MALI CRISIS: A MIGRATION PERSPECTIVE
June 2013
Wri en by Diana Car er Edited by Sarah Harris Review Commi ee Patrice Quesada Peter Van der Auweraert Research Assistance Johanna Klos Ethel Gandia ! ! !! ! ! ! ! !! Birak Dawra UmmalAbid Smaracamp ! ! I-n-Salah Laayoune ! June 2013 ● www.iom.int ● [email protected] MALI CRISIS: A MIGR!!ATION PERSPECTIVE ! ! Smara ! Dakhlacamp Reggane Lemsid ! Illizi ! Tmassah ! BirLehlou ! Pre-crisis Patterns and Flows Marzuq
! ! ! Chegga Arak EUROPE BirMogrein Malian Diaspora ! 6 68,7863 Ghat 2,531 MALIANS FRANCE ● 2010 ASYLUM SEEKERS ! Jan - Dec 2012 Djanet ! Malian Diaspora Tajarhi 185,144 301,027 21,5893 SPAIN ● 2010
! TOTAL MALIAN CROSS BORDER MOVEMENTS TOTAL INTERNALLY DISPLACED PERSONS (IDPS) InAmguel INTO NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES ● as of May 2013 INSIDE MALI ● as of April 2013 228,918 as of 14 Jan 2013 ALGERIA
TOTAL MALIAN REFUGEES 176,144 ! ! Taoudenni ! ! Tamanrasset FderikZouirat as of May 2013 30,000 Malian Returnees from Libya12 144,329 as of 10 Jan 2013 as of Dec 2012 11,248 assisted by IOM 4 TOTAL OTHER MOVEMENTS OF MALIANS 9,000 as of May 2012 MALI 1,500 Malian Refugees 10 as of 1 Apr 2013 registered with UNHCR Malian Diaspora 3 ! 1,500 as of 10 Jan 2013 12,815 Malian Diaspora MAURITANIA ● 2010 Djado 69,7903
! Malian Diaspora NIGER ● 2010 Atar 17,5023 Tessalit SENEGAL ● 2010 ! Boghassa Malian Diaspora 9 ! Tinzaouaten 3 Malian Diaspora ! Malian Diaspora 68,295 15,624 Refugees BURKINA FASO ● 2010 3 15,2763 133,464 9 5 Aguelhok 10,000 Malians GUINEA ● 2010 NIGERIA ● 2010 2,497 Asylum Seekers ! Malian Diaspora as of 3 Apr 2012 inside Mali ● as of Jan 2012 STRANDED AT ALGERIAN BORDER 440,9603 Araouane COTE D’IVOIRE ● 2010 MAURITANIA ! ! Malian Diaspora Malian Diaspora 1 Arlit 3 6,0113 ! KIDAL 31,306 Tidjikdja 28,645 IDPs GABON ● 2010 REP. OF CONGO ● 2010 H as of Oct 2012 Anefis !
74,108 Malian Refugees 8 Legends and Description 1 as of 5 May 2013 registered with UNHCR 21,764 IDPs as of Oct 2012 Movement of irregular migrants ! ! 54,259 as of 10 Jan 2013 ! Gourma-Rharous Bourem ! TIMBUKTU ! ! from Africa to Northern Africa MagtaLajar ! ! Agadez H Ber 1 ! Cross-border movements 11 ! RaselMa and Europe through Mali ! ! 25,977 IDPs ! Kiffa AyounelAtrous Nema Goundam ! GAO as of Aug 2012 Dire ! ! H Internal movement of displaced Human trafficking going through ! Timbedra ! Kaedi Niafunke Menaka Mali 13 14 ! Gossi ! populations Lere ! !! ! Ansongo ! !! N'Tillit ! Inabao ! Anderamboukane NIGER Movement of Malians entering ! M'Bera Youvarou ! ! ! ! Regions affected by human NioroduSahel Nara !Nampala Yelimane ! ! ! Europe (Asylum Seekers) Koundel ! ! 1 ! ! trafficking activities ! 1 Douentza Selibaby 54,084 IDPs Konna ! ! ! 27,983 IDPs Gandafabou ! ! ! as of ! ! 1 Sokolo Apr 2013 ! ! as of Apr 2013 ! !!! !! Tahoua Seasonal movements of Movement of Malian returnees KAYES 5,252 IDPs Diema !Diabaly MOPTI Koutougou !! Abala Diboli as of Apr 2013 ! ! Sangha Fer!rerio pastoralist and labour migrants from Libya ! H HSevare ! !! ! Mangaize Niono ! GoromGorom ! ! Bandiagara Damba ! Bankass ! ! Dori ! Nguigmi ! ! Tillaberi Goure Didieni Djenne Djib!!o !! !! Mao Bafoulabe ! ! Madaoua Mali ! Urbanization tendencies ! ! Mentao Goudebo ! ! Tambacounda Banamba ! NIAMEY BirniNkonni Zinder Goure ! SEGOU ! ! ! Ouenkoro Ouahigouya ! \! 7 ! H San Tominian ! ! ! 50,515 Malian Refugees Maradi ! Bol ! Sebba 1 Niamey Diffa Kita ! as of 20 May 2013 registered with UNHCR ! KOULIKORO ! ! ! 46,817 IDPs REFUGEE! S LOCATIONS ! ! ! Camp ! Settlement ! Centre Undetermined SENEGAL Tougan ! Kaya 49,7D4o8s asos of 10 Jan 2013 Sokoto 1 H as of Apr 2013 Yako Bogande Katsina ! ! 77,501 IDPs ! B! URKINA FASO Nguru Gashua Satadougou ! ! ! ! \! Nouna ! !OUAGBoAulsDa OUGOU 7 ! as of Apr 2013 Koutiala ! ! Kedougou ! Ziniare 5,000 Malians Koundara ! ! ! Dedougou \! BirninKebbi BAMAKO ! ! as of ! Reo ! 20 May 2013 ! ! Zorgo Sources: 1. CMP, 2013a; 2. IOM internal documents; 3. IOM, 2013h; 4. IOM, 2011b; 5. OCHA, 2013d; Solenzo Somgan! de Koupela ! ! Gusau \! Kangaba ! Mali ! FadaNgourma Diapaga 6. UNHCR, 2012a; 7. UNHCR, 2013a; 8. UNHCR, 2013c; 9. UNHCR, 2013e; 10. UNHCR, 2013f; 8 ! ! 7 Kano ! ! ! ! 49,975 Malian Refugees Gaya 11. Ballo, 2009; 12. UNSC, 2012; 13. IRIN, 2012a!; 14. USDOS, 2012 Maiduguri NDJAMENA ! Gaoual ! Tenkodogo 3,991 Nigerien Returnees Dutse ! Potiskum Damaturu Bougouni as of 22 Apr 2013 registered with UNHCR Manga ! Azare ! ! SIKASSO as of 20 May 2013 ! ! Sapouy ! Funtua Bama ! Tongue ! Siguiri !! H 38,776 as of 10 Jan 2013 Koko Spatial data sources: http://geoportal.unhcr.org/arcgis/rest/services/unhcr/Refugee_Camp/MapServer; ! ! Labe Dinguiraye ! ! ! ! ! http://geoportal.logcluster.org/; http://www.naturalearthdata.com/ 8 Faragouaran BoboDioulasso Po ! Pita ! ! Leo Kandi Zaria ! 26 Malian Refugees 1 Bawku Orodara Diebougou ! Telimele as of 11 !Jan 2013 registered with UNHCR 13,004 IDPs BENIN ! ! ! Bolgatanga This map is for illustrative purpose only. Names and boundaries on this map do not imply official endorsement or Dabola as of Apr 2013 ! ! Dalaba Kouroussa Banfora acceptanc!e by IOM. Biu ! Maroua ! ! ! ! Kaduna ! ! ! Fria Mamou Kankan Mango Kontagora ! ! ! ! Gaoua Natitingou Bauchi Gombe Mubi Bongor ! ! ! 8 ©IOM, 2013 ! Kindia Faranah Wa ! Kumo ! GUINEA 20 Malian Refugees Jos Guider ! CONAKRY ! GHANA as of 11 Jan 2012 registered with UNHCR ! ! ! Djougou \! ! ! Ferkessedougou ! Minna ! ! Odienne ! Garoua ! Korhogo Numan ! ! ! Forecariah ! Tamale Yendi ! ! ! 2 Parakou ! Pala SIERRA Kerouane Bassar Kelo Kissidougou 4,000 Malians ! Yola Langui ! ! \! NIGERIA Bida ! ! as of Nov 2012 Sokode ! Jalingo Makeni ! ABUJAKeffi LEONE Gueckedou ! ! !! ! Beyla ! ! ! ! \! !Ma!ce!nta!! Sotouboua Ilorin Lafia Koidu Voinjama ! CÔTE D'IVOIRE Ogbomosho FREETOWN Kouankan Touba ! ! !! ! ! ! ! TOGO Oyo ! Mbe ! Nzerekore Bondoukou ! Oshogbo Lokoja ! Bo Seguela ! Iseyin ! ! Makurdi Kontcha ! Bouake ! Kenema ! !! Wukari ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! Table of Contents
T TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acronyms 4 Introduc on 5 1 PART I: MIGRATION TRENDS AND FLOWS IN MALI PRIOR TO JANUARY 2012 6
1. Internal Migra on Trends: Increased urbaniza on and food insecurity 7
2. Circular Migra on: Important and complex flows including pastoralist movements 8
3. Migra on Routes through Mali: From cross-border movements to smuggling and trafficking of people 8
4. Foreign Popula ons in Mali: Centred on regional migra on 9
5. Malians Abroad: A significant diaspora 9 2 PART II: MIGRATION CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRISIS AND RESPONSE IN MALI AND BEYOND 11
1. Large Scale Internal Displacement 13
2. Cross-Border Flows and Impact on Neighbouring Countries and Beyond 15
3. Other Crisis-affected Mobility Pa erns and Flows 17
4. Response to the Crisis in Mali and Beyond 18
5. Post-Crisis Transi on and Stabiliza on 19 3 PART III: RECOMMENDATIONS 20
1. Ensure a Two-Pronged Approach: Humanitarian assistance and protec on as well as support for transi on and recovery 20
2. Strengthen Informa on Collec on and Management 20
3. Establish a Regional Approach to the Migra on Crisis Affec ng Mali 20
4. Support Stabiliza on and Transi on Ac vi es as an Immediate Strategic Goal inside Mali 21
5. Plan for Durable Solu ons, Including Return and Reintegra on Ac vi es, in a Careful and Strategic Manner 21
6. Invest in Building Peace and an Open Democra c Process 21
7. Address Migra on and Border Management in Mali and in the Region from a Security Perspec ve, and Complement with Livelihood and Income-Genera on Support for Border Communi es 22
References 23
page 3 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
A ACRONYMS
ACTED Agency for Technical Coopera on and UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Development Union AGIR Sahel Global Alliance for Resilience Ini a ve - UNCTAD United Na ons Conference on Trade Sahel and Development CAP Consolidated Appeal Process UNDESA United Na ons Department of Economic and Social Affairs CERPOD Centre d'Etudes et de Recherche sur la Popula on pour le Développement UNDP United Na ons Development Programme CMP Commission on Popula on Movements UNEP United Na ons Environment CNCR Na onal Commission for Refugees Programme CRS Catholic Relief Services UNHCR United Na ons High Commission for DTM Displacement Tracking Matrix Refugees ECHO European Commission, DG for UNOM United Na ons Office for Mali Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protec on UNSC United Na ons Security Council ECOWAS Economic Community of West African UNWTO United Na ons World Tourism States Organisa on EPAM Enquête Emploi Permanente Auprès USDOS United States Department of State des Ménages WASH Water, Sanita on and Hygiene FEWSNET Famine Early Warning Systems Network WFP World Food Programme GDP Gross Domes c Product GNI Gross Na onal Income IDP Internally Displaced Person IDMC Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre IOM Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on MINUSMA Mul dimensional Integrated Stabiliza on Mission for Mali MNLA Na onal Movement for the Libera on of Azawad MPLA Mouvement Populaire de Libéra on de l’Azawad MSF Médecins Sans Fron ères NRC Norwegian Refugee Council OCHA United Na ons Office for Coordina on of Humanitarian Affairs OECD Organisa on for Economic Co- opera on and Development SAARA Service d’Aide et Assistance aux Réfugiés et Apatrides page 4 Introduction
I INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to broaden policy discussions and research on and malnutri on in 2012 (due to a drought in 2011, high food the Mali crisis through a dis nc ve analysis of the various prices and low agricultural produc on) and the chronic nature pa erns of human mobility that have been generated or of food insecurity, malnutri on and erosion of resilience in the affected due to the crisis in Mali since January 2012. It does so region (UN, 2013b). In addi on, the crisis in Libya in 2011 and by drawing upon a range of exis ng materials and data, the conflict in Cote d’Ivoire in 2010 have both had wide- bringing them together in one framework focusing on the ranging impacts on the region. All of this has resulted in migra on dimensions of the crisis. In line with IOM’s Migra on growing insecurity and complex migratory flows characterized Crisis Opera onal Framework (MCOF), recently approved by by increasing levels of internal displacement, refugee move- Member States at the IOM Council in November 2012,1 this ments, and the disrup on of exis ng migra on pa erns in the paper uses the “migra on crisis” approach to comprehensive- country. ly analyse the crisis in Mali through a migra on lens. This In order to construct a comprehensive picture of human paper expands on IOM report “Mali Migra on Crisis at a mobility flows and pa erns in and around Mali, this paper will: Glance” from March 2013 (IOM, 2013d). This is intended as a working paper, and may therefore be updated in the coming PART I Provide a snapshot of the migra on environment in months. Mali prior to January 2012, highligh ng migra on drivers as well as pa erns and trends such as increasing urbaniza on and food insecurity, circular migra on including pastoralist movements, transit “MIGRATION CRISIS” APPROACH migra on through Mali, and the large Malian diaspora. IOM uses the term “migra on crisis” as a way to refer PART II Take a closer look at the crisis from January 2012 to and analyse the o en large-scale and un l today, exploring the complex internal and unpredictable migra on flows and mobility pa erns external mobility consequences of the conflict, caused by conflict or natural disasters. These typically burdens on the displaced and host communi es, and involve significant vulnerabili es for individuals and challenges that restrict or hinder movement and affected communi es and generate acute and longer- return, as well as the current humanitarian response term migra on management challenges. A migra on and issues regarding the post-crisis transi on and crisis may be slow in onset, can have natural or man- stabiliza on in Mali. made causes and can take place internally or across borders. By capturing pa erns of human mobility in PART III Iden fy relevant recommenda ons for dealing with their full complexity and revealing a more nuanced the different migra on-related issues within Mali and picture of the vulnerabili es and condi ons that the region, including an approach that includes emerge in the context of different forms of humanitarian aid as well as transi on and recovery involuntary movement, a migra on crisis analysis support; strengthened informa on collec on and allows policymakers to develop an integrated management; planning for durable solu ons for response to the crisis, including humanitarian, those displaced; suppor ng stabiliza on and transi- migra on management, transi on and recovery, on; inves ng in the peace process; and addressing peace and security, and development concerns. migra on and border management.
Mali has been in a state of turmoil since the beginning of 2012, fuelled by the armed conflict and on-going insecurity in Mali, which has prompted a significant migra on crisis. The conflict started in January 2012 with renewed figh ng in northern Mali between Tuareg secessionist and radical Islamist groups on one side and government forces on the other, leading to a military coup d’état in March 2012. This crisis has had far-reaching impacts on a region already challenged by other crises such as recent acute food insecurity
1 The MCOF document (MC/2355) was approved through Resolu on 1243 at the IOM Council in November 2012 (IOM, 2012a; IOM, 2012b).
page 5 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
PART I: MIGRATION TRENDS AND FLOWS 1 IN MALI PRIOR TO JANUARY 2012
Mali has a long history of emigra on, and has also become an migra on including pastoral and nomadic movements. This important transit point for migratory flows within the region sec on will examine different aspects of internal and cross- and beyond. The country is characterized by migra on trends border migra on pa erns in Mali prior to the crisis that began that range from cultural prac ces that promote migra on as a in January 2012. rite of passage for young men, to circular and seasonal
permanently or seasonally. Mostly recently, severe drought in 2011 generated acute food insecurity across the Sahel region, leading to a significant decline in agricultural produc on in Mali. Since the Malian economy is mainly based on agriculture, environmental changes can have significant impacts on livelihoods, par cularly in the rural areas. For example, substan al outward migra on from Mali occurred following severe droughts in 1973 and 1984, which together caused 40% of the popula on in the most affected areas (mostly men) to migrate. Of these, 70% migrated out of Mali, which inevitably had repercussions on the agricultural sector due to the depleted labour force (Ballo, 2009). At the same me, the financial support of migrants may have helped to mi gate the nega ve impacts of these droughts (IRIN, 2006). MIGRATION DRIVERS IN MALI Conflicts and disputes: The Sahel has experienced a Factors that drive migra on in Mali include interrelated significant number of conflicts in the post-colonial era, economic and environmental pressures, as well as the from large-scale wars to small-scale disputes between impact of recent conflicts in the region: communi es or localized figh ng. When Mali gained independence in 1960, the North was united with the Economic factors: Mali is one of the poorest countries in largely darker-skinned African south. Since then, the world, with 43.6% of its popula on below the government power has been concentrated in the hands na onal poverty line (World Bank, 2013). Poverty levels of ethnic groups from the South, who allegedly neglected are par cularly high in rural areas, where the majority of the northern popula ons and exploited the resources of migrants originate from. Unemployment in Mali was northern regions. This has led to aggravated tensions 9.6% in 2011 and 15.4% for those aged 15-39, which can between the South and the North of Mali (Blair, 2013). be a ributed to high popula on growth (3.6% a year), Conflicts in neighbouring countries that receive large low economic growth, migra on out of rural areas, and number of Malian migrants can prompt their return, as lack of training and educa on possibili es (African seen in the recent war in Libya that led to the return of Economic Outlook, 2012). In addi on, the post-2010 an es mated 30,000 Malians (UNSC, 2012).2 This conflict elec on crisis in Cote d’Ivoire and the 2011 Libya crisis also led to the prolifera on of arms in the region and the contributed to increased prices in oil and food, further freezing of Libyan investments in West Africa, which straining the resources of local popula ons. These inevitably affected prices of commodi es and local economic factors have led to both internal and external economies (UNSC, 2012). In addi on, cross-border migra on of Malians, whose remi ances help to support migra on can also be a source of tension between local economies, meet the needs of families, and transhumant livestock breeders and inhabitants in some mes provide capital to set up small enterprises. pastoral areas (UNEP, 2011). Environmental factors: In recent years, chronic droughts 2 In 2011, IOM assisted in the return of over 212,000 migrants from throughout the Sahel region have led to large Libya to Sub-Saharan Africa, including 11,248 Malians (IOM, 2012a; movements of people on a regular basis, either IOM, 2011b).
page 6 Part I: Migration trends and flows in Mali prior to January 2012
1. Internal Migra on3 Trends: Increased families have reportedly moved from tradi onally co on- urbaniza on and food insecurity producing areas (Kou ala and Yorosso circles) experiencing reduced availability of pastures for livestock and increasing Bamako and other urban areas were the major des na on land disputes, to other agricultural areas that have been more points for internal migrants, with an increasing trend towards recently developed (Yanfolila and Kolondieba circles) (Ballo, urbaniza on in Mali in the years before the outbreak of the 2009). conflict in 2012 (World Bank, 2013). In 2011, 35% of the Malian popula on lived in urban areas (UNDESA, 2011). The most important migra on flows were towards Bamako; in 2004, 33% of the city’s popula on were migrants (Ballo, Mali at a Glance 2009). The propor on of the urban popula on is expected to rise to over 60% of the total popula on by 2024 (World Bank, Popula on 15,370,000 (2010) 2013). Before the conflict, Malians migrated internally mainly in order to live closer to their family members and to pursue Popula on growth 3.6% per year (2011) professional and educa onal opportuni es. According to the Land area 1,240,192 sq. km 2004 Survey on Permanent Employment of Households Popula on density 10.5 per sq. km (2009) (Enquête Emploi Permanente Auprès des Ménages, EPAM) carried out in Bamako as well as in other urban centres, Major ci es Bamako, Ségou, Mop , Kayes, Sikasso, Koulikoro, Timbuktu, women were most likely to migrate for family reunifica on Gao whereas men were more likely to migrate internally for Urban popula on 34.9% (2011) studies or professional reasons (Ballo, 2009). In the rural areas, migra on was predominantly for family reunifica on Urban annual growth rate 5.0% per year (2005-2010) purposes. There are also notable pa erns of internal Major ethnic groups Bambara and Malinké (48.8%), movements of children, as many children are commonly Peulh (Fulhani) (11%), Senoufo placed in foster families to con nue their educa on and and Minianka (9.6%), Soninké (7%), Songhai (7%), Tuareg and voca onal training, which can put some of them at increased Maure (5%), Dogon (4.4%), Bozo risk of exploita on and violence (IOM internal documents). (2.8%), Diawara (1%), and Xaasongaxango (Khassonke) (1%) Internal migra on pa erns have historically and culturally been more seasonal and of short dura on based on the Religion Around 90% of Malians prac ce Islam, 6% tradi onal beliefs, and economic possibili es offered by the ci es, and the 4% Catholic or Protestant opportunity to diversify skills and incomes and thus also adapt Chris anity to the clima c difficul es in the region. However, over the Median age 16.3 (2010) past few years, this tradi onal and seasonal migra on has been replaced by a more permanent rural to urban migra on Life expectancy at birth 51.9 (2012) of farmers, herders and fishermen (UNEP, 2011). This GDP 10.59 billion USD (2011) urbaniza on trend was fostered also by the larger context of GNI per capita (Atlas method) 4 610 USD (2011) severe food insecurity across the Sahel region, which by 2011 Human Development Index 175 out of 187 (2011) had developed into an acute crisis with pockets of famine. While difficult to fully assess in the current context, this food Unemployment 9.6%, and 15.4% for 15-39 year crisis has clearly influenced mobility pa erns. Pastoralists olds (2011) groups have been par cularly affected given their dependence Border countries Mauritania, Algeria, Niger, on livestock, impac ng in par cular on their health and Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea, Senegal nutri on status in a context of limited access to basic health care. Farmers in the Sahel region have also experienced the stark impact of the drought cycle on their livelihoods and their Sources: African Economic Outlook, 2012; Minority Rights Group resilience. Mobility induced by the drought towards urban Interna onal, 2007; UN Data, 2013; UNDESA, 2011; UNDESA, centres has placed addi onal pressure on the infrastructure 2012; World Bank, 2013; ECHO, 2013 and services available in urban areas. At the same me, it is important to note that there were also strong rural to rural migra on tendencies in Mali, given its 3 Internal migra on is “a movement of people from one area of a country to largely agricultural economy. Internal migra on flows vary another area of the same country for the purpose or with the effect of from one region to another based on the type of poverty establishing a new residence. This migra on may be temporary or (savings, income levels, living condi ons or opportuni es permanent. Internal migrants move but remain within their country of origin (e.g. rural to urban migra on)” (IOM, 2011a, p. 51). available), while the seasonal migra on pa erns from one region to another also vary according to the different 4 The Atlas conversion factor reduces the impact of exchange rate fluctua ons agricultural ac vi es in each region. For example, en re in the cross-country comparison of na onal incomes for the Gross Na onal Income (GNI).
page 7 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
2. Circular Migra on:5 Important and complex flows facilitate both irregular migra on9 and the illicit flows of including pastoralist movements goods. Mali is a vast territory with limited State presence in the remote areas of the country. During the 2011 Libya crisis, The high level of outward and inward movements between a large number of small arms and weapons were able to pass Mali and neighbouring western African countries, in par cular unno ced into neighbouring countries. The outbreak of Côte d’Ivoire, reflects the importance of circular migra on for conflict in Mali can also be partly linked to the possible the Malian popula on. In the delta region of Mali, one third of involvement of Tuareg returnees, who had fought as the rural workforce migrates during the dry seasons from the mercenaries alongside Libyan troops (BBC, 2012; BBC, 2011). rural areas to the ci es, as highlighted above but also outside Prior to the conflict in Libya, Chadian and Mauritanian of Mali in search of employment (UNEP, 2011). Tradi onally, authori es had been reinforcing borders and dispatching seasonal labour migra on from the arid parts of Mali includes special military units to track movements, while Mali and labour migra on to planta ons and mines in Cote d’Ivoire, Niger had both appealed to the interna onal community for Ghana, Nigeria and Senegal. The seasonal and circular assistance in order to be er secure and protect their borders. migra on has long been considered a posi ve adapta on This situa on illustrates the lack of na onal and regional strategy to climate variability in the region, including coordina on mechanisms, as well as capacity and tools pastoralists and nomadic groups who move in search of be er needed to effec vely manage borders, including the flow of land, pastures, or water (Ballo, 2009). Approximately 500,000 large and frequent cross-border movements of Tuaregs and other pastoralist groups in Mali, such as Soninke, undocumented migrant workers (UNSC, 2012). Maure and Peuls, move along tradi onal routes from the North to the South of Mali, as well as towards coastal These irregular migra on and smuggling flows have grown countries and western Africa (UNEP, 2011). These processes since the beginning of the 1990s, using exis ng illegal have been facilitated by the ease of travel between ECOWAS contraband routes (for drugs, arms, cigare es) within the countries due to the lack of a visa requirement for the ci zens region (Carnegie, 2012). The flourishing flows of both illicit of its member states (Ballo, 2009). While difficult to fully goods and irregular migrants permi ed the emergence of assess in the current context, the current food crisis across the carriers specializing in off-road transport and increased the Sahel has influenced these circular mobility pa erns. corrup on of customs and immigra on officials. Compe on Pastoralist groups have been par cularly affected given their over the control of smuggling routes and the reported dependence on livestock, impac ng in par cular on their tolerance of some government officials towards criminal health and nutri on status in a context of limited access to ac vity are seen as factors which have contributed toward the basic health care. establishment of extremist groups in Mali (Lacher, 2012). Recently, kidnapping has also been a major source of revenue for criminal and terrorist networks within the region. These factors combined have allowed organized crime to wield 3. Migra on Routes through Mali: From cross- 6 increasing power and poli cal influence in the country border movements to smuggling and trafficking (Carnegie, 2012). of people7
Mali has been an important regional transit point for cross- border movement and trade. The country does not have strict 5 Circular migra on is “the fluid movement of people between countries, immigra on policies, perhaps due to the interest of the Malian including temporary or long-term movement which may be beneficial to all government in suppor ng regional integra on and ease of involved, if occurring voluntarily and linked to the labour needs of countries movement throughout the region. Na onals from the 15 of origin and des na on” (IOM, 2011a, p. 19). countries of the Economic Community of West African States 6 Smuggling is “the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a (ECOWAS) have the right to enter and reside in Mali without a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a person into a State visa or resident permit for 90 days, as no legisla on or Party of which the person is not a na onal or a permanent resident” (IOM, regula ons governing the acquisi on of residence permits in 2011a, p. 92). Mali has been put in place. Mali also has several bilateral 7 Trafficking in persons is “the recruitment, transporta on, transfer, agreements with other African countries, permi ng na onals harbouring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or from those countries to enter its territories without visas. other forms of coercion, of abduc on, of fraud, of decep on, of the abuse of power or of a posi on of vulnerabili es or of the giving or receiving of These immigra on policies, combined with its geographical payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over loca on, have also made Mali an a rac ve transit point for another person, for the purpose of exploita on” (IOM, 2011a, p. 99). irregular migrants heading to Europe,8 whether crossing the 8 Mali has conven ons with Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea, Mauritania, Niger, desert into North Africa or travelling via sea routes from Cameroon, and Libya. There are also conven ons with France and Spain, Senegal, Mauritania or Libya (Ballo, 2009). These same factors although these do not necessarily permit free entry. There are also have also unfortunately contributed to the use of Mali as a agreements to remove visa requirements for Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, transit point for illegal trade. Limited capaci es for data Cameroon, Cuba, Macao, Hong-Kong, Gambia and Chad collec on and iden fica on and the porous borders stretching 9 Irregular migra on is “movement that takes place outside the regulatory for thousands of kilometres are addi onal factors that norms of the sending, transit and receiving countries” (IOM, 2011a, p. 54). page 8 Part I: Migration trends and flows in Mali prior to January 2012
Consequently, Mali has been increasingly characterized by a given that very li le informa on exists, and most of it is high level of human smuggling and trafficking of Malians and outdated or is only based on general migra on pa erns. other na onali es for the purpose of sexual exploita on and According to the Na onal Commission for Refugees forced labour. The country has been a source, transit and (Commission na onale chargée des réfugiés, CNCR), the des na on country for human trafficking. Some of the number of refugees10 and asylum seekers11 in Mali since 2003 irregular migrants who travel through the region in hopes of had remained rela vely stable, fluctua ng between 16,000 to reaching Europe are at risk of being trafficked (Ballo, 2009). 13,000 people (Ballo, 2009). As of January 2012, there were While there are no figures available to determine the true 15,624 refugees and 2,497 asylum seekers in Mali (UNHCR, breadth of this phenomenon, the limited data gathered by 2013e). According to the UN High Commission for Refugees IOM provides some insights. IOM registered 656 Malians as (UNHCR), there were 12,000 registered refugees from vic ms of trafficking between 2001 and 2008 (Ballo, 2009). Mauritania in Mali, following the 1989 Mauritanian-Senegal The vast majority (72%) were trafficked internally in the war (UNHCR, 2013d). Even though an extensive repatria on country, while the others were trafficked into neighbouring programme was not in place, many Mauritanian refugees may countries. Sixty four per cent were between the ages of 18-24, have been going back and forth between Mali and Mauritania, and 23.5% were between the ages of 14-17. Women made up living alongside the border as herders and pastoralists (IOM 23.6% of the vic ms (Ballo, 2009). internal documents). Another 2,000 refugees were from Cote Some informa on also exists concerning the nature of the d’Ivoire (since the outbreak of civil war in 2002) and 1,000 trafficking. Within Mali, women and girls are forced into from Sierra Leone (following internal conflicts in the 1990s). domes c servitude, agricultural labour, sex trafficking and support in ar sanal gold mines. They are also sent to other African ci es and subjected to pros tu on (Ballo, 2009). Boys, 5. Malians Abroad: A significant diaspora from Mali, Guinea, Burkina Faso and Niger were also found in forced labour and the informal commercial sector in Mali as Mali has a long tradi on of emigra on. As of 2005, there were well as in neighbouring countries, such as in the gold mines in nearly 4 million Malians living abroad, which represented the Senegal or Guinea and the co on or cocoa farms in Cote equivalent of one third of the popula on of the country (Keita, d’Ivoire (USDOS, 2012). Vic ms from different ethnic groups 2009). A number of cultural tradi ons in Mali promote the are also reportedly subjected to another type of trafficking, migra on of young men as a rite of passage, with some even involving debt bondage or slavery-related prac ces that are requiring youth to migrate before they are allowed to marry. It tradi onally embedded into society and that are o en passed is also believed that this me abroad will allow young Malians from one genera on to the next, with children of slaves being to build a sense of worth. During his me abroad, the man born into slavery (USDOS, 2012). must be able to save enough to be able to return and se le in Mali, compelling many to remain abroad for some me un l they can become economically stable (Ballo, 2009; IRIN, 4. Foreign Popula ons in Mali: Centred on regional 2006). In a study from 1993, 30.8% of households had at least one family member living abroad. The number of Malian migra on students abroad was also increasing. In 2006, 10% of Malian Prior to January 2012, immigra on flows into Mali were students in higher educa on were studying abroad, which was rela vely minimal. Historically, Mali has received rela vely low more than double the number from 2000 (from 1,464 to numbers of labour migrants, mainly from the African 3,051). con nent. Most immigrants in Mali were predominantly from Given the growing importance of the Malian diaspora, the the ECOWAS region, likely influenced by the ease of entry Government established the Ministry of Malians Abroad and provided by the free movement protocol, with some African Integra on in 2004. The Ministry es mated that there immigrants from other parts of Africa. In 2005, the United were nearly 4 million in the diaspora as of 2005, with the Na ons Development Programme (UNDP) es mated that the majority residing in other African countries (96.5%), and migrant stock represented just 1.4% of the popula on (Ballo, another 2.7% were in Europe (Keita, 2009). In Europe, the 2009). The annual growth rate of the immigrant stock during 2000-2005 was 0.2%, according to UNDP figures (Ballo, 2009). 10 A refugee is “a person who, owing to a well-founded fear of persecu on for In 2010, according to data from the World Bank, the foreign reasons of race, religion, na onality, membership of a par cular social group popula on in Mali was es mated at 162,677 (1.1% of the or poli cal opinions, is outside the country of his na onality and is unable or, popula on) – including 77,549 na onals from Côte d’Ivoire, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of the protec on of that country” (IOM, 2011a, p. 79). and 22,365 from Burkina Faso (World Bank, 2011). Immigra on to Mali may have been driven by con nued 11 An asylum seeker is “a person who seeks safety from persecu on or serious economic growth in the country and the increase of direct harm in a country other than his or her own and awaits a decision on the foreign investments due to tax reforms benefi ng certain applica on for refugee status under relevant interna onal and na onal instruments. In case of a nega ve decision, the person must leave the country economic sectors such as mining, the energy sector and public and may be expelled, as may any non-na onal in an irregular or unlawful transport before the crisis (Ballo, 2009). However, it is difficult situa on, unless permission to stay is provided on humanitarian or other to draw a complete picture of the immigra on pa erns in Mali related grounds” (IOM, 2011a, p. 12).
page 9 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
majority of the Malian diaspora resided in France where they countries, and 35 from the US and Canada (Ballo, 2009). The made up the most important African diaspora group, with well high number of returns from Morocco, Libya and Algeria likely -organised associa ons or groups. Overall, however, the vast reflects the role of these countries in suppor ng EU policies majority of the diaspora were in Cote d’Ivoire (Vincent, 2013). focused on securing the EU’s southern Mediterranean border and figh ng against irregular migra on (IOM, 2013b). Remi ances from the diaspora have a significant impact on the Malian economy. In 2007, the Malian diaspora sent home 212 million USD, which accounted for 3.3% of GDP according to the World Bank (Ballo, 2009). The level of remi ances grew MALI AND THE LIBYA CRISIS rapidly in the following years; in 2009, Mali received 405 Mali, like many countries in West Africa, was heavily million USD in remi ances from the diaspora (World Bank, impacted by the 2011 Libyan crisis, which led to in- 2011). Most remi ances are used for individual consump on, creased food prices, insecurity due to a prolifera on whether sent directly to families or indirectly through of arms within the Sahel region and the return of Ma- associa ons, although some remi ances also fund collec ve lian ci zens fleeing the violence. Libya’s strategy prior projects at the local level (Ballo, 2009). In 2011, remi ances to the conflict was to invest heavily in sub-Saharan fell slightly due in part to general economic problems within Africa, and when these investments suddenly ceased countries of residence as well as the situa on in Cote d’Ivoire as the regime collapsed there was a sharp increase in and Libya, where Malians had been residing (African Economic basic commodity and transporta on costs. About Outlook, 2012). See text box on Mali and the Libya Crisis. 30,000 Malians returned from Libya in 2011, includ- ing 11,248 who received return assistance from IOM. Countries with the highest numbers of Malian diaspora The two main areas of emigra on to Libya were Kita 440,960 133,464 69,790 68,786 68,295 and Gao, and some Malians (par cularly from Kita) saw Libya as a transit point to Europe. The vast ma- jority of Malians (90%) were male between the ages Cote Nigeria Niger France Burkina Faso of 20-40 and had only a basic level of educa on. d’Ivoire While most migrants gained valuable skills in Libya
12 (including agriculture, irriga on, modern gardening) Source: IOM, 2013h these have reportedly not been put to use in Mali. Refugees and Asylum Seekers: Among those Malians abroad, Most Malians who fled Libya le behind the majority some have applied for refugee status. Prior to the outbreak of of their belongings and savings, and returned home conflict in January 2012, the latest figures (as of 2012) in a vulnerable state, o en requiring assistance in or- indicated that there were 4,295 refugees and 397 asylum der to socio-economically reintegrate in their com- seekers from Mali (UNHCR, 2013e). Data from 2007 indicated muni es of origin. that most Malian refugees (42.3%) were in France, 22.4% in Even today, two years a er the crisis in Libya, the the United States, 18.7% in Italy, 6% in South Africa and 3% in consequences of the crisis con nue to reverberate in Malta. Even so, the number of asylum seekers from Mali s ll Mali and throughout the region. These mass returns remained small. In 2011, Mali ranked 27 out of 40 countries in put tremendous pressure on families and communi- terms of number of asylum seekers (UNHCR, 2012a). es who had depended on remi ances from their Irregular and Returning Migrants: With such a large diaspora, family members abroad. On average, returnees were return migra on to Mali is also an important phenomenon. In remi ng about 195 USD a year, resul ng in an es - recent years, the post-elec on violence in Cote d’Ivoire and mated loss of 5.85 million USD in annual remi ances. the 2011 conflict in Libya both affected the Malian diaspora. Communi es have not only lost financial support, but While there had not been massive returns from Cote d’Ivoire, must also provide for returnees who have not been despite the large size of the Malian diaspora in that country, able to find jobs or livelihood ac vi es. Many families the large-scale return migra on from Libya in 2011 had clear have reported needing to request food assistance. consequences, not only in short run but also in the long-term. Many returnees have reported facing humilia on in See text box on Mali and the Libya Crisis. Return migra on also their communi es as they return home without any- includes Malians in an irregular immigra on status and who thing to show for their efforts abroad, with many now voluntarily or through deporta on returned back to their migra ng again to Libya or to other countries. country. Between 2002 and 2008, irregular Malians who Sources: IOM, 2013c; 2012e, 2011b; UNSC, 2012; Diombana, 2011 returned home included 46,151 from various African countries, the large majority of which came from Cote d’Ivoire (40,237), followed by Libya (2,670), Morocco (1,455), Algeria (686), and Angola (632). Large numbers also returned from 12 This is based on data from the World Bank as of 2010, compiled from infor- France (2,174) and Spain (2,572), in addi on to 413 from ma on provided by consulates. Since this data does not take into account the number of Malians residing abroad in an irregular status, the actual figures Saudi Arabia, 21 from Israel, 35 from other European are likely much higher. For a discussion of this issue, see Ballo (2009). page 10 Part II: Migration Consequences of the Crisis and Response in Mali and Beyond
PART II: MIGRATION CONSEQUENCES OF 2 THE CRISIS AND RESPONSE IN MALI AND BEYOND
The armed conflict that started in the North of Mali in January The key characteris cs of the current migra on crisis include 2012 caused a migra on crisis of significant size and scope, large-scale displacements, with pa erns of displacement both within and outside of Mali. Figh ng broke out in the largely corresponding to ethnic similari es. Many darker North of Mali in January 2012, between Tuareg secessionist skinned farmers chose to flee to Mali’s southern ci es, while and radical Islamist groups on one side and government forces refugee groups are mostly composed of pastoralists from on the other, followed by a military coup d´état in Bamako in Tuareg and other Arabic-speaking groups fleeing into March 2012. As a result of the defeat of government forces in neighbouring countries where the local popula ons are the North, insurgents took control of Mali’s three northern composed of similar ethnic groups. Given these key regions (Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal), occupying the major ci es. differences, dis nct but complementary response and This led to a large-scale displacement of the popula on within recovery strategies are needed for IDPs and refugees. Mali’s three northern regions, towards the central and Consequently, these crisis-induced mobility pa erns southern parts of Mali as well as into neighbouring countries. contribute to increased urbaniza on trends and the disrup on Nearly half a million people were displaced as of the end of of pastoralist, nomadic and seasonal migra on routes. April 2013, including 301,027 (62%) internally displaced persons (IDPs) and 185,144 (38%) displaced into neighbouring Total Number of Displaced Malians within Mali and in countries, including 176,144 refugees. Neighbouring Countries (as of the end of May 2013) In January 2013, a new phase in the Mali crisis was ini ated when interna onal military forces intervened through the Bamako 77,501 (30.04.2013) deployment of French and Chadian troops, at the request of Kayes 5,252 (30.04.2013) Malian authori es. This interven on permi ed the government to regain control of the ci es and surrounding Koulikoro 27,983 (30.04.2013) areas, driving the armed groups into the mountainous areas of Mop 54,084 (30.04.2013) the North. While the insurgents have been mostly driven out of the urban areas, they are s ll ac ve in communi es within Segou 46,817 (30.04.2013) the North and con nue to carry out a acks (UNSC, 2013b). Sikasso 13,004 (30.04.2013) Insecurity is reported in areas around Timbuktu such as Ber, Léré, Goundam, and Bintagoungou (IOM, 2013a; UNHCR, Gao 25,977 (Aug 2012) 2013b), and there are reports of growing ethnic tensions and Timbuktu 21,764 (Oct 2012) roaming gangs who raid and a ack villages (Chris an Aid, 2013). The situa on in Mali remains unpredictable as the Kidal 28,645 (Oct 2012) military interven on persists, and as displacement remains 301,027 widespread across the country. According to the Commission Total IDPs on Popula on Movements (CMP), condi ons for the return of Algeria 1,500 (01.04.2013) displaced popula ons are not yet in place, although some spontaneous returns have been observed. Niger 50,515 (20.05.2013) This conflict also occurs within the broader food insecurity and Burkina Faso 49,975 (22.04.2013) malnutri on crisis affec ng the en re Sahel region, which Mauritania 74,108 (05.05.2013) compounds the impacts of the humanitarian crisis. At the same me, Mali is undergoing a poli cal transi on and Guinea 26 (11.01.2013) stabiliza on process, including preparing for elec ons that are Togo 20 (11.01.2013) expected to take place later this year. To support these transi ons, on 25 April 2013 the UN Security Council approved Total Refugees 176,144 the establishment of a peacekeeping mission in Mali Côte d’Ivoire 4,000 (Nov 2012) (MINUSMA) effec ve from July 2013, as French troops gradually withdraw from Mali (UNSC, 2013a). Finally, a Niger 5,000 (20.05.2013) number of other factors combine to drive mobility pa erns in Total Other Cross Border Movements 9,000 Mali during the crisis, including the economic and environmental context, access to basic services, and security TOTAL 486,171 and protec on concerns. See the text box on Migra on Sources: CMP, 2013a; UNHCR, 2013a; UNHCR, 2013c; UNHCR, 2013f; IOM Drivers. internal documents
page 11 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
MIGRATION DRIVERS IN MALI DURING THE CRISIS closed and social services were shut down. Some civil servants have since acquired posts in the South, and as A variety of drivers have shaped migra on pa erns in of April s ll had not resumed their posts in the North Mali during the crisis. These factors combine to influence (IOM internal documents). In the North, the health sys- the decision and the ability of affected popula ons to tem virtually collapsed, health centres were looted (MSF, flee, where they flee to, and whether and when to return 2013), and preven on programmes were suspended, to areas of origin. including child immuniza on and prenatal care. Food insecurity: The impact of the recent conflict is com- Limita ons regarding access to basic social services such pounded by the chronic food security crisis affec ng the as water, educa on and health persist because of the en re Sahel region. The food crisis became acute con nued absence of government officials, the lack of following severe drought in 2011 and the resul ng poor equipment to deliver basic services, and destroyed harvests. In 2012, 4.6 million people in Mali were infrastructure (OCHA, 2013f). In the South, social services affected by food insecurity and malnutri on. While have been strained by the large influx of displaced harvests were reasonable in 2012 in Mali (OCHA, 2013g), popula ons. For example, the educa on of 700,000 the phenomenon of malnutri on is s ll alarming and children was disrupted across the country (OCHA, families’ ability to cope has been crippled by the com- 2013g). Most IDP children in the South had access to pounding effects of the conflict. This year, according to schools (80%) as of February 2013 (IOM, 2013e), while in WFP, 1.3 million people will be affected by food the North only 37% of the schools had re-opened as of 8 insecurity in Mali and 585,000 of these will be in the May (OCHA, 2013c). The lack of social services is also an North (OCHA, 2013f). The crisis could worsen throughout important deciding factor for return movements. For Mali if farmers miss another plan ng season, and the many displaced Malians, the return of civil servants and next one started in May. Furthermore, due to nega ve the resump on of government services is a precondi on coping strategies at the start of the crisis, such as selling for safe return. Many will also base their decision on the assets in order to flee, many families, if they decide to do school calendar for their children (IOM, 2013e). so, will return to very li le in their places of origin. The Security and protec on factors: During the occupa on of food crisis of 2011-2012 will also have rippling effects in the North by armed groups, human rights viola ons have terms of loss of livestock, employment, and reduc on of been rampant and women have been subjected to economic ac vi es. gender based violence. Many acts of sexual violence Economic context: Impacts of the crisis were already against women and adolescent girls by armed groups evident in 2012, when the Malian economy shrunk by have been reported in the North, and IDP women and 1.5% (Fletcher, 2013). Lack of access con nues to pose children have been sexually exploited or forced into economic challenges in the North, the Algerian border pros tu on (UNSC, 2013c). There are also reports of was closed on 14 January 2013 (an important children and adolescents being recruited into rebel commercial border for the North), and businesses were armed groups, as well as self-defence mili as suppor ng shut down as their owners fled. As a result, there is a the government (UNSC, 2013c; Amnesty Interna onal, shortage of basic necessi es (flour, milk, oil and sugar) 2012). Following the military interven on in January and inflated prices, making most goods unaffordable to 2013, there are con nued reports of human rights the popula on who remained behind and promp ng viola ons and ethnic conflicts due to ‘revenge a acks’ con nued displacement (Jourdain, 2013). The economic against members of groups associated with the rebels. situa on is dire in many loca ons such as Kidal, where Within displaced communi es, both in Mali and outside, the popula on depends heavily on markets (94%) to there are also reported tensions with hos ng meet their food needs due to generally poor agricultural communi es as displacement con nues to exert pres- condi ons (OCHA, 2013f). Given the impacts on sure on limited resources. A MINUSMA mission also agricultural produc on and livestock herding (OCHA, recently gathered evidence of viola ons of the human 2013f), displacement will likely con nue in the longer rights of Malian refugees in Niger, to be included in an term and will contribute to higher levels of vulnerability upcoming report to the UN Security Council (UNSC). within the North. Further assessments were planned for Mauritania and Burkina Faso (IOM internal documents). Basic services: Prior to the crisis, broad segments of society already had rudimentary and o en insufficient access to social services, par cularly outside of Bamako, a situa on exacerbated since 2012 by the crisis (BTI, 2013). As civil servants and health workers fled the conflict, government offices and health centres were
page 12 Part II: Migration Consequences of the Crisis and Response in Mali and Beyond
the long-term. As of April 2013, most IDPs reported having fled due to the armed conflict (96%), while the remainder fled OVERVIEW OF NORTHERN MALI due to food insecurity (IOM, 2013b). The economic situa on is Given that the North of Mali is sparsely populated, another prominent factor influencing displacement. Among those displaced represent a significant propor on movements recorded at the flow monitoring points in Bamako (36%) of the overall popula on in the North. Though and Mop , 30% reported moving to the South due to the lack Northern Mali makes up 66% of the total na onal ter- of work and livelihood opportuni es in the North. An inter- ritory, it was home to only 8.6% of the total popula- es ng characteris c of displacement in Mali is that 19% of dis- on in 2010, es mated at 1.3 million people. The placed families have reported coming and going from their popula on is mostly rural, with just 8% living in ag- point of origin (IOM, 2013g). This is o en carried out by one glomera ons of more than 10,000 residents (OECD, member of the household who then checks on other family n.d.). Only 5% of GDP and 0.5% of tax revenue is gen- members, property or livestock, or carries out economic ac v- erated in the North (Fletcher, 2013). i es, such as agriculture or commerce (IOM, 2012d). Tourism was an important economic ac vity for Mali, The current IDP total reflects recent registra ons carried out and one of the most promising sectors in the North, in the South between January and April 2013. However, es - with na onal tourism revenues rapidly increasing be- mates for the North (Gao, Kidal and Timbuktu) remain un- tween 2002 and 2010. In 2007, the sector generated changed since last year as informa on collec on in the north- more than 131 million EUR, which is ten mes the ern regions is challenging due to insecurity and the fluid amount acquired through tourism in 2002 (Lacher, movement of popula ons. Efforts are on-going between the 2012). In 2010, tourists spent 240 million Euros in CMP and partners working in the northern regions to establish Mali (OECD, n.d.). However, even before 2012, tour- a system in which regular informa on on popula on move- ism in the Sahel and Sahara had already nearly col- ment can be reported. Data tracking and monitoring exercises lapsed prior to the crisis due to criminal ac vi es in Sikasso, Kayes, Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal are currently being and, more notably, the increase in hostage taking in planned (CMP, 2013a).
the region (Lacher, 2012). The number of tourists vis- i ng Mali dras cally declined from 200,000 in 2011 to only 10,000 in 2012, thus presen ng a major loss of COMMISSION ON POPULATION MOVEMENTS (CMP) income for the Malian popula on and adding further to the stress on communi es (The Guardian, 2013). The Commission on Popula on Movements (CMP) is a Working Group within the Protec on Cluster, with The North is also home to many different ethnici es, government par cipa on and led by IOM. It was including lighter-skinned Tuaregs, Songhai, and Fulani established to collect and analyse available (Welsh, 2013). The vast majority of the Tuaregs and informa on on IDPs and popula on movements in other lighter-skinned and Arabic-speaking groups live Mali following the crisis in the North of Mali that in the Northern areas (Larson, 2013). There, both in- began in January 2012. Members of the Commission tra- and inter-tribal tensions exist, for example be- include the General Directorate of Civil Protec on tween the Tuareg tribes Ifoghas and the Imrad vas- (DGPC) and the Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs, sals as well as between Tuaregs and Arabic-speaking Solidarity and the Elderly (MAHSPA), IOM, UNHCR, groups (Boukhars, 2013). Aggravated tensions have OCHA, WFP, UNICEF, ACTED, NCR, Handicap also persisted between the North and the South. Eth- Interna onal, and CRS. nic groups from the South, who have held most of the power since Mali achieved independence in For updated informa on, please refer to: 1960, have allegedly neglected the popula ons in the mali.humanitarianresponse.info North and exploited resources in the North (Blair, 2013). 13 Internally displaced persons (IDPs) are “persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in par cular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situa ons of generalized violence, viola ons of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an 13 1. Large-Scale Internal Displacement internally recognized State border” (IOM, 2011a, p. 52).
As of May 2013, 301,027 individuals were internally displaced 14 Figures are gathered from registra on ac vi es carried out under IOM’s within Mali (CMP, 2013a). Displacements occurred mostly be- Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM), which uses a methodology approved by tween March and June 2012, reaching a peak in April 2012 the Commission on Popula on Movements (CMP). The number of displaced persons registered by the DTM as of April 2013 increased in comparison to a er rebel groups gained control of the ci es of Timbuktu and previously published results. This increase is mainly due to the fact that IOM Gao. While there has been some increase in the IDP popula- has expanded its areas of opera ons to other parts of the country. At the on since the January 2013 military interven on (72,109),14 same me, and in connec on with the improvement of the security there have not been any massive popula on movements in environment in the North, we can observe a decrease in the number of people moving from their places of origin to se le other parts of Mali.
page 13 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
ORIGIN AND DESTINATION was 7 people, which is higher than the average family size of 5 to 5.5 persons in the northern regions according to the 2009 From March to June 2012, when most of the new census, indica ng that IDP households likely include extended displacements occurred, most of the IDPs came from or non-family members. The es mated IDP popula on was Timbuktu (56%) and Gao (40%), with very few from Kidal and 51% women and 49% men, with this distribu on nearly Mop (2% each). While movements con nued from Gao, Kidal iden cal for all age groups. The majority of IDPs were children and Timbuktu, there were also increasing numbers coming under the age of 18 (53%), followed by adults aged 18-64 from Mop and Ségou as insurgents advanced southward (44%), and only 2% were more than 65 years old (IOM, (CMP, 2013d). In April 2013, the majority were s ll from 2013b). This is largely similar to demographic data from 2011 Timbuktu (51%), followed by the Gao region (36%) and the for the en re Malian popula on, although the age groups do Mop region (10%), with minimal numbers from Kidal and not match exactly between the sta s cs: 47% were under the Ségou (IOM, 2013b). age of 14 and 7% were over 65 years old (UN Data, 2011). Most IDPs have fled to southern regions to escape violence in In general, the situa on of IDPs has been marked by security the North, with the majority in Bamako (26%), followed by and humanitarian constraints, including lack of access to and Mop (18%), Ségou (16%), and Koulikoro (9%). Another 4% of limited availability of basic services and supplies such as food, IDPs are in Sikasso and 2% are in Kayes. The remaining one- clean water and health care (IDMC, 2013). Of those registered fourth of registered IDPs are displaced within the three under the DTM, most reported a need for food (79% of Northern regions (Timbuktu, Gao and Kidal), although these households), following by non-food items (9%) and cash figures have not been updated since late 2012 (CMP, 2013a). (5%).15 Only 21% of IDPs reported receiving humanitarian Most IDPs have fled to urban areas, complica ng their assistance (IOM, 2013b), although this varies greatly across iden fica on and the provision of assistance and protec on. It and even within regions. IOM and the CMP are currently is par cularly difficult to iden fy IDPs in urban areas in the working with humanitarian partners to analyse and compare South, as they have not gathered in displacement sites but this data, and to be er map the assistance to displaced rather have integrated into families or live in rentals in urban persons as CMP partners have agreed on criteria to capture areas where they are less visible for humanitarian support. Of vulnerabili es within the registered IDP popula on. those registered by IOM as of December 2012, most (65%) The April DTM registra ons have reported a total of 26,559 reported ren ng a house, 27% lived with host families who vulnerable individuals (13% of IDP popula on), which are were o en rela ves and 8% stated “other,” which included found in 47.5% of total households. By far the greatest living in collec ve housing such as community centres (IOM, vulnerability among the IDP popula on involves separated16 2013g). It had previously been es mated, a few months a er and unaccompanied17 children (43%), with 11,295 separated the conflict broke out, that the vast majority of IDPs (97%) children and 675 unaccompanied children. Other were living with extended family members in the South of vulnerabili es included lacta ng and pregnant women (24%), Mali (OCHA, 2012). As their displacement situa on con nues, persons with a chronic disease (20%), persons with a physical there have been reports of some IDPs moving away from host disability (5%), and unaccompanied elderly persons (1%) as families and the urban centres in search of affordable housing well as female headed households (8,675 households) and in more remote peri-urban neighbourhoods, which concurs households headed by a minor (366). IDPs were also with the increasing numbers of IDPs repor ng that they are economically vulnerable, with 38% of the households ren ng rather than staying with host families (IDMC, 2013; repor ng no income in their place of displacement, and 29% Refugees Interna onal, 2013). repor ng an irregular income. Of all registered households, While the majority of IDPs managed to flee the North, others 50% reported needing food assistance, while 39% expressed a were unable to flee from those regions due to the security need for cash assistance. In Bamako and Koulikoro, the concerns posed by insurgent groups and the limited majority of households requested monetary assistance, while transporta on networks (OCHA, 2013d). Many are s ll in Segou and Mop the majority of households cite food displaced within or near their region of origin, with 9% of the assistance as their primary need (IOM, 2013b). total IDP popula on is in the Gao district, 10% within Kidal district, and 7% within the district of Timbuktu (figures as of 15 It is important to note that this reflects the percep ons of IDP households late 2012), including some 10,000 stranded by the closed regarding assistance, and they may tend to report more direct and immediate Algerian border (OCHA, 2013a). It is also expected that many assistance (such as food and cash) as opposed to assistance at the community level (such as for educa on). others have been financially incapable of leaving or too vulnerable (elderly or physically incapacitated) to make the 16 Separated children are “children who are separated from both parents, or journey. from their previous legal or customary primary caregiver, but not necessarily from other rela ves. These may, therefore, include children accompanied by COMPOSITION AND VULNERABILITY other family members” (IOM, 2011a, p. 90).
According to the latest data from the CMP, there were 43,084 17 Unaccompanied children are “persons under the age of majority in a IDP households containing 301,027 individuals (CMP, 2013a). country other than that of their na onality who are not accompanied by a As of April 2013, the average size of registered households parent, guardian, or other adult who by law or custom is responsible for them” (IOM, 2011a, p. 102). page 14 Part II: Migration Consequences of the Crisis and Response in Mali and Beyond
RETURN MOVEMENTS AND INTENTIONS 2. Cross-Border Flows and Impact on Neighbouring A return inten on survey carried out by IOM in February 2013 Countries and Beyond had indicated that returns to areas of origin were likely by the As of the end of May 2013, at least 185,144 Malians had fled end of the year - security situa on permi ng (IOM, 2013d). In to neighbouring countries, including 176,144 registered as the survey, 93% of IDPs indicated that they wanted to return refugees with UNHCR. Most refugees were in Niger, to their place of origin, with the majority (62%) sta ng that Mauritania and Burkina Faso (174,598), with a few in Guinea they would base their final decision on the security situa on (26) and Togo (20) (UNHCR, 2013c). In Niger, another 5,000 (IOM, 2013e). Although mass returns have not occurred due Malians were living in spontaneous sites near the border, in to the prevailing security situa on in areas of origin, as of April Mentes and Midal (UNHCR, 2013a). An es mated 1,500 2013 the majority of IDPs (95%) con nued to express their Malian refugees had fled to Algeria, according to UNHCR desire to return. For 76%, the decision to return will depend (2013d), and an addi onal 4,000 Malians were reported on improved safety condi ons, while 11% give priority to the fleeing into Cote d’Ivoire (IOM internal documents). Cross- improvement of economic condi ons. Another 3% reported border displacements con nue today, although the number of that an improvement in the food situa on is the primary need new displacements remains rela vely low since the January (IOM, 2013b). Among the spontaneous returnees to the North 2013 military interven on (UNHCR, 2013g). recorded at flow monitoring points established by IOM in Bamako and Mop , the lack of social services in the South is ORIGIN AND DESTINATION cited as the principal factor mo va ng the decision to return The majority of refugees are pastoralists from Tuareg or to the North, while others are apparently mo vated by Maure ethnic groups, and were thus more drawn to security improvements in certain northern areas (IOM, neighbouring countries rather than to Southern Mali given the 2013a). The protocol for the upcoming elec ons may also be a broadly similar livelihood and environmental condi ons in the factor influencing return, since it has been uncertain whether neighbouring countries (ECHO, 2013). The des na on of IDPs will be able to vote from their area of displacement. Also, Malian refugees in neighbouring countries was chosen based most of those who have indicated that they want to stay in on a) the proximity and accessibility from their respec ve the South are people who have been directly affected by region of origin in Mali, b) similar ethnic background (for violence – vic ms of rape, amputa ons or torture (IOM instance, Malian pastoralists who sought refuge in Hodh el internal documents). Charghi, Mauritania share some ethnic roots with the Movements to the North also include those who are returning Mauritanian pastoralists from that region), and c) presence of temporarily in order to assess local condi ons or to maintain Malian diaspora communi es in countries of the region (for in- and repair their houses in advance of the rainy season. Shelter stance, in Burkina Faso) (IRIN, 2012b; IOM internal are an important factor to be taken into account in the documents). The majority of refugees are women and context of return movements. Even though the majority (92%) children, as the men stayed behind to take care of family of those surveyed in February wished to return to their former proper es (UNHCR, 2013h; IOM internal documents). house, many respondents (30%) indicated that their habitat The largest concentra on of registered refugees has been had been damaged or destroyed, likely due, in addi on to near the border with Mali, in either makeshi camps or official destruc on related to the figh ng, to the temporary neglect ones. In order to decrease the risk of tensions at the border of houses made of mud (banco) that normally require regular linked to waves of incoming refugees, UNHCR has worked with maintenance. Many houses will likely require repair work, governments to relocate these popula ons to official camps given that only 7% indicated that they intended to build a new that are o en further inland (UNHCR, 2012b) – for instance, in home or live with rela ves. It is also important to keep in mind Niger from spontaneous sites along the borders in Tillabery that many IDPs, having sold their assets in order to flee, do and Tajoua Regions to official camps in Abala, Mangazie, not have the means to return should they want to (IOM, Ayorou and Intekan (IOM internal documents), in Burkina Faso 2013d). from Damba and Gandafabou se lements and spontaneous The CMP does not encourage return since the condi ons are sites to official camps like Mentao or Goudébo and in not yet in place to support mass return movements. Some Mauritania from Fassala transit centre to Mbéra refugee spontaneous returns have been observed, even as further camp. Some Malians who fled into neighbouring countries displacement con nued. There were reports of free buses also se led in urban centres, as for example in Mauritania, being adver sed through the radio (Radio Aadar Koima) for where an es mated 15,000 Malians reportedly moved to Gao residents wan ng to return home (Jourdain, 2013). It was Nouakcho as of 9 January 2013 (IRIN, 2013d). also reported that buses and food were provided for free by NEEDS AND IMPACTS some poli cians, in prepara on for the elec ons later this year (IOM internal documents). According to UNHCR, the needs of the refugees remain great and are not fully met. For example, 80% of the refugee children are not receiving primary educa on (UN, 2013b) due to the fact that the schools around the camps are insufficient and government schools are too far away. The refugee popu-
page 15 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
la ons have also had significant impacts on local host available and could not be replenished from Mali, communi es. Given the food crisis within most of these there were concerns that the region could face countries, the influx of refugees or returnees (such as Nigeri- problems (IOM, 2013f). While there have been ens who had been residing in Mali) who some mes bring live- recent improvements in the nutri on situa on in stock has weakened already fragile communi es, by pu ng refugee camps, addi onal water and sanita on addi onal pressure on natural and economic resources and facili es are needed and shelters need to be leading to an exhaus on of coping mechanisms among host improved. Currently, the refugees in Niger do not communi es (UN, 2013b). In Niger, the interrupted food trade consider it safe enough for them to return to Mali with Mali also contributes to the food insecurity and (IOM internal documents). malnutri on. Furthermore, there is a risk of inter-community tensions due to the exis ng food insecurity crisis and the Burkina Faso: There were 49,975 Malian refugees in Burkina impact on social services, highligh ng the importance of Faso as of the end of April 2013 (UNHCR, 2013c). ensuring that humanitarian support balances the needs of Refugees have stated that they are not yet host popula ons and the refugees (IOM internal documents). considering return as they do not think it is safe enough (IOM internal documents). As in Niger and The following informa on is available per country: Mauritania, more financial support is required to meet the needs of the refugees (UNHCR, 2013h). Mauritania: As of May 2013, there were 74,108 Malian Local popula ons remain vulnerable to food refugees in Mauritania (UNHCR, 2013c). As of insecurity and malnutri on, and with the rainy February, 1,500 refugees were crossing into season arriving they are at risk of the expected yearly Mauritania on average each week (UNHCR, 2013g). floods (IOM internal documents). This large flow of refugees has had an impact in the southeast of the country, where the refugees are Guinea and Togo: The number of refugees in Guinea (26) and located (IOM, 2013f), exacerba ng the environmen- Togo (20) remained very minimal as of January 2013 tal pressures on the local eco-system and on the (UNHCR, 2013c). economic sustainability of the local popula on (IOM internal documents). The livestock brought by some Algeria: Although the border with Mali has been officially refugees could create further degrade of the pastoral closed since 14 January 2013 (Oxfam, 2013a), some lands and may force local herders to move earlier Malians have s ll been crossing into Algeria to seek than expected to find other pastures (FEWSNET, refuge. As of April 2013, UNHCR reported that there 2013). In addi on, Mauritanian herders who have were 1,500 Malian refugees in Algeria (UNHCR, tradi onally crossed into Mali with their herds can no 2013f). Those entering Algeria in January 2013 were longer do so (IOM internal documents). Primary mostly women and children, who went to places such needs within the camp include shelter support, water as Timayawen or Tinzawaten where they rented and sanita on and health, as residents receive homes (UNHCR, 2013i). insufficient water and there are too few latrines to service the popula on which could lead to risk of Senegal and Cote d’Ivoire: There have been no reports of disease. In addi on, out of the 12,000 Mauritanian Malians entering Senegal, and only limited numbers refugees registered by UNHCR in Mali, about 8,000 have been reported in Cote d’Ivoire. Con ngency have expressed the wish to return (UNHCR, 2013d). plans have been put together for a mul sectoral response in the case of an influx (IOM internal Niger: Niger had received 50,515 Malian refugees, documents). Based on a joint assessment undertaken according to the most recent figures from May 2013 by IOM, UNHCR and the Service to Assist Refugees (UNHCR, 2013c). Another 5,000 Malians were and Stateless People (Service d’Aide et Assistance aux es mated to be living in spontaneous sites near the Réfugiés et Apatrides, SAARA) in November 2012, border (UNHCR, 2013a). Refugees are mostly in the about 4,000 Malians had crossed the border into Tillabéri and Tahoua regions, which are highly Cote d’Ivoire as a result of the conflict. All of these vulnerable to food insecurity and malnutri on were staying with family members and in host (UNHCR, 2013c). Refugee numbers have con nued to communi es, and there was no request for asylum or increase this year. Since the start of the military refugee status. Since then, it appears that most of interven on in Mali in January 2013, 10,000 new them have been returning to Mali as the security arrivals of Malian refugees were reported in Tahoua situa on improves (IOM internal documents). region, where water is scarce and no health facili es are available (UNHCR, 2013f). In addi on to Malian Countries beyond the region: So far, there have not been refugees, 3,991 Nigeriens who had been living in Mali significant flows of Malians into countries beyond the have also crossed back into Niger (UNHCR, 2013a) As region. Europe and the United States have not of February 2013, since food stocks were not locally registered large influxes of Malians seeking asylum
page 16 Part II: Migration Consequences of the Crisis and Response in Mali and Beyond
since the conflict. Both Switzerland and France impacted tradi onal movements and livelihoods. For instance, removed Mali from the list of “safe” countries at the the conflict has caused pastoralists to abandon their usual end of 2012, thus allowing Malians to apply for migratory routes and not return to pastoral lands north of the asylum (Forum Refugies, 2012; Slate Afrique, 2012). Niger River (IRIN, 2012a). Many have also had to abandon In 2012, 2,531 Malians applied for asylum in Europe, their tradi onal tents due to figh ng (OCHA, 2013e), leaving a low figure in comparison to asylum-seekers from many without shelter. Insurgents would take livestock at will other countries. Mali ranked 35th out of 44 in during the occupa on, and now pastoralists do not have industrialised countries that received asylum seekers enough money to feed their remaining livestock. Since they in 2012, a significant reduc on in rank as compared cannot afford to keep them, many have been forced to give to 2011 when it was 27 out of 40. Mali was among away or sell their livestock at a very low price. This situa on the top 10 countries or origin of asylum seekers only will have nega ve and poten ally irreversible effects on their in Italy (9th) and Spain (6th) (UNHCR, 2012a). livelihoods, and may lead to permanent migra on flows to urban areas (IRIN, 2013a). RETURN MOVEMENTS AND INTENTIONS Circular migra on flows: Very li le informa on exists Most refugees do not yet consider it safe to return, although pertaining to the impacts of the crisis on regular circular some Malian refugees have reported that they wish to return migra on flows, such as between Cote d’Ivoire and Mali. It home and there are some reports of refugees returning to would appear that labour migra on flows to Guinea of Mali. S ll, while figures are not available, it appears that there Malians from the South to Guinea, where they work in gold are far less refugees returning than IDPs (IOM internal mines in Northern Guinea, have con nued uninterrupted documents), which can be partly due to the ethnic during the conflict (IOM internal documents). In Senegal, composi on of the refugee popula on. As for IDPs, the return while no official figures exist, it is possible that migra on flows of Malian refugees is not encouraged since condi ons are not have decreased, par cularly as there has been a decrease in yet in place to support mass return movements. Addi onal commercial flows between the two countries (IOM internal protec on concerns are raised by the fact that most Malians documents). Within Mali, it appears that there has been a refugees are Tuareg and Maure pastoralists, ethnic groups reversal in circular migra on flows between the North and which are, o en wrongly, widely associated with the rebel South. According to IDP interviews, in the past men would groups. During 2012, some Tuaregs that fled the conflict travel south for economic reasons, leaving their families in the stayed within Mali, but as tensions increased, they tended to North. A er they were displaced, these trends were reversed: flee to neighbouring countries, such as refugee camps in as their en re families moved south, the men now travel Mauritania or Niger (Blair, 2013). Some armed groups, such as north to check on property and assets (IOM internal Ganda Koy, the leader of the Songhai mili a, have used the documents). conflict to publicly blame them for suppor ng MNLA rebels, in Urbanisa on: The conflict has further increased the trend of an a empt to weaken Tuaregs. Since the military interven on urbanisa on, with many of those internally displaced fleeing in January 2013, there have been reports of human rights towards urban centres in Mali, where they are likely to stay for viola ons and ethnic conflicts due to ‘revenge a acks’ against now and may remain permanently if the condi ons for return Tuaregs and other light-skinned Northerners that are do not improve. Given that a high percentage of IDPs are in perceived to be associated with the rebels, leading to further the ci es, this puts addi onal pressure on the infrastructure displacements and presen ng challenges for the return of and services available both for the local popula on and the refugees. newly arrived. Urbaniza on trends can also be seen in the neighbouring countries where Malian refugees are fleeing. For instance, as men oned previously in the case of Mauritania 3. Other Crisis-affected Mobility Pa erns and Flows and Guinea, many Malians escaping the conflict have moved In addi on to displacing large popula ons of Malians internally directly into ci es (Nouakcho and Conakry) instead of staying and into neighbouring countries, the conflict has significantly at the border in refugee camps. Addi onally, as the arrival of impacted a variety of mobility pa erns and flows. refugees puts pressure on limited resources in host communi es, many local popula ons may also follow this Pastoralists and nomadic migra on flows: Pastoralists and trend of moving to ci es. In Mauritania, the government is nomadic groups have clearly been affected by the conflict, asking for increased support for the local popula on, in order with insecurity causing these groups to disperse throughout to avoid mass displacement towards the urban centres (IOM the North of Mali as well as across borders (IRIN, 2013a). The internal documents). majority of refugees are in fact pastoralists from Tuareg or Maure ethnic groups. Many more have been internally Irregular and transit migra on flows: Mali has been an displaced within Mali’s northern regions, although it is difficult important country for irregular and transit migra on, although to determine to what degree given the lack of access. There it is unclear how these migra on pa erns have been affected are also reports of nomadic se lements outside of Bamako by the conflict, or how they may been affected as the situa on (IOM internal documents). This large-scale displacement has progresses in the North. Some degree of irregular migra on reportedly con nues. For instance, Malians and other
page 17 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
migrants con nue to transit through Niger to cross the Libyan Even in areas where access is unhindered (such as in the border (IOM internal documents). The current crisis has South), support to IDPs and host communi es is o en heightened public awareness within the region of the risk of hampered by a serious lack of funding and capacity (IDMC, terrorism and further insecurity. This general concern has 2013). The CAP for Mali is only 30% funded thus far (OCHA, given some governments the public support to send troops to 2013b). The Mali CAP is also linked to other country CAPs Mali (for example, Burkina Faso and Senegal). In addi on, throughout the region (Burkina Faso, Chad, Niger and Guinea has reinforced its borders with Mali, while Algeria has Mauritania) through the Sahel Regional Strategy 2013, in closed its border. Furthermore, the instability of the Sahel order to cohesively address needs stemming from the food region could also lead to an intensifica on of illicit migra on crisis and the Mali conflict, and these are also only 29% flows and drug smuggling into the Mediterranean, as well as funded (OCHA, 2013b). The CAPs and the Sahel Strategy are poten al threats of insurgent a acks in that region (Melly, frequently updated to reflect changes in the situa on, and the 2013). Mali CAP will be updated this month (May 2013). The UN Integrated Strategy for the Sahel Region, which is expected to Vic ms of Trafficking: Currently no informa on exists on soon be presented to the UN Security Council, will also changes in human trafficking in Mali or the region due to the provide a framework that encompasses governance, security, conflict, although some reports have indicated that children humanitarian, human rights and development (UN, 2013a). are now at a higher risk of being trafficked, due to the hasty departure of families fleeing the crisis, the abandonment of Support from the diaspora: The Malian diaspora has also property and children separated from the head of household played a role in mi ga ng both the humanitarian and poli cal or other family members (IOM internal documents). effects of the crisis. The Malian diaspora has been notably ac- ve in France, where they advocated for the interna onal
military interven on (Keller, 2013). They supported the estab- 4. Response to the Crisis in Mali and Beyond lishment of schools and raising dona ons through a group called Collec f des Maliens de France. On 7 April 2012, “the Humanitarian needs and support from interna onal actors: March for the Peace and Unity of Mali” was organized in Paris Humanitarian access has slowly improved since the end of to raise awareness about the on-going crisis in Mali. At the January 2013, following the military interven on and beginning of the conflict, the diaspora also played a role in try- improved access to the North of Mali, allowing humanitarian ing to explain the ethnic make-up of Mali, clarifying that there actors to scale up ac vi es and be er assess the situa on. are many ethnic groups in the North other than the Tuareg. S ll, while access to the North has improved, this is primarily The diaspora has also worked on awareness-raising within in the urban areas and security cannot be guaranteed outside Tuareg popula ons and on addressing many of the issues in the ci es. Access in the North was also impeded due to the the North that are not Tuareg-specific, including under- insecurity and the breakdown of commercial transport development, poverty and conflict resolu on. According to systems during the conflict. Public bus transporta on has the Ambassador of Mali to France, there is strong inter-Malian since resumed between Bamako and Gao, and boats have solidarity among the en re Malian diaspora and such events started to serve the ci es of Mop and Timbuktu (UNHCR, have also been taking place in other parts of the world (OECD, 2013g). However, landmines and improvised explosive devices 2012). For instance, dona ons from the Malian diaspora in along these routes make access risky both for civilians as well Burundi, Equatorial Guinea and Senegal were given to the as for humanitarian actors (UNSC, 2013c; IDMC, 2013). government for distribu on. According to the government, Humanitarian assistance has been an important factor in financial contribu ons were also provided by diaspora groups suppor ng the displaced, since many s ll do not receive to support military ac ons (Government of Mali, 2013a). sufficient services given that social services throughout the Support from governments and the private sector: The country have been overwhelmed or have shut down Government of Mali received dona ons from Algeria, China, completely (MSF, 2013; IOM internal documents). While the Morocco and Turkey to assist the displaced popula ons. Some North may have borne the brunt of the occupa on and support also came from the private sector, including experienced a major breakdown of services, the South is now Moneygram, SOPAM Energy Mali, and the water and juice hos ng 224,641 displaced persons, and chronic food company Kirene. These dona ons o en consisted of food insecurity and malnutri on are affec ng the en re Sahel packs and water that were distributed to displaced region. Mop , Gao and Timbuktu are o en affected each year popula ons in the North (Government of Mali, 2013a; IOM by cholera epidemics (between June and September), and the internal documents). Governments in the region, the African recent migra on flows could bring increased risk of spreading Union and ECOWAS are heavily involved in discussions the epidemic this year. Taking into account this reality, the concerning the situa on in Mali, although the security and humanitarian appeal for funding, the Consolidated Appeal poli cal aspects of the crisis are at the forefront of these Process (CAP) for Mali, includes the following priority needs dialogues. throughout the country: food security; nutri on; water, hygiene and sanita on (WASH); and protec on (UN, 2013c).
page 18 Part II: Migration Consequences of the Crisis and Response in Mali and Beyond
5. Post-Crisis Transi on and Stabiliza on displaced popula ons and refugees and to ensuring that their needs are met, while also focusing significant a en on on the While humanitarian needs con nue, the country is also faced return and reintegra on process. with the challenges of poli cal transi on and stabiliza on. The country is preparing for elec ons, expected to take place later The UN Security Council recently established a United Na ons this year, and the United Na ons Office for Mali (UNOM) has Mul dimensional Integrated Stabiliza on Mission in Mali established offices to support the poli cal process (Feltman, (MINUSMA), which will become effec ve on 1 July 2013. Its 2013). In the past, there have been rela vely frequent mandate will encompass suppor ng the transi onal uprisings including by the Mouvement Populaire de Libéra on authori es of Mali to re-establish government administra on, de l’Azawad (MPLA) in 1990 and then in 2000, indica ng that as well as suppor ng efforts to rebuild the Malian security the current situa on is not an isolated event and that there is sector, stabilize key popula on centres, restore state a need to iden fy durable solu ons for peace. authority, deter threats and take ac ve steps to prevent the return of armed elements (UNSC, 2013a). A decisive step in the poli cal process occurred in January 2013, when the Government of Mali adopted a road map for In order to come up with a long-term solu on to the chronic the transi on. This road map highlights the humanitarian crisis in the Sahel and to be er prepare communi es for needs of displaced popula ons and refugees, and the need to future crises, the “resilience agenda” has been put forward ensure the facilita on of return once condi ons are in place to with the inten on of addressing both humanitarian and support such returns. The Durable Recovery Plan for Mali development objec ves. While discussions are s ll on-going 2013-2014 (Government of Mali, 2013b), established in April regarding how to put resilience into prac ce, the EU launched 2013, provides a clear picture of the way forward for the the “Global Alliance for Resilience Ini a ve – Sahel” (AGIR transi on phase. The recovery plan makes reference to Sahel) in June 2012 to move this resilience agenda forward.
page 19 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
3 PART III: RECOMMENDATIONS
To overcome the current crisis, Mali needs to address a wide foreseeable future. The most likely scenario today is that variety of challenges simultaneously, including, amongst displacements will become protracted due to the con nua on others, launching a poli cal process that is genuinely of low-level conflict and insecurity in the North, the me it will par cipatory and promotes reconcilia on and peace, re- take for basic services such as health and educa on to establishing the provision of basic public services in the North become more widely available in the areas of displacement, and improving their delivery in the South, kick-star ng and constraints imposed by the agricultural cycle on displaced economic development and modernizing the agricultural popula ons that depend on farming for their livelihood. The sector, and reforming the security services. Addressing all fact that communi es and local authori es in the North need aspects of human mobility related to the crisis in an integrated to be ready for the return and reintegra on of both refugee manner is one of those challenges, and one that is directly and IDP popula ons further increases the challenge in this linked to sustainable peace, the improvement of stability and respect. Such protracted displacement would require human security, and the promo on of humanitarian con nued provision of support and assistance to the most protec on and assistance. Concretely, IOM recommends the vulnerable popula ons. following areas for a en on, support and assistance:
2. Strengthen Informa on Collec on and Manage- 1. Ensure a Two-Pronged Approach: Humanitarian ment assistance and protec on as well as support for In order to be er plan ac vi es along the spectrum of transi on and recovery humanitarian aid to recovery and transi on support, it is The rela ve calm brought by the interna onal military essen al to further invest in tracking popula on movements; interven on has rightly shi ed a en on to what needs to be monitoring and assessing the needs and inten ons of IDPs and done to put Mali firmly on the path towards sustainable peace returnees, as well as the needs of host communi es in areas and economic development. The Malian transi onal of displacement and return; monitoring protec on concerns; government has clearly indicated that it needs support from and profiling migrants along with their intended movements. the interna onal community in order to move the country In addi on, expanding the monitoring of cross-border and forward and implement an ambi ous Durable Recovery Plan internal popula on flows is recommended to capture any for Mali 2013-2014, which provides a comprehensive spontaneous returns of refugees and IDPs. In parallel, the CMP overview of the many challenges Mali needs to tackle in the will need further financial support in order to increase its coming months with a par cular focus on the need for capacity in informa on management. economic development. At the same me as preparing for the longer-term transi onal 3. Establish a Regional Approach to the Migra on and recovery needs in both the North and the South of the country, the Malian transi onal Government and the Crisis Affec ng Mali interna onal community need to ensure that the immediate Due to the large number of people displaced across the life-saving needs of the displaced and other crisis-affected region, the porous nature of the borders throughout the persons are being met through smart and efficient Sahel, the important trade routes and cross-border ac vi es humanitarian assistance. If done well, it can also serve to that support the regional economy (including illegal trade), reduce pressures on communi es and avoid increased and finally the migra on (including trafficking) and tensions and unrest during the transi on period. The most transhumance routes, it is essen al to establish a regional vulnerable popula ons have urgent needs such as for food, approach to the migra on crisis affec ng Mali. In par cular, shelter, health care, educa on and livelihood support. this implies the development of complementary and Interven ons should aim to reduce aid dependency and consistent approaches to address the issues of refugees and protect these vulnerable popula ons from abuses including IDPs, while recognizing the important differences between the gender-based violence, human trafficking and the recruitment IDP and refugee popula ons. of children by armed groups. It is important that strategies and ac vi es to support displaced popula ons take into Moreover, the food insecurity crisis that affects the en re account the predominantly urban nature of displacement in Sahel region also requires a be er integra on of mobility Mali. within humanitarian and transi onal approaches in Mali and within the broader context of the regional resilience agenda. This two-pronged approach likely needs to con nue into the Addi onal informa on is needed to fully address the impacts
page 20 Part III: Recommendations
of the current crisis in Mali on regional mobility pa erns and ini a ves related to access to basic social services including migrant groups such as the pastoralists and seasonal migrants, shelter and non-food items delivery, educa on, health, and and to further understand how the crisis has worsened pre- water, hygiene and sanita on (WASH) ac vi es. This strategy exis ng harmful migra on dynamics, such as the smuggling should be in place for returning migrants, including refugees and trafficking of people. Such efforts would also assist in as- and IDPs, with balanced support to both groups as well as to sessing the impact that the crisis has had on trafficking and host communi es in order to avoid poten al tensions. smuggling opera ons, which in turn may support the develop- ment of medium- to long-term strategies of preven on and assistance to vic ms of smuggling or trafficking. 6. Invest in Building Peace and an Open Democra c Process 4. Support Stabiliza on and Transi on Ac vi es as Given the growing tensions within communi es faced with an Immediate Strategic Goal inside Mali displacement, as well as the historical tensions and inequali es between the North and South, it is essen al to It is essen al that the strategy of the interna onal community also facilitate the peace-building, conflict mi ga on and includes community-based stabiliza on ini a ves, as these confidence-building process – between different ethnic are cri cal to help prevent the occurrence of further communi es, as well as between the en re popula on and grievances that could poten ally fuel another conflict and limit the government ins tu ons and their partners. The the power of various spoilers. As long as return cannot be en- establishment on 30 March 2013 of the Na onal Commission couraged, the main objec ve must be to mi gate and address for Dialogue and Reconcilia on is a posi ve and crucial step the root causes of conflict (for instance, through community forward taken by the Government. Efforts are needed to dialogues, peace dividends distribu on, or improving access to ensure that it is used effec vely and seen as a legi mate basic social services and economic opportuni es). At the same process by all relevant par es. me, community stabiliza on ac vi es should be priori zed In addi on, a number of emerging priori es must be ad- as these will lay the founda on for enabling the return of dressed in order to promote peace: displaced popula ons, and can further contribute to reducing the poten al for addi onal displacement and/or secondary Elec ons: In the context of the consolida on of the demo- displacement among spontaneous returnees. In this context, it cratic process, an urgent effort is recommended to is vital that rela onships and trust are built between local enable disenfranchised, displaced popula ons to popula ons and local authori es in the North. Rapid support register and vote in the July 2013 presiden al to the rehabilita on of community infrastructure and the re- elec ons, in order to encourage people to regain establishment of basic services and government presence in trust in the Government and to obtain confidence the North can also contribute to the broader resilience agenda in democracy. set forward by the interna onal community. Vulnerable Youth and Ex-combatants: A na onal peacebuilding process and security sector reform through gov- ernance, disarmament, reintegra on and targeted 5. Plan for Durable Solu ons, Including Return and livelihood support for disaffected and/or vulnera- Reintegra on Ac vi es, in a Careful and Strategic ble youth and ex-combatants will also be required Manner – with a special focus on demobilizing and reinte- gra ng child soldiers back into their communi es. Although the volume, pace and nature of returns will con nue This area will need a complete framework formed to be con ngent primarily (but not exclusively) on the security by inter-Ministerial Circulars and measures of the situa on, longer-term stability will depend on three key 1612 Resolu on of the UN Security Council in variables: the availability of basic services in communi es in coordina on with the integrated UN mission. the North, livelihood opportuni es, and increased confidence in the government. As long as the condi ons for return are not Malian Diaspora: The Malian Diaspora has played an important in place, the humanitarian community will not promote role during the conflict by advoca ng for the inter- return, although efforts must s ll be made to support ven on. The diaspora can be a key stakeholder in spontaneous returns through the provision of humanitarian moving forward and stabilising the situa on in Ma- assistance en route. li, and this should be capitalised on. Peace building, reconcilia on and development ac vi es should Once condi ons for return are met from a security and include the diaspora to tap into their skills and humanitarian perspec ve, urgent efforts should be made to networks at the na onal and community levels and support the return and reintegra on of displaced popula ons promote durable peace even beyond the country’s in their communi es of origin. This ini a ve should be borders. encompassed within a larger durable solu on strategy for the displaced, which takes the development strategy into account and includes all relevant stakeholders. This would include
page 21 Mali Crisis: A Migration Perspective Interna onal Organiza on for Migra on
7. Address Migra on and Border Management in criminal groups. Since cross-border illegal ac vi es flourish in Mali and in the Region from a Security Perspec- the context of weak governance, it is also important to invest in alterna ve livelihoods and income-genera ng opportuni es ve, and Complement with Livelihood and Income for marginalised border communi es, whose members are -Genera on Support for Border Communi es currently engaged ac vi es such as the cross-border traffick- The propaga on of arms in the region from the previous con- ing of weapons and people. At the same me, policies must flict in Libya, together with the lack of control of those arms also accommodate the cross-border migra on pa erns of and weapons coming into the region, enabled the outbreak of pastoralist and nomadic groups, so as not to hinder their the conflict in January 2012. Some governments, including in movement and nega vely impact on their livelihood. countries neighbouring Mali, have already made requests for support and have developed na onal integrated programmes related to Security Sector Reform (SSR). It is crucial to imple- "Do no harm” approach: All ac vi es should ment these programmes in order to establish adequate mech- incorporate the needs of both the displaced and host anisms to control and secure na onal borders across the communi es to reduce the risk of tension over Sahel: to address transna onal organized crime, to build limited resources in a context of food insecurity that government capacity to organize disarmament programmes, could be perceived as ethnic discrimina on. to provide protec on mechanisms for the most vulnerable migrants and to combat money laundering and financing of
page 22 References
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MALI CRISIS: A MIGRATION PERSPECTIVE
June 2013