How this guide works...
This revision guide is the Restless Earth revision and question guide and it gives you a full and detailed guide of everything you’re expected to know, and previous assessment questions too – fun right?
Remember – everything in this booklet (along with the other five!) you need to know about, and we’ve already done at least once in class. The activities I’ve included in this book will help you, but are not exam questions, they are designed to encourage you to get thinking about revision / do revision!
You should therefore attempt all the exam questions from this book as you go along to really help you. The symbol to the right tells you it is an exam question.
If you should lose this booklet (naughty you), then you can easily download and print off a new copy from the year 11 study support and homework section of the CTS website. They are also available from the swish revision hub board outside of the geography room.
As always remember – you do them, I mark them, you respond / improve and then I remark. Put simply… There is no excuse for not having your revision / exam question books on you – or for not doing revision…ever.
The next six pages are the best places to start they talk about what the exam will look like, what the exam board say you should know for this unit, a small guide to the types of questions there are on GCSE geography exams and how to answer them and finally a list of command words.
Any questions at all...
...please ask!
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What will my exam look like?
You will have two exams, both will last 1 and a half hours and will be made up of 2 sections – the helpful diagram below will explain everything.
Physical Geography - 1 and 1/2 hours long
Section A Section B
Human Q1 - Restless Q5 - Water on Q6 - Ice on the Geography - 1 Earth the Land Land and 1/2 hours long
Section A Section B
Q2 - Changing Q4 - Urban Development Q6 - Tourism Environments Gap
What does the exam board expect me to know for the Water on the Land Section?
You should know and understand: ✓
How the shape of a river valley changes as it flows downstream
How long and cross profiles change downstream What the different erosion (hydraulic action, abrasion, attrition and solution) and transportation (traction, saltation, suspension and solution) processes are
How landforms of erosion - waterfalls, gorges are formed
How landforms of erosion and deposition - meanders, ox-bow lakes
are formed
How landforms of deposition - levees and flood plains are formed.
The amount of water in a river changes due to a number of reasons.
Causes of flooding – both physical and human
The frequency and location of flood events in the UK over the last 20
years
A case study of flooding in a MDC and LDC and the different effects
and responses to
The different ways of managing flooding – hard and soft engineering
and the debates around it
How rivers are managed to provide a water supply
A case study of a reservoir including its impacts.
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The really helpful bit
In GCSE geography there are two types of questions – short answer questions (worth 1, 2 or 3 marks) and longer answer questions (worth 4, 6 or 8 marks). This help guide should help you recognise the difference between the two and how to answer each type of question.
Short Answer Questions (worth 1, 2, or 3 marks)
These questions are point marked. This means that the examiner will give you a mark for each point that you make and explain (if the question asks for it).
Before answering the question you should read it carefully. It might be worth highlighting or circling what the command words are and then underline what topic the question actually is asking for.
A few quick points:
- Make sure you give / answer the correct number of points for the marks that the question is worth. - Make sure you introduce your answer – it only takes a few words and shows the examiner you know what you’re talking about. Avoid starting any sentence with words like it or they. A better example would be “An MDC is a more developed country”
Long Answer Questions (worth 4, 6, or 8 marks)
These questions are level marked. This means that the examiner will read all of your answer and then decide on a level to give you. In 4 or 6 mark questions the maximum level you can get is level 2, in an 8 mark questions the maximum level is level 3.
IMPORTANT - On your human geography paper for your 8 mark questions there is 3 extra marks awarded for your spelling punctuation and grammar. The table below shows what you need to do to get these extra marks.
- You spell, use punctuation and use the rules of grammar with Threshold reasonable accuracy. performance - Any mistakes do not stop the examiner understanding what you meant in (1 mark) your response. - You use a limited range of key words appropriately. - You spell, use punctuation and use the rules of grammar with Intermediate considerable accuracy performance (2 marks) - The examiner has a good idea of what you mean in your answer. - You use a good range of key words appropriately. - You spell, use punctuation and use the rules of grammar with consistent High accuracy. performance - The examiner has no trouble understanding what you mean in your (3 marks) answer. - You use a wide range of specialist terms adeptly and with precision. Page | 4
The examiner is looking for what are called ‘linked statements’ to give you the higher levels, and therefore higher marks.
Linked statements are sentences with developed explanation, statistics or examples in your answer that prove your point.
What the examiner is looking for at each level is shown in the table below along with some example sentences to help.
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Basic knowledge with Detailed knowledge with little or no detail showing clear and detailed Clear knowledge with very simple understanding and clear and developing understanding. explanation. understanding and
explanation shown. There is little Examples are used to
organisation of the answer the question with Some examples are used answer and few key explanation and a wide along with key words. words. range of key words are also used. Lots of people die in earthquakes in poorer countries because there is likely to be less Lots of people die in effective emergency Lots of people die in earthquakes in LDCs services. This is because poorer countries die in because there is likely to there is less money to earthquakes. be less emergency pay for training for them, services. or give them good equipment. This means that less people will be saved and therefore more people will die.
A good 4 step plan to remember when writing a longer answer essay question is:
Exam Command Words Page | 5
These are sometimes called trigger words – they should trigger you into knowing what the question is asking of you. But sometimes people can get confused as to what they need to do to answer the question effectively.
The table below shows you the most often used command words and what they mean. They are in an order with most often used ones first.
Command Definition Word
Describe Give a detailed version of what happens / has happened.
Use words like because in your answer as you will be explaining how or why Give something is that way.
Explore the subject by looking at its advantages and disadvantages (i.e. for Discuss and against). Attempt to come to some sort of judgement.
Explain Describe, giving reasons and causes.
Define Give the meaning. This should be short.
Outline Concentrate on the main bits of the topic or item. Ignore the minor detail.
Evaluate / Give an opinion by exploring the good and bad points. It’s a bit like asking you Assess to assess something. Attempt to support your argument with expert opinion.
Not strictly a command word – but it can come up – where a question asks Factors about factors it means give the facts, reasons or circumstances that can make something happen.
Identify Recognise, prove something as being certain.
Compare / Show the similarities / Show the differences (but you can also point out the Contrast other side of the argument).
Explore the main ideas of the subject, show they are important and how they Analyse are related.
Comment Discuss the subject, explain it and give an opinion on it.
Justify Give a good reason for offering an opinion.
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What are the different parts of a river?
Nice easy start here – to be able to push up your grade it’s always worth using key words wherever you can, and one way of doing that is by using the correct name for the different parts of the river.
You’ll have noticed the lovely diagram above is missing some key words – funny that – it might be to do with an activity later.
Either way – the following key words are the ones you need to know.
Source – The point where a river starts Tributary - A smaller river that flows into the main channel Mouth - The end of a river Confluence - The point where two rivers join. Watershed - The boundary between two drainage basins
There’s also an estuary – an eroded mouth of a river where the sea also effects the area.
Final key word to throw at you (for now!) – is course – the name given to a section of a river. In rivers there are three – upper (near the source) , middle and lower (near the sea).
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1. No surprises here – add in the correct key word in the correct place on the diagram above.
2. Also, add in estuary (there’s no box for this) and where the three courses are too.
How does the Shape of a River
Change Downstream?
A rivers main aim is to get back to sea level – this is super important to remember throughout this entire revision guide. In fact, it is this main aim that gives it the energy to erode downwards (as shown in the long profile) through rock creating different shapes at each different course (as shown in the cross profile).
If you’re unsure what cross profiles and long profiles are – read on… but it is fairly simple – cross profiles are cross sections of the river, while long profiles are more of a line graph, that show how the land height that the river is found at changes.
The Long Profile
You’ll notice here something called a nick point – this is a rapid or drastic change in height of the river. This can be because of a waterfall (covered later in this revision guide) or a gorge (also covered later). The reasons and processes behind this are also covered later too.
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The Cross Profile
Upper Course Middle Course Lower Course
The diagram above shows how the cross-profile changes through the different courses. You’ll notice that in the upper course the channel is deeper but narrow, with steep sides. In the middle course the channel is much wider and less deep; by the time the river reaches the lower course it is even wider, but much more shallow.
All the reasons why for each of these differences - will eventually be covered in this guide. You’ll need to know this for some of the following activities.
3. Describe the long profile on the previous page – how does the height of the river change?
4. Describe the cross profile above – how does it change from one course to another.
COMPLETE AFTER THE WHOLE REVISION BOOKLET
5. Explain why the long profile changes from source to mouth – using key words where appropriate.
6. Explain why the cross-profile changes from the upper course to the lower course – using key words where appropriate.
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From 2010
5(a) Study Figure 14 which shows a long profile and cross profiles of a typical river.
Describe how the cross profile changes downstream. (3 marks)
From 2012
(b) Study Figure 12 on the insert, a 1:50 000 Ordnance Survey map extract of the River Eden in Cumbria.
5 (b) (i) What is the approximate height of the River Eden in grid square 4257? (1 mark)
5 (b) (ii) What happens to the River Eden at 411564? (1 mark)
5(b) (iii) What is the straight line distance along the line X – Y on the map? (1 mark)
km
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5 (b) (iv) Grid squares 4357 and 4358 are outlined on Figure 12.
Describe the landform(s) found in these squares. (3 marks)
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From 2014
(a) (ii) With the help of Figure 11, describe how the shape of a river valley changes downstream. [4 marks]
From 2016
5 (b) Study Figure 13, a diagram showing the long profile of a river and cross profiles of a river valley.
With the help of Figure 13, describe how the long profile of a river and cross profile of a river valley change downstream. [4 marks]
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What are the different processes of erosion?
Within the river there are four different processes of erosion – you need to know about all of them, where they take place and ultimately the landforms they create.
Erosion is the breaking down and removal of material – important to know! Don’t get it confused with weathering -
The helpful little table below gives you everything you need to know.
- Is the sheer force of the river water hitting the bed and banks of the river. - This causes air to become trapped in cracks and crevices. - The pressure weakens and wears them down over time. Hydraulic - This is most effective when the water is moving fast and there is Action a lot of it. - So is mostly found in Upper Course - Example: erodes waterfall plunge-pool as river’s energy increases when flowing over the ledge - When the load (e.g. rocks) being carried by the river repeatedly hits the river bed and banks - Some of the material breaks off (scouring like sand paper) Abrasion - Dominant in the Upper Course - Example: erodes waterfall plunge-pool using rocks broken off as the ledge collapses - Stones and boulders knock against each other, breaking bits off, as they’re carried by the river - Repetition of process leaves rocks smaller, smoother and Attrition rounder - Primarily in the Upper Course - Example: rocks eroded from the waterfall ledge may be subject to attrition in the plunge-pool
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- Occurs when the river flows over certain rocks, such as chalk and limestone. - These are soluble in rainwater and become part of the water as Solution they are dissolved by it. (Think of a soluble aspirin being dissolved in a glass of water!) - Example: occurs in areas where the river flows over soluble rocks such as chalk and limestone.
What are the different processes of transportation?
Four more key words needed to be learnt here – all to do with transportation – or the movement of material.
Key to the movement of material is energy, with lots of energy, like in the upper course, the river can move lots of material, or large material.
- The force of the river water moves the largest material via rolling. - The material is too heavy to lose contact with the river bed, so Traction material such as boulders are rolled - Found in the Upper Course at high flow / times of flood, although can sometimes be present in the Middle Course in times of flood.
- The force of the water moves small stones and grains of sand via bouncing. Saltation - Found in Upper Course at high flow, although is more present in the Middle Course (less so Lower Course).
- This is the carrying of fine material within the water, floating along in the river and is moved as it flows. Suspension - It can discolour the water. - Suspension is therefore dominant in the Middle Course and Lower Course as material eroded in the upper course if carried away by the river - Moving the dissolved, not-visible load. When a river flows over certain soluble rocks, for example chalk or limestone, these Solution rocks are gradually dissolved by the river water. - The dissolved material is carried by the river and is not visible. - Found in all courses of the river.
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When the river has not enough energy it drops its material (also called its load) in a process called deposition. Thee can create landforms like levees and floodplains – but more on that later.
7. Draw an outline of a river on a big (and I mean big!) piece of paper. Make sure you include the different parts of the drainage basin as shown on page 7.
8. Then next to the correct different parts of the river add in a small drawing and explanation of each process of erosion and transportation.
From 2011
5 (a) Describe how a river erodes. (3 marks)
From 2012
5 (a) Describe how a river transports its load. (3 marks)
From 2015
5 (d) Describe how river processes of transportation and deposition change downstream. [8 marks]
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From 2016
5 (a) Distinguish between the processes of abrasion and attrition. [2 marks]
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How are Waterfalls and Gorges formed?
Waterfalls and gorges are found in the upper course, where the river has the most energy. It is a rapid change in height of the river, and is driven by the fact that the river uses this excess of energy to pursue the rivers main aim – to get back to sea level.
What is crucial to this is that there are two different rock types – hard rock and soft rock – without this difference in rock type a waterfall (and therefore a gorge) can never be created. The four-step diagram below shows why this is the case.
1. When a river flows from harder (resistant) to softer (less resistant) rock it erodes the less resistant rock at faster rate than more resistant rock forming a step (rapids)
2. Erosion of the less-resistant rock underneath undercuts the hard rock above it. The river’s energy creates a hollow at the foot of the waterfall called a Plunge Pool
3. The less resistant rock beneath is eroded rapidly by abrasion and hydraulic action as the river’s energy increases as it flows over the waterfall. This creates a ledge, which overhangs and eventually collapses due to being unsupported and weight of the river and gravity
4. As this process repeats, the waterfall retreats upstream, leaving a steep valley or gorge
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9. Rearrange the sequence below to fully explain the process behind the formation of a waterfall by putting letters in the left hand boxes.
The overhanging hard rock collapses into the river
A band of more resistant rock lies over softer rock
The large chunks of rock in the plunge pool are made smoother and smaller by attrition. Eventually they will be
small enough to be transported downstream as the river’s load.
The retreat leaves a steep sided gorge.
As the river flows over the rocks, the less resistant rock is eroded more quickly by hydraulic action, abrasion and sometimes solution, causing it to undercut the harder rock
Over time this process is repeated very often and the
waterfall retreats upstream.
The broken bits of the overhang are churned around and create a plunge pool. The plunge pool is made bigger by
abrasion on the river bed and hydraulic action on the back wall.
10. Draw your own copy of the diagram below (you’ll have to do this in the exam, so it’s a good skill to be able to do) and then add in annotations where the blue boxes are.
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11. Find a non geographer and explain to them what a waterfall looks like and how it is formed. Make sure you explain it in detail – leave them in no doubt that you know what you’re talking about.
From 2010
5 (b) (i) Study Figure 15, on the insert, a photograph of a waterfall in the Glens of Antrim, Northern Ireland.
Describe the features of the waterfall shown in Figure 15. (3 marks)
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5 (b) (ii) Draw a labelled diagram(s) to explain the formation of a waterfall ( 4 marks)
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From 2013
5 (a) (i) Study Figure 10 a black and white copy of a photograph of the Rio Grande Gorge.
On Figure 10, mark with an arrow and label three characteristics of the channel and valley.
5 (a) (ii) Explain the formation of a gorge. (4 marks)
From 2015
5 (c) Study Figure 16 a black and white copy of a photograph of High Force waterfall on the River Tees in the north of England.
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5 (c) (i) On Figure 16, mark with an arrow and label three characteristics of the waterfall. [3 marks]
5 (c) (ii) Explain the formation of a waterfall. [4 marks]
How are Meanders and Ox-Bow
Lakes formed?
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Meanders and Ox-Bow lakes are middle (and sometimes lower) course landforms – created by both erosion and deposition. They happen when the land flattens out and the gradient becomes less steep.
Lateral (sideways) erosion becomes important here because of two reasons – firstly helicoidal flow – the naturally spiral movement of water anyway, and because of the volume of water within the river giving it enough energy to be able to erode, while not needing to erode down to sea level as much. This means that the river starts to meander, widening its valley. Deposition occurs on the inside bend of meanders where the channel is shallow and slow due to greater friction – forming a slip off slope or river beach, and when the river floods creating a floodplain (more on this later). On the outside bend erosion happens because here is the fastest flow (called the thalweg) creating a meander and river cliffs (step outside bends).
Over time this meander will continue to become bigger and bigger until two meanders are within touching distance. In times of flood the river will break through the first neck of the meander and bypass the rest of the channel creating a straight channel. Over time deposition will happen at the start of the old channel, creating an ox bow lake, which will eventually dry up; only to fill in times of flood.
1. Meanders get larger over time and continued erosion on the outside bends causing the neck to become smaller.
2. Eventually the river breaks through, usually during flood, creating a new channel – a shorter route.
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3. As the energy decreases within the bend, deposition occurs, eventually cutting off the meander forming an oxbow lake out of the former bend.
The cross-section diagram is also pretty important – your exam could ask you to draw your own copy and annotate around it. Therefore, the one on the next page is super useful and well worth revising from again and again.
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River Cliff
Sand and shingle Outside bend: deposited on inside of river bend undercut by lateral erosion
Slip Off Slope Shallower Deeper
Slower Much fine material is Current Faster suspended Current
12. Complete the boxes on the next page to explain the process behind the creation of meanders and ox-bow lakes.
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13. The following bullet points all describe how a meander and oxbow lake is formed. Only some silly idiot has put them in the wrong order. Can you sort them out into the correct order – for the flow diagram that follows?
a) The outside of the bend develops a steep bank called a river cliff b) Helicoidal flow sends the river’s energy towards the sides of the channel. The fastest current (the thalweg) is forced to the outside of the bend. c) On the inside of the bend (convex slope) the current is less strong, the water is flowing slowly and has less energy so pebbles and silt are deposited as a slip off slope (also called point bar) . d) The process continues; meanders migrate across the valley floor changing the path of the river and creating a floodplain e) Meanders are bends in the river formed from the processes of both erosion and deposition f) The water in a river flows naturally in a corkscrew pattern. This is known as helicoidal flow. g) The helicoidal flow then transports the material eroded from the outside of the bend across the channel to the inside of the next bend downstream. h) The force of the water erodes and undercuts the outside of the bend making a concave slope. Hydraulic action and abrasion would be the main processes here.
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
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From 2011
5 (b) (i) Study Figure 10, a black and white copy of a photograph of the River Tees in its middle course.
Label Figure 10 to show three characteristics of the channel and the valley. (3 marks)
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5 (b) (ii) Draw a labelled cross-section to show how the inside bend of a meander is different from the outside bend of a meander. (4 marks)
5 (b) (iii) Explain the formation of an ox-bow lake. (4 marks)
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From 2016
5 (c) (i) Study Figure 14 on the insert, an aerial photograph of meanders on the River Rede in Northumberland.
Draw a labelled plan to show the characteristics of these meanders. [4 marks]
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5 (c) (ii) Explain the formation of an ox-bow lake. [4 marks]
How are Levees and Flood Plains
Lakes formed?
Levees and flood plains are middle and lower course landforms – and are created by deposition – the process of material being dropped by the river when it doesn’t have enough energy.
Flood plains area areas of flat land found either side of the river that are covered by the river during times of flood. It is created by the dropping of sediment (also called alluvium) when the river floods, this deposition of material fills the wide valley floor and evens it out creating the flood plain itself.
Levees are the raised embankments at each side of the river. They occur on rivers that are slow flowing but carry a large amount of sediment and that flood from time to time.
They are created because as the river floods, the biggest sediment is dropped nearest to the river and over time this builds up to be bigger and bigger embankments - called levees.
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Levees can create problems however – successive floods can make the levees higher, and any flood water that gets over the levees will be unable to make its way back into the river channel.
14. Using the diagrams above explain how levees and floodplains are formed. Include as many key words to describe the process of how these landforms are created as you can.
From 2012
(c) Explain the formation of a flood plain. (4 marks)
5 (a) (i) Study Figure 11, a block diagram showing how river landforms change downstream. A levee is labelled on Figure 11.
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Mark with an arrow and label three other different landforms – one found in each of the upper, middle and lower course of the river. [3 marks]
(a) (iii) A levée is shown in Figure 11. What are levées? [2 marks]
5 (a) (iv) Explain the formation of levées. [4 marks]
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Why does the Amount of Water Change in a River? What
Processes are Going On?
This is quite a complicated idea here, but one which we took full on in one of our first lessons on flooding. It’s key to understanding why the amount of water in a river changes, along with the different processes going on within the drainage basin. When these processes are affected the potential for flooding can increase and decrease.
The diagram below is an old friend and shows all the different processes going on to move water around the drainage basin. Key words are defined underneath it.
A few quick key things to remember; it is gravity that is pulling the water down towards sea level, and in this case down towards the groundwater storage. From here it makes its way towards the sea.
When soil or rock is full of water, and can take no more we say it is saturated – this has the potential to cause flooding, sooner, but there’s more on that in the next section.
The water table is the name given to the level where saturation occurs – this moves up and down depending on how much water there as been.
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Key Word Meaning An input into the drainage basin system. Through rain, snow, sleet Precipitation or hail. A storage of water in the system, it is the catching of water by Interception trees, bushes and plants on their leaves before they are used or evaporated from there. Surface The name given to an area where water is stored on the surface – Storage this can be a small puddle, pond or even a lake.
Infiltration The movement of water from the surface into the soil.
The storage of water within the soil – it is this that makes the soil Soil Moisture sticky and moist when you go to plant something.
Percolation The movement of water from the soil into the rock.
Groundwater When water is stored in gaps in the rock – known as aquifers. Storage
An output from the system, when water vapour is released by Transpiration plants, trees and bushes.
An output from the system, when water is changed from a liquid to Evaporation a gas.
Surface Run The name given to the movement of water across the surface of Off the land back towards sea level.
The name given to the movement of water through the soil back Throughflow towards sea level.
Groundwater The name given to the movement of water through the rock back Flow towards sea level
15. If you look back at the diagram of the drainage basin that I gave you you’ll notice it has lots of different colours in the boxes of the key words, and a key – but no groupings in the key…. Instead a mysterious yellow box. Write what the groupings are on this mysterious yellow box for each colour.
16. Using the diagram below fill out the processes, with a brief description of what is going on in each of the six empty boxes.
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5 1
2 6
3
4
From 2012
5 (b) (i) What is river flooding? [2 marks]
What Causes Flooding? Page | 36
Flooding is a natural fact of life, it happens (in actual fact it appears to be happening more but more on that later) but there are specific causes, things that make it more likely and of course, as geographers, it’s your job to know it. They can be split into physical and human factors
Physical Factors Leading to a flood
The weather
1. Prolonged rainfall
Long continuous periods of heavy rainfall will cause the ground to become saturated and therefore can’t hold any more water. This causes the water to run off the surface into the rivers.
2. Heavy rainfall
A cloud burst or thunderstorm can produce large amounts of run off in a short time and because the rain does not have time to infiltrate into the soil the water runs off the surface into the rivers.
3. Snowmelt
A sudden increase in temperature can cause snow to melt but the ground is still frozen so the meltwater can’t sink in. The water runs off the surface into the rivers.
4. Rainfall after a dry period
If the soil becomes baked and hard during sunny weather the rain can’t infiltrate. The water runs off the surface into the rivers.
Remember a flood only happens if the river cannot deal with excessive amounts of water within the channel.
The drainage basin
1. The relief
The steep slopes of a V shaped valley can cause the rainfall to run off the slopes quickly and end up in the river.
2. The rock type
Some rock is impermeable (like slate and granite) meaning it does not allow water to sink in and so it runs off the surface and into the river.
3. Natural vegetation cover
A covering of vegetation, especially woodland, allows some of the rainfall to be intercepted and so it does not reach the surface. The water is then evaporated Page | 37 from the leaves. Trees and plants slow down surface run off and allow the rain more time to sink in. Roots suck up moisture from the soil and store it. Vegetation slows down surface run off and decreases the risk of flooding.
4. Tributaries / Size of Drainage Basin
If the main channel is joined by lots of tributaries the amount of water in the channel will quickly rise and increase the risk of flooding.
5. Shape of Drainage Basin
If the drainage basin is long and thin then water that fills within it will get to the river quickly, because there is less distance for it to travel. If on the other hand the drainage basin is wide and fat then water that falls within the drainage basin will take time to travel to the river, and is therefore less likely to flood.
Human Factors Leading to an Increased Chance of flood
Land use
1. Building
Increasing the amount of the land that is concreted over means that rain c an’t infiltrate into the soil (as concrete is impermeable) and will run off through storm drains and quickly end up in the rivers and increase the risk of flooding.
2. Building on flood plains
See above, but also the flood waters can’t infiltrate quickly. Buildings here will be flooded.
3. Roads
Roads take up a surprising amount of land and prevent infiltration. Run off into drains increases the risk of flooding.
4. Deforestation
Chopping down woodland and removing hedges allows more land to be used for agriculture (farming) but vegetation cover reduces the rate of run off (see above). Soil gets washed into the river and can reduce the size of the channel.
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17. There’s lots of factors to remember here, and I’m afraid there’s little or no escape from it you need to learn it, and use it in questions on the exam to do with causes of flooding. Choose one of the activities below to help you with it.
a) Create a HUGE spider diagram of all the causes of flooding, separating these out into human and physical causes, and the physical causes out into the weather (climatic) and the drainage basin (location).
b) Create small cue cards with the reason why rivers flood on one side, and the explanation on the other. Get someone to test you on them.
c) Create small playing cards with the reasons why rivers flood, and the explanation on a different card. Turn them all face down on a table and see if you can match them up successfully. Make sure you shuffle all the cards, and have the answers to hand / another person to check you’re not cheating.
d) Get a non-geographer and tell them all about it. I guarantee you they’ll be enthralled (or maybe not), but it’s often easier to teach someone else and you’re more likely to remember it.
From 2011
5 (c) (i) Study Figure 11, newspaper cuttings about the causes of flooding.
Use Figure 11 to explain why rivers flood. (3 marks)
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From 2013
5 (b) (ii) Explain the factors affecting river discharge. (6 marks)
What are Hydrographs? How do
Geographers use them?
Geographers are a funny ol’ lot. Like mathematicians there’s nothing they like more than a graph. So when thinking about flooding geographers produced a hydrograph – 2 graphs in 1 that shows how a river reacts after a storm event.
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As always with geographers there’s lots of key words here and you need to know them all. We’ve done lots of work on this in class – but in case you’re unsure about anything to do with hydrographs read on.
The Basics
The bar graph shows the amount of rainfall that fell during the storm, it is measured in millimetres (mm) and is read off the small axis on the left-hand side. The maximum amount of the rainfall is known as the peak rainfall.
The line graph shows the amount of water in the river, known as the discharge. It is measured in cubic metres per second (cumecs) and is read off the large axis on the left-hand side. The name given to the maximum amount of water in the river following the storm event is known as the peak discharge.
The difference in time between the two events (peak rainfall and peak discharge) is known as the lag time, and is important as a shorter lag time means that the river is more likely to flood (more on this in the next little sub-headed section).
The name given to the line showing the rise of the discharge of the river is given the rising limb, and the line showing the fall of the discharge of the river (after peak discharge) is called the falling limb.
The Complicated Bits
A short lag time means that the amount of water in the river increases quickly after the storm event, this gives the entire drainage basin less time to deal with (infiltrate, percolate etc.) the water before it gets to the river and is therefore more likely to flood.
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The factors that cause a river to flood that we talked about above in the previous section can also have a big effect on hydrographs – for example in more urbanised areas infiltration is significantly reduced and so the rising limb is steep, the lag time shorter and the chance of flooding greater. Sounds complicated – but really isn’t – it’s just piecing together everything we’ve learnt over the last few pages.
18. For each of the following scenarios draw a small hydrograph showing what you would expect it to look like. Give a small explanation as to why this is the case.
a) Urban area b) Rural area c) Lots of rainfall d) Snowmelt e) Drainage basin in a hilly area
From 2010
5 (c) Study Figures 16a and 16b which are hydrographs for two different streams in North Yorkshire after the same storm.
A hydrograph shows the link between rainfall and discharge in a river.
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5 (c) (i) Contrast the hydrograph for Austwick Beck with that for Clapham Beck (3 marks)
5 (c) (ii) Suggest why the two hydrographs are different. (4 marks)
5 (b) (i) Study Figure 11, a sketch hydrograph of a river flowing through a forest after a period of rain.
A hydrograph shows the link between rainfall and discharge in a river.
On Figure 11, draw a sketch hydrograph for a river flowing through an area without vegetation after the same period of rain. (2 marks)
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How Frequent has Flooding
Become in the last 20 years?
Flooding appears to be an increasingly frequent event – some rivers have been flooding more frequently over the last 20 years. For example in the 20 years between 1966 – 1986 the River Ouse in Yorkshire flooded 20 times (an average of once a year), in the next 20 years (1987 – 2007) it flooded 80 times (an average of four times a year).
Why might this be? Well no one quite knows for sure, it may be part of the natural cycle – we have very changeable weather in the UK.
Global warming may be causing more frequent severe storms as sea temperatures increase or it could be down to human activity – the concreting over land and removing of woodland may just be making flooding much more regular.
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Significant flood years in the UK
2000 Average annual rainfall was 40% higher than normal R Wear broke its banks and flooded Durham 2004 R Valency flooded Boscastle in Cornwall 2005 R Kent flooded Kendal and R Eden in Carlisle in the Lake District 2007 Many rivers flooded including the R Severn – Tewksbury and R Ouse in York 2008 R Wansbeck in Morpeth flooded 2009 R Cocker in Cockermouth and R Kent in Kendal – both Lake District 2012 The wettest April on record + a very wet May + a very wet summer. 2nd wettest year on record December 2013 Somerset – River Parrett flooding causing parts of the – January 2014 Somerset Levels (an area of flat land) to be under water for nearly 3 months and the army called in to help pump out the water 2015 Cockermouth – Lake District – Rivers Derwent and Cocker flood…. again.
From 2012
5 (d) Study Figure 13 on the insert, which shows the locations of flood events in England between 2000 and 2007.
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5 (d) (i) Describe the locations of the flood events shown in Figure 13. (4 marks)
From 2016
5 (d) (i) Study Figure 15 on the insert, a map showing flooding and flood warnings in part of southern England in 2014.
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Describe the pattern shown in Figure 15. [3 marks]
Flooding Case Studies – You need 2
– 1 x MDC and 1 x LDC
For your exam you need two case studies. One of an MDC (River Derwent, River
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Cocker because of Storm Desmond, Cumbria, UK - 2015) and one of a LDC (Bangladesh, in 2004).
As you can see I’ve included the information for Bangladesh but the MDC side is blank – perhaps there’s an activity in this somewhere (hint hint).
MDC Flooding LDC Flooding Location Cumbria is a county in the Bangladesh is a poor country in north of England, in the UK, a Asia Where did rich country. Because of Storm 2004 flood it happen? Desmond in 2015 the Rivers -It lies on the Ganges Delta and Derwent and Cocker burst most of the country is flat. The their banks. Rivers Ganges and Brahmaputra When did it flow through Bangladesh happen? -Flooding occurs every year and leaves a fertile soil which is good What for farming and supports millions rivers of poor people. were -Floods are a problem when they effected? are more severe than usual. Causes Physical causes Physical causes -Heaviest rainfall for 50 years– Why did it the monsoon brought 900mm in happen? July and saturated the ground. In September 350mm fell in one day. The continuous rainfall saturated the soils increasing run off into rivers. -Melting snow from the Himalayas increased the discharge of both the Ganges as it flowed through Bangladesh. Human causes -Increased population pressure in Nepal has led to Deforestation in Human causes the Himalayas (fuel, farmland). - The increased run off has added silt to the rivers which reduced their capacity and made them more likely to flood. The bed of the R Brahmaputra is rising by 5cms a year. -The building of dams eg Farakka in India has been blamed for
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increasing sedimentation and raising the bed of the R Hooghly. -Climate change is increasing the melting of the glaciers in the Himalayas. Primary -750 people were killed- children effects were especially vulnerable. Drowning, snake bites. What -Houses were flooded - 30m effects did people homeless out of a the population of 140m. flooding -44 schools destroyed and many bring? hospitals -Workshops, offices and factories were under water so people lost their business and their jobs -Dhaka was under water with roads and bridges impassable and the airport out of action. -10,000km of roads destroyed along with bridges. -Food crops and livestock destroyed – food supply especially rice and vegetables. Cash crops like jute and sugar were lost. -Rivers polluted with rubbish, dead bodies and sewage Secondary -Families damaged by the loss of effects parents, children. -People living on the streets or in What camps set up by the aid agencies. effects did -More than 1m people suffered the effects from malnutrition of the - People reliant on food aid until flooding the next harvest --Contaminated bring? water was a major threat leading to diseases eg cholera. 100,000 cases of cholera in Dhaka. -Education suffered because schools were flooded or being used as emergency shelters. -Rebuilding (roads, bridges, buildings like hospitals, airport, underground cables like electricity, fibreoptic )and clean Page | 49
up costs for the government estimated at US$3bn. -Loss of income affected individuals, communities and the whole country -Flood damage to the river embankments needed repairing. Immediate -Families climbed onto their roofs responses – unfortunately so did snakes. -Evacuation – but blocked roads How did and lack of control from the people government meant that people react to couldn’t get out – deaths the -International aid: Other flooding governments and charities like short Oxfam distributed food and term? provided emergency shelter and medical care where they could. They also supplied rescue teams and boats.
Long term -Aid from governments like the UK responses and charities (NGOs) like Oxfam has helped with the rebuilding of How did homes and infrastructure people -Houses have been built on stilts react to -Children are being taught how to the swim flooding -Communities are more aware of long term? what to do in times of flood – safe places like schools to go to. -Schools and medical centres have been built with the aid of local communities -Better flood warning systems in place -River channels dredged to increase their capacity and reduce flood risk
Any extra Floods built up until they covered info 60% of Bangladesh by and 40% of the capital city
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19. Using the information in the table about the Bangladesh flood in 2004 create a case study revision sheet about the flood. You may want to read the table carefully a number of times for it to sink in!
Remember to include:
- Location of flood / name of rivers - Causes - Primary and Secondary effects - Immediate and long term responses
20. The squares below show some extra information / detail about the causes and effects of the Bangladesh flooding. Colour code these boxes into causes, primary effects and secondary effects. If you need to add these into your table above.
21. Using the information below (and any other information you can find for yourself) fill in the MDC column for the Rivers Derwent and Rivers Cocker (because of Storm Desmond) and the flooding there.
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STORM DESMOND - December 2015
Overview
Storm Desmond was and the fourth named storm of the 2015–16 UK and Ireland windstorm season. Desmond directed a plume of moist air, known as an atmospheric river, which brought record amounts of rainfall to upland areas of the UK and subsequent major floods.
Thousands of homes were left flooded or left without power after Storm Desmond wreaked havoc in parts of the UK on the 5th and 6th of December 2015. In Lancashire and Cumbria more than 43,000 homes across the north of England were left without power, as well as over 2,000 homes in the Republic of Ireland and around 700 in Wales, while an estimated 5,200 homes were affected by flooding.
The storm claimed two lives – in Cumbria and the Republic of Ireland.
Record-breaking amounts of rain fell in Cumbria, the worst-hit county – prompting the county to declare a major incident. Storm Desmond deposited an unusually large amount of rain on ground already saturated by heavy rain, causing widespread flooding.
Areas Affected Towns on the Scottish border, Carlise, Lancaster, Keswick, Braithwaite and Appleby amongst many others. Large areas have been indirectly affected due to an electricity substation becoming flooded which has left many communities without power.
Rivers affected River Greta, River Eden, River Teviot, River Kent, River Cocker
The areas worst affected by Storm Desmond are shown on the map to the right
Cause of Floods Desmond created an atmospheric river in its wake, bringing in moist air from the Caribbean to the British Isles. As a result, rainfall from Desmond was unusually heavy. The heavy rain and strong winds were caused by an area of low pressure which arrived on Friday from the Atlantic.
The location and relief of the Lake District means that when rain arrives in Cumbria it has travelled across the Atlantic and picked up large amounts of moisture, which is dropped on Cumbria in an effort for clouds to lose moisture, and rise up above the Cumbrian and Pennine mountain ranges. This is known as relief rainfall.
The Met Office says Honister in Cumbria received 341.4mm (13.4in) of rain in the 24-hour period from 18:30 GMT on Friday 4 December to 18:30 GMT on Saturday 5 December. This beats the previous UK record set at Seathwaite, also in Cumbria, of 316.4mm (12.4in) on 19 November 2009.
As reported in The Guardian, Storm Desmond flooding is partly due to climate change.
Effects Storm Desmond caused an estimated £500m of damage across Cumbria – almost double the cost of the floods that hit parts of the county six years ago.
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Environment Agency officials said the Cumbria flood defences did work, but no matter how substantial any defences are, “you can always get water levels higher than that, in which case it will go over the top”.
The Met Office said Storm Desmond had more impact because the “exceptional” levels of rain fell on already saturated land.
• More than 1,000 people evacuated across Cumbria. • 50,000 people were without power across Cumbria and Lancashire. • 1,000 people have been evacuated from the Scottish border town of Hawick. • Road closures and closure of the West Coast Mainline rail route to Scotland and the Cumbrian coast rail line between Carlisle and Workington; • About 40 schools in Cumbria were closed and appointments and routine business across NHS hospitals were cancelled; • A train en route to Glasgow has been left stranded at Carlisle station overnight, with passengers having to sleep on board. • The UK economy could be dented by as much as £3bn by damage from Storms Eva, Desmond and Frank. • Economic losses from the storms Desmond and Eva will be between £1.6bn and £2.3bn, while insured losses will hit £900m-£1.2bn. • A waterfall appeared at Malham Cove for a short time due to heavy rainfall. This had not previously happened in living memory. • According to Great Outdoors Magazine The full extent of the environmental impact of Storm Desmond is yet to be assessed, but it is likely that footpaths and walls have been washed away, ground severely eroded, vegetation destroyed and water quality affected. Large amounts of the fragile upland soils has been washed into the swollen streams, rivers and lakes and will have an impact on water quality and aquatic wildlife. • Millions of tons of sediment was transported by the river and deposited on floodplains and in settlements in the areas affected. • Thousands of trees which once lined rivers in the area affected were ripped from river banks. • Landslides occurred in many places as the result of heavy rainfall and the land becoming saturated. • Kinder Downfall waterfall in the Peak District is put in reverse by strong winds from Storm Desmond • A significant landslide occurred in along the Glenn Riding beck in the Lake District
Human response More than 100 flood warnings and more than 70 flood alerts were in place in northern England on Saturday night, with more than 90 flood warnings and alerts in Scotland.
The Government mobilised a full national emergency response”. This included 200 military personnel and supporting assets (including a Chinook helicopter); 50 high-volume pumps; and the Environment Agency moving people, temporary defences and pumps to the north-west.
Several teams of Royal Engineers were deployed to help in the emergency response and recovery after the floods in Cumbria and Lancashire. Reconnaissance teams from 21 and 32 Regiment of 170 Engineer Group at Chilwell conducted technical assessments on at-risk and damaged bridges. More engineers were on standby.
Around 90 troops from 2nd Battalion Duke of Lancaster’s Regiment provided assistance and took supplies to remote areas such as Patterdale and Glenridding. Around 350 personnel were available to rotate as required.
£400,000 was donated within 48 hours by the public after a £1m appeal was launched to help people affected by flooding caused by Storm Desmond.
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Following the floods the Government announced a £50m repair and renew scheme for Cumbria and Lancashire after the floods, promising businesses and homeowners they will quickly receive the help they need. The scheme was administered by local authorities.
The Cumbria Flood Recovery Fund 2015, launched by the Cumbria Community Foundation, aims to contribute to clean-up costs, emergency repairs, clothing, food and drink, heating and heating equipment, childcare equipment and basic furniture for individuals and families who already struggle financially.
The government’s Cobra committee announced the 5,000 households and businesses affected would be given council tax and business rate relief. The government launched the Bellwin scheme to fully reimburse councils for the costs of dealing with flooding, and ministers reviewed all flood defence plans. Meanwhile the Prince’s Countryside Fund announced it is releasing £40,000 from its Emergency Fund, to help rural communities, farmers and businesses in the north of England and Scotland recover from flood damage.
Two funds were set up to to allow people to donate money to support repairing the natural environment affected by Storm Desmond. These were the Ullswater Environment Recovery Fund and Fix the Fells.
From 2012
5 (d) (ii) Use a case study to describe responses to river flooding. (8 marks)
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From 2014
5 (b) (ii) Outline one physical cause of flooding. [2 marks]
From 2016
5 (d) (ii) Use case studies to explain why the effects of flooding in a rich part of the world are different from the effects of flooding in a poor part of the world.
[8 marks]
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How can River Flooding be
Managed?
With the catastrophic and potential for fatal flooding seeming to be getting worse in the UK it is of no surprise that flood management is an important topic both politically and geographically.
There are two types of strategies here – hard engineering strategies – ones which look to control nature, through the use of building and artificial materials, and soft engineering strategies – ones which look to work with nature through the use of natural materials or working with nature.
Hard engineering strategies tended to be well liked by politicians and local residents at risk of flooding as they are guaranteed to work and relatively quick to build, but they are expensive and need regular maintenance. Soft engineering strategies tended to be well liked by environmentalists and governments who need to save some money because they are sustainable, less environmentally damaging and much cheaper but there is no guarantee they will work.
The following table gives you information about a range of schemes, as ways as their advantages or benefits and disadvantages or costs. As you’ll notice there are some empty boxes perhaps there’s an activity in this somewhere (hint hint).
Scheme Benefits Costs Hard engineering
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Dams and reservoirs • Effective • Very expensive
Control the flow of the • Reservoirs can be • Villages, farmland, water which is held back used for recreation open land is flooded in the reservoir until the and tourism when the reservoir is flood risk is over. created. • Some dams are used for HEP – • Silt builds up behind multipurpose scheme the dam. Example: Cow Green Reservoir on the R Tees • Water supply – water built in 1970s to provide is piped to urban water for urban/industrial areas. areas
Straightening, widening • Effective • Flooding may happen and deepening channels lower downstream – meanders are cut out. • Allows water to flow because the through more quickly floodwater gets there Example: R Tees – and so reduces the faster. meanders have been cut likelihood of flooding out shortening the river by 10kms and increasing • Straightened channels the speed of flow. are also lined with concrete to speed up the flow.
Digging a flood relief • Effective • channel or diversionary spillway • Attractive
• Leisure
Building flood shelters - • Can be used for clinics • Used in LDCs like / doctors etc when Bangladesh. Build large thereis no flood. community buildings, high up on stilts that locals can evacuate too in times of flood.
Dredging • Very effective
• Relatively cheap
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Silt is dug out to make the channel deeper
Example: Lower course of the R Tees
Raising the banks – • Increases the capacity • The water level can artificial levees and of the river channel– it rise so high that it embankments can hold more water spills over the levee.
• High banks mean that flood waters can’t flow back into the river and increase the flood damage.
Temporary Flood • Quick and easy to put • Barriers – Made of steel up these can be built quickly, and removed • Can be used only in an easily. They work by emergency raising the levels the river needs to get to before it floods
Soft engineering – natural, working with river processes,
Planting trees in the • Effective Slow growing upper catchment area • Good for the Changes the ecosystem Especially on steep environment slopes to reduce run off. • Creates habitats and recreational areas
Planting water loving • Natural Has to be balanced with plants eg willow and the need to manage alder near the rivers to • drought conditions lower the water table
Creating wetlands • Effective Can take farmland
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Areas where the river • Good for the can flood safely before it environment, creating reaches populated areas habitats
Eg R Valency near • Can be used for Boscastle recreation
Zoning • Effective •
Restrictions on building • Enables some use to be made of floodplains 1. Nearest to the river on without reducing the floodplain – no infiltration building at all, parkland for • Limits damage recreation, agricultural land
2. Car parks and playing fields
3. Away from the river - Industry and housing
Other flood control methods
Flood warnings • Enables people to be • Still damages safe, try to protect property Environment Agency their homes with monitors the weather and sandbags, move potential flood risk of valuables upstairs rivers. It then warns people through the radio, TV, internet, phone warnings.
Modifying buildings • Effective •
Stilts, car parks underneath, windows and doors high up, flood gates and walls around gardens
Do nothing • Works with nature • Can have huge social and economic costs
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Flooding is a natural process
22. Using your own knowledge, information about the schemes from the first column and any extra research you need completed the empty boxes in the table above.
23. Which do you think is the most effective type of flood defence? Explain why.
24. Name the flood management schemes under the photos diagrams on the next page. Note I’ve not included all forms of flood defence.
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From 2011 5 (c) (ii) Hard and soft engineering strategies are used to manage flooding.
Choose either hard engineering or soft engineering and explain why it is the better strategy. (8 marks)
From 2014
5(c) Study Figure 12 on the next page, a photograph of an information board describing flood management in Boscastle, Cornwall.
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With the help of Figure 12, explain how hard and soft engineering strategies help to manage the risk of flooding in areas such as Boscastle. [8 marks]
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Why do Rivers Need to be Managed to Provide a Water Supply?
The demand for water is increasing in the UK – currently we each use about 150 litres of water a day but the population is growing and more people live alone so there are more households. (A family of 4 uses less water than 4 people living on their own don’t you know!)
Most people have appliances like dishwashers and washing machines (although they use less water than they used to) and a powerful shower uses 80 litres of water.
Water is increasingly needed for industry and agriculture and is used in generating electricity in coal, oil, gas and nuclear power stations. As the demand for electricity goes up so will water consumption.
This has led to areas of water stress – as shown in the map to the right. This is where more water is needed than is available. It may relate to availability of supply or to the quality of the water.
Water stress may also be areas of deficit – this is where not enough rain falls to meet demand. Shortages may occur all the year round if there is high demand or at certain times like a prolonged period where less rain falls (called a drought).
Areas that have lots of water are called areas of surplus this is where there is more rainfall than they need for their populations. The problem that the UK has is these tend to be where the fewest people live. This leads very nicely onto our final case study – Kielder Water – a reservoir and an example of water transfer.
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Kielder Water – A Reservoir Case
Study
Kielder Water is a reservoir and water transfer project. A reservoir is an artificial dam and lake created in an area of higher land so that water can be let out into the river when it is needed further downstream. A water transfer project is when water is pumped from an area of surplus to an area of deficit.
It is run by Northumbrian Water, a large company supplying Northumberland, County Durham and parts of North Yorkshire and Cumbria. Supplying around 729 million litres of water a day to a population of 2.5 million people in the areas of Newcastle, Sunderland and Middlesbrough.
The River Tyne was dammed in its upper course creating a reservoir (Kielder Water) over 10kms long. It was chosen because:
• The River Tyne has a relatively wide floor at this point in its upper course so it is easy to do.
• The area has a high annual precipitation (1,370mm) so there is a plentiful supply of water.
• There was a low population density – a few isolated farms and small hamlets meant the few people needed to be moved when the dam was built and the valley flooded.
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• The land was low value, low quality farmland – rough grazing.
• There were relatively few concerns over the loss of habitats – there were many similar areas.
The decline of traditional heavy industry, together with more water-efficient industrial processes and better control of water supply leakage, served to reduce the need for the original reasons for the reservoir and many came to criticise the government-funded project as a white elephant.
In recent years, however, Kielder Water has come into its own, with underground springs ensuring that it always remains at high levels, regardless of how much rain it receives. This means that while the south of England is often forced to implement drought strategies and hosepipe bans, north east England enjoys plentiful water supplies.
The table on the next page shows some of the other benefits and drawbacks of the scheme.
25. Either - Create a poster to advertise the benefits of Kielder Water OR write a letter to a local newspaper protesting against it. 26. Write a short paragraph to show your opinion in answering this question - do you think Kielder Water is a good scheme or not? Explain why. 27. Find a non-geographer – explain to them what Kielder Water is and why it was needed.
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Advantages Disadvantages
Reducing the flow of water from a river changes the landscape of that river which can affect plants and A hydro-electric power station, using animals. A dam holds back sediment, the water released by Kielder especially the gravel and pebbles. The reservoir can generate 6MW of power. depletion of riverbed gravels reduces spawning grounds for fish and invertebrates.
The scheme includes 8 sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) , Clean water released from the dam covering 7,800ha and containing has the increased potential for unique plants and animals. Kielder is erosion downstream of the dam – this one of the last places for red squirrels is known as clear water erosion. in England
58 families were displaced from their The lake is 11km long and stores homes by the dam, their houses nearly 200,000million litres of water – disappearing beneath the lake that this helps in times of water shortages formed.
Huge volumes of timber are produced at Kielder, the number of standing When the dam was completed it trees is 150million and they are flooded an area of scenic natural replanted once felled. Kielder forest beauty. employs up to 260 employees.
It can act as a flood prevention 2,700 acres of farmland and habitat measure. was lost as a result of the scheme.
The forest at Kielder has been A visitors study showed that £6million criticised for being too much of a is raised through tourism to Kielder monoculture (only one type of tree) – every year. mainly Sitka Spruce
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From 2010
5 (d) Explain how the demand for water is met within the UK. ( 8 marks)
From 2013
5 (c) (i) Study Figure 12 on the insert, an atlas map of north Wales.
Suggest why this area is suitable for dams and reservoirs. (2 marks)
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5 (c) (ii) Discuss issues which result from building dams and reservoirs. (8 marks)
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From 2015
5 (a) Study Figure 13 on the insert, a 1:25 000 Ordnance Survey map extract of part of the Peak District.
Damflask Reservoir is named in grid square 2790. The dam is in grid square 2890.
5 (a) (i) What is the length of the dam along the line X–Y on the map? [1 mark]
5 (a) (ii) What shape is Damflask Reservoir? [1 mark]
5 (a) (iii) Describe the relief (height and slope of the land) around Damflask Reservoir. [2 marks]
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5 (b) Study Figures 14a and 14b on the insert, maps showing rainfall (2012) and population density (2011) in England and Wales.
Explain how Figures 14a and 14b show that there are likely to be areas of water surplus and areas of water deficit in England and Wales. [6 marks]
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