The Remarkable Life of Sanak Roly Russell Nancy Huntly, Utah State University Spencer Wood Bruce Finney Dieta Hanson

Utah State University

From the SelectedWorks of Nancy Huntly

August, 2012

Available at: https://works.bepress.com/nancy_huntly/174/ SANSSAANANAKAK ISLISISLSLANANDAND 27 THE REMARKABLE LIFE OF SANAK

Roly Russell, Nancy Huntly, Spencer Wood, Bruce Finney, Dieta Hanson

Life on Sanak is remarkable—from the brilliant orange of lichens clinging to life high on wave-beaten and barren rocks to the raspy bark of an introduced arctic fox or a vole’s abstract bouquet of drying tundra flowers. In this chapter we will explore a limited selection of the diverse cast of characters that inhabit the Sanak Islands, ranging from the tiny and cryptic to the large and charismatic. The ocean immediately surrounding the Sanak Islands is spotted with underwater forests of kelp—a suite of species of brown seaweeds that can grow to extraordinary lengths (some kelps may grow as long as half a hockey rink) and at astoundingly fast rates (sometimes half a meter per day). Because of their great size, kelp forests create an important habitat for entire communities of other species. One species that is common around the shallow waters of Sanak is known as Dragon Kelp (Eualaria fistu- losa) and can grow up to 25 m (82 ft) long and 1 m (3.2 ft) wide in a year. Nereocystis leutkeana (known as Bull Kelp) is also a long seaweed, growing up to 36m (118 ft) in a year, allowing it to create kelp forests in slightly deeper waters than the Dragon Kelp. Since these kelps go through the cycle of substantial growth and subsequent decay every year, they create a large quantity of detritus (small bits of decomposing kelp in this case) that provides a great deal of energy to animals in nearby ecosystems such as the intertidal and links the ecologies of these habitats.

Some invertebrates care for their young: this Urticina anemone is shown brooding its young.

28 SANAK ISLAND A burrowing anemone (Anthopleura artemisia) nestled in among cobbles.

SANAK ISLAND 29 A whitecap limpet (Acmaea mitra) encrusted with coralline algae.

30 SANAK ISLAND Because kelp stems (known technically as “stipes”) grow so long and are found on almost all the coasts in the area, the Aleut historically used these stipes for making fishing lines and ropes. The stipes of long kelps, such as the giant kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), were collected, cut into strips, and soaked in fresh water. Then, these strips of stipe could be stretched until they reached a desired thinness to craft various ropes or lines (Black, 1999). In contrast to the dramatic speed, yet short life-cycle, of the kelps, another group of seaweeds grow exceptionally slowly (only millimetres or less per year) and are remarkably long-lived (living for many decades, or even centuries): these are the crustose coralline red algae (see sidebar on next page). These algae look and feel like smooth pink rocks and are often found lining the rock walls of tidal pools, covering small rocks in calm spots, or painting bedrock on the ocean floor. Interestingly, pieces of one type of coralline algae are found in ancient middens (see page 107) on Sanak Island. It is possible that these are remnants of ancient ceremonies that incorporated coralline algae on Sanak Island, as in other locations. From the diminutive corallines through to the giant kelps, marine algae use photosynthesis to harvest the sun’s energy and produce the biomass that feeds the rest of the species in the ecosystem. Two groups of animals eat these algae: “grazers” and “filter-feeders.” The grazers, such as Littorine snails, eat algae directly by scraping it off of rock or other surfaces. The filter-feeders eat plankton and detritus in the water by filtering seawater; on Sanak Island, this includes species such as mussels and barnacles. The distinction between these two groups becomes particularly important during red tides, which are blooms of certain plank- tonic algae that can be toxic to humans. During blooms of red-tide algae,

SANAK ISLAND 31 Coralline Algae filter-feeders concentrate the toxins derived from these plankton, while grazers generally remain safe to eat because they consume a food-source On the shores of Sanak Island, a splash of pink can be seen near the water line isolated from the toxic blooms. Of course, prehistoric people living on and in tide pools. These pink seaweeds are called coralline algae because they use Sanak would have understood these ecological relationships and adjusted calcareous compounds to create a structure that is as hard as coral. Coralline their diets and behavior accordingly. algae grow either as a rock-like crust or as a chain of segments with flexible joints that resemble the bones of vertebrae. These tough seaweeds are extremely com- A class of much larger marine animals also filter-feeds. Baleen whales mon on rocky shores from the Aleutian Islands to Mexico, partly because their like Humpbacks, Blue Whales, Right Whales, and Fin Whales all are rigid structure makes them inedible to most species. Instead, many crabs, snails, filter-feeders that gulp huge quantities of seawater, then push this water and small fish take refuge amongst these pink seaweeds that are normally just a back through rigid plates of baleen that replace their teeth. The seawater few inches tall. A few animals, like the lined chiton, Tonicella lineata, are unique- filters through the baleen plates, while the small animals in the water ly adapted to eat coralline algae. These animals are also capable of incorporating remain behind in the whale’s mouth. Of course, there are also non-ba- the pink pigment of their prey into their own exterior, thus helping them remain leen whales in the region, with teeth instead of baleen plates: Orcas and camouflaged on rocks in the intertidal zone. Coralline algae have other charac- Sperm Whales are two examples. Most of these whales may have been teristics that make them unique. Interestingly, the crustose form produces annual hunted by the prehistoric Aleut. Akutan whalers in the early twentieth growth rings, in much the same way that trees do. This has allowed scientists to century commercially hunted all of these species of whales, and whale determine that these pink crusts can live a very long time: perhaps as many as bone is found frequently in middens on Sanak Island. 1,000 years! Other marine mammals are particularly important to the ecology of the area, especially the seals and sea lions. Steller sea lions (Eume- Above: The lined chiton,Tonicella lineata, is one of the few predators of topias jubatus), for example, are relatively huge pinnipeds (males can coralline algae and shares the dramatic pink coloration of the coralline weigh over 1,000 kg) that were critical to subsistence of most prehistoric crust algae (sometimes called coralline paint) it is grazing upon. Aleut: both meat for food and skin for kayak coverings. Steller sea lions throughout the Aleutians are undergoing a relatively mysterious decline, Below: Coralline algae (both crusts and articulated coralline algae) provide camouflage for a Rockweed Isopod (Pentidotea wosnesenskii), attributed to a variety of factors from prey switching to over-fishing to noteworthy for its ability to change its colour over time to match its predation and likely a complex intertwining of several causes of decline. habitat, quite apparent in this example. A suite of other marine mammals are found in the waters around Sanak (and in Sanak middens), such as the culturally important northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus) and the sea otter (Enhydra lutra).

32 SANAK ISLAND Spawning salmon (both male and female pictured here) have been important to the history of the Sanak archipelago as one of many ecological The Alaska Maritime connections between land and sea (photo courtesy of Sarah Klain). National Wildlife Refuge A great deal of the energy that supports life on Sanak Island comes from the ocean. The North Pacific Ocean is a remarkably productive The Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge, which encom- environment, bathing Sanak Island in ocean-currents that are rich in life. passes the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands, is 3.4 million acres in The marine ecosystem, consisting of both ocean bottom (benthic) and size and covers over 43,000 miles of Alaskan coastline includ- floating (pelagic) life, supports the fish and marine mammals found in ing most of the Sanak Islands. The Refuge was created in 1980 waters around Sanak Island, as well as much of the life on the island itself. for the conservation of marine mammals and seabirds, and In the same way that the ocean has provided sustenance to people of their habitats. Endangered and threatened mammals such as the Northern Sea Otter inhabit the Refuge, along with several Sanak throughout history, the flora and fauna that make up the terrestrial species that cannot be found anywhere else on Earth. One such ecosystems of Sanak Island are linked to life in the ocean. bird, the Aleutian cackling goose, traditionally nested across the Some species ecologically connect the sea to the land and help trans- Aleutian Islands until the foxes, rats, and other egg-eating an- port energy and nutrients between marine and terrestrial ecosystems. imals were put ashore by humans and devastated the seabird Various fish species play pivotal roles in the ecological network linking populations. The US Fish and Wildlife service has undertaken the marine environment to the land. Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), for ex- efforts to eliminate foxes from Sanak Island and 1 million acres ample, have been well documented as performing an irreplaceable move- of land across the Refuge. As a result, over 40 million seabirds ment of nutrients from the marine environment (where they eat and from 30 different species currently nest on islands within the grow) to the terrestrial environment (where they get eaten and die). To a Refuge, and more birds return each year. lesser degree, even purely marine species such as Halibut (Hippoglossus

SANAK ISLAND 33 Left: The brilliant yellows and oranges ofCaloplaca or Xanthoria lichens on seaside rocks generally indicate high levels of nitrogen and other nutrients associated with seabird guano. Below left: Airborne, the tufted puffinFratercula ( cirrhata) is cumbersome and clumsy-looking, but underwater it is remarkably agile and swift, flying underwater with its short wings (photo courtesy of Steve Ebbert). Opposite: A crab (Cancer oregonensis) foraging among intertidal seaweeds.

stenolepis) and Cod (Gadus macrocephalus) link land and sea, given their rich economic history in the area (e.g., Captain James Cook dubbed the island Halibut Island because his crew caught so many halibut off Sanak in 1778). During many times, large numbers of such fish were brought to shore and processed (more information on Sanak fish is included in the sections titled ‘The Codfish Industry’ and ‘Salting Salmon’, in Chapter 5). Seabirds get the vast majority of their food from the ocean waters but nest on land. In doing so, they bring energy and nutrients from the ocean to land (see Chapter 3). The most flamboyant and unmistakable seabird of the archipelago must be the Tufted PuffinFratercula ( cirrhata), with its dramatic decorative plumage and flappy, seemingly exhausting, flight patterns. Puffins are abundant on some of the smaller islets around Sanak, such as Bird Island at the mouth of Pauloff Harbor. These birds are a prime example of an energy connection between two habitats, as they harvest fish from the sea and return to nest on the shores of Sanak Island, thus moving marine nutrients to these terrestrial habitats. Because these birds nest in burrows in the ground, they are now relegated to nesting on a few of the smaller Sanak Islands that are inaccessible to foxes (see Foxes and Birds in Chapter 3), although they used to be abundant on the shores of Sanak Island.

34 SANAK ISLAND SANANNAKAK ISIISLSSLLAANDANNDND 35 The sun-bleached bones of a whale skeleton that washed ashore near Pauloff Harbor.

36 SANAK ISLAND Flotsam and Jetsam

Tons of manufactured debris floating around the North Pacific Ocean make landfall on the shores of Sanak Island each year. The trash originates from boats or enters the sea from land where people live. Most commonly, the debris consists of fishing gear, such as ropes, nets, and buoys, as well as household plastics, such as beverage bot- tles, all of which take decades or longer to decompose. Large-scale wind and ocean currents rotate counter-clockwise around the North Pacific Basin, bringing water and associated debris from as far away as Japan up to the Aleutian Islands from the southeast. Ropes and nets pose a hazard to marine birds and mammals that become entangled and thereby unable to move or feed properly. Other toxic plastic materials enter the food web when they are consumed by birds and fish who mistake them for edible prey. Even zooplankton consume tiny plastic particles and in some places are known to eat more plastic than natural prey. The ocean delivers a variety of natural debris to Sanak Island, including driftwood and rafts of detached kelp and other seaweeds. While adrift, these floating kelp rafts harbor communities of fishes and invertebrates, and provide a place for birds to perch at sea. Injured or recently deceased whales also drift ashore occasionally. In the past, a freshly killed whale would have provided plentiful food and resources such as oil for people on Sanak Island. In fact, some prehistoric Aleut hunters preferred to spear a whale and then wait for the carcass to wash onto land, where it could be utilized. Once ashore, whales, seaweeds, and other natural marine debris begin to decompose and provide nutrients for a wide variety of organisms both on land and in the intertidal zone. Animals from worms and small amphipods to terrestrial insects and birds feed on the remains, which help fuel the wide variety of island life.

SANAK ISLAND 37 Lichens are an intriguing group of organisms because they consist of an alga and a fungus that cooperate to create a structure unlike either of its two composing characters. This working partnership allows these organisms to produce their own food (like algae and plants) and therefore thrive in environments that are often too harsh for other organisms. One of these harsh environments is the thin salt-splashed and stressful strip of rock that is above the marine intertidal and below the soil-covered terrestrial realms — devoid of much life, but rich with lichens. Some lichens are particularly fond of nitrogen, and there is an abundance of these lichens, known as “nitrophilous,” on rocks frequented by birds (especially seabirds such as puffins, guillemots, and gulls). These lichens are a visual indicator that energy brought by birds from the marine environments can move through the food web. The nitrogen used by these lichens originates from food eaten by birds at sea, then excreted onto rocks near their burrows, resulting in colorful swaths of lichens painted across the rocks. Edges between different environments are often particularly rich in biological diversity, and the edge between the ocean and land—the Nudibranchs, also known as sea slugs, are common in the intertidal zone—certainly follows this pattern. Hundreds of different waters around Sanak. Hermissenda crassicornis (top), plants and animals live in this tiny band of shoreline ringing Sanak Island stores the tiny stinging cells of the anemones that it preys and the nearby islets that are intermittently submerged and exposed by upon in the tips of the cerata (the flowing ‘horns’ on the the flow of the tides. The harshness of the intertidal environment poses a back of a nudibranch) which, in turn, help protect the nu- challenge to organisms that must contend with the trials and tribulations dibranch from predators. The clown nudibranch (below), of a life both in air and under water. Nonetheless—or perhaps because Triopha catalinae, is unmistakable with its bright orange of these stresses—the intertidal zone is home to a marvelous diversity of spots. The aptly named sea leopard,Diaulula sandiegen- life: iridescent algae, giant barnacles, moonsnails, and seastars included. sis (next page), is a predator of sponges; this individual is moving along the underside of the surface of a tidepool Algal life in the intertidal is colorful, often slimy, and generally spec- with its feathery gills exposed, as seen from underwater. tacular. From the tiny, translucent, and delicate red algae living in the

38 SANAK ISLAND SASANSANANAKAK ISLISSLSLANDAND 39 understory to the dominating and large intertidal kelps, intertidal algae have adapted to this environment successfully. Many algae have complex life histories. Some species, like Porphyra (a red seaweed that grows in the intertidal), can exist either as a fleshy living crust that clings closely to the rock or as a razor-thin translucent leafy sheet (the form that is eaten by people). This diversity of life-forms allows for some “bet-hedg- ing” where conditions that are poor for one life-form may be good for another. Iridescent seaweed such as Mazzaella flash a rainbow of sheen, a prismatic glittering derived from unseen crystalline compounds just under the surface of the algae. Beyond its beauty, this iridescence probably evolved to help reduce grazing on the algae. Witch’s hair (Desmar- estia) has developed an alternative method to avoid being eaten: it produces concentrated sulphuric acid in its tissues. If this seaweed comes in contact with another alga, the dying tissues of Desmarestia will secrete a sulphuric acid that rapidly dissolves whatever it is touching. Seaweeds are everywhere along the ocean shore and are impossible to miss, yet hiding in among these algae is a rich and teeming diversity of animal life that deserves close examination. Most of these small animals are invertebrates; that is, they lack bones and are closely relat- ed to animals like insects and land snails. Within the seaweed jungles, we encounter the spectacular colors and diverse behaviours of animals such as blood stars (Henricia leviuscula) and green urchins (which have the remarkably long scientific name Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis), Top: Porphyra sp., an alga that was harvested by Aleut, dry- North Pacific Giant Octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini) and bidarki chitons ing in the sun while it is out of the ocean during a low tide. (Katharina tunicata). Bottom: Coralline algae, tube worms, sponges, and irride- The intertidal is home to an abundance of snails, limpets, whelks, cent red algae; just a sample of the brilliant colors found mussels and other shellfish that have provided a significant food source throughout the intertidal. for the people of Sanak Island for millennia. The most abundant animal in the midden record on Sanak is the periwinkle (Littorina), perhaps be-

40 SANAK ISLAND Dense aggregation of Littorina sitkana

Two of the Sanak chitons commonly found in middens: Ease of Collection Katharina tunicata and Cryptochiton stelleri. Much of the food of prehistoric people on Sanak Island was cause it is relatively easy to gather. Indeed, a collector today could harvest collected from the intertidal zone by women and children. How thousands of snails in less than five minutes of collecting (see ‘Ease of much shellfish could those people potentially have collected? To Collection’ on the right). The middens of Sanak Island tell us that snails answer that question, scientists on Sanak Island collected shell- have been an abundant and consistent element in the diet of the Aleut fish using methods intended to mimic those used by villagers people. The variety of whelks on the island, including dog whelks (Nucel- who would have foraged in the intertidal zone. The amount la), Neptunea, and Fusitriton, were much less commonly eaten. As pred- of edible biomass collected over time varied among species, ators of other animals—rather than plant eaters like the littorine snails— according to each taxon’s abundance and ease of collection. The the whelks are much less abundant in nature. The salivary gland of these littorine snail Littorina sitkana, which does not attach strongly whelks contains a toxin called tetramine, which can cause sickness and to rocks and often forms dense aggregations, was the easiest also may explain why they made up a smaller portion of people’s diets. species to gather. In 2004, each scientist was able to harvest a remarkable 13 kg of edible littorine biomasss (i.e., meat) per hour! Chitons are another group of animals that was consumed consistently Other species, like the limpet Tectura scutum, were more cryp- by the people of Sanak Island over at least the last 4,000 years. Both the tic, less abundant, and adhered strongly to the rock. As a result, smaller bidarki (Katharina tunicata) and the much larger gumboot or Pa- scientists were able to collect just 93 g of limpet meat per hour, cific Giant chiton Cryptochiton( stelleri) are found on nearly all the shores which is less than 1% of the amount they were able to gather in of Sanak Island, as well as in midden remains at nearly all the ancient littorine snails. Archaeological excavations in ancient villages on village sites. Although much harder to find, many other, smaller, species Sanak Island often have thick layers of littorine shells, indicating of chitons are also found on the island. Although these were probably too that people were collecting and eating large numbers of them small or too rare to be of much culinary interest, some are adorned with during certain periods of time. This penchant for littorines may striking colorful patterns that make them quite spectacular to look at. be due to the fact that littorine snails can be harvested quickly and easily, relative to all other intertidal shellfish.

SANAK ISLAND 41 A small-scale example of interrelated life on Sanak, with a Songbirds, such as this Gray-crowned Rosy Finch, are conspicuous on few different species of seaweed finding a safe place to grow Sanak and the other islands of the archipelago. The Gray-crowned Rosy on the shell of a grazing limpet. Notice that the rock is Finches of the Aleutians and Pribilofs are nearly twice the size of most bare, probably because the seaweeds that grow on the rock Gray-crowned Rosy Finches elsewhere. were eaten by grazers like the limpet. The seastars, urchins, and brittlestars form an eclectic group of species known as the echinoderms. They range from the tiny and fragile brittlestars that feed on organic debris made up of disintegrated plants and animals to the green urchin, which can mow down vast expanses of kelp forest. Mottled seastars have their own unique method of feeding on mussels and other small, shelled animals. Amazingly, they feed by everting their stomachs fully out of their bodies to cover and digest their prey. Another charismatic echino- derm, the sunstar Pycnopodia helianthoides, is such a voracious urchin-eater that it can induce an urchin stampede—albeit slow-moving compared with the equine equivalent—out of the range of the many-armed sunstar. These fast-moving seastars can travel up to three meters in a minute and can grow to over 60cm in diameter, making them one of the largest seastars in the North Pacific aswell as one of the fastest on the planet. If threatened, these seastars can jettison some of their many arms to distract their predators and then regrow new arms in short order. For many of the organisms in the intertidal zone, life has become inextricably intertwined with and interdependent on the lives of other species. For example, some small scale worms on Sanak live their entire lives in the spaces between the many feet—or other places on the body—of seastars. The scale worms benefit from bits ofood f that the seastar drops and are provided with a safe shelter. Sim- ilarly, a tiny crab called the pea crab lives its life inside the shells of mussels or clams. The pea crab gets a safe home and scraps of food that its host, the mussel, doesn’t eat. It is unclear whether the mussel is harmed in any way (which would make the pea crab a parasite instead of a commensal or mutualist). Regardless of the benefit or cost to the mussel host, these pea crabs on Sanak Island rely on other species for their well-being.

42 SANAK ISLAND Even on the dreariest of grey and rainy mornings on Sanak shores, tiny songbirds sing. The winds may howl fiercely and the rains drive hard, yet these little birds are singing their songs. Sparrows are the most ubiquitous group of songbirds on the island. Lapland Longspur are most Carnivory (eating animals) is rare in plants, but this common, followed by Savannah Sparrow, and then Gray-crowned Rosy butterwort (Pinguicula sp.) from Sanak is one of those Finch. These stalwart birds not only thrive in the relatively harsh envi- rare species that shakes the status quo by catching and ronment of Sanak Island, but many, such as the Fox Sparrow, undertake digesting insects, like the flies in the image above. long-distance migrations south in the winter. Interestingly, the Fox Spar- row demonstrates what is known as ‘leap-frog’ migration, where Alaskan Consumers populations of these little birds spend their winters in California, yet populations that summer in coastal British Columbia don’t travel nearly On Sanak Island, most plants and seaweeds are “primary pro- as far south for the winters. The birds from Alaska leap-frog the other ducers” because they can produce energy through photosynthe- populations twice a year, spending winter farther south and summer sis. However, one unique plant called Pinguicula, or Butterwort, farther north. is able to create energy another way: by catching and digesting insects that land on its broad, sticky leaves. Because it consumes Another group of birds spends most of its existence at the border animals, scientists refer to Pinguicula as a “carnivore.” A variety between ocean and land: the shorebirds. The common shorebirds of Sanak of other carnivores, most of which are animals, exist on Sanak include Least and Rock Sandpipers, Sandhill Cranes, and Wilson’s Snipes. Island and they are each uniquely designed to feed on specific The Sandpipers are particularly abundant and, when not at the water’s edge, types of prey. Some animals, like Enteroctopus dofleini, the are often found near their nests in the tundra. With their comic behaviors most common octopus in the ocean around Sanak Island, will and long orange beaks, Black Oystercatchers are often found along the select from dozens of different potential species of prey, including shoreline near Pauloff Harbor, but nested only on Bird Island during our limpets, crabs, clams, and sea stars. Similarly, humans tradi- study, not on Sanak Island itself. Perhaps this will change if foxes remain tionally ate birds, fish, clams, anemones and nearly every other absent from Sanak Island (see Chapter 3). type of organism. For this reason, humans are often referred to Looking beyond the seaweed-strewn shores, it becomes clear that li- as “generalists.” Other carnivores, meanwhile, might live their chens are successful well beyond the intensity of the splash zone. Indeed, entire lives and only eat one species of prey. These types of organ- these part-alga and part-fungus organisms have adapted to diverse habi- isms are called “specialists.” The sea slugRostanga pulchra, for tats and permeate every environment on Sanak Island. The tundra hum- example, consumes only red sponges. Around Sanak Island, it is mocks are full of fruticose (tiny tree-shaped) lichens such as the reindeer found living near the red sponge, is red-colored itself, and even lichen Cladonia rangiferina, exposed rocks on the windiest reaches of lays red eggs.

SANAK ISLAND 43 Bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) are a frequent Rock ptarmigan are often seen in the interior of Sanak Island. These sight on the rocky outcrops around Sanak Island. Their birds feed on the tundra shrubs, especially the buds of the heathers and remarkable vision allows them to see four to seven times willows (photo courtesy of Steve Ebbert). as far as humans, sighting prey from afar (photo courtesy of Steve Ebbert).

the Island are covered with low-growing and crustose species, and wave-beaten rocks on the ocean shore are sheathed with yet other species. Even rocks submerged in shallow creeks on Sanak Island are covered with slippery underwater lichen crusts, and driftwood or bones that stay around long enough eventually become homes for the lichens that are adapted to growing on these substrates. The dramatic ocean cliffs and rocky outcroppings above Sanak Island’s shores, as well as being draped with a diversity of lichens, provide a popular nesting habitat for birds. Whether it is a Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus, the most commonly seen raptor on the island) nesting at the top of a rocky coastal pinnacle, a Rough-legged Hawk (Buteo lagopus) or Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus) with a nest perched high on a cliff-edge, or a Tufted Puffin burrowing into a muddy bank, nearshore bluffs and banks are home to all sorts of nesting birds. One migrating seabird builds its nests away from the ocean, among the rocky slopes and the rolling hummocks of the Sanak tundra: the Parasitic Jaeger. At first blush, the name seems odd and inappropriate for this bird that looks like (and is) an oversized matte- grey seagull with a 1 meter wingspan. Jaeger, however, is derived from the Germanic term for hunter—these birds are remarkably agile and adept hunters, eating a diversity of small birds, mammals, fish, and even insects. The “parasitic” component of their name fersre to the fact that these birds typically wait until other birds have done the difficult work of catching a meal, and then steal it, using their airborne agility to pilfer the meal while still on the wing. Jaegers are truly seabirds, often spending the first two years of life entirely at

44 SANAK ISLAND sea. They return to the safety of the Sanak tundra to breed, and spend their Alaskan winters on the other side of the globe, in the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. In contrast to the Jaeger’s long-distance retreat from Sanak during winter, the Rock Ptarmigan makes its home in the inner reaches of the Island all year round. During the summer, these plump birds are speckled like granite, barred with black, brown, gold and white. But once winter arrives, Ptarmigan moult into a pure white winter plumage. To maintain their unusual ability to survive Alaskan winters, Rock Ptarmigan have feathers running down their legs and covering their feet. These feathers keep the birds warm in winter as well as help them walk atop the snow. It is amongst the spongy tundra hummocks of heather that the Ptar- migan and many other birds hide their nests. Heathers form the matrix of the tundra into which the mosses and lichens of the island, along with other herbaceous plants, grow. Bedecked with subtle and tiny flowers, the heathers also create the habitat for much other plant life of the tundra. The heathers include the common and abundant crowberry Empetrum( nigrum), as well as the low-growing pink-flowered Alpine azalea (Lo- iseluria procumbens), moss heather (Cassiope stellaria), Aleutian heather (Phyllodoce aleutica), the blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) and bearberries (Arctostaphylos spp.), and the larger-flowered flashy-magenta Kamchatka rhododendron (Rhododendron kamschatikum). Top: The nest of a pair of Parasitic Jaegars in a simple The master of the tundra must be the Tundra Vole Microtus( oecono- depression in the tundra. Both the male and female parent mus, sometimes known locally as meadow mice or gophers). Except for Jaegars aggressively defend their nests and care for the the possibility of prehistoric red foxes, the Tundra Vole may have been eggs and chicks. the biggest and most abundant terrestrial mammal on the island other Bottom: Although there are no true trees on Sanak Island, than humans for thousands of years! Areas where the tundra heather there are many shrubby woody plants, including this is high are frequently riddled with runways of these small herbivores. dwarf willow.

SANAK ISLAND 45 Left: Some of the rich diversity of tundra plants and lichens from Sanak Island. Below left: The tundra vole, sometimes called the root vole, oc- curs in tundra and northerly meadows around the globe. These creatures are active year-round. In winter, they both forage under the snow and feed on stored plant material, especially roots.

When they are abundant, they are seen even in the day dashing along them, searching for food. The runways, and also burrows, of tundra voles can be dense enough to cause erosion and decay of tundra, especially in sandy soils. The expanses of tundra are dotted with lakes and ponds. Tundra Swans (Cygnus columbianus) nest along the shores of inland tundra ponds and lakes, and many ducks and other waterbirds are found on the island. Green-winged Teal (Anas carolinensis) and Greater Scaup (Aythya marila) are common on Sanak Island, as are Glaucous-winged Gulls (Larus glaucescens). Harlequin Ducks (Histrionicus histrionicus) are often spotted offshore and along the coast of Sanak Island, but not commonly seen on the ponds in the tundra. Other waterfowl are not seen on Sanak in summer, but use the island in other seasons, for instance, the Emperor Geese and Brant, which can be abundant on Sanak in fall. Less visible than the birds of the island, but no less important for the island’s ecology, is a diverse suite of insect species. All the major groups of insects are found on the Sanak Islands, including flies and beetles (which are the most diverse and abundant insect groups on the islands), butterflies and moths. Many of the species of insects are largely unstudied or unknown to scientists, and there is much yet to be learned by studying them. For example, one of the most abundant insects on Sisters Island is the anthomyid fly Delia inconspicua. The larval biology of this species is not known, but some of its relatives eat the stems of various grasses and sedges by burrowing into them. Perhaps its abundance on Sisters indi- cates that its larvae consume the dominant plant on Sisters Island, beach grass (Leymus mollis).

46 SANAK ISLAND Beach Grass and the Textile Artistry of the Aleut

Beach grass (Leymus mollis, or wild rye), a tall, coarse grass, is found along vir- tually all sandy beaches of the Sanak archipelago. It is widespread throughout the Aleutians, Canada and the northern United States, and the Pacific Coast of North America, wherever there are sandy beach soils. The earliest historical writings on the Aleutians praise the quality and artistry of the basketry of the Aleut women, which are still regarded as the finest of the region and perhaps in the world. Although other materials were used in making baskets, wild rye was the most important source of fibers. These grasses were harvested, dried and cured, split, and woven. The basketry of the Aleut is both beautiful and functional. The fineness of the weave allowed baskets to be used for cooking and other purposes that required water-tight containers. Baskets sometimes were decorated and embroi- dered with feathers and fine gut, which tended to be replaced by fine silk thread after commerce with Eurasia was established. It can be easy to overlook the importance of textiles and the plants that were used for fibers to weave them, since textiles are perishable and only appear in the record of ancient times when unusual circumstances, such as a dry cave environment, preserve them. In ancient times, Aleut women are assumed to have woven not only baskets, but also mats, fish nets, and cordage. These would have made many essential contri- butions to household economy. For instance, Lydia Black reports that mats were used to reinforce houses, making them more weather-tight, and that they also served as blankets, capes, and burial wrappings (Lydia Black 2003, Aleut Art).

SANAK ISLAND 47 Carrion beetles, which live and feed on the remains of mammals, are common on Sanak Island, probably because of the carrion that is supplied by the carcasses of voles and especially cows. These beetles play an essential role in the ecology of the Island, as they help to decompose the carrion that results from death of vertebrate animals. Consider what would transpire in the absence of carrion-eaters such as these beetles (and microbes, mentioned later in this chapter): the Island would eventually be overcome with remains of cattle that died in years past! On the less macabre side, butterflies and moths represent the familiar and adored insects. Relatively few species of these are found on Sanak, but at least one species of butterfly, the Margined White (Pieris marginalis), lives on the Island. Moths are also found on the Island: the Common Carpet Moth (Epirrhoe alternata, also known by the much less ‘common’ name White-banded Toothed Carpet Moth), the Spear-marked Black Moth (Rheumaptera hastata), and the Double-banded Carpet Moth (Spargania magnoliata). The insects of Sanak may be unusual for an Aleutian island, since the cows have induced such dramatic changes to the vegetation of the islands (see Chapters 1 and 3), and insects reflect the plants on which they depend for habitat or food. However, relatively little is known about the

48 SANAK ISLAND Opposite top: Pieris marginalis, the Margined White or Veined White butterfly, feeds on nectar from the flowers of many plants in the cabbage family (Brassicaceae). Its larvae (the caterpillar stage of its life) are herbivores of plants from the same family. Opposite bottom: The Carrion (orBurying) Beetles are conspicuous because they are large, brightly colored, and are strong fliers that fly long distances to locate carrion. Nicrophorus investigator, shown here, can be 2-3 centimeters long. Sometimes these beetles carry mites, which seem to use the beetles only for transportation (photos courtesy of Derek Sikes). insect communities of the many Aleutian islands. More visits to Sanak would undoubtedly add many more species to those known from the Island. Along the margins of Sanak are meadows that appear almost as green lawns. These grassy areas are unusual in the Aleutians and reflect both the ancient and the recent history of land use. The grassy areas are most distinct where ancient Aleut villages were located, and they have been en- couraged by grazing by the feral cows that have occupied the island over the last century. It is interactions among the cattle, an introduced species, and the vegetation of Sanak that produce these so-called “grazing-lawns,” Rice-Root which we explore in more detail in the next chapter. The roots of rice-root (Fritillaria camschatcensis), which In modern cities, humans dramatically change the plant life growing have bulblets that look like rice grains, were one of the most in the immediate vicinity of their homes. This is true on Sanak Island as important root foods of the Aleut people, serving as an im- well (see Rice-Root to the right). Interestingly, after many centuries, and portant source of carbohydrates. On Elma Island, rice-root is even millennia, the sites of the villages of the past can still be recognized more abundant and individual plants are larger in the ancient by the unique sets of plants and animals that occur where once there were village areas than in meadows or tundra away from the villag- villages. We will describe this interaction between humans and vegetation es. Perhaps most interesting, the rice-root plants that grow in in more detail in the next chapter also. village sites have larger bulbs than plants of the same size that grow elsewhere. This suggests that the Aleut people may have Finally, before moving away from our cast of characters (the organ- caused development of rice-root plants that invested more of isms of Sanak) and turning our attention to the ecological play itself their resources in the bulbs, making plants that yielded more (the next chapter, highlighting interactions among some Sanak species food-value to a harvester. Such differences could result from and their environments), we have to attend to the least visible, and quite selective harvesting or could reflect growth conditions in the possibly most important, group of organisms in the Sanak ecosystem: village environment, such as soil conditions or the community microbes. Microbes are the incessant, though unseen, engines that are a of microbes that make nutrients available to plants. This argues base of Sanak Island’s ecology. The bacteria that decompose the cattle that that the plant communities of villages should be regarded as didn’t survive a Sanak winter, the plankton that feed the smaller fishes “Aleut gardens”: places where the plants became closely associat- that salmon eat, the bacteria in soil that catalyze nutrient transforma- ed with the people who harvested them. tions, the mycorrhizal fungi that feed many northern plants, and the bacteria that fix nitrogen from the air so that it can be used by plants: all of these are examples of the hidden world and important roles of microbes.

SANAK ISLAND 49