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The Learning Economy and the Economics of Hope Ii Bengt-Åke Lundvall Bengt-Åke T HE ‘Presented as a journey in the process of understanding innovation systems and the learning economy, this book is a major shift in L EARNING THE LEARNING economic perspective and provides a roadmap for designing a better future. Indispensable for social scientists and politicians, teachers and students, policy makers and all interested citizens in these uncertain ECONOMY AND THE times.’ —Carlota Perez, Professor, London School of Economics and University ECONOMY of Sussex, UK, and Nurkse School, Estonia ECONOMICS OF HOPE ‘This is a compelling book and an exciting read for all those interested in innovation as an interactive process. It brings together more than thirty years of seminal and insightful research on learning, the learning AND economy and national innovation systems by the leading figure in innovation systems.’ T —Franco Malerba, Professor of Applied Economics, Bocconi University, HE Italy ECONOMICS he Learning Economy and the Economics of Hope offers original insights into the processes of innovation and learning T and the implications these have on economic theory and public policy. Readers are introduced to important concepts such as innovation systems and the learning economy. By throwing fresh light on economic development, this book opens up a new kind of economics OF – the economics of hope. HOPE Bengt-Åke Lundvall is professor of economics at Aalborg University, Denmark, and a leading expert on innovation and development. A prolific writer, he has published several books, articles and chapters including the edited volume National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning (2010). Anthem Studies in Innovation and Development publishes cutting- edge scholarship on how innovation impacts human and economic development, from sociological, historical and economic perspectives, with the aim of evaluating ongoing initiatives to promote innovation capacity and understanding the changing role of innovation for global prosperity. Cover image: Shutterstock, Inc. Bengt-Åke Lundvall i The Learning Economy and the Economics of Hope ii Anthem Studies in Innovation and Development The Anthem Studies in Innovation and Development aims to publish cutting-edge scholarship that pushes the boundaries of our understanding of how innovation impacts human and economic development. The aim is to promote a better understanding of innovation, evaluate ongoing approaches to analyse innovation capacity, and to generate a set of instructive readings that elaborate upon the role of innovation capabilities in enabling develop- ment, reducing inequality and eliminating poverty. The series is interested in exploring the role of technology and innovation in sustainable development (at the global or sectoral level), links between trade and innovation (includ- ing investment and intellectual property rights), the role of the state and new issues in the interface of innovation and industrial policy. The series is par- ticularly interested in analytical approaches to institutional and evolutionary economics, new frameworks and constructs on capabilities building and eco- nomic history reviews of innovation and technological change. Series Editors Padmashree Gehl Sampath – United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Switzerland; Aalborg University, Denmark Rajneesh Narula – University of Reading, UK Editorial Board Dan Breznitz – University of Toronto, Canada Carlos Correa – University of Buenos Aires, Argentina Dominique Foray – École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Switzerland Elisa Guiliani – University of Pisa, Italy Raphie Kaplinsky – University of Sussex, UK Bengt-Åke Lundvall – Aalborg University, Denmark Keith Maskus – University of Colorado, USA Khalid Nadvi – University of Manchester, UK iii The Learning Economy and the Economics of Hope Bengt- Åke Lundvall iv Anthem Press An imprint of Wimbledon Publishing Company www.anthempress.com This edition fi rst published in UK and USA 2016 by ANTHEM PRESS 75– 76 Blackfriars Road, London SE1 8HA, UK or PO Box 9779, London SW19 7ZG, UK and 244 Madison Ave #116, New York, NY 10016, USA Copyright © Bengt- Åke Lundvall 2016 The author asserts the moral right to be identifi ed as the author of this work. All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book. British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data Names: Lundvall, Bengt-Åke, 1941– author. Title: The learning economy and the economics of hope / by Bengt-Åke Lundvall. Description: London; New York, NY: Anthem Press, [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifi ers: LCCN 2016038800 | ISBN 9781783085965 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: Knowledge economy. | Information technology – Economic aspects. | Technological innovations – Economic aspects. Classifi cation: LCC HC79.I55 L86 2016 | DDC 303.48/3 – dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016038800 ISBN- 13: 978- 1- 78308- 596- 5 (Hbk) ISBN- 10: 1- 78308- 596- 7 (Hbk) This title is also available as an e- book. v CONTENTS List of Tables xi List of Figures xiii Preface xv Part I. INTRODUCTION Chapter 1. Contributions to the Learning Economy: Overview and Context 3 Bengt-Åke Lundvall 1.1 The Structure of the Book 4 1.2 What Is Wrong with Economics? 13 References 15 Part II. INNOVATION AS INTERACTIVE PROCESS Chapter 2. Product Innovation and User–Producer Interaction 19 Bengt-Åke Lundvall 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 The Framework 20 2.3 Product Innovation and the Organized Market 26 2.4 Unsatisfactory Innovations 36 2.5 User–Producer Perspective on Location of Production 44 2.6 The Science–Technology Nexus 47 2.7 Units of Analysis and Propositions 54 2.8 A Final Remark 57 Notes 57 References 58 Chapter 3. Innovation as an Interactive Process: From User– Producer Interaction to the National Systems of Innovation 61 Bengt-Åke Lundvall 3.1 Introduction 61 vi vi THE LEARNING ECONOMY AND THE ECONOMICS OF HOPE 3.2 The Micro-Foundation: Interaction between Users and Producers 61 3.3 National Systems of Innovation 73 3.4 National Systems of Production 75 3.5 Conclusion 80 Notes 81 References 81 Chapter 4. National Systems of Innovation: Towards a Theory of Innovation and Interactive Learning 85 Bengt-Åke Lundvall 4.1 Introduction 85 4.2 National Systems of Innovation 86 4.3 Towards a Theory 92 4.4 The Elements of the System 98 4.5 Opening the System 100 4.6 Alternative Approaches and Methods 101 Notes 103 References 104 Chapter 5. The Learning Economy 107 Bengt-Åke Lundvall and Björn Johnson 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 The Knowledge-Intensive Economy 108 5.3 Knowledge Intensity and Learning in the Post-Fordist Era 109 5.4 What Is Economic Knowledge? 112 5.5 Is Knowledge a Scarce Resource? 116 5.6 Interactive Learning 117 5.7 Remembering and Forgetting 118 5.8 Learning in Pure and Mixed Economies 119 5.9 The Organized Market as Institutional Response 121 5.10 Benefi ts and Costs of Organized Markets 122 5.11 Government Intervention in the Learning Economy 124 5.12 The Means to Learn 126 5.13 The Incentives to Learn 126 5.14 The Capability to Learn 127 5.15 Access to Relevant Knowledge 127 5.16 Learning to Forget 128 5.17 Concluding Remarks 128 References 129 vii CONTENTS vii Part III. ECONOMICS OF KNOWLEDGE AND LEARNING Chapter 6. From the Economics of Knowledge to the Learning Economy 133 Bengt-Åke Lundvall 6.1 Introduction 133 6.2 A Terminology of Knowledge 134 6.3 An Economic Perspective on the Production, Mediation and Use of Knowledge 141 6.4 Towards the Learning Economy 148 6.5 Conclusion 149 Notes 150 References 151 Chapter 7. Forms of Knowledge and Modes of Innovation 155 Morten Berg Jensen, Björn Johnson, Edward Lorenz and Bengt-Åke Lundvall 7.1 Introduction 155 7.2 What Is Knowledge? 156 7.3 Forms of Knowledge and Modes of Learning 159 7.4 The Need for a New Empirical Approach 162 7.5 Empirical Analysis 163 7.6 Conclusion: Implications for Innovation Analysis and Policy 172 Appendix 1 The Questions Used and the Original Coding in the Questionnaire 175 Appendix 2 The Goodness of Fit of the Model 177 Notes 179 References 180 Chapter 8. How Europe’s Economies Learn: A Comparison of Work Organization and Innovation Mode for the EU-15 183 Anthony Arundel, Edward Lorenz, Bengt-Åke Lundvall and Antoine Valeyre 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Measuring Forms of Work Organization in the European Union 185 8.3 How Europe’s Economies Work and Learn 191 8.4 Measuring Diff erences in Innovation Mode 199 8.5 The Relation between Organizational Practice and Innovation Mode 201 viii viii THE LEARNING ECONOMY AND THE ECONOMICS OF HOPE 8.6 Diff erences between Manufacturing and Services 206 8.7 Conclusion 210 Appendix 1 Organizational Variables Used in Factor Analysis 215 Appendix 2 Graphical Representation of Factor Analysis – 15 Organizational Variables 216 Notes 217 References 219 Chapter 9. Postscript: Innovation System Research; Where It Came From and Where It Might Go 223 Bengt-Åke Lundvall 9.1 Introduction 223 9.2 A Concept with Roots Far Back in History 225 9.3 National Innovation System as Analytical Focusing Device 234 9.4 Challenges for Innovation System Research 240 9.5 National Systems of Innovation and Economic Development 247 9.6 Conclusions 256 Notes 257 References 259 Part IV. CONTINENTAL TRANSFORMATIONS AND GLOBAL CHALLENGES Chapter 10. China’s Innovation System and the Move towards Harmonious Growth and Endogenous Innovation 269 Shulin Gu and Bengt-Åke Lundvall 10.1 Introduction 269 10.2 The Transition of China’s Economy 270 10.3 The Transformation of China’s Innovation System 282 10.4 Problems, Debates and Challenges 289 10.5 Conclusion 299 Notes 299 References 301 Chapter 11.
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