Problems Faced by Hijras (Male to Female Transgenders) in Mumbai with Reference to Their Health and Harassment by the Police
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International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, Vol. 5, No. 9, September 2015 Problems Faced by Hijras (Male to Female Transgenders) in Mumbai with Reference to Their Health and Harassment by the Police Anitha Chettiar one such phenomena where the „transgendering‟ person. Abstract—The Male to Female (MTF) Transgenders in India gradually but recurrently perceives and recognizes his/her commonly known as the Hijras are one of the hardly researched, gender as different from the one assigned at birth, discovers abused, scorned, and callously neglected groups in Indian and unfolds ones‟ sexuality in the midst of perceived as well Society. This paper is part of the doctoral research submitted to as publicly expressed rejection and isolation in society at the University of Mumbai entitled ‘The Status of Hijras in Civil Society: A Study of Hijras in Greater Mumbai.’ The objectives large. The focus of this study is the Male to Female (MTF) of this paper are to showcase briefly the socio economic status of Transgenders in India particularly in Mumbai, commonly hijras and to understand the problems faced by them with known as the Hijras. specific reference to their health and the harassment hijras face Operationally defined, a hijra refers to a human person due to the Police. An exploratory cum descriptive research who appears to have characteristics of both the genders that is design with a non-random purposive sampling including the masculine and feminine. One who is predominantly snowball technique was adopted, to collect data from sixty-three hijras cross the districts of Mumbai and Thane from physically male who may or may not have undergone the state of Maharashtra, India. The socio economic status was castration (removal of penis and/or testicles), vaginoplasty, measured using the Kuppuswamy Scale (2005). Among the breast implants and has taken upon a feminine identity hijras, more than half of them belonged to the middle class and wearing female attire and claiming to be a part of the hijra about forty percent belonged to the upper-lower class. Majority community/cult with a hijra identity. In other words, a person of hijras stated that they faced several health problems and also who identifies oneself as opposite to the sex/gender assigned problems related to harassment, unlawful penalties, sexual abuse, violence and deprivation of human rights. They chiefly at birth and calls oneself a hijra/transgender/woman/kothi. named the police including the traffic and railway police, as Hijra identity does not have an exact match in the modern perpetrators of violence and abuse. Western taxonomy of gender and sexual orientation. Mohan [3], in an interview with a well known hijra Laxmi Narayan Index Terms—Gender, transgender, Hijra, health, police. Tripathi quotes as follows, “A hijra … is someone who is feminine but not a woman, masculine but not a man, a person beyond the boxes of man and woman. The person follows the I. INTRODUCTION rules and regulations of the community, has a guru, lives in “Sex is what you are born with, gender is what you feminine attire, may or may not be castrated.” recognize and sexuality is what you discover.” This was a According to Sen [4] transgender is the most commonly comment made by one of the first hijra respondents of this used term to describe people who “cross socially constructed study [1]. It seemingly came straight from the heart full of her gender boundaries.” Transgender is a blanket term that conviction and philosophy making no attempts to quote any covers all people whose sense of gender identity does not authors or dictionary. The significance in her comment was match their physiological sex. Most trangendered people are the ease with which she conceptualized the three constructs aware of their difference at a very early age. Cross-gender which theorists and researchers grapple with. behaviour patterns, including cross-dressing, typically Kimmel [2] quotes sociologists Candace West and Don appear by age five supporting theories that transgenderism is Zimmerman about their argument that “gender was less a rooted in developmental conditions, that it has a component of identity – fixed, static- that we take with us into physiological origin, and that no amount of therapy, drugs, our interactions, but rather the product of those interactions.” denial, conditioning, rejection, bribery, cajoling, nagging or Emphasizing the social construct of gender they argued that anything else will make it go away. If it‟s „only a phase‟ then “a person‟s gender is not simply an aspect of what one is, but the phase lasts from age five through death. One known cure, more fundamentally, it is something that one does, and does which isn‟t appropriate for everyone, is surgery changing the recurrently, in interaction with others.” Transgenderism is body to match the mind [5]. Although the "lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Manuscript received April 5, 2014; revised June 20, 2014. This work is community" (LGBT) are often referred to as a group, lesbian original and a part of the doctoral research thesis submitted to the University and gay people have made considerable advances over the of Mumbai in December 2009. (Received Junior Research Fellowship [JRF] supported from University Grants Commission, New Delhi in 2002-2004). last two decades in claiming their rights albeit relatively, Anitha Chettiar is with the College of Social Work, Nirmala Niketan, while the transgender people and transsexuals, particularly (Affliliated of the University of Mumbai, India) and is also with the the hijras in this context who differ from societal gender Community Health Initiative and Research Action Group (CHIRAG) working for People Living with HIV/AIDS (e-mail: norms - are still without legal protection for their basic civil [email protected]). rights particularly in India. The Constitution of India in DOI: 10.7763/IJSSH.2015.V5.551 752 International Journal of Social Science and Humanity, Vol. 5, No. 9, September 2015 Article 19 declares non discriminatory practices on the basis hermaphrodites. All these terms appear to mean the same, but of religion, race and gender yet; several instances of stigma in fact they do not. For instance, the Oxford Minidictionary and discrimination prevail among the sexual minorities in (1988) describes the eunuch as a “castrated man”. The India including the hijras. Chambers 20th Century Dictionary (1983) describes eunuch Indian society is deeply stratified along the axes of class, as “a castrated man, especially one in charge of a harem, or a religion, language, education, which intersect with sexuality high-voiced singer: an ineffectual person.” There is no to create deeper oppressions. Although hijras have a sort of reference in these definitions to a person‟s desire to wear sanctioned and visible place in Hindu society (especially at female attire and to behave like a female. weddings, births and festivals), in the contemporary context, The word „eunuch‟ is derived from the Greek word it is the gender non conformity of the hijra that has a major “Euneukhos” which literally means „bed chamber attendant‟. impact besides lack of a gender recognition certificate, sexual [12]. It is in this sense that during the later Mughal period expression, employment, decent housing, subsidized health they were put in charge of harems. As eunuchs were sexually care services, and as well as the violence they suffer incapable, due to emasculation (whether voluntarily or under especially when they choose to take up sex work [6], [7]. force), they were considered suitable guards for harems [13]. Thus the objectives of this paper are to showcase briefly According to Sharma [14] eunuchs are castrated men who the socio economic status of the hijras and to understand the do not necessarily wear women‟s clothing. The practice of problems faced by them with specific reference to their castration in the context of Indian Society can be stated to Health problems and the harassment hijras face due to the have originated from the tradition of desexualizing the Police. animals. During the Vedic period horses were often castrated. Following that tradition it used to be males rather than females who were castrated. The practice of castration was II. LITERATURE REVIEW very popular for a variety of reasons especially outside India. One of the first reasons for castration was the desire to A. Etymology and Understanding the Hijras develop a particular physical and mental make-up. It was A Nepali lexicon noted that the word hijra was derived noted that performance of castration on children prevented from the Persian hiz. Hiz meant one who is „effeminate,‟ the development of secondary sex characteristics. Such men „disdains woman,‟ „a catamite.‟[8]. According to Muzaffar could be later on used as senior slaves to guard harems. Being Alam, a foremost Persianist, hiz was from old Pahlavi Persian, castrated these men were less attracted to their families and a sister language of Sanskrit, before the eighth century A.D. proved more faithful to their owners and masters. Hiz meant ineffective and incompetent. Other Persianists Transgendered people feel a “persistent discomfort and suggest that the origin of hijra was hich, from the word sense of inappropriateness about one‟s assigned sex (feeling hichgah meaning nowhere. It meant a person who is nowhere, trapped in the wrong body)” as the diagnosis in the American a thing that has no place, no identity or personality of its own Psychiatric Association‟s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual [9]. (DSM III) puts it. And rather than change their gender, they The Urdu and Hindi word "hijra" may alternately be want to change their biological sex to match their felt gender romanised as hijira, hijda, hijada, hijara, hijrah and is identity [2]. pronounced "heejra" or "heejda". An older name for hijras is Winter and Udomsak [15] quote a study conducted in 1997 kinnar, which is used by some hijra groups as a more by C.