. 165