Blacktail and Bluestriped Snapper

Home , Bluestriped snapper, Chlorurus perspicillatus, Chlorurus spilurus, Goatfish, Kyphosus vaigiensis, Lutjanidae

AND

Lutjanus fulvus, Lutjanus kasmira

©Diane Rome Peebles

Hawaii Handline, Deep-set Handline, Surrounding net, Diver

Fisheries Standard Verions F2

February 6, 2017 The Safina Center Seafood Analysts

Disclaimer Seafood Watch and The Safina Center strive to ensure that all our Seafood Reports and recommendations contained therein are accurate and reflect the most up-to-date evidence available at the time of publication. All our reports are peer-reviewed for accuracy and completeness by external scientists with expertise in ecology, fisheries science or aquaculture.Scientific review, however, does not constitute an endorsement of the Seafood Watch program or of The Safina Center or their recommendations on the part of the reviewing scientists.Seafood Watch and The Safina Center are solely responsible for the conclusions reached in this report. We always welcome additional or updated data that can be used for the next revision. Seafood Watch and Seafood Reports are made possible through a grant from the David and Lucile Packard Foundation and other funders. Table of Contents

About...... The...... Safina...... Center...... 3......

About...... Seafood...... Watch ...... 4......

Guiding...... Principles ...... 5......

Summary...... 6......

Final...... Seafood...... Recommendations ...... 7......

Introduction...... 8......

Assessment...... 11......

Criterion...... 1: . . . Impacts...... on . . . the. . . . . species...... under ...... assessment ...... 11 ......

Criterion...... 2: . . . Impacts...... on . . . other...... species...... 15 ......

Criterion...... 3: . . . Management...... Effectiveness ...... 34 ......

Criterion...... 4: . . . Impacts...... on . . . the. . . . . habitat...... and . . . . . ecosystem...... 44 ......

Acknowledgements...... 48......

References...... 49......

Appendix...... A:. . . . Extra...... By . . . . Catch...... Species ...... 56......

2 About The Safina Center

The Safina Center (formerly Blue Ocean Institute) translates scientific information into language people can understand and serves as a unique voice of hope, guidance, and encouragement. The Safina Center (TSC) works through science, art, and literature to inspire solutions and a deeper connection with nature, especially the sea. Our mission is to inspire more people to actively engage as well-informed and highly motivated constituents for conservation.

Led by conservation pioneer and MacArthur fellow, Dr. Carl Safina, we show how nature, community, the economy and prospects for peace are all intertwined. Through Safina’s books, essays, public speaking, PBS television series, our Fellows program and Sustainable Seafood program, we seek to inspire people to make better choices.

The Safina Center was founded in 2003 by Dr. Carl Safina and was built on three decades of research, writing and policy work by Dr. Safina.

The Safina Center’s Sustainable Seafood Program The Center’s founders created the first seafood guide in 1998. Our online seafood guide now encompasses over 160-wild-caught species. All peer-reviewed seafood reports are transparent, authoritative, easy to understand and use. Seafood ratings and full reports are available on our website under Seafood choices. tsc’s sustainable seafood program helps consumers, retailers, chefs and health professionals discover the connection between human health, a healthy ocean, fishing and sustainable seafood.

Our online guide to sustainable seafood is based on scientific ratings for more than 160 wild-caught seafood species and provides simple guidelines. Through our expanded partnership with the Monterey Bay Aquarium, our guide now includes seafood ratings from both The Safina Center and the Seafood Watch® program. We partner with Whole Foods Market (WFM) to help educate their seafood suppliers and staff, and provide our scientific seafood ratings for WFM stores in the US and UK. Through our partnership with Chefs Collaborative, we created Green Chefs/Blue Ocean, a free, interactive, online sustainable seafood course for chefs and culinary professionals. Our website features tutorials, videos, blogs, links and discussions of the key issues such as mercury in seafood, bycatch, overfishing, etc.

Check out our Fellows Program, learn more about our Sustainable Seafood Program and Carl Safina’s current work at www.safinacenter.org .

The Safina Center is a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization based in the School of Marine & Atmospheric Sciences at Stony Brook University, Long Island, NY. www.safinacenter.org [email protected] | 631.632.3763

3 About Seafood Watch

Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch® program evaluates the ecological sustainability of wild-caught and farmed seafood commonly found in the United States marketplace. Seafood Watch® defines sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether wild-caught or farmed, which can maintain or increase production in the long-term without jeopardizing the structure or function of affected ecosystems. Seafood Watch® makes its science-based recommendations available to the public in the form of regional pocket guides that can be downloaded from www.seafoodwatch.org. The program’s goals are to raise awareness of important ocean conservation issues and empower seafood consumers and businesses to make choices for healthy oceans.

Each sustainability recommendation on the regional pocket guides is supported by a Seafood Report. Each report synthesizes and analyzes the most current ecological, fisheries and ecosystem science on a species, then evaluates this information against the program’s conservation ethic to arrive at a recommendation of “Best Choices,” “Good Alternatives” or “Avoid.” The detailed evaluation methodology is available upon request. In producing the Seafood Reports, Seafood Watch® seeks out research published in academic, peer-reviewed journals whenever possible. Other sources of information include government technical publications, fishery management plans and supporting documents, and other scientific reviews of ecological sustainability. Seafood Watch® Research Analysts also communicate regularly with ecologists, fisheries and aquaculture scientists, and members of industry and conservation organizations when evaluating fisheries and aquaculture practices. Capture fisheries and aquaculture practices are highly dynamic; as the scientific information on each species changes, Seafood Watch®’s sustainability recommendations and the underlying Seafood Reports will be updated to reflect these changes.

Parties interested in capture fisheries, aquaculture practices and the sustainability of ocean ecosystems are welcome to use Seafood Reports in any way they find useful. For more information about Seafood Watch® and Seafood Reports, please contact the Seafood Watch® program at Monterey Bay Aquarium by calling 1-877-229- 9990.

4 Guiding Principles

The Safina Center and Seafood Watch define sustainable seafood as originating from sources, whether fished1 or farmed, that can maintain or increase production in the long-term without jeopardizing the structure or function of affected ecosystems.

Based on this principle, Seafood Watch and the Safina Center have developed four sustainability criteria for evaluating wild-catch fisheries for consumers and businesses. These criteria are:

How does fishing affect the species under assessment? How does the fishing affect other, target and non-target species? How effective is the fishery’s management? How does the fishing affect habitats and the stability of the ecosystem?

Each criterion includes:

Factors to evaluate and score Guidelines for integrating these factors to produce a numerical score and rating

Once a rating has been assigned to each criterion, we develop an overall recommendation. Criteria ratings and the overall recommendation are color-coded to correspond to the categories on the Seafood Watch pocket guide and the Safina Center’s online guide:

Best Choice/Green: Are well managed and caught in ways that cause little harm to habitats or other wildlife.

Good Alternative/Yellow: Buy, but be aware there are concerns with how they’re caught.

Avoid/Red Take a pass on these for now. These items are overfished or caught in ways that harm other marine life or the environment.

1 “Fish” is used throughout this document to refer to finfish, shellfish and other invertebrates

5 Summary

This report assesses the fisheries for two non-native Hawaii species: blacktail snapper (Lutjanus fulvus) and bluestriped snapper (Lutjanus kasmira). They are caught with a variety of small-scale net gears (e.g., surround gillnets, seines, bag nets, and lift nets), handlines, and by divers using spears.

Blacktail and bluestriped snappers are native to the Indo-Pacific and associated with coral reefs. The blacktail snapper is a shallow-water species found to a depth of 75 m, while the blustriped snapper can be found to a depth of 265 m. Both snapper species were intentionally introduced to Hawaii during the 1950s. Blacktail snapper's expansion has been classified as modest and is limited to the Main Hawaiian Islands, but the bluestriped snapper population grew rapidly and is now found throughout the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. There is concern that these snappers are threatening native Hawaiian species, but to date there is no evidence of negative ecological interactions. Because these species are non-native, abundance and fishing mortality are assessed as very low concern.

Bluestriped snapper forms aggregations and may at times be directly targeted by fishers, but for the most part, bluestriped and blacktail snappers are caught in fisheries directed at other Hawaiian fish. The inshore handline, net, and diver/spear fisheries target a mix of various reef fish, the majority of which have unknown abundance levels and a low to medium vulnerability to overfishing. The deep-set handline fishery targets several deepwater snappers and groupers, including Hawaiian grouper and gray snapper, which are potentially depleted/overfished. All fishing methods result in low catches of non-target species.

Species assessed in this report are managed in federal waters by the Western Pacific Region Fishery Management Council under the Hawaii Ecosystem Plan and in state waters by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. Annual catch limits are in place for the majority of species. Management of targeted species is considered moderately effective, due to the uncertain status of many species. Bycatch management is assessed as highly effective because there are few bycatch concerns.

The fishing gears assessed in this report typically have a low impact on bottom habitats. But there is moderate concern over ecosystem impacts. Some important forage fish, herbivores, and top predators are caught in these fisheries; although some efforts are being made to protect the ecological role of these species, more robust policies are needed.

6 Final Seafood Recommendations

CRITERION 2: CRITERION 1: IMPACTS ON CRITERION 3: CRITERION 4: IMPACTS ON OTHER MANAGEMENT HABITAT AND OVERALL SPECIES/FISHERY THE SPECIES SPECIES EFFECTIVENESS ECOSYSTEM RECOMMENDATION

Bluestriped Green (5.000) Red (2.159) Green (3.464) Green (3.674) Good Alternative snapper (3.423) Hawaii Pacific, Handline, deep set

Blacktail snapper Green (5.000) Yellow (2.644) Green (3.464) Yellow (3.122) Best Choice Hawaii Pacific, (3.457) Surrounding nets (nei)

Blacktail snapper Green (5.000) Yellow (2.644) Green (3.464) Green (3.571) Best Choice Hawaii Pacific, (3.576) Diver

Blacktail snapper Green (5.000) Yellow (2.644) Green (3.464) Green (3.571) Best Choice Hawaii Pacific, (3.576) Handline

Bluestriped Green (5.000) Yellow (2.644) Green (3.464) Yellow (3.122) Best Choice snapper (3.457) Hawaii Pacific, Surrounding nets (nei)

Scoring Guide Scores range from zero to five where zero indicates very poor performance and five indicates the fishing operations have no significant impact.

Final Score = geometric mean of the four Scores (Criterion 1, Criterion 2, Criterion 3, Criterion 4).

Best Choice/Green = Final Score >3.2, and no Red Criteria, and no Critical scores Good Alternative/Yellow = Final score >2.2-3.2, and neither Harvest Strategy (Factor 3.1) nor Bycatch Management Strategy (Factor 3.2) are Very High Concern2 , and no more than one Red Criterion, and no Critical scores Avoid/Red = Final Score ≤2.2, or either Harvest Strategy (Factor 3.1) or Bycatch Management Strategy (Factor 3.2) is Very High Concern or two or more Red Criteria, or one or more Critical scores.

2 Because effective management is an essential component of sustainable fisheries, Seafood Watch issues an Avoid recommendation for any fishery scored as a Very High Concern for either factor under Management (Criterion 3).

7 Introduction

Scope of the analysis and ensuing recommendation This report assesses two non-native Hawaiian fish species: bluestriped snapper (Lutjanus kasmira) and blacktail snapper (Lutjanus fulvus). Bluestriped snapper is primarily caught with surround nets and handlines, while blacktail snapper is caught with surround nets, handlines, and by diver/spear fishing.

Species Overview Blacktail snapper is native to the Indo-Pacific and found at depths from 1–75 m in tropical waters. It is commonly found in areas that are sheltered, and can be found in loose aggregations. Bluestriped snapper also is native to the Indo-Pacific region, from the Red Sea and east Africa to the Marquesas and Line Islands, north to southern Japan, and south to Australia. Bluestriped snapper is found in waters from 3 to 265 m deep. Bluestriped snapper forms large aggregations and is found in areas such as shallow lagoons and coral reefs, and on outer reef slopes (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Blacktail snapper and bluestriped snapper were introduced into Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. Blacktail snapper's population expansion has been classified as modest; it is limited to the Main Hawaiian Islands, with a total range of 600 km (Gaither et al. 2012) (Gaither et al. 2013). Bluestriped snapper experienced rapid population growth after its introduction into Hawaiian waters. It is now found throughout the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, with a total range of 2,500 km (Gaither et al. 2012) (Gaither et al. 2013). Since their introduction, these snappers have not become popular food fishes, and there are now concerns that they are threatening native Hawaiian species (Gaither et al. 2012); however, to date, there is no evidence of negative ecological interactions (Parrish et al. 2000) (Schumacher 2011). Both species of snapper are occasionally associated with ciguatera poisoning, which may be one reason they have not become popular food fish (Copeland et al. 2014).

Currently, bluestriped and blacktail snappers are largely caught in various Hawaii fisheries targeting reef- associated species. Bluestriped snapper is also a bycatch in the Hawaii bottomfish fishery. Additionally, both snappers are caught recreationally, mostly by spear fishers, and in recreational fishing tournaments that target introduced species. The Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) manages bluestriped and blacktail snappers under the Hawaii Ecosystem Plan (WPRFMC 2009) (NMFS 2015a).

Production Statistics In Hawaii, bluestriped snapper and blacktail snapper are caught with several gears, including handlines, casting (fishing using a pole and casting reel; i.e., jigging, fly-fishing), divers/spears, various surround nets (e.g., gillnet, seines, lift net, bag net), and traps (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b).

Between 2003 and 2014, 254,190 lbs of bluestriped snapper were caught in Hawaii commercial fisheries. Of this, 160,312 lbs were caught by net gears, 72,982 lbs by inshore handlines/casting, 13,359 lbs by deepwater handlines, 4,973 lbs by trap, and 2,564 lbs by diver/spear fishing (HDAR 2015b). During the same period, 25,754 lbs of blacktail snapper were caught, with 13,690 lbs caught with net gears, 9,091 lbs caught by diver/spear fishing, 2,914 lbs by inshore handlines/casting, and 59 lbs by trap (HDAR 2015a).

8 Figure 1 Bluestriped snapper catches by gear 2003–2014 (DAR 2015b).

Figure 2 Blacktail snapper catches by gear type 2003–2014 (DAR 2015a).

9 Importance to the US/North American market. These species are consumed locally.

Common and market names. Blacktail snapper is also known as toau and bluestriped snapper as taape in Hawaii.

Primary product forms Blacktail and bluestriped snappers are sold in fresh and frozen forms.

10 Assessment

This section assesses the sustainability of the fishery(s) relative to the Seafood Watch Criteria for Fisheries, available at http://www.seafoodwatch.org.

Criterion 1: Impacts on the species under assessment

This criterion evaluates the impact of fishing mortality on the species, given its current abundance. The inherent vulnerability to fishing rating influences how abundance is scored, when abundance is unknown.

The final Criterion 1 score is determined by taking the geometric mean of the abundance and fishing mortality scores. The Criterion 1 rating is determined as follows:

Score >3.2=Green or Low Concern Score >2.2 and ≤3.2=Yellow or Moderate Concern Score ≤2.2=Red or High Concern

Rating is Critical if Factor 1.3 (Fishing Mortality) is Critical

Criterion 1 Summary BLACKTAIL SNAPPER Inherent Region / Method Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Score Hawaii/Pacific Surrounding 3.00: Low 5.00: Very Low 5.00: Very Low Green nets (nei) Concern Concern (5.000) Hawaii/Pacific Diver 3.00: Low 5.00: Very Low 5.00: Very Low Green Concern Concern (5.000) Hawaii/Pacific Handline 3.00: Low 5.00: Very Low 5.00: Very Low Green Concern Concern (5.000)

BLUESTRIPED SNAPPER Inherent Region / Method Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Score Hawaii/Pacific Handline, deep 2.00: Medium 5.00: Very Low 5.00: Very Low Green set Concern Concern (5.000) Hawaii/Pacific Surrounding 2.00: Medium 5.00: Very Low 5.00: Very Low Green nets (nei) Concern Concern (5.000)

Criterion 1 Assessment SCORING GUIDELINES Factor 1.1 - Inherent Vulnerability Low—The FishBase vulnerability score for species is 0-35, OR species exhibits life history characteristics that make it resilient to fishing, (e.g., early maturing).

11 Medium—The FishBase vulnerability score for species is 36-55, OR species exhibits life history characteristics that make it neither particularly vulnerable nor resilient to fishing, (e.g., moderate age at sexual maturity (5-15 years), moderate maximum age (10-25 years), moderate maximum size, and middle of food chain). High—The FishBase vulnerability score for species is 56-100, OR species exhibits life history characteristics that make is particularly vulnerable to fishing, (e.g., long-lived (>25 years), late maturing (>15 years), low reproduction rate, large body size, and top-predator). Note: The FishBase vulnerability scores is an index of the inherent vulnerability of marine fishes to fishing based on life history parameters: maximum length, age at first maturity, longevity, growth rate, natural mortality rate, fecundity, spatial behaviors (e.g., schooling, aggregating for breeding, or consistently returning to the same sites for feeding or reproduction) and geographic range.

Factor 1.2 - Abundance 5 (Very Low Concern)—Strong evidence exists that the population is above target abundance level (e.g., biomass at maximum sustainable yield, BMSY) or near virgin biomass. 4 (Low Concern)—Population may be below target abundance level, but it is considered not overfished 3 (Moderate Concern) —Abundance level is unknown and the species has a low or medium inherent vulnerability to fishing. 2 (High Concern)—Population is overfished, depleted, or a species of concern, OR abundance is unknown and the species has a high inherent vulnerability to fishing. 1 (Very High Concern)—Population is listed as threatened or endangered.

Factor 1.3 - Fishing Mortality 5 (Very Low Concern)—Highly likely that fishing mortality is below a sustainable level (e.g., below fishing mortality at maximum sustainable yield, FMSY), OR fishery does not target species and its contribution to the mortality of species is negligible (≤ 5% of a sustainable level of fishing mortality). 3.67 (Low Concern)—Probable (>50%) chance that fishing mortality is at or below a sustainable level, but some uncertainty exists, OR fishery does not target species and does not adversely affect species, but its contribution to mortality is not negligible, OR fishing mortality is unknown, but the population is healthy and the species has a low susceptibility to the fishery (low chance of being caught). 2.33 (Moderate Concern)—Fishing mortality is fluctuating around sustainable levels, OR fishing mortality is unknown and species has a moderate-high susceptibility to the fishery and, if species is depleted, reasonable management is in place. 1 (High Concern)—Overfishing is occurring, but management is in place to curtail overfishing, OR fishing mortality is unknown, species is depleted, and no management is in place. 0 (Critical)—Overfishing is known to be occurring and no reasonable management is in place to curtail overfishing.

BLACKTAIL SNAPPER Factor 1.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Low FishBase assigned a low vulnerability score of 23 out of 100 to blacktail snapper (Froese and Pauly 2015). Blacktail snapper (Lutjanus fulvus) is a broadcast spawner, reaching sexual maturity at 20–30 cm in length. It

12 can attain a maximum size of 40 cm and live for around 4 years (Froese and Pauly 2015). Blacktail snapper preys on other fish species, cephalopods, and benthic crustaceans (Froese and Pauly 2015). Blacktail snapper was introduced into Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. Its population expansion has been classified as modest. It has remained limited to the Main Hawaiian Islands, with a geographic range of 600 km (Gaither et al. 2013) (Gaither et al. 2012).

Factor 1.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Very Low Concern Blacktail snapper are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Multi-Species complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (NMFS 2015a). Information on abundance for this species is not available, but the first formal assessment for this species is scheduled for 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Because this species is non-native to Hawaiian waters, we have awarded a "very low" concern score.

Factor 1.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Very Low Concern Blacktail snapper is not targeted in commercial fisheries in Hawaii, but it is caught in fisheries aimed at other species. Commercial catches of blacktail snapper were 3,025 lbs in 2013 and 2,194 lbs in 2014 (HDAR 2015a). This species is also caught in recreational fisheries. Because this species is non-native, fishing mortality is assessed as "very low" concern.

BLUESTRIPED SNAPPER Factor 1.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Medium FishBase assigned a medium vulnerability score of 40 out of 100 to bluestriped snapper. Bluestriped snapper (Lutjanus kasmira) is a broadcast spawner, reaching sexual maturity between 17 and 25 cm in length. It can attain a maximum size of 40 cm (Froese and Pauly 2015). Bluestriped snapper primarily preys on benthic invertebrates, as well as some planktonic crustaceans and fish (Parrish et al. 2000). Bluestriped snapper was introduced into Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. After its introduction, it experienced rapid population growth in Hawaiian waters and is now found throughout the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Gaither et al. 2012).

13 Factor 1.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI)

Very Low Concern The Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council and the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources manage bluestriped snapper. Bluestriped snapper is included in the Hawaiian bottomfish management unit, though it is more frequently caught in coral reef fisheries (NMFS 2015a) (NMFS 2015b). It was not included in the last assessment of Hawaii bottomfish because it is not considered a primary species (Brodziak et al. 2009) (Brodziak et al. 2011). But an individual stock assessment for this species is planned for 2016 (NMFS 2016b). A recent length-based analysis of several Hawaii fishes indicated that this species has a spawning potential ratio (the ratio of current spawning biomass relative to an unfished level) of 63%, which suggests that abundance is relatively high (Nadon et al. 2015). Because this species is non-native to Hawaiian waters, we have awarded a "very low" concern score.

Factor 1.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Very Low Concern Commercial fishers in Hawaii may sometimes target bluestriped snapper, but it is generally caught in fisheries aimed at other species. Commercial catches of bluestriped snapper were 33,998 lbs in 2013 and 30,269 lbs in 2014 (PIFMC 2016). Bluestriped snapper is also caught in recreational fisheries. Because this species is non- native, fishing mortality is assessed as "very low" concern.

14 Criterion 2: Impacts on other species

All main retained and bycatch species in the fishery are evaluated in the same way as the species under assessment were evaluated in Criterion 1. Seafood Watch® defines bycatch as all fisheries-related mortality or injury to species other than the retained catch. Examples include discards, endangered or threatened species catch, and ghost fishing.

To determine the final Criterion 2 score, the score for the lowest scoring retained/bycatch species is multiplied by the discard rate score (ranges from 0-1), which evaluates the amount of non-retained catch (discards) and bait use relative to the retained catch. The Criterion 2 rating is determined as follows:

Score >3.2=Green or Low Concern Score >2.2 and ≤3.2=Yellow or Moderate Concern Score ≤2.2=Red or High Concern

Rating is Critical if Factor 2.3 (Fishing Mortality) is Crtitical

Criterion 2 Summary Only the lowest scoring main species is/are listed in the table and text in this Criterion 2 section; a full list and assessment of the main species can be found in Appendix B.

BLACKTAIL SNAPPER - HAWAII/PACIFIC - DIVER Subscore: 2.644 Discard Rate: 1.00 C2 Rate: 2.644 Inherent Species Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Subscore Eyestripe surgeonfish 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Spiny lobster: Main 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Hawaiian Islands Concern Concern (2.644) Parrotfish (Unspecified) 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Bluespine unicornfish 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Soldierfish (unspecified) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Day octopus 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644)

BLACKTAIL SNAPPER - HAWAII/PACIFIC - HANDLINE Subscore: 2.644 Discard Rate: 1.00 C2 Rate: 2.644 Inherent Species Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Subscore

15 Mackerel scad ('opelu) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Big-eye scad (akule) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Soldierfish (unspecified) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644)

BLACKTAIL SNAPPER - HAWAII/PACIFIC - SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Subscore: 2.644 Discard Rate: 1.00 C2 Rate: 2.644 Inherent Species Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Subscore Mackerel scad ('opelu) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Rudderfish 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Big-eye scad (akule) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Yellowfin goatfish 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Bluestriped snapper 2.00:Medium 5.00:Very Low 5.00:Very Low Green Concern Concern (5.000)

BLUESTRIPED SNAPPER - HAWAII/PACIFIC - HANDLINE, DEEP SET Subscore: 2.159 Discard Rate: 1.00 C2 Rate: 2.159 Inherent Species Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Subscore Hawaiian gray snapper 1.00:High 2.00:High Concern 2.33:Moderate Red (uku) Concern (2.159) Hawaiian grouper 1.00:High 2.00:High Concern 2.33:Moderate Red (Hapu'u) Concern (2.159) Hawaiian pink snapper 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow (opakapaka): Main Concern Concern (2.644) Hawaiian Islands Deep 7 Bottomfish Multi-species Complex Hawaiian ruby snapper 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow (onaga): Main Hawaiian Concern Concern (2.644) Islands Deep 7 Bottomfish Multi-species Complex

16 Hawaiian red snapper 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow (ehu): Main Hawaiian Concern Concern (2.644) Islands Deep 7 Bottomfish Multi-species Complex

BLUESTRIPED SNAPPER - HAWAII/PACIFIC - SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Subscore: 2.644 Discard Rate: 1.00 C2 Rate: 2.644 Inherent Species Vulnerability Abundance Fishing Mortality Subscore Mackerel scad ('opelu) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Rudderfish 2.00:Medium 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Big-eye scad (akule) 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Yellowfin goatfish 3.00:Low 3.00:Moderate 2.33:Moderate Yellow Concern Concern (2.644) Blacktail snapper 3.00:Low 5.00:Very Low 5.00:Very Low Green Concern Concern (5.000)

Bluestriped snapper (taape) and blacktail snapper (toau) are caught in various Hawaii fisheries aimed at other species. Fishers may sometimes target bluestriped snapper because it forms large schools, but they generally do not target blacktail snapper. Data provided by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources on total catches by species and gear type were used to determine the main species assessed in this report {DMR 2015a} {DMR 2015b}.

The main species caught in the net fisheries are big-eye scad, mackerel scad, yellowfin goatfish, and rudderfish. The main species caught in the inshore handline fisheries are big-eye scad, mackerel scad, and soldierfish. All these species have uncertain abundances but only a low to medium vulnerability to fishing.

The deep-set handline fishery primarily targets Hawaiian pink snapper (opakapaka), Hawaiian ruby snapper (onaga), gray snapper (uku), and Hawaiian red snapper (ehu). Hawaiian grouper (hapu'u) was also assessed because it is a species of concern, and the deep-set handline fishery accounts for the majority of this species' mortality. Hawaiian grouper and gray snapper are the lowest scoring species in this fishery because of concern over their abundance.

In the diver fishery, targeting may change during the course of a dive due to species availability, but the most commonly captured species are parrotfish, Hawaiian day octopus, eyestripe surgeonfish, bluespine unicornfish, soldierfish, and spiny lobster. Abundance and fishing levels for most species are uncertain.

17 Criterion 2 Assessment SCORING GUIDELINES Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability (same as Factor 1.1 above)

Factor 2.2 - Abundance (same as Factor 1.2 above)

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality (same as Factor 1.3 above)

EYESTRIPE SURGEONFISH Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Medium FishBase has assigned a medium vulnerability score of 36 out of 100 to eyestripe surgeonfish (Acanthurus dussumieri). Eyestripe surgeonfish is found throughout the Indo-Pacific from the east coast of Africa to Hawaii. It reaches a maximum size of 54 cm and can live up to 28 years. It is a broadcast spawner and low level predator (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed eyestripe surgeonfish as a species of "Least Concern," which means there is no indication of global population declines (Choat et al. 2012c). But a recent length-based analysis of several Hawaii reef fish indicated that eyestripe surgeonfish has a spawning potential ratio of 32%, which suggests that the species is close to being overfished (Nadon et al. 2015). Eyestripe surgeonfish is managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Multi-Species complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The first formal stock assessment for this species is planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score because of the species' uncertain abundance and its medium vulnerability to fishing.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern Eyestripe surgeonfish is heavily fished in commercial fisheries in Hawaii, although catches have declined since the late 1990s. It is also collected as an aquarium fish (Choate et al. 2012). In the diver fishery, this species accounted for around 10% of the total catch from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015a). Fishing mortality rates for eyestripe surgeonfish are unknown because no stock assessment has been conducted for this species, but a

18 stock assessment is scheduled for 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Because of a lack of information, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER < 20% Diver-based spearfishing is extremely selective, because divers can visually identify the type and size of fish before they spear it. Bycatch is likely restricted to speared fish that escape with minor wounds (WPRFMC 2009). The number of fish reported to be released or discarded in the diver fishery from 2003–2014 is quite low (< 1%) relative to the number of fish retained (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b).

SPINY LOBSTER: MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Medium Two spiny lobster species are caught in Hawaii fisheries: red spiny lobster (Panulirus penicillatus) and banded spiny lobster (Panulirus marginatus) (NMFS 2015c). The red spiny lobster is found in the Indo-West Pacific and the East Pacific, while banded spiny lobster is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. In the Galapagos, red spiny lobster is reported to reach sexual maturity at 20–35 cm, and fecundity estimates range from 200,000 to 600,000 eggs/year. Age at maturity and maximum age are not known, but similar lobster species reach maturity at 3–4 years of age and live 10–14 years (Butler et al. 2011). Little is known about the biology of the banded spiny lobster, but inferences from other species suggest a longevity of up to 20 years and an age at maturity of around 4 years (Crokcroft et al. 2011). There is some suggestion of compensatory responses at low population sizes, but more research is needed (DeMartini 2006). These life history characteristics indicate a medium inherent vulnerability to fishing. Rationale: Results from the Seafood Watch fish vulnerability rubric (SFW criteria document, pg. 4). Attribute scores can range from 1 to 3, with higher scores signifying more resilient life history attributes.

Life history characteristic Value Score

Average age at maturity < 5 years 3

Average maximum age 10–25 years 2

Reproductive strategy Brooder 2

Density dependence Uncertain 2

Average score 2.25

Species with average attribute scores between 1.85 and 2.45 are deemed to have a "medium vulnerability."

19 Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern There has been no assessment of spiny lobster in the Main Hawaiian Islands, so their abundance is unknown (NMFS 2016a). The banded spiny lobster has been listed as "Data Deficient" by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Banded spiny lobster were fished heavily in the Northwest Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) and suffered declines in catch rates of over 80%. But the NWHI were closed to fishing in 2000; since then, information on abundance has been lacking (Butler et al. 2011). Red spiny lobster has been assessed as a species of "Least Concern" by the IUCN, although localized depletion may have occurred (Crokcroft et al. 2011). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score because of the lack of abundance information and the medium vulnerability.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern Fishing mortality rates for spiny lobster in Hawaii are unknown. Since the Northwest Hawaiian Islands were closed to fishing for lobster in 2000, the impact on banded spiny lobster has been reduced (Butler et al. 2011). The majority of spiny lobster fishing (97%) now comes from state waters, and the majority are caught by divers (NMFS 2015c). In 2013, 7,740 lbs of banded spiny lobster, 2,369 lbs of red spiny lobster, and 587 lbs of unclassified spiny lobsters were reported caught in Hawaii. This species made up 6% of the total catch in the diver fishery from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015a). The spiny lobster fishery is managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council and the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. Because of a lack of information, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

PARROTFISH (UNSPECIFIED) Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Medium Six parrotfish species are found in the Main Hawaiian Islands: common parrotfish (Scarus psittacus), bullethead parrotfish (Chlorurus spilurus, formerly Chlorurus sordidus), stareye parrotfish (Calotomus carolinus), ember parrotfish (Scarus rubroviolaceus), spectacled parrotfish (Chlorurus perspicillatus), and regal parrotfish (Scarus dubius). The spectacled parrotfish and regal parrotfish are endemic to Hawaii, while the other species are found throughout the Indo-Pacific (Pardee 2014).

20 FishBase has assigned vulnerability scores ranging from low to moderate (16 to 47 out of 100) for these species (Froese and Pauly 2015). The common parrotfish reaches sexual maturity between 11 and 15 cm in size and reaches a maximum length and age of 30 cm and 5 years, respectively. The bullethead parrotfish reaches sexual maturity around 15–20 cm, can attain a maximum length of 40 cm, and lives for 8–10 years. The stareye parrotfish reaches sexual maturity around 20 cm in size, can grow to 54 cm in length, and lives for 3 years. The ember parrotfish reaches sexual maturity at 43 cm, grows to 70 cm, and can live for 20 years or more. The size at sexual maturity is unknown for the regal parrotfish and spectacled parrotfish, but these species can grow to a maximum size of 36 cm and 61 cm, respectively. Parrotfish exhibit protogynous reproduction, meaning they are born female and transition to male during their lifetime. Parrotfish are herbivores and are important grazers of algae on coral reefs (Pardee 2014) (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern According to a 2014 assessment of parrotfish in the Main Hawaiian Islands, there is a 76% probability that abundance is above the target abundance level, which is the biomass at maximum sustainable yield (BMSY). Abundance decreased between 2001 and 2007 but increased from 2007 through 2010 (Pardee 2014). This assessment grouped all Hawaii parrotfish species, so it did not determine the abundance of individual species. A separate length-based analysis of coral reef fish in Hawaii found bullethead parrotfish and common parrotfish to have high spawning potential ratios (the ratio of current spawning biomass relative to an unfished level) of 99% and 77%, respectively, which suggests that these populations are healthy. But the ember parrotfish had a spawning potential ratio slightly below the overfished threshold level (30%), which suggests concern over the abundance of this parrotfish species (Nadon et al. 2015). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score because of the uncertain abundance levels for individual parrotfish species.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern Parrotfish are some of the most commonly targeted reef fish in Hawaiian waters. Lightly fished reefs in the central Pacific can have 50 times more parrotfish biomass than heavily fished reefs (Bellwood et al. 2011). In the Hawaii Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve (no take zone), the population of parrotfish is 10 times higher than in other areas of O'ahu (Howard et al. 2009). Spear fishing, fish trap, seine, and gillnet combined represent 90% of parrotfish catches in Hawaii, with spear fishing accounting for the majority of the catch. From 2003– 2014, parrotfish accounted for 29% of the total diver/spear fishery catch in Hawaii (HDAR 2015a). Catches of parrotfish are generally not separated by species.

Parrotfish are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPFMC) as part of the Coral Reef Multi-Species complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The WPRFMC funded a stock assessment on parrotfish in the Main Hawaiian Islands, which was completed in 2014. According to this assessment, there is more than an 85% probability that overfishing was occurring on parrotfish between 2010 and 2012 (the last years of data) (Pardee 2014). The assessment estimated that the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) for parrotfish is 41,324 lbs. But another assessment estimated a much higher maximum sustainable yield for Hawaii parrotfish of 271,000 lbs (Sabater and Kleiber 2014). The WPRFMC and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) set the 2015 catch limit for parrotfish at 239,000 lbs, based on this second assessment (FR 2015). Currently, the NMFS lists fishing mortality of Hawaii coral reef species, including parrotfish, as unknown (NMFS 2016a). Because of conflicting assessment results, we have awarded a

21 "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAIIAN GRAY SNAPPER (UKU) Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET High FishBase has assigned a high vulnerability to fishing score of 61 out of 100 for Hawaiian gray snapper (Froese and Pauly 2015). Hawaiian gray snapper (Aprion virescens) is a broadcast spawner, reaching sexual maturity between 42 and 50 cm in length and 4 to 5 years in age. It reaches a maximum size of just over 100 cm. The maximum age of gray snapper in the Central Pacific is unknown, but individuals up to 16 years old have been observed in Australia (Heupel et al. 2009). Within the food chain, gray snapper is an important top-level predator (Froese and Pauly 2015). This species forms spawning aggregations and exhibits site fidelity (Meyer et al. 2007), which increases its vulnerability to fishing pressure.

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET High Concern Hawaiian gray snapper (uku) is managed in federal waters by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Non-Deep 7 Hawaii Bottomfish complex, which includes various shallow water groupers, snappers, and jacks. In state waters, it is managed by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The entire Hawaii Bottomfish complex (Deep 7 and Non-Deep 7) was assessed as a unit in 2007. At that time, bottomfish abundance in the Main Hawaiian Islands was estimated to be at 62% of the target abundance level, the biomass at maximum sustainable level (BMSY). Abundance was below the limit abundance reference point (70% of BMSY), so the bottomfish complex was considered overfished (Brodziak et al. 2009). An updated assessment of the Deep 7 bottomfish in 2011 indicated that this subset of species is no longer overfished (Brodziak et al. 2011). But the current status of the Non-Deep 7 bottomfish species remains unclear because no additional assessment has been conducted for these species (NMFS 2016a). A recent length-based analysis of several Hawaii fishes indicated that gray snapper has a low spawning potential ratio of 23% (the ratio of current spawning biomass relative to an unfished level), which suggests that this species is potentially overfished (Nadon et al. 2015).

Because gray snapper has a high vulnerability to fishing and there is some suggestion it could be overfished, we have awarded a "high" concern score.

22 Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderate Concern Fishing mortality rates for Hawaiian gray snapper are not known (NMFS 2016a). An assessment of the Hawaiian bottomfish unit in 2007 indicated that fishing levels in the Main Hawaiian Islands were above sustainable levels at the time, which indicated that overfishing was occurring (Brodziak et al. 2009). A more recent assessment of only the Deep 7 species in 2011 indicated that fishing levels were below sustainable levels for this subset of species (Brodziak et al. 2011). But current fishing levels on non-Deep 7 species are uncertain because no additional assessment of these species has been conducted.

Gray snapper accounted for 17% of the total deep-set handline catch from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015b). Because fishing levels on gray snapper are unknown, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET < 20% The deep-set handline fishery that targets bottomfish species likely has low bycatch and discards. In the Main Hawaiian Islands fishery, most of the catch is thought to be retained and utilized. When discards do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit, toxicity concerns, low market value, or damage by predators (WPRFMC 2009). Fisher-reported catch data for the deep-set handline fisheries in the Main Hawaiian Islands indicate a quite low discard rate of < 5% of the total retained catch from 2002–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b) (HDAR 2013b). It should noted that fishers may under-report bycatch/discards. Prior to the closure of the bottomfish fishery in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, bycatch was recorded through self- reported fishers' logbook data and onboard scientific observer data. Logbook data indicated a discard rate (discarded catch/retained catch) of around 14%, while the observer data indicated a higher discard rate of 34% (WPRFMC 2009). Although discards may be under-reported, it is still likely that discards are < 20% of the retained catch in the Main Hawaiian Island fishery.

MACKEREL SCAD ('OPELU) Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Low FishBase assigned a low vulnerability to fishing score of 23 out of 100 for mackerel scad (Froese and Pauly 2015). Mackerel scad (Decapterus macarellus) is a small schooling fish found in tropical waters around the globe. It reaches sexual maturity around 18 months old and 24–26 cm in length. It is a broadcast spawner that produces around 136,000 eggs per spawn (Clark and Privitera 1995). It can live 4–5 years and grow to a length of 33–39 cm (Weng and Sibert 2000). Mackerel scad is an intermediate species within the food web. It feeds on fish larvae and small crustaceans (McNaughton 2008) (Froese and Pauly 2015).

23 Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderate Concern A population assessment for Hawaii mackerel scad was conducted in 2000. The assessment utilized fisheries' catch rate data (catches per unit of fishing effort) to estimate abundance. According to the assessment, abundance trends for mackerel scad from 1966–1997 showed a fairly stable trend over time, with peaks occurring during the late 1970s and early 1980s (Weng and Sibert 2000). At the time, abundance was estimated to be above the biomass at maximum sustainable yield (BMSY ), the target abundance level (Weng and Sibert 2000). But fisheries catch rate data do not always provide a reliable indicator of abundance because catch rates are influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions and the efficiency of the fishing gear. This assessment was never formally reviewed by the National Marine Fisheries Service, but was considered data-limited (NMFS 2014). No further assessments of mackerel scad have been conducted. The National Marine Fisheries Service considers the current abundance of mackerel scad to be unknown (NMFS 2016a). Because current abundance is unknown and this species has a low vulnerability to fishing, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderate Concern Hawaii mackerel scad was last assessed in 2000. The assessment suggested that fishing levels had been light to moderate and at the time were below the maximum sustainable catch/yield (Weng and Sibert 2000). But the assessment was considered data-limited, and now it is outdated (NMFS 2014). Currently, fishing mortality on mackerel scad is unknown (NMFS 2016a). Mackerel scad is managed by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources in state waters and by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council in federal waters. Recent commercial catches are at less than peak levels and have been below the established catch limit. Mackerel scad accounted for around 50% of the total catch in the handline fishery and 32% of the catch in the net fishery from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE < 20% Nearly all fish caught in the reef fish fisheries are retained and utilized, so discards are minimal. When discards do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit or toxicity concerns (WPRFMC 2009). The number of fish reported to be released or discarded in the inshore handline fisheries from 2003– 2014 is < 1% of the total retained catch (HDAR 2014) (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). Globally, handline fisheries have discard rates ranging from 0%–7% (Kelleher 2005).

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) < 20% Nearly all fish caught in the reef fish fisheries are retained and eaten, so discards are minimal. When discards

24 do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit or toxicity concerns (WPRFMC 2009). In the net fisheries, fishers attend to the gear at all times, which helps minimize discard mortalities (WPRFMC 2009). In the targeted mackerel scad net fishery, discards are reported to be < 1% of the retained catch. In the targeted bigeye scad net fishery, discard rates have ranged from 1% to 23% since 2010; the majority of the discards were bigeye scad (likely undersized fish) (HDAR 2014). For the net fisheries overall, the number of fish reported to be released or discarded between 2003 and 2014 is quite low (< 3%) relative to the number of fish retained (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have therefore awarded a discard rate score of < 20%.

RUDDERFISH Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Medium Several species of rudderfish or "nenue" are caught in Hawaiian fisheries: brown chub (Kyphosus bigibbus), blue sea chub (Kyphosus cinerascens), and brassy chub (Kyphosus vaigiensis). FishBase assigned a medium to high vulnerability score ranging from 38 to 56 out of 100 for these species (Froese and Pauly 2015). Brown and brassy chub reach a maximum size of 70 cm, and blue sea chub reaches a maximum size of 50 cm. Brassy chub reaches maturity at 39 cm. All species are broadcast spawners and low level predators (Froese and Pauly 2015). Because FishBase assigned most species medium vulnerability scores, a medium score was awarded.

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderate Concern No stock assessment has been conducted for rudderfish in Hawaii. Brown, brassy, and blue sea chub have been assessed as species of "Least Concern" by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (Knudsen 2015a) (Knudsen 2015b) (Carpenter et al. 2015). Because of the unknown abundance in Hawaii and medium vulnerability to fishing, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderate Concern Fishing mortality rates for rudderfish in Hawaii are currently unknown. Rudderfish were reported to make up 5% of the total catch in the net fisheries from 2003-2014 (HDAR 2015a)(HDAR 2015b). These species are managed by the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Multi- Species complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (WPRFMC 2009)(FR 2015). We have awarded a moderate concern score based on the lack of information.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) < 20%

25 Nearly all fish caught in the reef fish fisheries are retained and eaten, so discards are minimal. When discards do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit or toxicity concerns (WPRFMC 2009). In the net fisheries, fishers attend to the gear at all times, which helps minimize discard mortalities (WPRFMC 2009). In the targeted mackerel scad net fishery, discards are reported to be < 1% of the retained catch. In the targeted bigeye scad net fishery, discard rates have ranged from 1% to 23% since 2010; the majority of the discards were bigeye scad (likely undersized fish) (HDAR 2014). For the net fisheries overall, the number of fish reported to be released or discarded between 2003 and 2014 is quite low (< 3%) relative to the number of fish retained (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have therefore awarded a discard rate score of < 20%.

BIG-EYE SCAD (AKULE) Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Low FishBase assigned a low vulnerability to fishing score of 26 out of 100 to big-eye scad (Froese and Pauly 2015). Big-eye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus) is a small schooling fish found in tropical waters around the globe. It reaches sexual maturity at 7 months old and 20 cm in length. It lives to only 2 years old and grows to a maximum length of 70 cm. Big-eye scad is a broadcast spawner, producing around 92,000 eggs per spawn. Adults feed on juvenile fish and larvae, and juveniles feed on crustaceans (Clark and Privitera 1995) (Roux and Conand 2000) (Weng and Sibert 2000) (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Moderate Concern A population assessment for Hawaii big-eye scad was conducted in 2000. The assessment utilized fisheries' catch rate data (catches per unit of fishing effort) to estimate abundance. The assessment indicated that abundance of big-eye scad varied over the assessment period (1966–1997), with peaks in abundance occurring in the late 1970s and low abundance occurring in the late 1980s. At the time of the assessment, abundance was estimated to be above the biomass at maximum sustainable yield (BMSY), the target abundance level. But fisheries' catch rate data do not always provide a reliable indicator of abundance, because catch rates are influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions and the efficiency of the fishing gear. The assessment did note that big-eye scad has high site fidelity, and this could lead to localized depletion in abundance (Weng and Sibert 2000). This assessment was never formally reviewed by the National Marine Fisheries Service, but was considered data-limited (NMFS 2014). No further assessments of big-eye scad have been conducted. The National Marine Fisheries Service considers the current abundance of big-eye scad to be unknown (NMFS 2016a). Because current abundance is unknown and this species has a low vulnerability to fishing, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Moderate Concern

26 Hawaii big-eye scad was last assessed in 2000. The assessment suggested that fishing levels have been light to moderate and at that time were below the maximum sustainable catch/yield (Weng and Sibert 2000). But the assessment was data-limited and is outdated (NMFS 2014). Currently, fishing mortality on big-eye scad is considered unknown (NMFS 2016a). Big-eye scad is managed by the Hawaii Department of Aquatic Resources (HDAR) in state waters and by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council in federal waters. Recent commercial catches are less than peak levels and have been below the established catch limit. Big- eye scad accounted for around 30% of the total catch in both the handline and net fisheries from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) < 20% Nearly all fish caught in the reef fish fisheries are retained and eaten, so discards are minimal. When discards do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit or toxicity concerns (WPRFMC 2009). In the net fisheries, fishers attend to the gear at all times, which helps minimize discard mortalities (WPRFMC 2009). In the targeted mackerel scad net fishery, discards are reported to be < 1% of the retained catch. In the targeted bigeye scad net fishery, discard rates have ranged from 1% to 23% since 2010; the majority of the discards were bigeye scad (likely undersized fish) (HDAR 2014). For the net fisheries overall, the number of fish reported to be released or discarded between 2003 and 2014 is quite low (< 3%) relative to the number of fish retained (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have therefore awarded a discard rate score of < 20%.

BLUESPINE UNICORNFISH Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Medium Several species of unicornfish (kala) may be caught in the Hawaii diver fishery, including bluespine unicornfish (Naso unicornis), whitemargin unicornfish (Naso annulatus), spotted unicornfish (Naso brevirostris), orangespine unicornfish (Naso lituratus), and blacktongue unicornfish (Naso hexacanthus). FishBase has assigned low to moderate vulnerability scores (32 to 45) for these species (Froese and Pauly 2015). These species are found throughout the Indo-Pacific. Unicornfish are small fish (< 100 cm) that are low on the food chain, broadcast spawners, and may live to 25 or more years of age (McIlwain et al. 2012a) (Choat et al. 2012a) (Choat et al. 2012b) (DeMartini 2014) (Froese and Pauly 2015).

27 Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern Bluespine, orangespine, blacktongue, whitemargin, and spotted unicornfish are widespread and have all been assessed as species of "Least Concern" by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (Abesamis et al. 2012) (Choat et al. 2012) (Choat et al. 2012b) (McIlwain et al. 2012a)(McIlwain et al. 2012b). But a recent length-based analysis of several Hawaii fish indicated that bluespine unicornfish and blacktongue unicornfish have low spawning potential ratios (the ratio of current spawning biomass relative to an unfished level) of 8% and 23%, respectively, which suggests that these species are potentially overfished (Nadon et al. 2015). The orangespine unicornfish had a spawning potential ratio near the overfished threshold of 30%, while spotted unicornfish had a spawning potential ratio of 45%, which suggests a relatively healthy population (Nadon et al. 2015). Unicornfish are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Multi-Species complex. The first formal stock assessment for several of these species is planned for 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Because of the limited and conflicting abundance information, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern Unicornfish are caught in Hawaiian commercial fisheries and for the aquarium trade in western Hawaii (McIlwain et al. 2012a) (McIlwain et al. 2012b). Catches of bluespine unicornfish, one of the most commonly caught unicornfish species in Hawaii, have averaged 17,000 lb/year (McIlwain et al. 2012a). Unicornfish make up approximately 7% of the catch in the diver fishery (HDAR 2015a). Fishing mortality rates are currently unknown because no stock assessments have been conducted for these species, but stock assessments are planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Because of a lack of information, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

YELLOWFIN GOATFISH Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Low Yellowfin goatfish has been assigned a low vulnerability score of 23 out of 100 by FishBase. Yellowfin goatfish (Mulloidichthys vanicolensis) is found throughout the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to the Hawaiian Islands. It reaches sexual maturity around 24 cm in length and reaches a maximum length of 38 cm. It is a broadcast

28 spawner and moderate level predator (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderate Concern A recent length-based analysis of several Hawaii reef fish indicated that yellowfin goatfish has a high spawning potential ratio of 99% (the ratio of current spawning biomass relative to an unfished level), which suggests that the species is at a healthy abundance (Nadon et al. 2015). Yellowtail goatfish is managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Multi-Species complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The first formal stock assessment for this species is planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Because of the limited information and low vulnerability, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderate Concern Fishing mortality rates for yellowfin goafish are unknown. It is caught in the Hawaii net fishery and made up 7% of the total catch from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAIIAN GROUPER (HAPU'U) Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET High FishBase has assigned a high inherent vulnerability to fishing score of 70 out of 100 to Hawaiian grouper (Froese and Pauly 2015). Hawaiian grouper (Hyporthodus quernus) is a deepwater grouper species endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. It is born as a female and then changes sex to male later in life. It sexually matures as a female at around 58 cm (23 in) in length and 6–7 years of age (Nichols and DeMartini 2008), but does

29 not change sex from female to male until around 89.5 cm (35 in) in length and 20 years of age (DeMartini et al. 2011). It is a broadcast spawner, and females are capable of producing a high number of eggs (Brodziak et al. 2011). Hawaiian grouper can grow to 1.2 m (3.9 ft) in length, and it has a maximum observed age of 34 years (Nicholas and DeMartini 2008). Within the food chain, Hawaiian grouper is a high level predator (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET High Concern The Hawaiian grouper is managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Deep 7 bottomfish complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The Deep 7 bottom species are all assessed together as a unit, and the most recent accepted population assessment was in 2011. According to this assessment, the abundance of the Deep 7 bottomfish was high during the 1960s and 1970s, but declined to values lower than the abundance needed to produce the maximum sustainable catch or yield by the mid-1990s and has remained stable at this lower abundance level since. Abundance was estimated between 60% and 97% of the abundance/biomass needed to produce the maximum sustainable yield (BMSY). It was determined that the abundance of the Deep 7 bottomfish was most likely more than 70% of BMSY (the overfished threshold level), so it was concluded that the Deep 7 bottomfish complex is not overfished/depleted (Brodziak et al. 2011). But the abundances of individual species within the Deep 7 complex are not known.

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) lists Hawaiian grouper, which is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, as "Near Threatened" (Cornish 2004).

Because the individual abundance of Hawaiian grouper relative to abundance targets is not known, we have awarded a "high" concern score based on the IUCN listing and the species’ high vulnerability to fishing.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderate Concern The 2011 assessment indicated that the majority of fishing mortality estimates for the Hawaiian Deep 7 bottomfish complex were below sustainable levels or the fishing mortality rate resulting in maximum sustainable yield (Brodziak et al. 2011). This suggests that overfishing is not occurring on the complex (NMFS 2016a), but fishing impacts on individual species are not known. Between 2003 and 2014, Hawaiian grouper accounted for only 2% of the deep-set handline catch (HDAR 2015b), but this fishery accounts for nearly all the fishing mortality on this species. Because current fishing impacts on the Hawaiian grouper are uncertain, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

30 predators (WPRFMC 2009). Fisher-reported catch data for the deep-set handline fisheries in the Main Hawaiian Islands indicate a quite low discard rate of < 5% of the total retained catch from 2002–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b) (HDAR 2013b). It should noted that fishers may under-report bycatch/discards. Prior to the closure of the bottomfish fishery in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, bycatch was recorded through self- reported fishers' logbook data and onboard scientific observer data. Logbook data indicated a discard rate (discarded catch/retained catch) of around 14%, while the observer data indicated a higher discard rate of 34% (WPRFMC 2009). Although discards may be under-reported, it is still likely that discards are < 20% of the retained catch in the Main Hawaiian Island fishery.

SOLDIERFISH (UNSPECIFIED) Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Low Several species of soldierfish are caught in Hawaiian fisheries, with the most common species being the bigscale soldierfish (Myripristis berndti) (WPRFMC 2009). FishBase has assigned a low vulnerability score of 23 out of 100 to bigscale soldierfish. This species reaches sexual maturity around 30 cm in size. It is a broadcast spawner and high-level predator within the food chain (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Moderate Concern A recent length-based analysis of several Hawaii fish indicated that bigscale soldierfish has a spawning potential ratio (the ratio of current spawning biomass relative to an unfished level) of 69%, which suggests that the species is at a healthy abundance (Nadon et al. 2015). Bigscale soldierfish is managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Multi-Species complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The first formal stock assessment for this species is planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Because of the limited information and low vulnerability, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE Moderate Concern Fishing mortality rates for bigscale and other soldierfish are unknown in Hawaiian waters. They are caught in several Hawaii fisheries, and made up 7% of the total catch in both the handline and diver fisheries from 2003–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). We have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER

31 < 20% Diver-based spearfishing is extremely selective, because divers can visually identify the type and size of fish before they spear it. Bycatch is likely restricted to speared fish that escape with minor wounds (WPRFMC 2009). The number of fish reported to be released or discarded in the diver fishery from 2003–2014 is quite low (< 1%) relative to the number of fish retained (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b).

DAY OCTOPUS Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Low The day octopus (Octopus cyanea) is found throughout the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to Hawaii. Day octopus lives just over 1 year and matures at around 0.5 years and between 0.35 and 0.52 kg (Herwig et al. 2012). It is a demersal egg layer and produces between 100,000 and 400,000 eggs per spawn (Boyle and Rodhouse 2005). It is not known to exhibit density dependence. These life history characteristics suggest that day octopus has a low inherent vulnerability to fishing (see Detailed Rationale below). Rationale: Results from the Seafood Watch fish vulnerability rubric (SFW criteria document, pg. 4). Attribute scores can range from 1 to 3, with higher scores signifying more resilient life history attributes.

Life history trait Parameter Score

Average age at maturity < 5 years 3

Average maximum age < 10 years 3

Reproductive strategy Broadcast 3

Density dependence No 2

Average score 2.75

Species with average attribute scores > 2.46 are deemed to have a low vulnerability.

32 Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern There is no stock assessment for the Hawaii day octopus, so its abundance is unknown. But based on the day octopus' life history, namely its short life span, early age at maturity, and high fecundity, it is likely that this species is highly productive and can support high exploitation rates. Abundance is therefore rated as "moderate" concern.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, DIVER Moderate Concern A stock assessment is lacking for Hawaiian day octopus, so fishing mortality rates are unknown. Catches have increased over time in the commercial fishery, which suggests that there is increasing pressure on the resource (DeMello 2004) (HDAR 2013a). Most of the octopus catch is taken by divers using spears. From 2003–2014, day octopus made up 17% of the catch in the diver fishery (HDAR 2015a). There is also a large recreational octopus fishery, which may be a larger contributor to fishing mortality than the commercial fishery in certain areas (Smith 1993) (Max 2014). The octopus fishery is managed by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. Because of a lack of information, fishing mortality is scored as "moderate" concern.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

33 Criterion 3: Management Effectiveness Management is separated into management of retained species (harvest strategy) and management of non- retained species (bycatch strategy).

The final score for this criterion is the geometric mean of the two scores. The Criterion 3 rating is determined as follows:

Score >3.2=Green or Low Concern Score >2.2 and ≤3.2=Yellow or Moderate Concern Score ≤2.2 or either the Harvest Strategy (Factor 3.1) or Bycatch Management Strategy (Factor 3.2) is Very High Concern = Red or High Concern

Rating is Critical if either or both of Harvest Strategy (Factor 3.1) and Bycatch Management Strategy (Factor 3.2) ratings are Critical.

Criterion 3 Summary Region / Method Harvest Strategy Bycatch Strategy Score Hawaii / Pacific / Handline 3.000 4.000 Green (3.464) Hawaii / Pacific / Diver 3.000 4.000 Green (3.464) Hawaii / Pacific / Surrounding nets (nei) 3.000 4.000 Green (3.464) Hawaii / Pacific / Handline, deep set 3.000 4.000 Green (3.464)

Criterion 3 Assessment SCORING GUIDELINES Factor 3.1: Harvest Strategy Seven subfactors are evaluated: Management Strategy, Recovery of Species of Concern, Scientific Research/Monitoring, Following of Scientific Advice, Enforcement of Regulations, Management Track Record, and Inclusion of Stakeholders. Each is rated as ‘ineffective,’ ‘moderately effective,’ or ‘highly effective.’

5 (Very Low Concern)—Rated as ‘highly effective’ for all seven subfactors considered 4 (Low Concern)—Management Strategy and Recovery of Species of Concern rated ‘highly effective’ and all other subfactors rated at least ‘moderately effective.’ 3 (Moderate Concern)—All subfactors rated at least ‘moderately effective.’ 2 (High Concern)—At minimum, meets standards for ‘moderately effective’ for Management Strategy and Recovery of Species of Concern, but at least one other subfactor rated ‘ineffective.’ 1 (Very High Concern)—Management exists, but Management Strategy and/or Recovery of Species of Concern rated ‘ineffective.’ 0 (Critical)—No management exists when there is a clear need for management (i.e., fishery catches threatened, endangered, or high concern species), OR there is a high level of Illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing occurring.

34 Factor 3.1 Summary

FACTOR 3.1: MANAGEMENT OF FISHING IMPACTS ON RETAINED SPECIES Region / Method Strategy Recovery Research Advice Enforce Track Inclusion

Hawaii / Pacific / Moderately N/A Moderately Moderately Moderately Moderately Highly Handline Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective Hawaii / Pacific / Moderately N/A Moderately Moderately Moderately Moderately Highly Diver Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective Hawaii / Pacific / Moderately N/A Moderately Moderately Moderately Moderately Highly Surrounding nets Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective (nei) Hawaii / Pacific / Moderately N/A Moderately Highly Moderately Moderately Highly Handline, deep set Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective Effective

Subfactor 3.1.1 – Management Strategy and Implementation Considerations: What type of management measures are in place? Are there appropriate management goals, and is there evidence that management goals are being met? To achieve a highly effective rating, there must be appropriate management goals, and evidence that the measures in place have been successful at maintaining/rebuilding species.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderately Effective Bluestriped snapper and blacktail snapper are non-native to the Hawaiian Islands. Both species were introduced to Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. Since their introduction, they have not become popular food fishes, and now there are concerns that they threaten native Hawaiian species (Gaither et al. 2012); however, to date, there is no evidence of strong negative ecological effects (Parrish et al. 2000) (Schumacher 2011).

In federal waters, bluestriped and blacktail snappers are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) under the Hawaii Ecosystem Plan (WPRFMC 2009). In state waters, management of these species falls under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (HDAR). Both bluestriped and blacktail snapper are being managed under the Coral Reef Ecosystem Fisheries aggregate snapper annual catch limit (ACL). The current Coral Reef Ecosystem snapper catch limit is 330,300 lbs (FR 2015a). Bluestriped snapper is technically part of the Hawaii Bottomfish Management Unit, but because it is not considered a primary species in the bottomfish fishery and is more frequently caught in coral reef fisheries, for ACL purposes it is managed under the Coral Reef Ecosystem Fisheries (NMFS 2015a) (NMFS 2015b). There are no other specific management measures in place for bluestriped or blacktail snappers. There is also no known plan in place to reduce or control the spread of these non-native species.

Commercial fishers in Hawaii may sometimes target bluestriped snapper, but both bluestriped and blacktail snapper are largely caught in fisheries that target other species, so management of the primary target species will be discussed for each fishery. In the inshore handline and net fisheries, the main target species include mackerel scad, bigeye scad, soldierfish (handline), yellowfin goatfish (net), and rudderfish (net). All these species are also managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Fisheries, and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. Most fishing for coral reef species occurs in state waters, but some coral reef species are fished in federal waters, too. Annual

35 catch limits, based on the estimated maximum sustainable yield (MSY), are in place for both bigeye scad and mackerel scad (NMFS 2015a) (FR 2015a), but there have been no recent assessments of mackerel scad and bigeye scad, and no target abundance goals have been established. (For additional information, see the bigeye scad and mackerel scad seafood assessments.) Aggregate annual catch limits are in place for goatfish, rudderfish, and soldierfish/squirrelfish, but target conservation goals have not been defined for these species. Other general regulations in place for the Coral Reef Fisheries include permit requirements, gear restrictions, and size limits for some species (NMFS 2015a) (HDAR 2016a) (HDAR 2016d). Additionally, fishing is prohibited within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in accordance with the Presidential Proclamation establishing the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (President Proclamation 8031: FR Doc E9- 7860 2006), and in several areas throughout state waters (HDAR 2016c).

Overall, management effectiveness is largely uncertain because of the lack of information on the status of the main species targeted in these fisheries. Additionally, no specific plan is in place to prevent the further spread of bluestriped and blacktail snappers. A "moderately effective" score is awarded.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER Moderately Effective Bluestriped snapper and blacktail snapper are non-native to the Hawaiian Islands. Both species were introduced to Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. Since their introduction, they have not become popular food fishes, and now there are concerns that they threaten native Hawaiian species (Gaither et al. 2012); however, to date, there is no evidence of strong negative ecological effects (Parrish et al. 2000) (Schumacher 2011).

Both snapper species are caught in fisheries that target other species, so management of the primary target species will be discussed for each fishery. The diver fishery primarily targets parrotfish, day octopus, surgeonfish, soldierfish, unicornfish, and spiny lobster. All these species are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) and/or the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (HDAR). Most fishing occurs in state waters, but some species are fished in federal waters, too. Parrotfish, surgeonfish, soldierfish, and unicornfish are all managed as part of the Coral Reef Ecosystem Fisheries complex, and aggregate annual catch limits are in place for these species groups (NMFS 2015a) (FR 2015a). But target conservation goals have not been defined. Other general regulations in place for the Coral Reef Fisheries include permit requirements, gear restrictions, and size limits for some species (NMFS 2015a) (HDAR 2016a) (HDAR 2016d). Spiny lobsters are also managed under an annual catch limit by the WPRFMC, and several regulations are in place in state waters, including a closed fishing season, a prohibition on taking females, and a minimum size limit (HDAR 2016e). For day octopus, the only restriction in place is a minimum size limit (HDAR 2016e). All fishing is prohibited within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in accordance with the Presidential Proclamation establishing the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (President Proclamation 8031: FR Doc E9-7860 2006), and in several areas throughout state waters (HDAR 2016c).

36 Overall, management effectiveness is largely uncertain because of the lack of information on the status of the main species targeted in this fishery. Additionally, no specific plan is in place to prevent the further spread of bluestriped and blacktail snappers. A "moderately effective" score is awarded.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderately Effective Bluestriped snapper and blacktail snapper are non-native to the Hawaiian Islands. Both species were introduced to Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. Since their introduction, they have not become popular food fishes, and now there are concerns that they threaten native Hawaiian species (Gaither et al. 2012); however, to date, there is no evidence of strong negative ecological effects (Parrish et al. 2000) (Schumacher 2011).

In federal waters, bluestriped and blacktail snappers are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (WPRFMC) under the Hawaii Ecosystem Plan (WPRFMC 2009). In state waters, management of these species falls under the jurisdiction of the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources (HDAR). Both bluestriped and blacktail snapper are being managed under the Coral Reef Ecosystem Fisheries aggregate snapper annual catch limit (ACL). The current Coral Reef Ecosystem snapper catch limit is 330,300 lbs (FR 2015a). Bluestriped snapper is technically part of the Hawaii Bottomfish Management Unit, but because it is not considered a primary species in the bottomfish fishery and is more frequently caught in coral reef fisheries, for ACL purposes it is managed under the Coral Reef Ecosystem Fisheries (NMFS 2015a) (NMFS 2015b). There are no other specific management measures in place for bluestriped or blacktailed snappers. There is also no known plan in place to reduce or control the spread of these non-native species.

Both snapper species are caught in fisheries that target other species, so management of the primary target species will be discussed for each fishery. In the deep-set handline fishery, which occurs in both federal and state waters, the main target species are Hawaiian pink snapper (opakapaka), Hawaiian red snapper (ehu), Hawaiian ruby snapper (onaga), and gray snapper (uku). Pink, red, and ruby snappers are managed by the Western Pacific Fishery Management Council and Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources as part of the Deep 7 Bottomfish Complex, while gray snapper is part of the non-Deep 7 Bottomfish Complex. Aggregate annual catch limits are in place for the Deep 7 Bottomfish Complex and the Non-Deep 7 Bottomfish Complex (FR 2015a) (FR 2015b), but target conservation goals for individual species have not been determined. Additional regulations in place include gear restrictions, closed fishing areas, and size limits (WPRFMC 2009) (NMFS 2015b) (HDAR 2016a) (HDAR 2016c). Fishing is prohibited within the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands in accordance with the Presidential Proclamation establishing the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (President Proclamation 8031: FR Doc E9-7860 2006).

Overall, management effectiveness is largely uncertain because of the lack of information on the status of the main species targeted in this fishery. Additionally, no specific plan is in place to prevent the further spread of bluestriped and blacktail snappers. A "moderately effective" score is awarded.

Subfactor 3.1.2 – Recovery of Species of Concern Considerations: When needed, are recovery strategies/management measures in place to rebuild overfished/threatened/ endangered species or to limit fishery’s impact on these species and what is their likelihood of success? To achieve a rating of Highly Effective, rebuilding strategies that have a high likelihood of success in an appropriate timeframe must be in place when needed, as well as measures to minimize mortality for any overfished/threatened/endangered species.

37 HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI)

N/A No overfished, threatened, or endangered species are targeted in these fisheries.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET N/A None of the bottomfish species targeted in this fishery is currently considered overfished/depleted, so a recovery plan is not needed (Brodziak et al. 2011) (NMFS 2016a).

It should be noted that Hawaiian grouper, one of the Deep 7 species caught in this fishery, was assessed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 2004 and designated as "Near Threatened." Additionally, there is some recent evidence that gray snapper could be overfished (Nadon et al. 2015). When it was previously deemed that overfishing was occurring on the bottomfish complex, emergency management measures were put into place to stop overfishing (WPRFMC 2009).

Subfactor 3.1.3 – Scientific Research and Monitoring Considerations: How much and what types of data are collected to evaluate the health of the population and the fishery’s impact on the species? To achieve a Highly Effective rating, population assessments must be conducted regularly and they must be robust enough to reliably determine the population status.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderately Effective No population assessments have been conducted on blacktail or bluestriped snapper, but assessments for these species (as well as several other coral reef species, including soldierfish and yellowfin goatfish) are planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b). The last assessment on mackerel scad and bigeye scad was conducted in 2000, and included fishery-dependent catch and effort data (Weng and Sibert 2000). The National Marine Fisheries Service never reviewed this assessment, but the assessment was considered data-limited (NMFS 2014). Information on catch and effort for Hawaii fisheries is provided by fishers through the mandatory commercial fishing reporting system (HDAR 2016b). Overall, research and monitoring is considered "moderately effective."

HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER Moderately Effective No population assessments have been conducted on blacktail or bluestriped snapper, but assessments for these species (as well as several other coral reef species caught in the diver fisheries) are planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b). Parrotfish were recently assessed in 2014 (Pardee 2014) (Sabater and Kleiber 2014). Information on catch and effort for Hawaii fisheries is provided by fishers through the mandatory commercial fishing reporting system (HDAR 2016b). Overall, research and monitoring is considered "moderately effective."

38 HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderately Effective No population assessments have been conducted on blacktail or bluestriped snapper, but assessments for these species are planned for late 2016 (NMFS 2016b).

Other species caught in this fishery have been assessed through bottomfish assessments. The last accepted assessment of the Deep 7 Bottomfish complex (which includes Hawaiian grouper, pink snapper, red snapper, and ruby snapper) was in 2011. The Deep 7 bottomfish are assessed as a unit, so the abundance of individual species is not estimated. The assessment utilizes fishing catch and effort data to provide an index of abundance for the Deep 7 bottomfish complex (Brodziak et al. 2011). Reporting of data occurs through the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources through the bottomfish trip reports. But there are concerns about under- reporting of Deep 7 species catches (Brodziak et al. 2011). It has been noted that the development of a fishery-independent scientific survey of the bottomfish species would enhance the accuracy of assessments. Recently, the NOAA Pacific Island Fisheries Science Center launched an independent survey to count and measure the Deep 7 bottomfish by working with local fishers and using new video technology (NOAA 2016). Gray snapper has never been assessed independently. The most recent stock assessment that included gray snapper was a 2008 assessment for the combined Deep 7 and Non-Deep 7 bottomfish (Brodziak et al. 2009).

Overall, research and monitoring is considered "moderately effective."

Subfactor 3.1.4 – Management Record of Following Scientific Advice Considerations: How often (always, sometimes, rarely) do managers of the fishery follow scientific recommendations/advice (e.g. do they set catch limits at recommended levels)? A Highly Effective rating is given if managers nearly always follow scientific advice.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderately Effective There has been limited scientific advice provided about the management of the species caught in the inshore handline, net, and diver/spear fisheries, so it is difficult to determine whether scientific advice is followed. There is a federal mandate in place requiring the use of scientific advice and monitoring to determine federal annual catch limits for these species (FR 2015a) (NMFS 2015a) (NMFS 2015c). But most fishing for these species occurs in Hawaii state waters. We have awarded a "moderately effective" score.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Highly Effective There is a federal mandate in place requiring the use of scientific advice and monitoring to determine annual catch limits for all federally managed species. Scientific advice has been followed when setting catch limits for the primary target species in the deep-set handline fishery (FR 2015a) (FR 2015b) (NMFS 2015b) (WPFMC 2015). We have therefore awarded a "highly effective" score.

39 Subfactor 3.1.5 – Enforcement of Management Regulations

Considerations: Do fishermen comply with regulations, and how is this monitored? To achieve a Highly Effective rating, there must be regular enforcement of regulations and verification of compliance.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderately Effective Commercial fishers are required to submit monthly catch reports, including information on fishing effort, to the Division of Aquatic Resources, which is used to determine if annual catch limits are exceeded for relevant species (HDAR 2016b). There is a Division of Conservation and Resource Enforcement within the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources that is responsible for enforcement of state laws (DLNR 2014a). In federal waters, the National Marine Fisheries Service Office of Law Enforcement handles enforcement issues (WPRFMC 2009). There is concern that under-reporting of catches occurs (Zeller et al. 2007). We have therefore awarded only a "moderately effective" score.

Subfactor 3.1.6 – Management Track Record Considerations: Does management have a history of successfully maintaining populations at sustainable levels or a history of failing to maintain populations at sustainable levels? A Highly Effective rating is given if measures enacted by management have been shown to result in the long-term maintenance of species overtime.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderately Effective The management track record is considered uncertain because the statuses of most species caught in these fisheries are unknown. Also, although there is currently no management plan in place to stop the spread of the non-native blacktail and bluestriped snappers (DLNR 2016) (Gaither et al. 2012) (Gaither et al. 2013), managers are not currently stocking or intentionally allowing further growth of this species (WPFMC 2016). A "moderately effective" score is awarded.

Subfactor 3.1.7 – Stakeholder Inclusion Considerations: Are stakeholders involved/included in the decision-making process? Stakeholders are individuals/groups/organizations that have an interest in the fishery or that may be affected by the management of the fishery (e.g., fishermen, conservation groups, etc.). A Highly Effective rating is given if the management process is transparent and includes stakeholder input.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Highly Effective There is stakeholder input in Hawaii state and federal fisheries management. The public is given time to

40 comment on proposed management measures, and meetings held by the federal management council and state management agency are open to the public (WPRFMC 2011). We have therefore awarded a "highly effective" score.

Factor 3.2: Bycatch Strategy SCORING GUIDELINES Four subfactors are evaluated: Management Strategy and Implementation, Scientific Research and Monitoring, Record of Following Scientific Advice, and Enforcement of Regulations. Each is rated as ‘ineffective,’ ‘moderately effective,’ or ‘highly effective.’ Unless reason exists to rate Scientific Research and Monitoring, Record of Following Scientific Advice, and Enforcement of Regulations differently, these rating are the same as in 3.1.

5 (Very Low Concern)—Rated as ‘highly effective’ for all four subfactors considered 4 (Low Concern)—Management Strategy rated ‘highly effective’ and all other subfactors rated at least ‘moderately effective.’ 3 (Moderate Concern)—All subfactors rated at least ‘moderately effective.’ 2 (High Concern)—At minimum, meets standards for ‘moderately effective’ for Management Strategy but some other factors rated ‘ineffective.’ 1 (Very High Concern)—Management exists, but Management Strategy rated ‘ineffective.’ 0 (Critical)—No bycatch management even when overfished, depleted, endangered or threatened species are known to be regular components of bycatch and are substatntially impacted by the fishery

FACTOR 3.2: BYCATCH STRATEGY All Region / Method Kept Critical Strategy Research Advice Enforce Hawaii / Pacific / Handline No No Highly Moderately Moderately Moderately Effective Effective Effective Effective Hawaii / Pacific / Diver No No Highly Moderately Moderately Moderately Effective Effective Effective Effective Hawaii / Pacific / Surrounding No No Highly Moderately Moderately Moderately nets (nei) Effective Effective Effective Effective Hawaii / Pacific / Handline, No No Highly Moderately Highly Moderately deep set Effective Effective Effective Effective

Subfactor 3.2.2 – Management Strategy and Implementation

Considerations: What type of management strategy/measures are in place to reduce the impacts of the fishery on bycatch species and how successful are these management measures? To achieve a Highly Effective rating, the primary bycatch species must be known and there must be clear goals and measures in place to minimize the impacts on bycatch species (e.g., catch limits, use of proven mitigation measures, etc.).

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Highly Effective Nearly all fish caught in the inshore handline and net fisheries that catch blacktail and bluestriped snappers are retained and eaten, so discards are minimal (HDAR 2014) (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b). When discards

41 do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit or toxicity concerns (WPRFMC 2009). There have been no interactions with endangered or protected species in these fisheries. There is some potential for interactions with monk seals and sea turtles, but any such interactions would be rare. Additionally, fishers attend to these gears at all times, which minimizes the potential for lethal interactions (WPRFMC 2009). Because there are no bycatch concerns in these fisheries, a "highly effective" score is awarded.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER Highly Effective Diver-based spearfishing is extremely selective, because divers can visually identify the type and size of fish before they spear it. Bycatch is likely restricted to speared fish that escape with minor wounds (WPRFMC 2009). Because there are no bycatch concerns in this fishery, bycatch management is scored as "highly effective."

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Highly Effective Bycatch in the Hawaii deep-set handline fishery that catches bottomfish, including bluestriped snapper, is low and typically does not include any vulnerable species such as sea turtles, seabirds, or marine mammals (WPRFMC 2009) (NMFS 2015b). Interactions with Hawaiian monk seals have been reported as possible in hook and line fisheries in Hawaii because monk seals have been found with embedded hooks. It is not possible to determine what fishery these hooks came from. Any potential interactions are thought to be quite low, and there is no evidence of serious injury or harm to monk seals caused by this fishery. Monk seals are protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act, the Marine Mammal Protection Act, and Hawaiian state law. In the bottomfish fishery, fishers are encouraged to use barbless circle hooks and are required to report any interactions with monk seals (NOAA 2013). Because bycatch measures are in place and there are no significant bycatch concerns, we have rated this factor "highly effective."

Subfactor 3.2.3 – Scientific Research and Monitoring Considerations: Is bycatch in the fishery recorded/documented and is there adequate monitoring of bycatch to measure fishery’s impact on bycatch species? To achieve a Highly Effective rating, assessments must be conducted to determine the impact of the fishery on species of concern, and an adequate bycatch data collection program must be in place to ensure bycatch management goals are being met

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderately Effective Onboard scientific observer programs are not in place to record bycatch and discards. But fishers are required to fill out logbooks and record information on fishing effort, fishing participants, fishing locations, number and species of fish caught, whether fish were kept or released, the condition of any released fish, and interactions with protected species such as sea turtles, Hawaiian monk seals, other marine mammals, and seabirds (NOAA 2011). There is concern that some species caught in this fishery are under-reported (Brodziak et al. 2011). We have therefore awarded only a "moderately effective" score.

42 Subfactor 3.2.4 – Management Record of Following Scientific Advice Considerations: How often (always, sometimes, rarely) do managers of the fishery follow scientific recommendations/advice (e.g., do they set catch limits at recommended levels)? A Highly Effective rating is given if managers nearly always follow scientific advice.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Moderately Effective See Subfactor 3.1.4 in the Harvest Strategy section for details.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Highly Effective See Subfactor 3.1.4 in the Harvest Strategy section for details.

Subfactor 3.2.5 – Enforcement of Management Regulations Considerations: Is there a monitoring/enforcement system in place to ensure fishermen follow management regulations and what is the level of fishermen’s compliance with regulations? To achieve a Highly Effective rating, there must be consistent enforcement of regulations and verification of compliance.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderately Effective See Subfactor 3.1.5 in the Harvest Strategy section for details.

43 Criterion 4: Impacts on the habitat and ecosystem

This Criterion assesses the impact of the fishery on seafloor habitats, and increases that base score if there are measures in place to mitigate any impacts. The fishery’s overall impact on the ecosystem and food web and the use of ecosystem-based fisheries management (EBFM) principles is also evaluated. Ecosystem Based Fisheries Management aims to consider the interconnections among species and all natural and human stressors on the environment.

The final score is the geometric mean of the impact of fishing gear on habitat score (plus the mitigation of gear impacts score) and the Ecosystem Based Fishery Management score. The Criterion 2 rating is determined as follows:

Score >3.2=Green or Low Concern Score >2.2 and ≤3.2=Yellow or Moderate Concern Score ≤2.2=Red or High Concern

Rating cannot be Critical for Criterion 4.

Criterion 4 Summary Gear Type and Mitigation of Gear Region / Method Substrate Impacts EBFM Score Hawaii / Pacific / Handline 4.00: Very Low 0.25: Minimal 3.00: Moderate Green Concern Mitigation Concern (3.571) Hawaii / Pacific / Diver 4.00: Very Low 0.25: Minimal 3.00: Moderate Green Concern Mitigation Concern (3.571) Hawaii / Pacific / Surrounding 3.00: Low Concern 0.25: Minimal 3.00: Moderate Yellow nets (nei) Mitigation Concern (3.122) Hawaii / Pacific / Handline, 4.00: Very Low 0.50: Moderate 3.00: Moderate Green deep set Concern Mitigation Concern (3.674)

Criterion 4 Assessment SCORING GUIDELINES Factor 4.1 - Impact of Fishing Gear on the Habitat/Substrate 5 (None) - Fishing gear does not contact the bottom 4 (Very Low) - Vertical line gear 3 (Low)—Gears that contacts the bottom, but is not dragged along the bottom (e.g. gillnet, bottom longline, trap) and is not fished on sensitive habitats. Bottom seine on resilient mud/sand habitats. Midwater trawl that is known to contact bottom occasionally 2 (Moderate)—Bottom dragging gears (dredge, trawl) fished on resilient mud/sand habitats. Gillnet, trap, or bottom longline fished on sensitive boulder or coral reef habitat. Bottom seine except on mud/sand 1 (High)—Hydraulic clam dredge. Dredge or trawl gear fished on moderately sensitive habitats (e.g., cobble or boulder) 0 (Very High)—Dredge or trawl fished on biogenic habitat, (e.g., deep-sea corals, eelgrass and maerl) Note: When multiple habitat types are commonly encountered, and/or the habitat classification is uncertain, the score will be based on the most sensitive, plausible habitat type.

44 Factor 4.2 - Mitigation of Gear Impacts +1 (Strong Mitigation)—Examples include large proportion of habitat protected from fishing (>50%) with gear, fishing intensity low/limited, gear specifically modified to reduce damage to seafloor and modifications shown to be effective at reducing damage, or an effective combination of ‘moderate’ mitigation measures. +0.5 (Moderate Mitigation)—20% of habitat protected from fishing with gear or other measures in place to limit fishing effort, fishing intensity, and spatial footprint of damage caused from fishing. +0.25 (Low Mitigation)—A few measures are in place (e.g., vulnerable habitats protected but other habitats not protected); there are some limits on fishing effort/intensity, but not actively being reduced 0 (No Mitigation)—No effective measures are in place to limit gear impacts on habitats

Factor 4.3 - Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management 5 (Very Low Concern)—Substantial efforts have been made to protect species’ ecological roles and ensure fishing practices do not have negative ecological effects (e.g., large proportion of fishery area is protected with marine reserves, and abundance is maintained at sufficient levels to provide food to predators) 4 (Low Concern)—Studies are underway to assess the ecological role of species and measures are in place to protect the ecological role of any species that plays an exceptionally large role in the ecosystem. Measures are in place to minimize potentially negative ecological effect if hatchery supplementation or fish aggregating devices (FADs) are used. 3 (Moderate Concern)—Fishery does not catch species that play an exceptionally large role in the ecosystem, or if it does, studies are underway to determine how to protect the ecological role of these species, OR negative ecological effects from hatchery supplementation or FADs are possible and management is not place to mitigate these impacts 2 (High Concern)—Fishery catches species that play an exceptionally large role in the ecosystem and no efforts are being made to incorporate their ecological role into management. 1 (Very High Concern)—Use of hatchery supplementation or fish aggregating devices (FADs) in the fishery is having serious negative ecological or genetic consequences, OR fishery has resulted in trophic cascades or other detrimental impacts to the food web.

Factor 4.1 - Impact of Fishing Gear on the Habitat/Substrate

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE Very Low Concern Handline gear used to catch reef-associated species is assessed as having a very low impact on the habitat.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER Very Low Concern Diver-based spearfishing has been found to have little to no effect on coral reef benthic communities (Frisch et al. 2012). The impact on the habitat from diver/spearfishing for reef-associated species is therefore assessed as "very low" concern.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Low Concern Several net gears are used in the reef fish fisheries that capture bluestriped and blacktail snappers, including surround seines, surround gillnets, bag nets, and lift nets (WPRFMC 2009). Some of the net gears make

45 contact with the bottom habitat, but these gears are set over sandy bottoms. The overall impact on the habitat is therefore considered a "low" concern.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Very Low Concern The Hawaiian deep-set handline fishery gear used to catch bottomfish, including bluestriped snapper, typically has six to eight branching circle hooks off the main line. The line is lowered and raised with electric, hydraulic, or hand-powered reels. Fishers fish along steep slopes of deepwater banks and, although the mainline may come in contact with the bottom, overall fishing effects on the habitat are considered minimal (WPRFMC 2009). Handline gear used to catch bottom-associated fish is assessed as "very low" concern.

Factor 4.2 - Mitigation of Gear Impacts

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) Minimal Mitigation In Hawaii state waters, there are several Marine Life Conservation Districts (MLCDs) on the islands of O'ahu, Hawai'i, and Maui, which are designed to conserve and replenish marine resources in nearshore waters. These areas either prohibit all fishing or allow for only limited fishing. There are also various other regulated fishing areas, including Fishery Replenishment Areas, Fishery Management Areas, and Public Fishing Areas. A few marine reserves, refuges, and sanctuaries have been established, where all fishing is prohibited (HDAR 2016c). Various gear restrictions are also in place (HDAR 2016a). Because some efforts have been taken to limit fishing effort and intensity and to protect vulnerable habitats, we have awarded a "minimal mitigation" score.

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderate Mitigation The deep-set handline fishery primarily targets bottomfish species, such as deepwater snappers and groupers. There are 12 areas restricted to fishing for bottomfish within the Main Hawaiian Islands because they contain important bottomfish habitats (NOAA 2011). These areas protect less than 20% of suitable bottomfish habitat (Parke 2007), but fishing intensity is also actively being controlled through annual catch limits. We consider this a "moderate" amount of mitigation because ongoing, effective measures are reducing fishing intensity, fishing effort, and the spatial footprint.

Factor 4.3 - Ecosystem-Based Fisheries Management

HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE HAWAII / PACIFIC, DIVER HAWAII / PACIFIC, SURROUNDING NETS (NEI) HAWAII / PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderate Concern Blacktail and bluestriped snappers are non-native to the Hawaiian Islands. Both were introduced to Hawaii as part of a fishery enhancement program between 1955 and 1961. Blacktail snapper's population expansion has

46 been classified as modest, and it is limited to the Main Hawaiian Islands (Gaither et al. 2012) (Gaither et al. 2013). Bluestriped snapper experienced rapid population growth after its introduction, and is now found throughout the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Gaither et al. 2012) (Gaither et al. 2013). There are some concerns that these snapper species are threatening native Hawaiian species (Gaither et al. 2012), but to date, there is no evidence of strong negative ecological effects. Research on the bluestriped snapper suggests that it has little overlap in diet with native species and it feeds in different areas. Additionally, no predation on fishery resources has been identified (Parrish et al. 2000) (Schumacher 2011). Bluestriped snapper feeds on some planktonic crustaceans and some fish, but its diet is primarily benthic invertebrates (Parrish et al. 2000). Blacktail snapper has not been well studied, so ecological interactions with native Hawaii species are unknown, but this species is not as common as the bluestriped snapper.

Some species that are targeted in the fisheries that capture blacktail and bluestriped snappers play an exceptionally large role in the ecosystem. Bigeye scad and mackerel scad, which are caught in the net and handline fisheries, are prey for many larger species, such as tunas, marlins, mahi mahi, wahoo, and rainbow runner (Weng and Sibert 2000). Parrotfish, which are caught in the diver/spear fishery, are the primary herbivores on coral reefs and are highly important to the maintenance of coral reef ecosystems. They graze on algae on reefs, thereby helping to limit the cover of algae, which can hinder reef growth (Bellwood et al. 2011) (Pardee 2014). Two of the species caught in the deep-set handline fishery, Hawaiian grouper and gray snapper, are considered important top predators in the Hawaii ecosystem (Friedlander and DeMartini 2002) (Dale et al. 2011).

The majority of species assessed in this report (including blacktail snapper, bluestriped snapper, and the other above mentioned species) are managed under the Federal Hawaii Ecosystem Plan. This is the first step in moving Hawaii fisheries management to an Ecosystem-Based Management Approach (WPRFMC 2009). Currently, a few policies are in place that may help to protect the ecological role of some species, such as parrotfish and bottomfish (HDAR 2016c) (HDAR 2016d), but further efforts are needed. This factor is rated a "moderate" concern.

47 Acknowledgements

Scientific review does not constitute an endorsement of The Safina Center or Seafood Watch® program, or its seafood recommendations, on the part of the reviewing scientists. The Safina Center and Seafood Watch® are solely responsible for the conclusions reached in this report.

Seafood Watch would like to thank Jonatha Giddens from the University of Hawaii and Brett Schumacher from NOAA's Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center for graciously reviewing this report for scientific accuracy.

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55 Appendix A: Extra By Catch Species HAWAIIAN PINK SNAPPER (OPAKAPAKA): MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS DEEP 7 BOTTOMFISH MULTI-SPECIES COMPLEX Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Medium FishBase assigned medium vulnerability scores (36 to 45 out of 100) to Hawaiian pink snapper (Pristipomoides filamentosus), red snapper (Etelis carbunculus), and ruby snapper (Etelis coruscans) (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Life history information for these deepwater snapper species is incomplete. Most deepwater snappers are moderately long lived (7–13 years), but the pink snapper (opakapaka) has been reported to live for over 40 years (Brodziak et al. 2011)(Andrews et al. 2012). These species typically reach sexual maturity around 30–60 cm in length and grow to a maximum size of 80–130 cm (DeMartini and Lau 1999) (Randall 2007) (Froese and Pauly 2015). Age at maturity is only known for pink snapper, which is reported to mature at around 3 years (Everson 1984). These snappers are broadcast spawners, and females are capable of producing a high number of eggs (Brodziak et al. 2011). Within the food chain, they are high level predators (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderate Concern Hawaiian pink, ruby, and red snappers are managed by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council as part of the Deep 7 bottomfish complex and by the Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources. The Deep 7 bottomfish species are assessed together as a unit, and the most recent accepted population assessment was in 2011. According to this assessment, the abundance of the Deep 7 bottomfish was high during the 1960s and 1970s, but declined to values lower than the abundance needed to produce the maximum sustainable catch or yield by the mid-1990s and has remained stable at this lower abundance level since. Abundance was estimated to be between 60% and 97% of the abundance/biomass needed to produce the maximum sustainable yield (BMSY). It was determined that the abundance was most likely more than 70% of BMSY (the overfished threshold level), so it was concluded that the Deep 7 bottomfish complex is not overfished/depleted (Brodziak et al. 2011). Normally, this would result in a score of low concern; however, these species are assessed as a unit and the individual species' abundances are not known, so we have rated this factor as "moderate" concern.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

56 2016a), but fishing impacts on individual species are not known. Between 2003 and 2014, Hawaiian pink snapper (opakapaka) accounted for 34% of the deep-set handline catch, ruby snapper (onaga) made up 20% of the catch, and Hawaiian red snapper (ehu) made up 7% of the catch (HDAR 2015b). Because fishing mortality rates for individual species are not known, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAIIAN RUBY SNAPPER (ONAGA): MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS DEEP 7 BOTTOMFISH MULTI- SPECIES COMPLEX Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

57 in 2011. According to this assessment, the abundance of the Deep 7 bottomfish was high during the 1960s and 1970s, but declined to values lower than the abundance needed to produce the maximum sustainable catch or yield by the mid-1990s and has remained stable at this lower abundance level since. Abundance was estimated to be between 60% and 97% of the abundance/biomass needed to produce the maximum sustainable yield (BMSY). It was determined that the abundance was most likely more than 70% of BMSY (the overfished threshold level), so it was concluded that the Deep 7 bottomfish complex is not overfished/depleted (Brodziak et al. 2011). Normally, this would result in a score of low concern; however, these species are assessed as a unit and the individual species' abundances are not known, so we have rated this factor as "moderate" concern.

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Moderate Concern The 2001 assessment indicated that the majority of fishing mortality estimates for the Hawaiian Deep 7 bottomfish complex were below sustainable levels or the fishing mortality rate resulting in maximum sustainable yield (Brodziak et al. 2011). This suggests that overfishing is not occurring on the complex (NMFS 2016a), but fishing impacts on individual species are not known. Between 2003 and 2014, Hawaiian pink snapper (opakapaka) accounted for 34% of the deep-set handline catch, ruby snapper (onaga) made up 20% of the catch, and Hawaiian red snapper (ehu) made up 7% of the catch (HDAR 2015b). Because fishing mortality rates for individual species are not known, we have awarded a "moderate" concern score.

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAIIAN RED SNAPPER (EHU): MAIN HAWAIIAN ISLANDS DEEP 7 BOTTOMFISH MULTI- SPECIES COMPLEX Factor 2.1 - Inherent Vulnerability

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET Medium

58 FishBase assigned medium vulnerability scores (36 to 45 out of 100) to Hawaiian pink snapper (Pristipomoides filamentosus), red snapper (Etelis carbunculus), and ruby snapper (Etelis coruscans) (Froese and Pauly 2015).

Factor 2.2 - Abundance

Factor 2.3 - Fishing Mortality

Factor 2.4 - Discard Rate

HAWAII/PACIFIC, HANDLINE, DEEP SET < 20%

59 The deep-set handline fishery that targets bottomfish species likely has low bycatch and discards. In the Main Hawaiian Islands fishery, most of the catch is thought to be retained and utilized. When discards do occur, they are due to fish being below the minimum size limit, toxicity concerns, low market value, or damage by predators (WPRFMC 2009). Fisher-reported catch data for the deep-set handline fisheries in the Main Hawaiian Islands indicate a quite low discard rate of < 5% of the total retained catch from 2002–2014 (HDAR 2015a) (HDAR 2015b) (HDAR 2013b). It should noted that fishers may under-report bycatch/discards. Prior to the closure of the bottomfish fishery in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, bycatch was recorded through self- reported fishers' logbook data and onboard scientific observer data. Logbook data indicated a discard rate (discarded catch/retained catch) of around 14%, while the observer data indicated a higher discard rate of 34% (WPRFMC 2009). Although discards may be under-reported, it is still likely that discards are < 20% of the retained catch in the Main Hawaiian Island fishery.