A project of the National Center for Appropriate Technology 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org Organic and Grass-f inished Production By Lee Rinehart, CGP Market demand is rapidly increasing for sustainably raised and organic beef products. -based NCAT or grass-based production relies on biodiversity and ecological complexity to maintain Specialist production with the use of less costly inputs. Cattle producers recognize that and pasture access Published can lower production costs, reduce animal stress, and boost the animal’s immune system. This publication February 2011 highlights the practices producers are using to provide customers with nutritious food from pasture- © NCAT and -based and . Resources are included for further reading. IP305 Contents Introduction ...... 1 Consumer Perception and Demand ...... 2 Organic Cattle Production ...... 2 Grass-Fed and Grass-Finishing...... 4 Selecting Appropriate Animals ...... 6 Cattle Nutrition ...... 8 Health and Disease Management ...... 11 Integrating Cattle into Cropping Systems ...... 13 Stocker Cattle Production ...... 14 Production Variables ....15 and Grazing Management ...... 15 Handling Cattle Successfully ...... 20 Record-Keeping Beef calves on fescue pasture in Missouri. Photo: USDA-NRCS. Systems ...... 22 Slaughter and Meat Processing ...... 22 Marketing Overview ...... 23 Introduction incorporate animal manure into the soil to fertil- Case Study: ize crops. Th e family would have beef for Forks Farm ...... 25 the year, and the surplus would be sold off the References ...... 26 attle are natural grazers. Th ey possess Further Resources ...... 27 the remarkable ability to digest plant farm to contribute to satisfying the food needs carbohydrates that are generally indi- of the community. At the end of World War II, The National Sustainable C grain was no longer needed for the war eff ort, so Agriculture Information Service, gestible for most other mammals. Cattle have ATTRA (www.attra.ncat.org), developed a symbiotic relationship with rumen a surplus of corn, combined with low fuel prices, was developed and is managed by the National Center for microorganisms (Phillips et al., 2009), which helped to bring about the cattle-feeding industry. Appropriate Technology (NCAT). makes the animals particularly adept at con- Th is fostered a shift in how livestock were fed, The project is funded through a cooperative agreement with verting the nutrients in into digestible housed, and fi nished. Th e two decades following the Department of Agriculture’s Rural Business- nutrients—in the form of meat and —that World War II saw the development of the beef- Cooperative Service. Visit the humans can use. industry we have today. NCAT website (www.ncat.org/ sarc_current.php) for more information on Historically, cattle production was an inte- Grass-based production systems are inher- our other sustainable gral part of diversifi ed family farms. Diversifi ed ently more resilient to market-price fl uctuations agriculture and energy projects. farms could utilize farm-grown crop residues and because of their signifi cant reliance on renewable pasture resources. Th is is exemplifi ed by farmers foods declined in the recession of 2009; how- and ranchers who see themselves principally as ever, sales are expected to increase again by 28% grass farmers. Under this model, cattle become to 30% between 2010 and 2012 (Mintel, 2009). grass-harvesting tools used to maintain pasture Continued growth in demand for these meat health and to provide meat and for the mar- products is expected, especially through direct ket. Farmers and ranchers rely on this naturally local sales of carcasses and retail cuts to families low-input system in which feed costs are reduced, via farm visits, farmers markets, and mail-order. animal health is maximized, and a wholesome Many market analyses suggest the possibility of product is provided to the customers. a viable market well into future years. Livestock producers can reduce costs, maximize Demand for grass-fed and grass-fi nished beef Related ATTRA swelled in 2010, and the major grass-fed meat publications animal health, and realize signifi cant fi nancial returns only if they are using low-input production companies are scrambling for a supply of qual- Beef Farm systems. Th e norm for most producers, however, ity cattle. Th ere has been signifi cant growth— Sustainability is a high-input system in which the applications not only in the direct-marketing sector, but in Checksheet of high levels of chemical , pesticides, the retail, restaurant, and food-service sectors Beef Marketing and herbicides—along with high machinery costs as well. A recent report by the United States Alternatives for haying, mowing, and seeding—signifi cantly Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Mar- reduce the margin of profi tability. keting Service (USDA AMS) puts the U.S. Building a grass-fed beef market at 3% of the total U.S. Montana Organic Allen Williams, a beef-cattle specialist with beef market, having grown at a rate of about Livestock Industry Tallgrass Beef, Inc., notes that farm and 20% per year for the past few years (Mathews Dairy Beef data (from Integrated Resource Management/ and Johnson, 2010). Standardized Performance Analysis) indicates Natural Livestock that many beef producers nationwide have more For more information on consumer-demand Feasibility Study investment in machinery than they do in cat- issues in meat marketing, see the Agricultural Nutrition tle. Th e data also indicates that 70% to 80% of Marketing Resource Center’s (AMRC) website for Graziers most producers’ total cost of production is in www.agmrc.org. Grazing Contracts feedstuff s. Williams notes that producers who for Livestock are willing to use grazing methods that do not Organic Cattle Production rely on high-cost inputs can realize positive Paddock Design, Organic cattle production is regulated in the economic impacts as well as such ecological Fencing, and United States by the USDA’s National Organic Water Systems for benefi ts as improved soil fertility, diver- Program (NOP). According to the NOP, organic Controlled Grazing sity, and carbon sequestration (Williams, 2010). production is a system that responds to site- Managing cattle using high-stock-density specifi c conditions by integrating cultural, biolog- Pasture, Rangeland, grazing is a method to achieve the benefi ts of ical, and mechanical practices that foster cycling and Grazing low-input animal agriculture, and it is covered Management of resources, promote ecological balance, and later in this paper as well as in other ATTRA conserve biological diversity (USDA, 2006a). Pastures: publications, including and Th e holistic principles of organic agriculture are Going Organic Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Management. derived from two complementary perspectives. Pastures: First, organic agriculture is characterized as Sustainable Consumer Perception and being a biologically oriented production system Management Market Demand for Organic based on ecological principles and demonstrat- Rotational Grazing ing a high degree of sustainability. In addition, it and Grass-f inished Beef is a system that endeavors to preserve the integ- Th e demand for grass-fi nished beef, natural beef, rity of organic production by guarding against and organic beef is growing in the United States. contamination from prohibited substances and Demand for natural and organic meat has his- against commingling with nonorganic products. torically outstripped supply in most U.S. markets. In order to meet the biological and ecological Although the volume of natural- and organic- demands that defi ne organic agriculture—and beef sales declined between 2008 and 2009, nat- to ensure compliance with laws and regulations ural and organic meat’s share of the U.S. market that serve to foster organic-system integrity—an in 2009 stood at 2.7%, up from 2.5% in 2007 Organic System Plan (OSP) must be written and (Huntrods, 2009). Sales of natural and organic submitted to the certifi er. Organic certifi cation

Page 2 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Production of the land requires a transitional period of three the root mass is naturally sloughed off , contrib- years from the last application of a restricted uting to soil pore space (for oxygen and water substance. However, inspections and updated infi ltration) and nutrient availability. eTh main applications must be completed annually for the point here is that by utilizing these “natural land to remain in compliance. services,” producers can significantly reduce expensive off -farm inputs, and the agro-ecosys- Prospective organic producers should contact an tem can be strengthened to supply the needed organic certifi er when they are ready to begin resources to sustain agricultural production. the transition process. A list of organic certi- fi ers is available on the Rodale Institute’s New As an organic livestock producer, excellent nutri- Farm website www.rodaleinstitute.org/certifi er_ tion and pasture access are the most formidable directory. Th e certifi er is an agency authorized disease-prevention tools you have to keep cattle by the NOP to certify farms and food proces- healthy. , synthetic dewormers (with sors under NOP regulations. Th e certifi er will exception of Ivermectin in some situations, provide an application packet, which when fi lled which is discussed below), growth-promoting out will become the OSP. , and are not allowed in organic production, so the producer has the ben- efi t of designing a balanced ecosystem to reduce the incidence of disease and injury. As it turns out, a balanced ecosystem is the cheapest, most healthful way of producing livestock. Grazing animals that harvest their feed from pasture, calve and live most of the year outside of barns and confi ning enclosures, and are exposed to a wide assortment of naturally occurring bacteria are generally more healthy, experience less death loss, and supply a more consistent return on a marginal investment than conventionally produced livestock. Some of the basic principles of organic health management include fostering natural immunity In organic livestock production, it is important in animals by increasing animal and plant to build the organic portion of the pasture soil. biodiversity; balancing nutrition through Most soils contain between 2% and 5% organic pasture-grazing management; using mineral matter, depending on soil texture, moisture, supplementation; and providing high-quality and climate. Organic matter serves as the basic stored forage when pastures are dormant. Th e food substrate for millions of bacteria, protozoa, natural living conditions of pastures and the fungi, insects, and earthworms, which in turn shade from arbors decrease the animals’ stress make the nutrients readily available for plants and remove unnecessary burdens on their to use. Organic matter also acts like a sponge immune systems. Also, other practices, such as to help the soil retain water. Since the soil and sanitation, vaccination, the quarantine of new the organic matter contained therein represent animals, and the use of probiotics in young the foundation of an agricultural ecosystem, it animals, can foster a healthier environment for becomes clear that the best way to develop soils livestock. Some ailments are genetically inher- for human food production is to feed the soil ited, and the herd can be “bred up” to be disease and let the soil feed the plant. Th is is in contrast free through selective breeding and by culling to conventional thought, in which soluble fer- off ending animals. tilizer is simply applied to meet the needs of a growing crop. Probiotics are microbes that protect their host and prevent disease. Th e organic portion of pasture soils is developed The best-known probiotic is Lactobacillus acidophilus, which is found in especially well by livestock and pasture-plant yogurt, acidophilus milk, and supplements. It is often used for young diversity. In addition, organic matter is added to calves that are prone to scour, giving them a shot of helpful bacteria the soil by the natural action of plant root death. to get their digestive systems going again. As plants are grazed or harvested, a portion of www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3 Most conventional treatments, such as the use requirements for the grazing animals and to of antibiotics, are not allowed in organic pro- protect soil and water quality. Ruminant duction. However, there are appropriate alterna- animals must be grazed throughout the tive treatments that are eff ective. For example, entire grazing season for the geographical foot rot can be successfully treated with copper region, which shall be not less than 120 days sulfate, iodine, and/or hydrogen peroxide, which per calendar year. Due to weather, season, and/ are all listed as approved substances for organic or climate, the grazing season may or may not livestock production. It is counter to the intent be continuous. of NOP organic regulations to withhold treat- ment from an animal to maintain organic cer- There are many excellent resources to help tifi cation. In fact, if an animal were to decline farmers and ranchers complete the tasks to the point of obvious impairment and suff er- required to make the transition to organic ing, and if conventional treatment were the only production—including grazing-management recourse, the treatment should be administered planning and complying with the NOP and the animal removed from the organic herd. Pasture Rule. There are many ATTRA livestock and pasture publications, available Organic regulations require access to outdoor at www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/livestock/ areas, shade, shelter, space for exercise, fresh air, production.html, that will help producers who direct sunlight, and pasture for grazing of rumi- rganic are considering organic livestock certifi cation. nant livestock. Confi nement is allowed in case ruminant of inclement weather, specifi c health and safety Be sure to check the ATTRA website at www. Oanimals needs of the animal, or risk to soil or water qual- ncat.attra.org for updated and new publica- must graze pasture ity. NOP regulations also specify that organic tions. ATTRA publications are available free of charge, either by downloading them from the during a grazing cattle must be slaughtered and processed at a ATTRA website or by calling 800-346-9140. season of at least certifi ed organic facility. More information on processing is found later in this publication. 120 days per year Grass-Fed and and obtain a NOP regulations state that “livestock products that are to be sold, labeled, or represented as Grass-Finishing minimum 30% organic must be from livestock under continu- Th e USDA has established a grass-fed standard average of their ous organic management from the last third of that basically defi nes grass-fed as 100% forage dry-matter intake gestation” (USDA, 2006a). In addition, live- intake for the life of the animal (USDA, 2007). from pasture over stock used as breeder stock “may be brought Grass-fi nished is a diff erent term; it identifi es from a non-organic operation onto an organic the course of the an animal that was fed a forage diet (pasture) operation at any time: Provided, that, if such during the fi nishing phase to an extent that season. livestock are gestating and the off spring are to an “end fi nish”—subcutaneous (backfat) cover be raised as organic livestock, the breeder stock and adequate intramuscular fat content—was must be brought onto the facility no later than reached. For adequate fi nishing, an animal must the last third of gestation” (USDA, 2006a). have enough backfat for nutrients to be parti- Th e NOP has developed, in cooperation with tioned for the deposition of intramuscular fat. organic livestock producers and organic-indus- try professionals, a pasture rule for organic A grass-fed animal may not necessarily reach that went into eff ect in June 2010 this end fi nish (i.e. marbling). Grass-fi nishing (USDA, 2010). Organic ruminant animals is primarily a question of managing to obtain a must graze pasture during a grazing season of at certain carcass quality. Using appropriate genet- least 120 days per year and obtain a minimum ics and grazing and forage management, grass- 30% average of their dry-matter intake from fi nishing can allow the animal to be fi nished pasture over the course of the season. In addi- to high Select or Choice grade. Jim Gerrish, a tion, ruminant animals must have year-round forage consultant in May, Idaho, notes that an access to pasture; all roughages used for bed- animal should be gaining more than 2 pounds ding must be certifi ed organic; producers must per day for at least 60 days on grass to fi nish have a pasture-management plan; and producers high Select or Choice, given the right genetics must manage pasture as a crop to meet the feed (Smith, 2006).

Page 4 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production • Understanding that possible land-use Quality Grade and Its Relation to changes may be needed to maintain Grass-Finishing an adequate forage base. Th e changes Conventionally (grain-fed) fi nished cattle could include converting grain fi elds require a backfat of at least 0.3 inches and into permanent pastures and using a USDA quality grade of high Select to low cropped land for winter or summer Choice to be profi table. This usually means a fi nished live weight of 1,200 pounds or greater. annuals in rotation. To reach a quality grade of high Select or bet- • Understanding the “winter challenge” ter in a grass-fi nished regime, more time will be needed during the fi nishing phase—in and the use of winter annuals, grass addition to the animal having the right genet- , , and stockpiled sum- ics to fi nish well on grass. Most grass-fi nish- mer pasture for winter grazing. A good ing producers utilize smaller-frame cattle that forage-sequencing program is necessary mature earlier, but there is a trade-off between for adequate year-round finishing of early maturity and end live weight after fi nish- grass-fi nished cattle. ing. Most cattle just will not grade well until they reach a live weight of over 1,100 pounds. • Thinking in terms of sustainability. For direct-marketing purposes, lighter mar- Consider how the farm or ranch can ket weights will often work fi ne, even though achieve long-term sustainability, eco- they may not make the USDA quality grade nomically and ecologically, by rely- of high Select or better. For producers con- ing on forages instead of purchased or sidering marketing to the retail sector (e.g., grocery, restaurant, and food service), lighter farm-grown grains. market weights (1,050 to 1,100 pounds) may • Most important, having a market- not provide the necessary yield and quality grade. This is why obtaining animals with the ing plan in place prior to starting. A right genetics to fi nish on grass is so critical. marketing plan is the most critical factor in the entire system. You can do everything else right, but you will not Grass-fi nishing, as was mentioned above, requires be successful if you do not have a good careful attention to forage and cattle manage- marketing plan in place. ment to produce an acceptable carcass. Th e selec- tion of an appropriate breed type is important as well. (See Selecting Appropriate Animals for Forage sequencing is the practice of using Grass-Finished Cattle Production, below.) Th is various forages in sequence to provide paper goes into detail on cattle management and adequate dry-matter intake on pasture provides further resources for managing a forage throughout the grazing season. For example, base for producing cattle on pasture. overseeding annual ryegrass in a summer Bermudagrass pasture provides high-quality Here are some basic considerations for manag- forage in the fall, winter, and spring, depending ing grass-fi nished cattle: on the location. Other examples of forage- sequencing regimes are grazing warm-season • Determining appropriate genetics and annuals (e.g., -sudan) in the summer good forage and animal management. when the growth of cool-season perennials Within any breed there are bloodlines slows down, and grazing forage brassicas that will work well and others that will in the late summer and fall months. not work well for grass-fi nishing. Stockpiled forages can be grazed in the • Allowing longer times to reach market winter; however, this requires foresight in the late summer. Ample time must be given weight. Research suggests that grass- for the forages being stockpiled to attain fi nished cattle take 60 to 80 days lon- enough dry matter to provide grazing in the ger than conventionally raised beef winter. Using various forages in sequence to reach a market weight of 1,050 to will ensure adequate grazing throughout 1,100 pounds and grade Select or better the year. (Smith, 2006).

www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5 Selecting Appropriate traits have the greatest infl uence on profi tabil- ity. Discuss these traits with your seedstock pro- Animals for Grass-Finished ducer before purchasing seedstock or stocker Cattle Production cattle. Th ere are other traits to select for as well: Matching the right animal or plant with the • Average milking ability, which is appropriate environment leads to healthy ani- best for low-input type cattle; milking mals and a productive and successful farming ability that is too high requires high system. Knowledgeable farmers understand that maintenance costs. organisms adapted to the climate and habitat do • Soundness of feet and legs. much better than those placed into situations • Udder quality (i.e., well-placed teats, nature might not have intended. Selecting the symmetrical quarters, and adequate right genetics for pasture-based production is support). therefore of utmost importance. • Good carcass characteristics (i.e., In general, you want an animal that combines the ability to fi nish on a high-quality maternal traits such as adequate milking abil- forage diet), carcass yield, and meat ity with early maturity and meat tenderness. tenderness. Th ese three traits are important because a cow • Early maturation. must calve on pasture and raise a thrifty calf • Low maintenance. that grows quickly. Th e carcass should yield high-quality beef that provides a positive eating Carcass quality is very important and is often experience for the customer. For this reason, the overlooked by new grass-fi nished beef pro- moderate-body-type English breeds usually fi t ducers. Many of the “grass-fi nished” beef cattle best with grass operations. However, it is impor- produced today are actually under-fi nished. A tant to remember that there is wide variability more accurate term for these cattle is “grass- in the expression of the traits important for pas- fed.” The end product from these cattle has ture-based systems, even within breeds. Select little backfat and not enough marbling, and for particular production traits in breeds such it can be dry and tough when cooked. as Angus, Red Angus, Hereford, and Shorthorn, as well as rarer or more obscure breeds such as Important breeds in the humid South and Devon, Dexter, American Low-Line, Galloway, Southwest are Brahman and such Brahman- Murray Grey, and British White. cross composites as Beefmaster (one-half Th e three most important traits to select for are Brahman, one-quarter Hereford, and one-quar- adaptability, fertility, and longevity. Th ese three ter Milking Shorthorn); Santa Gertrudis (three- eighths Brahman and fi ve-eighths Shorthorn); Brangus (three-eighths Brahman and five- eighths Angus); and Braford (approximately one-half Hereford and one-half Brahman). Brahman cattle are very tolerant of heat, humid- ity, and parasites, and they have excellent mater- nal traits. However, they do not have the carcass characteristics and marbling that consumers have come to expect. For this reason, some producers in the southern U.S. keep the Brahman infl uence in their cow herd to one-quarter or less and no more than one-eighth Brahman breeding in terminal (market) calves. It is not necessary to have Brahman genetics in your herd if you live in the southern U.S. as long as you select cattle that are adapted to your climate. Red-hided cattle are well-suited for the south- ern U.S. and perform well in heat and humidity. Red Angus cattle grazing on a rotational grazing system in Rio Arriba County, Alternates for Brahman to cross-breed with New Mexico. Photo: USDA-NRCS British breeds are Senepol, Tuli, and Bonsmara.

Page 6 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Brahman cows in College Station, . Photo: Lee Rinehart, NCAT

Animal Selection Guidelines • Medium frame. Frame Score marketed at 22 to 30 For grass-fi nishing, select animals from 2.0 through Frame Score 5.0 months old. herds that have mature weights around is the target. (See Table 1.) 1,100 pounds, since these will most likely • Early maturation. Cattle that • End weight geared toward fi nish better. Grass-fi nished beef cattle are reach mature weight relatively the targeted market. Nine usually marketed when they are between quickly compared to other hundred to 1,100 pounds end 22 and 30 months old. Selecting body cattle tend to fi nish quicker weight may be appropriate for as well. Keep in mind that type is more important than the breed direct marketing. For market- type for grass-based operations. The fol- cattle fi nished on grass take ing through retail channels, several months longer to lowing qualities should be selected for in however, 1,150 to 1,300 pounds animals, including herd bulls: fi nish than do conventionally of end weight is more appro- fi nished cattle. • Dual-purpose breed types. priate. Some retail markets dis- These are breed types that criminate against cattle with • Low maintenance require- were historically bred for lighter end weights because ments. Cattle that are smaller both milking ability and meat. they typically yield much less framed with average milking Examples of breeds in this than the heavier cattle. ability and good adaptation to category are Shorthorn • Slaughter age. Grass-fi nished the region tend to have lower and Devon. beef cattle are usually maintenance costs.

Table 1: Frame sizes for projected cow weight and slaughter weight at USDA Choice Quality Grade

BIF Numerical USDA Feeder Calf Mature Steer Heifer Frame Score Frame Size Cow Weight Slaughter Weight Slaughter Weight 2 Small 955 850 700 3 Small 1030 950 800 4Medium11001050 900 5 Medium 1175 1150 1000 6 Large 1250 1250 1100 7 Large 1320 1350 1200 8 Large 1395 1450 1300 9 Large 1470 1550 1400 Source: Dhuyvetter, 1995 www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7 Buying Cattle: Feeder Calves Here are some of the major determinants of an and Breeding Stock animal’s energy requirements: • Weight Spend some time researching prospective • Body-condition score seedstock producers before committing to a particular breed or type. Get to know not only • Milk production the producer but their entire program, and • Rate of growth determine if their cattle are truly raised in a • Level of activity low-input, grass-based production system. Visit • Impacts of climate (e.g., heat, cold, and several recommended seedstock producers who humidity) have good reputations for producing cattle that consistently do well on grass. If their cattle are Th e energy requirements of growing or lactat- not raised on a low-input, grass-based system, ing cattle can be met with fresh pasture or with they will not work for your grass-based system. high-quality grass- hay in the winter. Ask to see the entire herd and observe the ani- Dry cows can subsist on lower quality feedstuff s, mals at all stages of maturity. Also, ask to see but they must be maintained at an acceptable the relatives of the animals you are interested body-condition score in order to be successfully in. Look at the soundness of their cattle out on bred and deliver a healthy calf. elect pasture. Th ings to look for include good feet, animals from legs, udders, and eyes. Make sure the cattle are Determining the nutritional status of adapted to their environment, and try to buy fi nishing cattle seedstock S cattle only from seedstock producers in your Producers who are fi nishing cattle on grass producers who have region of production. should pay particular attention to actually a good reputation weighing cattle and not merely rely on body- For more information on livestock breeds, see condition scores. Body-condition scores (BCS) for producing cattle the Oklahoma State University (OSU) Ani- are great for evaluating brood cows, but BCS that consistently do mal Science website, http://139.78.104.1/breeds. values can vary between diff erent producers well on grass. Information on rare breeds can be found at and buyers. There is no better way to get a the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy fi rm grip on what your average daily gains are (ALBC) website, www.albc-usa.org. than by weighing the animals. When produc- ers weigh fi nishing cattle periodically, they can track average daily gains and better estimate Cattle Nutrition when the cattle are actually fi nished. Cattle require consistent sources of protein, energy, minerals, vitamins, and water to main- Forages have the ability to supply all the energy tain productivity and health. For detailed infor- needed to maintain highly productive cattle mation on ruminant physiology and nutrition, throughout the grazing season but only when the see the ATTRA publication Ruminant Nutrition forages are managed well. A legume-grass pasture for Graziers. has adequate protein and high digestible-energy Th ere are ways the producer can determine an levels during the vegetative stage. Th e nutrient overall picture of the nutritional status of the herd: value lowers as plants mature. Consider getting your forage analyzed to determine its nutrient • Using body-condition scores content and concentration. Your local Coopera- • Assessing individual animal weights tive Extension offi ce can assist in sampling forage. and Average Daily Gains (ADG) • Assessing pasture condition The Relationship of • Using soil- and plant-tissue testing to Forage Maturity to determine mineral and nutrient content Grass-Finishing of Cattle Feed intake is regulated by an animal’s energy Forages for fi nishing cattle should be just about needs. Therefore, producers should consider balanced between soluble carbohydrates and energy concentration fi rst when attempting to crude protein. Anibal Pordomingo, an animal balance animal diets. Adequate energy concen- scientist from who has done work in tration in the diet allows cattle to utilize other grass-fi nished beef production, suggests this bal- nutrients such as protein, vitamins, and minerals. ance should be a ratio of about 1 to 1. Protein

Page 8 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production is required by rumen microbes, and the micro- Table 2: Eff ects of Forage Maturity on Nutrient Composition. bial protein that is produced in the rumen pro- Source: Balsom and Lynch, 2008 vides protein to the animal. Readily digestible soluble carbohydrates are needed by the rumen microbes to utilize the nitrogen released in the rumen during protein digestion (Kopp, no date). A 1:1 ratio of carbohydrate to protein is thought to be the best ratio to ensure adequate energy for protein metabolism in the animal. Th e ratio between carbohydrates and protein can be managed by monitoring the maturity level of the forages and allowing cattle to graze forages at the proper stage. According to Wil- liams (2010), the best forages for fi nishing cattle are those that are slightly mature and are not too lush. If forage protein is too high (when the for- ages are very young and vegetative), the rumen microbes may not have enough energy to utilize the excess protein. Th is will result in ineffi cient utilization of forage and possible energy-utiliza- tion problems in the cattle. Forages for fi nishing Calcium and magnesium are the principal cattle should be less than 16% crude protein— minerals of concern for cattle on growing and preferably no more than 14%. forages. Others to consider are salt, phosphorus, potassium, selenium, copper, and sulfur. Th ese Table 2 illustrates the variation in nutrient com- minerals are very important for cellular respi- position as forages mature. As forage plants ration, nervous-system development, protein mature, some nutrients decline while others actu- synthesis and metabolism, and reproduction. ally increase. Producers often make the mistake Vitamins are important for the formation of of trying to fi nish cattle on forages that are too catalysts and enzymes that support growth and immature. It is clear from Table 2 that forages body maintenance in animals. Vitamin A is an that are young, lush, and vegetative do not neces- important supplement for grazing animals. Vita- sarily provide the highest levels of ALL nutrients. min A supplementation should be included in Energy levels in forages also change according to the mineral mix at about 1,200 to 1,700 Inter- the time of day. As the day progresses, plants are national Units (IU) per pound of dry matter in photosynthesizing and transporting nutrients into feed intake per day. Green forage, high-quality their leaves. Consequently, the percentage of non- hay, and cereal grains are typically high in Vita- structural carbohydrates (on a dry-matter basis) min E. Mineral and vitamin supplements are in forages harvested in the afternoon can have as available in many formulations. Because soils much as one and one-half times the energy as the diff er in mineral content from place to place, same plants in the morning. Turning cattle onto recommending a mineral mix that works every- fresh pasture in the afternoon, then, can have a where is not possible. Check with your local signifi cant impact on the animals’ gains. Extension agent or veterinarian to determine the mineral and vitamin mixes and recommen- dations common to your area. Mineral supple- Nutrient Requirements: ments should be provided on a continuous basis Protein, Minerals, and Water to all classes of cattle. Cows generally require crude protein in the Cattle require from 3 to 30 gallons of water range of 7% to 14% on a daily dry-matter per day. Factors that aff ect water intake include intake basis. Dry cows require less, and preg- age, physiological status, temperature, and body nant and lactating cows require more. Growing size. A rule of thumb is that cattle will con- cattle, including replacement heifers and steers, sume about 1 gallon of water per 100 pounds require from 10.5% to 14% protein in their daily of body weight during winter and 2 gallons per dry-matter intake. 100 pounds of body weight during hot weather. www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9 In general, double those estimates for lactating the small intestine. Th e nutritional needs of cattle cattle. Water should be clean and fresh; dirty will change depending on age, production stage water decreases water intake. Remember that all (e.g., lactating cows, bred cows, stockers, feeders other nutrient metabolism in the body depends and heifers) and environmental conditions. on water, and if a cow stops drinking, nutrient Th e nutritional composition of forages changes metabolism (e.g., maintenance, growth, and lac- depending on plant maturity, species, season, tation) will decrease. moisture, and the grazing system being used. Water quality is of considerable importance for In general, the younger a plant is, the more maintaining animal performance. Water should digestible it is. Plants begin to increase in fi ber be clean and free of manure. Manure in live- and decrease in cellular solubles as they mature. stock water may allow for the growth of blue- Cool-season species are more digestible than green algae, which produces a toxin that can warm-season species at the same stage of growth, poison livestock. Also, water that is high in and annuals are usually more digestible than nitrates can interfere with an animal’s ability to perennials. Clovers are more digestible than absorb oxygen. High salinity in livestock water grasses. It is, however, important to remember can cause dehydration, and the presence of bac- that digestibility is not the only issue with teria may cause such diseases as leptospirosis and forages, and there is a balance between young and eeding rumen brucellosis (USDA, 2006b). mature plants for optimum nutrient availability in forages. Younger, immature plants are typi- microbes is Water can be supplied to livestock from wells, cally higher in moisture and lower in dry matter Fimportant ponds, municipal supplies, streams, or springs. than more mature plants. Th ey are also relatively in maintaining If you are using a surface source of water, give higher in protein and lower in plant sugars. Th is careful attention to water quality. Water from cattle health and creates imbalances in the ratio between carbohy- ponds or streams may be more prone to some of productivity. drates and crude proteins, as was discussed above. the contaminants mentioned above. In addition, Letting forage plants mature slightly to balance producers should protect surface-water sources out energy and protein before turning cattle onto from degradation that may be caused by live- the pasture can increase forage utilization and stock when they come for a drink. Th e Natu- maximize animal gains. ral Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) publication Watering Systems for Serious Grazers (USDA, 2006b) suggests some ideas for devel- Grazing forages when they are slightly oping watering points in ponds and streams to mature (grasses at boot stage) has a number of benefi ts: lessen the deterioration of their banks when the animals congregate. One of the ideas is to use • Maximizing sugar (energy) content fl oating PVC pipe and electric polywire to sec- • Balancing energy with protein tion off a small portion of the water body and • Taking advantage of adequate create a watering point. The ground in and forage digestibility around the watering point and leading into the • Grazing when availability of water is covered with gravel or rock to prevent quality forage is maximized animals from muddying the waters and contrib- uting to water contamination. Th e publication is available online at www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov/news/ pubs_download/out/Watering%20Systemslow.pdf. As a rule of thumb, the best time to turn finishing cattle onto a pasture is when the grasses are nearing the boot stage, or just when Grazing Nutrition the seedhead is about to emerge from the stem As was discussed above, cattle are adapted to sheath. At this point, plant nonstructural use forage because of the natural population carbohydrates (digestible sugars for energy) of microbes in their rumen. Th erefore, feeding are just about maximized. However, a much the rumen microbes is important in maintain- more reliable method of determining carbohy- ing cattle health and productivity. Th e rumen drate concentration is to use a refractometer. A microbes feed the animal, particularly by sup- refractometer is an instrument that measures plying microbial protein and volatile fatty acids Brix, the soluble-sugar content of forage-plant from rumen fermentation that are absorbed in sap. Producers can monitor forage Brix on a

Page 10 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production weekly basis and document the rise in plant sugars as the forage matures. When the plant sugars are at their maximum, it is time to turn the cattle in. Monitoring Brix and turning cattle onto the pasture accordingly will assure a better ratio of nonstructural carbohydrates and crude proteins in the forage. Detailed information on Brix and refractometer use is available from Balsom and Lynch (2008). Keep in mind that the boot stage of plant pro- duction, when seed heads are just about to emerge, occurs at diff erent times depending on the species of grass being grazed. Also, in the spring many graziers turn cattle out to pasture when the grass is vegetative, well before boot stage for some species. Th is may be an accept- able and recommended practice for some ani- mals, such as cows and cow-calf pairs. However, Cattle grazing on cool-season pasture in Ida County, Iowa. Photo: USDA-NRCS for a grass-fi nished operation, a forage sequenc- ing program whereby forages can acquire slight , and herbs, instead of . maturity before grazing might be a better way High-stock-density grazing systems coupled to allocate nutrients to animals in the fi nishing with adequate pasture-rest periods are crucial phase on pasture. for managing the intake of adequate nutrients from pasture. Forage- and grazing-management strategies are covered below in the Pastures and In general, here is the hierarchy of Grazing Management section. forage digestibility (at equal stages of development) from lowest quality to Forages are usually defi cient in salt, and many highest quality: producers provide salt mixed with such essential 1. Warm season perennial grasses minerals as calcium and phosphorus, depending 2. Warm season annual grasses on the soil’s mineral content. 3. Cool season perennial grasses 4. Cool season annual grasses Health and Disease 5. Legumes Management Cattle health management focuses on disease- prevention strategies: • Fostering natural immunity in animals A word on supplementation… by increasing animal and plant biodi- Many beef producers provide supplements of versity on the farm grain or high-quality hay when grass is short, • Balancing nutrition through pasture too mature, dormant, or when animal needs and grazing management and mineral require it. However, excessive grain supple- supplementation mentation may reduce the ability of the rumen microbes to digest forage—in addition to dis- • Reducing animal stress through appro- qualifying cattle from being marketed as grass- priate facility design and pasture access fed or grass-fi nished. • Providing high-quality stored forages in Supplementation is not necessary in a well- the dormant season managed grass-finishing production system. The natural living conditions of pastures Rather than relying on grain for energy sup- decrease animals’ stress and remove unnecessary plementation, graziers can take advantage of burdens on their immune systems. Other prac- forage-sequencing systems and diverse forages tices such as sanitation, quarantine of new ani- that include multiple species of grasses, forbs, mals, and the use of probiotics in young animals www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11 can also foster a healthier environment for live- information on plant toxicity are your local stock. Disease prevention is the best health plan Cooperative Extension offi ce (see the accompa- for your herd, and a well-planned pasture-based nying box) and various popular books such as system eff ectively eliminates many disease vec- Southern Forages (Ball et al., 2007). tors and alleviates many nutritional disorders. Calves are subjected to many simultane- Your Local Cooperative Extension Offi ce ous stresses when they are weaned, castrated, Contact your local Cooperative Extension dehorned, inoculated, and off ered unfamiliar offi ce for information on poisonous plants, hay and grains. Calves exposed to these stress- forage-nitrate testing, and locally adapted ors become particularly prone to respiratory forages. The USDA maintains an online infections. However, calves that are castrated database of local Cooperative Extension early, naturally dehorned with a polled bull, and offi ces on its website: www.nifa.usda.gov/ weaned on grass tend to be healthier and gain Extension/index.html. The phone number weight more rapidly with fewer health problems. for your Cooperative Extension offi ce can be found in the county-government section of the local telephone directory. Disease Disease is a condition that usually occurs when he fi rst line an infectious agent comes in contact with an Internal and External Parasites of defense immuno-compromised animal. Stress factors Internal parasites are a problem in many parts in parasite usually underlie compromised immune systems. T Stress factors in cattle production include hun- of the U.S., notably in warmer, more humid control should be ger, heat, cold, dampness, wind, injury, fatigue, regions such as the South and East. Parasitism is maintaining optimal and rough handling. Infectious agents include manifested in cattle in a number of ways: livestock nutrition. viruses and bacteria, which cause many of the • Reduction in milk production disease conditions common to beef cattle. For more detailed information on cattle diseases, refer • Weight loss to your local county Extension agent. Many state • Lowered conception rate cooperative Extension services off er free pub- • Rough coats lications on the diseases endemic to their area. Th e Merck Veterinary manual also is a very good • Anemia reference on animal diseases, prevention, and • Diarrhea treatment. Refer to the Resources section of this The first line of defense in parasite control paper for information on how to obtain a copy should be maintaining optimal livestock nutri- of the manual. Producers should cooperatively tion. Th e second line of defense is to establish develop a herd-health plan with their veterinarian. specifi c management strategies that can reduce the incidence of parasitism. These strategies Plant Toxicity include the following: Livestock producers must pay careful attention • Pasture rotation to the negative health eff ects that certain plants can cause in livestock. Th ere are a number of • Grazing pastures no shorter than 3 to 4 common and economically important disorders: inches in height • Bloat • Dragging or clipping pastures • Grass tetany • Multispecies grazing, including poultry • Prussic acid poisoning • Monitoring with fecal samples • Nitrate poisoning • Barn sanitation • Fescue toxicosis Many producers have come to recognize that internal parasites cease to be a problem as animals • Consumption of poisonous plants become adapted to a diverse ecosystem and have Th ese conditions are covered in detail in the their nutritional needs met. Good health and nat- ATTRA publication Pasture, Rangeland, and ural immunity go a long way toward reducing the Grazing Management. Other good sources of incidence of both disease and parasitism.

Page 12 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Mass treatment of cattle is not necessarily Regardless, vaccination is a tool that should be warranted in grass-based systems because of this carefully considered by the producer and the natural immunity. It is much easier to determine veterinarian, but it is not meant to take the place which animals have natural immunity if they of good animal management. are treated individually as symptoms become However, vaccination is a recommended prac- apparent. Animals showing symptoms of para- tice especially for producers who sell live ani- sitism can be treated, and repeat off enders can mals rather than marketing beef products be culled. In this manner, the natural immunity directly off the farm or ranch. Animals that are of the herd can be selected for over time. not vaccinated and are subsequently co-mingled For more in-depth information, see the ATTRA with other animals after being moved to another publication Integrated Parasite Management facility will necessarily come into contact with for Livestock. pathogens that may reduce their ability to per- form. Some beef cooperatives and companies that market live animals from producers require A Word on Parasiticides specifi c vaccination regimes. Beef producers have historically relied on para- siticides (chemical dewormers) to combat such Producers should develop a vaccination program parasitic pests as the brown stomach worm, to address the risks of diseases endemic to their which can cause significant health and eco- region. Consult your veterinarian to determine nomic damage to a cow herd when infection is the types of vaccines recommended for your severe. A common practice is to alternate appli- area. For more information, see General Princi- cations of different paraciticide products to ples of Vaccination and Vaccines, in the Cow-Calf reduce the chance that the parasites will become Management Guide and Cattle Producers’ Library immune to a particular treatment. Many inject- listed in the Resources section of this paper. able and pour-on types of parasiticides are avail- able. Some dewormers are not biodegradable Integrating Cattle into and remain active in manure. Th ese products Cropping Systems become a part of the pasture environment, and Cattle have the potential to give value to cover several are thought to kill dung beetles and may crops in rotation when the crop otherwise might have other unintended side eff ects as well. If you not yield an economic return (Bender, 1998). plan to use a dewormer, your veterinarian can Many farmers utilize legume cover crops in recommend an appropriate application schedule rotation to build soil and increase soil nitro- for your area. gen for subsequent crops. Cover crops greatly For organic producers, the use of synthetic par- asiticides (Ivermectin) is restricted to breeding cattle before the last third of gestation and at no time during lactation. See the section on Organic Cattle Production for more information.

Vaccines Vaccination against disease is an accepted prac- tice in modern cattle production, including organic production, and should complement other preventative health management practices such as reducing stress, ensuring a balanced ration, and providing pasture access. Some “natural” cattle producers question vaccination and assert that providing for the development of natural immunity through farm bio-diversifi cation protects animals better than a vaccination regime. Vaccines are seen by these Cattle combine well with mixed cropping, as on this diversifi ed farm in Maryland. practitioners as a bypass of natural immunity. Photo: USDA-NRCS www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13 benefi t small-grain and vegetable yields with- Tillage is known to destroy soil structure, and out the use of soluble fertilizers. However, most when livestock impact is added, soil compaction cover crops are used as green manures and becomes a serious side eff ect. Row-crop farmers incorporated into the soil in preparation for can ameliorate soil-compaction problems by graz- subsequent crops. Cattle grazing on cover crops ing when the soil is dry. Also, discing to a depth can benefi t the farm system economically and of no more than 6 inches prior to planting the ecologically. Either by selling fed steers or by next crop can remedy soil compaction (Samples custom grazing yearlings, producers can make and McCutcheon, 2002). a fi nancial return on the land. Furthermore, If you are considering adding a grazing compo- soil fertility can be enhanced through increased nent to an existing cropping system, note that nutrient cycling (dunging and urine deposition, the cost of electric fencing and water delivery especially on intensively rotated paddocks). can eat up profi ts quickly unless these structures Here is a word of caution for graziers of crop are already in place. Consider grazing more residues: land that is tilled annually for row-crop valuable animals, such as steers or replacement production and subsequently grazed is at risk of heifers, instead of cows. Steers and heifers are soil compaction due to the impact of the animals. generally maintained for a short period of time, and you will not have to cover the yearly mainte- nance costs associated with keeping a cow herd. Nutrient Cycling Grazing cattle return 70% to 85% of the nutrients they consume back to Stocker Cattle Production the pasture in the form of manure and urine. However, the type of graz- Stocker cattle have been defined as young ing system being employed has a huge eff ect on how the nutrients in manure and urine are dispersed throughout the pasture. Nutrients are weaned cattle, usually weighing 500 to 700 returned to the soil in a much more uniform manner when a highly man- pounds, grazing on grass prior to fi nishing in aged, and highly animal-dense, rotational grazing system is used. The a feedlot. Th is enterprise can allow producers strategic placement of water, shade, and mineral sources helps distrib- to take advantage of livestock weight gains on ute cattle as well. Unless a high-density grazing system is used, nutrient relatively inexpensive feed (i.e., pasture). In most application throughout the pasture will be spotty at best, with some livestock operations, feed costs are the greatest areas having high concentrations and others very little. expense, but labor and health costs are often When manure applications are combined with nutrients from the dead greater in stocker operations (Powell and Troxel, leaves and roots of pasture plants, the nitrogen contribution to nutrient no date). A typical stocker operation is one in cycling can approach 280 pounds per acre each year in a moderately man- which cattle are received in the spring, placed aged grass-and-clover pasture (Bellows, 2001). Pastures with a legume in a receiving program (to acclimate them to component of 20% to 45% are more sustainable than grass the new operation), and then placed on pasture. pastures because the legumes contribute signifi cantly to nitrogen fertility. In the fall, cattle are sold through order-buyers, For more information, see ATTRA’s Nutrient Cycling in Pastures. sale barns, or other avenues such as video sales. (For example, see Superior Livestock Auctions at www.superiorlivestock.com.) Other opportu- nities include wintering the cattle and fi nishing them the following year on grass to produce grass-fi nished beef. As has been discussed above, this option requires some foresight in the area of marketing.

Receiving programs If you purchase calves from a sale barn, you likely will not know the health history of the animals. If this is the case, a good receiving program should be in place to get them over the stress of shipping and of fi nding themselves in a new envi- ronment. A good receiving program will get them on their feet quickly, so they can begin grazing and gaining weight as soon as possible. Vaccina- Stocker cattle under an intensive grazing system in Oklahoma. Photo: USDA-NRCS tions and proper cattle-handling techniques are

Page 14 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production very important during this time to minimize stress and decrease death loss during the Production Variables for a Grazing Budget stockering period. The publication Stocker • Animal costs: • Pasture costs: Cattle Management: Receiving Health Program - purchase price - seed from the University of Arkansas Cooperative - fertility Extension Service (Powell and Troxel) will - labor - equipment be helpful here since it details vaccinations - veterinary costs - baling costs for hay and other health-management practices you - supplemental feed - labor might need to consider if you are dealing with and / or minerals - land costs new calves on your ranch. In addition, the - insurance Noble Foundation has a paper that explains - property taxes its procurement of stocker cattle for its Con- - marketing costs - insurance trolled Rotation Grazing Unit and Pasture Demonstration Farm in Oklahoma (Dalrymple, no date). See also Beef Stocker USA at www. beefstockerusa.org for detailed research reports, Pastures and cost calculators, fact sheets, and news on the Grazing Management stockering business. A pasture is “a complex inter-relationship of plant, temperature, light, soil, organisms, nutri- Production Variables ents, water, and livestock that make the pasture for Grazing Operations a continually changing (dynamic) ecosystem” (Murphy, 1995). Pastures are the foundation of You may want to evaluate a prospective grass- sustainable livestock production. Th ey are best fi nished operation from an economic standpoint maintained by developing a planned grazing sys- to fi gure out a break-even price and determine tem that conserves the soil and plant resources whether fi nishing cattle is a viable option for while maximizing productivity within the natu- you. To do this, you will need to write a bud- ral limits of the particular of the farm. get. The ATTRA publication Grazing Con- tracts for Livestock contains a simple beef-cattle Soil fertility is the first thing to consider in budget you can use for this purpose. Another establishing or maintaining productive pas- good resource for developing a budget is Stocker tures. Phosphorus, potassium, and calcium lev- Enterprise Budgets for Grass-based Systems from els, as well as soil pH, are important for pasture- the University of Wisconsin, which is avail- sward quality, quantity, and persistence. Having able online at http://learningstore.uwex.edu/pdf/ the soil tested prior to establishing pasture, as A3718.pdf. Determine these costs on a per-animal basis to fi gure a break-even price for your animals. Any income over the break-even price is considered a profi t, and income under the break-even price is a loss. Montana State University has a simple online calculator that allows you to easily input your production costs to fi gure a break-even price and net return per head for a grass-fi nished or stock- ering operation. Th e Excel spreadsheet is avail- able at www.montana.edu/softwaredownloads/ software/grassfat.xls. In addition, OklahomaState University has an online Excel stocker break- even calculator available at http://beefextension. com/new site 2/sccalc.html, and Iowa State Uni- versity has calculators online at www.extension. iastate.edu/agdm/livestock/html/b1-21.html. Warm season in Litchfi eld County, Connecticut. Photo: USDA-NRCS www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15 well as periodic tests every 3 to 4 years, will help site and use specifi c. For instance, in the dairy develop a baseline of information on soil fertil- grazing country of the Northeast and Midwest, ity and will help you develop and implement a orchardgrass, perennial ryegrass, bromegrass, fertility-management plan. alfalfa, and red clover are appropriate. Tall fes- cue is an important grass in the upper regions Nitrogen is an important nutrient in pasture of the humid Southeast and Midwest, and ber- and forage systems. Nitrogen is much more vol- mudagrass, bahaigrass, and dallasgrass are well atile than other nutrients, and its management adapted to the beef cow-calf operations in the is a little diff erent. For instance, phosphorus and deep South. Kleingrass and lovegrass work well potassium can be applied during tillage to incor- in the Southwest, and for the semi-arid regions porate them into the soil profi le prior to plant- of the western mountain states, cool-season ing. Th ese nutrients will be available all season perennial grasses such as the wheatgrasses are long to support good quality and high yields. well adapted. And producers in the prairie states Nitrogen, however, travels more readily from graze acres of oldworld bluestems, grama, and the air to the soil and into plants. Using such other introduced and native grasses. Here are legumes as clover and alfalfa to supply nitrogen some of the main plant characteristics to con- to pasture plants is probably one of the most sider when choosing a forage species: economical practices—and most sustainable ome legumes from an ecological standpoint. According to • Soil type, including drainage, soil texture, fertility can fi x enough Gerrish (2007), some legumes can fi x enough atmospheric atmospheric nitrogen to provide the nutrient • Fertility regime (e.g., availability of S in amounts equivalent to around 200 pounds fertilizers and organic certifi cation) nitrogen to provide of nitrogen per acre. In this case, the • Adaptability of the forage species to the nutrient in limiting nutrient is often phosphorus, which the region amounts equivalent is required for legume production. Soil pH is • Competition from other species to around 200 another concern for legume-based pastures. Legumes need a pH of 6.5 to 7 to be fully pro- • Productive use (i.e., hay, silage and grazing) pounds of nitrogen ductive and to persist in grassy pastures. fertilizer per acre. • Animal enterprise (i.e., stocker steers, Proper seeding—including the time of planting, beef cow-calf operations and grass- the depth of planting, seed-to-soil contact, and fi nishing) weed competition—is also critically important Choose certifi ed forage seed when establishing for pasture establishment. Cool-season species new pastures. Certifi ed seed has been germi- such as annual ryegrass and white clover can be nation tested, and it will have both a germi- successfully seeded in the spring or fall simply nation percentage and a purity percentage on by broadcasting the seed over a perennial sod, the label. Th e weed-seed percentage also will be especially if the sod is grazed heavily to allow listed. Percent germination and percent purity the seed to work itself into the soil. Th is works help in determining pure live seed (PLS) for best if you broadcast the seed and then heav- planting purposes. ily graze with the cattle. Th e hoof action of the

cattle helps to incorporate the seed into the soil. Other species, especially the native warm-sea- Pure Live Seed (PLS) son perennial grasses like switchgrass and big The PLS seeding rate is determined by multi- bluestem, have low seedling vigor and are best plying the purity percentage of the seed by its established by being drilled into a well-prepared germination percentage. The PLS seeding rate seedbed. Weed control is critically important is then used to determine the amount of seeds in all forage establishments, but especially for to use for a correct seeding. Say, for example, native grasses. Planting at the proper time, till- that the PLS seeding rate of a particular seed ing, mowing, and using nurse crops can all help is 80%. In that case, you would divide 1 by .80, alleviate the negative eff ects of weeds on emerg- giving a proportion of 1.25. That means if you need to plant 10 pounds per acre of a forage ing forage seedlings. seed with a PLS seeding rate of 80%, the 10 Finally, the selection of appropriate plant spe- pounds would be multiplied by 1.25, equaling cies must be considered in order to establish and an actual seeding rate of 12.5 pounds per acre. maintain a productive forage crop. Th is is very

Page 16 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production A Word on Season Extension have on the pasture resource – including plants, soil, water, and organic matter. Th ere are many In many regions of the U.S., producers are ways to monitor pastures. Th e simplest method using diff erent plant species at diff erent times may be using photo points and comparing - to extend grazing beyond the summer grazing tographs of the same pasture each year to look season. In the humid South, annual ryegrass for trends. Other methods such as line transects is an excellent species, providing high yields of take more planning but provide crucial informa- digestible energy and protein well into the fall tion on how a pasture is responding to a grazing and winter and again in the spring. In other system. Range and Pasture Monitoring, in the areas, such as the lower Midwest and the upper Further Resources section of this paper, lists sev- southern states, tall fescue can be stockpiled and eral good resources to help producers design and strip-grazed well into the winter. Forage bras- implement an appropriate monitoring system. sicas such as turnips, radishes, and kales can be planted in the spring and strip-grazed in the fall for either lactating cows, stocker steers, or fi n- Grazing Systems ishing cattle. Off ered as strips, grain and stalks A grazing system rations out forage according to left in corn or milo fi elds after harvest provide animal requirements, allowing full plant recov- another source of good-quality feed into the ery while minimizing forage waste (Murphy, winter months. And in the cool-season-grass 1995). A sustainable grazing-management sys- asture regions of the northern latitudes, the summer tem has a number of elements: monitoring can be hard on grasses such as orchardgrass • Proper timing of grazing to correspond is a critical and ryegrass. Warm-season annuals like sor- to plant physiological stages P step in managing ghum-sudan or pearl millet can fi ll the sum- • Proper intensity of grazing (duration on mer gap when the cool-season grasses decline. productive pastures. the pasture) By the time the annuals have been grazed, fall rains and cooler temperatures usually result in a • Residue or plant height after grazing rebounding of cool-season grasses. • Plant recovery time after grazing In some regions, providing excellent grazing • Adaptive management of grazing time through the hottest summer months is the big- depending on pasture recovery rates gest challenge. Native grasses, summer annuals, (For example, grazing time on a pasture and interseeded legumes can off set this slump. may increase during less-productive times However, the costs of establishment—in time of the year to allow for more plant- and money—are justifi ed only if the resulting recovery time after grazing.) increase in livestock production translates into An example of a good grazing system is one suffi cient profi t. that employs a rotation in which animals are Rotational Grazing; Pastures: Sustainable Man- placed on a paddock (pasture subdivision) at agement; and Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing a high density and moved to another paddock Management, are companions to this ATTRA at the appropriate time. Most rotational graz- publications that provide further information ing systems utilize 10 or more paddocks to best on this subject. For detailed information on achieve the benefi ts of the system. Th is type of rotational grazing has been called planned graz- extending the grazing season, see the Grazing ing, cell grazing, controlled grazing, manage- Land Conservation Initiative (GLCI) publica- ment-intensive grazing, high-density grazing, tion Extending Grazing and Reducing Stored Feed and intensive rotational grazing. Whatever the Needs, available online at www.agry.purdue.edu/ name, the main point of this system is that it Ext/forages/pdf/ExtendingGrazing-Auburn.pdf. allows for more eff ective forage use through increased forage quality and through decreased Pasture Monitoring grazing selectivity due to highly dense numbers and Assessment of animals. Pasture monitoring is a critical step in manag- Intensive rotational grazing is a management ing productive pastures. Monitoring helps pro- system designed to maintain forages in their ducers analyze and assess their management growing stage throughout the grazing season. practices by observing the eff ects these practices Forage grasses are grazed prior to the reproductive www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 17 (seed) stage of development and allowed adequate western U.S. require more attention to timing, rest for regrowth prior to being grazed again. intensity, and frequency of grazing to maintain Th is is done to maintain the competitive nature rangeland health. Gadzia and Sayre (2009) dis- of grasses in a forage system by preventing them cuss three factors—timing, intensity, and fre- from getting too mature. Grazing grasses before quency—and off er expert advice on developing they go to seed also encourages tillering. Tiller- grazing systems on rangeland in the Range- ing occurs when new grass shoots grow from the land Health and Planned Grazing Field Guide, base of the plant, resulting in more leaf area and a developed by the Quivira Coalition. Th e guide more dense forage sward. So a strategy of grazing is available online at http://quiviracoalition.org/ grasses before their reproductive stage and leaving Detailed/QC_Publications/Field_Guides/Range- adequate leaf area for regrowth is an important land_Health_and..._83.html. See the Resources way to manage pastures for quality, quantity, and section of this paper for further details. weed resistance. As was mentioned above, fi nishing cattle should Overgrazing be grazed on slightly mature forages. Grazing Many times we are tempted to assume that over- forages when they are slightly mature contradicts grazing occurs when too many animals are on much of what we have learned about intensive the pasture. However, overgrazing is the result of grazing, in which cattle graze young forages that how much time animals are on pasture, not the are highly digestible. However, since forages that number of animals. In other words, overgrazing are nearing the boot stage of development have a is caused by allowing animals, whether many or better energy and protein balance than younger few, to remain on a pasture for too long. forages, finishing cattle will be better able to obtain all their nutrients from pasture, and grain Cattle select the most nutritious plants in a pas- supplementation becomes unnecessary. ture while they are grazing. Once a grass plant is grazed, it begins to regrow from growing points So rotational grazing systems that combine the close to the base of the plant. If animals are left basic elements of timely cattle movement, ade- on a pasture for more than a few days, cattle are quate pasture rest, and grazing forages at their likely to graze off the new growth, causing stress proper physiological stage can off er a successful to the plant. As plants are grazed successively in strategy for fi nishing cattle on grass. this manner, the grass’s root system will begin to Rotational grazing systems are appropriate for decline, and the plant will eventually die. Graz- temperate pastures as well as rangeland pastures. ing management is a matter of keeping an ani- However, grazing systems on rangeland in the mal from grazing new regrowth until it has had a chance to grow several inches and renew the root system’s energy stores. A grazing system allows adequate time for forage leaf and root regrowth. If not, an over- grazed pasture is the result. Th ere are a great many well-prepared resources available to assist producers in designing and implementing a controlled grazing system. ATTRA off ers the following publications: • Paddock Design, Fencing, and Water Systems for Controlled Grazing • Rotational Grazing • Nutrient Cycling in Pastures • Assessing the Pasture Soil Resource • Pastures: Sustainable Management • Managed Grazing in Riparian Areas

Overgrazing results in low forage and animal productivity and sustainability. • Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Photo: USDA-NRCS Management

Page 18 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Also see the Resources section at the end of Rest periods for various grasses and legumes are this publication for more books and websites on important when planning grazing. Rest peri- pastures and grazing management. ods are necessary for maintaining adequate recovery—both of above-ground plant growth Developing a Grazing System and root growth. For cool-season grasses and legumes, the rest period is approximately 20 When developing a new grazing system or mak- to 45 days, depending on the season and pre- ing a change in grazing management, a logical cipitation. For warm-season grasses, the rest fi rst step is to conduct an inventory of the farm’s period should be between 30 and 60 days, again resources. An aerial map of the farm is useful to depending on the season and precipitation. Rest mark fences, water supplies, and existing forage periods should be adequate to allow the forages resources. Writing down farm and family goals to regrow suffi ciently before the next grazing in this process makes it easier to stay on course event. Rest periods are also an important con- with management decisions. When a salesperson sideration when calculating the size and number is applying pressure, for instance, it helps to be of paddocks. able to evaluate the cost of the product against some chosen goal. Designing a grazing system is a matter of determining how much forage is available in a Implementing rotational grazing requires subdi- pasture to meet the needs of grazing livestock viding the land into paddocks, providing access and matching the forage resource to the live- to water, adjusting stocking rates, and monitoring stock’s dry-matter forage demand. Pastures grazing duration. Th ese decisions may seem over- must be of a suffi cient quality and quantity whelming at fi rst. Some of the reference materials for livestock to graze throughout the grazing listed at the end of this paper off er information season. Calculating dry-matter forage avail- about setting up paddocks to fi t the landscape, ability and livestock demand helps producers calculating stocking rates, and estimating forage to determine the allocation of forage resources yield and availability. For more information, see throughout the grazing season. It will also help the ATTRA publications Rotational Grazing, and producers further plan and document their Paddock Design, Fencing, and Water Systems for pasture management. Controlled Grazing.

Seasonal Adjustments Table 3: Pounds of forage available per inch (dry matter) Rotational grazing gives the livestock manager fl exibility in responding to the changing forage Dry matter pounds/acre/inch Forage species supply. During periods of rapid plant growth, Average Range cattle are moved quickly through paddocks. Alternatively, if equipment is available or the Alfalfa and grass mixes 225 75-400 work can be hired out, excess forage can be har- Arrowleaf clover 200 100-300 vested for feeding later. During periods of slow Bermudagrass 260 150-500 plant growth, delayed rotation allows plants in Caucasian bluestem 180 75-350 each paddock a longer time to recover after each grazing period. Crimson clover 200 100-300 Kentucky bluegrass 160 100-175 The Grazing Plan Native warm season grasses 100 50-250 A grazing plan is useful in evaluating forage Orchardgrass 180 75-300 productivity and in allocating the available for- Orchardgrass + clover 200 100-300 age supply based on the demands of the grazing Red clover 220 100-300 livestock. Th e plan also can help producers keep Annual ryegrass 250 75-400 good grazing records as well as visualize and anticipate the various changes that occur during Oats, wheat, rye 150 75-250 the grazing season. Some of the factors to track Tall fescue 210 100-350 in a grazing plan could be included in a grazing- Tall fescue + clover 190 80-325 land inventory, such as the number of acres, the number of paddocks, and the forage yield. Source: Ball et. al., 2006 www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 19 Forage availability, or yield, can be determined 4. Th e grazable forage (from step 2 above) in with a pasture ruler. A pasture ruler, which is pounds divided by the daily forage demand calibrated in inches, is placed end-up on the (from step 3 above) equals the number of ground. Each inch of forage height equals any- days animals can graze a paddock. where from 150 to 350 pounds of dry matter 5. The daily forage demand multiplied by per acre, depending on such factors as the loca- the number of grazing days, which is then tion, season, soil moisture, forage density and divided by the grazable forage, equals the forage species. To be accurate, this measure- paddock size in acres. ment should be calibrated for local conditions through a “clip-and-weigh” method. Forage is 6. Th e rest period in days divided by the num- clipped in a predetermined area and weighed, ber of days in the grazing period, which is adjusted for percent moisture, and the resulting then added to the number of herds, equals weight is multiplied by a constant to arrive at the number of paddocks. forage yield on a pound-per-acre basis. Publica- tions on this method can be obtained through Th e preceding formulas make it easier to set up your local Cooperative Extension service. Table paddocks appropriate for your herd and to allow 3 (on page 19) shows estimates for several forage for variation as the grazing season progresses. species. In addition, your local NRCS or Coop- Worksheets using these calculations are avail- ocal NRCS or erative Extension agent will likely have estimates able by contacting the author via ATTRA at Cooperative of forage yield for your area. 800-346-9140. LExtension The following formulas are used to help Many state GLCI organizations have developed agents will likely determine paddock sizes and the length of pocket-size pasture-record books that include use- ful forms for evaluating and documenting your have estimates of the grazing period: grazing plan. A good example is the Texas Graz- forage yield for 1. Th e total forage height in inches minus ing Notebook, developed by Texas GLCI. Th e your area. the grazing-residue height equals the notebook is available to be downloaded online at grazable-forage height. www.texasglci.org/docs/grazing.pdf. A list of other 2. The grazable-forage height in inches state GLCI coalitions is available on the national multiplied by the forage yield in pounds GLCI website at www.glci.org/links.htm. per acre inch equals the grazable forage in Also available is the Minnesota Extension pub- pounds per acre on a dry-matter basis. lication Grazing Systems Planning Guide, which 3. Th e number of animals multiplied by the is online at www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/ animals’ average weight, which is then livestocksystems/DI7606.html. In addition, the multiplied by the percentage of dry-mat- NRCS Grazing Lands Team has many online ter intake (or a forage-utilization measure), tools and publications to assist producers in doc- equals the daily dry-matter forage demand umenting a grazing plan. Th e NRCS Grazing in pounds of the grazing livestock. Lands website is www.glti.nrcs.usda.gov. Handling Cattle Successfully Forage Utilization Values By the very nature of animal agriculture, The percentage of dry-matter intake is cattle must be handled from time to time in expressed as a percentage of animals’ body every segment and phase of the production weight. For example, beef cattle consume chain. Recently, much attention has been given between 2% and 3% of their body weight to the importance of minimizing the accidents per day. Some producers choose to include in handling and shrink in transportation that in that percentage an accounting of forage cut away at a producer’s profi t. A well-designed wasted through, among other occurrences, handling system takes a number of factors into trampling, wildlife grazing, and insect activ- account: the welfare and behavioral tendencies ity. The wasted forage is usually equivalent to about 0.5% of animal body weight. Therefore, of the animal; ease of movement; effi cient and producers who consider forage utilization to safe operation by handlers; and the overall image be both dry-matter intake and wasted forage of livestock production as seen by the consumer. may adjust estimates of dry-matter intake. It is important then to consider the elements of proper cattle handling and the components of

Page 20 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Livestock-handling systems should be designed with consideration of the following factors: • Animal stress factors • Animal behavior • Safety and ease of handling by the operator

a well-organized cattle-handling system in the overall management of a beef farm or ranch. Temple Grandin, a livestock-handling consul- tant who has done extensive work on livestock psychology and its implications on handling, has a website that provides useful information on animal behavior and how it aff ects livestock Curved races facilitate the movement of cattle through the cattle handling facility. handling. Grandin’s website is www.grandin.com. Photo: Temple Grandin (www.grandin.com) suggested that corrals constructed with round Cattle Facilities holding pens, diagonal sorting pens, and curved Handling facilities must be constructed on level alleys enable more effi cient cattle handling by ground. Handling is very stressful, and acci- eliminating corners where animals could bunch dents are more likely to happen in the pens than up. In addition, curved alleys and chutes with on the pasture. If your farm is on very hilly solid sides facilitate better animal movement by land, the facility will need to be placed carefully. shielding their view from activities outside the Choose the most open area you have, and grade chutes. Th is makes the animals think they are it with a dozer or other appropriate equipment returning to their starting point. to achieve the most level working yard you can. Detailed information including plans and Th ere really is no alternative to constructing a specifi cations on livestock-handling systems safe, workable, and appropriate livestock-work- can be obtained from Grandin’s website at ing facility on open, level land. www.grandin.com. Working-chute dimensions for mature cattle Low-stress techniques of livestock handling have should be 26 to 28 inches wide with a mini- been gaining much attention due to the work of mum length of 20 feet. If the producer builds Bud Williams, a longtime cattle-handling expert a working chute with sloping sides, the width who has developed a method of low-stress han- at the bottom should be 16 inches. Th e fence dling. Low-stress livestock handling is a method for the working chute should be about 50 inches of controlling cattle movement by utilizing high, compared to 60 inches for the corral fence. the behavioral tendencies and herding patterns Crowding pens, which are used to force cattle of cattle. Th e handler’s mindset is of utmost into a chute, should be built to allow a den- importance in such a method. Handlers must sity of 10 square feet per head. Holding pens observe livestock behavior, looking for signs and should allow 17 square feet per head. Longer “tells” that communicate how stressed the ani- chutes tend to cause crowding and trampling at mals are, and approach and move them accord- the forward end, so they should be divided into ingly. Practitioners of low-stress handling realize sections with sliding gates. Th e sides should be that it take time to learn to handle cattle this solid, and the crowding pen should be half as way. To be successful, low-stress handling takes long as the working chute and up to 12 feet wide observation, patience, and a willingness to learn. at the open end. Th e following websites have extensive information According to Grandin, round pens or corrals on low-stress handling: were used for gathering herd animals more than 11,000 years ago in the Middle East. Grandin’s • Bud Williams Stockmanship research in animal-handling-facility design has http://stockmanship.com www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 21 • Hand in Hand Livestock Solutions loose-leaf binder of forms to help you analyze http://handnhandlivestocksolutions.com/ the data captured in the Redbook. For those • Stockmanship: Improving rangeland who would like to use electronic spreadsheets, health through appropriate livestock the Redbook is available as a CD or for down- handling, by Steve Cote load. Th ese NCBA materials are available online www.grandin.com/behaviour/principles/ at www.beefusa.org/prodredbooksandothertools. SteveCote.book.html aspx or by calling the NCBA at 800-525-3085. More information on this book can be found in the Further Resources Slaughter and section below. Meat Processing Beef Cattle Processing includes everything from slaughter to cutting and wrapping to storage. For most Record-Keeping Systems sales, meat must be processed in a federally or Production records are important to cattle pro- state-inspected processing plant, and the plant ducers because they are a helpful tool for evalu- must be organically certifi ed if the beef is to be ating animal performance and pasture usage. sold as certifi ed organic. Th is, unfortunately, has become a bottleneck in the organic- and small- he lack of Some of the important records to keep for a beef scale meat industry. Th ere are many farmers and herd include the following: processors ranchers who can and want to produce organic, Thas become • Animal identifi cation and/or grass-fi nished beef. Th ere are many cus- a bottleneck in the • Breeding and calving information tomers, as well, who would like to purchase sus- organic- and small- tainably raised animal products. But very few • Health and vaccination information small-sized processors remain who can create scale meat industry. • Pregnancy testing the link from farm gate to retail outlet, espe- • Culling information cially for small farmers who would like to direct- market their products. • Weaning and yearling weights and averages Small processors are particularly hard hit when • Rates of gain it comes to government regulation. Food-safety regulations, important as they are, remain heav- • Pasture condition and monitoring ily infl uenced by and developed for large-scale • Pasture usage meat processors. Many small-scale processors • Hay and forage yields operate on very tight margins just to stay in busi- ness, and just do not have the scale or size to In addition to production records, financial absorb the structural and equipment costs often records should be kept. Here are some impor- associated with large-plant-oriented food-safety tant items to keep track of for fi nancial analyses: regulations. But local food advocates, including • Animal inventory farmers and consumers, suggest that can best be assured through the small-scale, com- • Purchasing records munity-oriented linkages that occur between a • Sales receipts single farmer and the customers who purchase • Mineral supplement bills and their product. It is a matter of knowing where feeding records one’s food comes from, knowing the farmer who • Pasture and hay costs raises it, and understanding how they produce it that is the strength of local food systems. There are many very good record-keeping resources available to help cattle producers keep track of and analyze their productivity. The The USDA Food Safety and Inspection Service National Cattlemen’s Beef Association (NCBA) has a website providing outreach informa- off ers a pocket-size record book called the Red- tion to small and very small plant operators. book that can be used to record calving activity, www.fsis.usda.gov/Science/Small_Very_Small_ herd health, pasture usage, and cattle inventory. Plant_Outreach/index.asp Th e NCBA also has a desk record, which is a

Page 22 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production An alternative that some producers are devel- been released by the USDA Food Safety and oping is a small, mobile processing plant that Inspection Service (FSIS) to redress this issue. can be towed from farm to farm for slaugh- In the past, even though state-inspected proces- ter and initial cutting. Th e Lopez Community sors had to meet federal standards, producers Land Trust (LCLT) in northwest Washington have not been able to sell their state-inspected State has a website with information on mobile products in larger market areas, which may be processors. For more information on mobile just across the state border from where the clos- processors and LCLT visit www.extension.org/ est state-inspected processors are located. Gen- pages/Island_Grown_Farmers_Cooperative. In erally speaking, there are more state inspection addition, the Niche Meat Marketing Network facilities than USDA inspection facilities. And has resources available online to assist interested because there are fewer USDA facilities, trans- parties in developing mobile slaughter facilities portation and processing costs go up for beef and can be accessed at www.extension.org/pages/ producers—who end up having to travel long Mobile_Slaughter%2FProcessing_Units. distances to get their products processed. Th e mobile processing plant described earlier was It is important to note that mobile facilities are developed because, prior to its creation, livestock mostly slaughter facilities and do not provide producers had to transport their products over cut-and-wrap services. It is therefore necessary 300 miles to a USDA-inspected processing facil- for the producer to transport the carcasses to ity. Th at made it too costly for them to garner roper a USDA-inspected facility that can perform the added value that would have been possible if marketing further processing. In addition, the per-head a processor had been more close-by. costs associated with most mobile facilities are Pis a generally higher than the costs associated with a Th e FSIS is, as of this writing, reviewing com- time-consuming, stationary facility. ments to a proposal that would allow inter- ongoing process and state shipment of state-inspected meat. Infor- probably the most One avenue that might be feasible is to sell live mation on the proposal can be found on the animals directly to customers and off er them FSIS website at http://origin-www.fsis.usda.gov/ important part information on a local custom processor. Th e News_&_Events/NR_091509_01/index.asp and of a successful customer can pay the custom processor directly on the National Coali- grass-fi nished for their cutting order. Th is method is especially tion website at http://sustainableagriculture.net/ beef operation. promising for producers who sell very few ani- publications/grassrootsguide/local-food-systems- mals each year. rural-development/interstate-shipment-of-state- inspected-meat. Where to fi nd a small beef processor Interested producers can search for process- Marketing Overview ing plants through databases accessible from Demand is growing for organic and grass- the Niche Meat Processor Assistance Network, finished beef. However, marketing has been available online at www.nichemeatprocessing. one of the most daunting challenges farmers org. This website off ers links to USDA-inspected have encountered. For most producers, learn- plants and state-inspected plants as well as resources for meat-processing regulations and ing to market their products requires new skills mobile processing units. It also has information and considerable time. Some will choose direct- for prospective plant owners and operators. marketing venues such as farmers markets and direct sales, while others will opt for cooperative marketing. Becoming a member of a coopera- Interstate Shipment of tive is very attractive to many farmers because cooperatives give the farmer the ability to sell State-Inspected Meat products in much the same way as in the com- Finally, another issue has arisen from recent modity market, but often with a premium. federal-law changes that would allow beef pro- For detailed information regarding alternative ducers to sell state-inspected processed products marketing of beef products, see ATTRA’s Beef across state borders. A program was established Marketing Alternatives as well as Building a Mon- in the 2008 Farm Bill to allow for such a pos- tana Organic Livestock Industry, which includes sibility. Unfortunately, however, there is a pend- a cost-of-production survey and an examina- ing rule (as of December 2010) that has not yet tion of how organic beef producers in Montana www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 23 are accessing regional and national markets. an adequate margin. Margins of return allow In a broader sense, this report provides an the producer to be paid back for their invest- understanding of the value chain of the organic ment, for re-investment into the operation, and grass-fi nished beef market from the producer for profi t. Also of crucial importance is a clearly to consumer. The report is available online identifi ed target market. Proper marketing is a at www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/ time-consuming, ongoing process and probably, summary.php?pub=203. as was stated earlier, the most important part of a successful grass-fi nished beef operation. Also available from ATTRA is the Natural Live- stock Feasibility Study, which explores the feasi- In addition to the above-mentioned ATTRA bility of producers developing alternative mar- resources, the SARE publication How to Direct kets for livestock in Inyo and Mono counties Market Your Beef, available online at www.sare. of California. Th is report is available online org/publications/beef.htm, is a very useful tool. at www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/summaries/ It portrays how one couple used their family’s summary.php?pub=202. ranch to launch a profi table grass-based beef operation focused on direct-market sales. From A marketing plan must account for all costs slaughtering to packaging, through labeling and of production, including processing, packag- advertising, the authors transform their real-life ing, cold storage, label approval, label design experiences into a compelling narrative rich with and printing, advertisement, transportation practical tips. and labor, as well as other considerations such as website development. In this way, a producer For additional information on marketing see the can determine wholesale or retail pricing to set Further Resources section.

Acknowledgement Special thanks to Allen Williams, Ph.D., an animal scientist with Th e Jacob Alliance, LLC, for providing technical review for this publication.

Page 24 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Case Study: Forks Farm, Orangeville, Pennsylvania By Hannah Sharp, NCAT Agriculture Intern on-farm market for locals twice a month, to which he also now Forks Farm, located in Orangeville, Pennsylvania, was started by invites some of his friends to sell such products as eggs and veg- John Hopkins in 1986. The farm, which began with just a few etables, which broadens the appeal for customers. cows, has become a year-round, 100% grass-fed beef opera- Processing: the largest obstacle to direct marketing tion that now also off ers poultry, pork, and lamb. The 86-acre A lack of access to processing facilities is the biggest challenge farm includes 50-70 acres of pasture, of which 35 acres are high- for Forks Farm. There used to be a lot of local butchers, many of quality pasture. Hopkins comes from a traditional-agriculture whom would come out to the farm to do the processing, which background in Colorado. When he started the farm with only meant less stress for the animals. There is a second-generation six cows, Hopkins discovered that the conventional route just butcher just 6 miles away from the farm. Unfortunately, however, wasn’t economical. He had a lot of learning to do about grass- he can only do custom orders. To sell individual cuts, producers fi nished beef and direct marketing; he began by reading books need to take their animals to a federal inspection facility, which by farmer, lecturer and author Joel Salatin. After some success is costly and diffi cult. The local butcher is only state-inspected, fi nishing beef on grass, Hopkins became a 100% grass-fed and so Hopkins must drive his animals two hours to the nearest fed- grass-fi nished beef producer. He produces his beef in sync with eral inspection facility. The demand for grass-fed beef is now so the other animals and the ecology of the farm. For example, the high that he has to make his appointments one year in advance. cows eat the grass down, letting the clover grow in. Then the Trucking the animals to the facility is expensive, and it creates chickens go through to spread the manure, eat the clover, and a lot of stress for them. As of this writing, he sells his beef for allow the grass to take over. The cattle eat the grass, and the next $3.40 per pound, $1 of which goes to shipping. In addition to cycle begins. The chickens also provide fl y and worm control. processing, the price of land in the area is an issue. Because The key to Hopkins’ herd-health plan is providing good-quality of land prices, many people simply can’t aff ord to buy a farm. pasture, keeping the animals outside and moving in a good envi- The Marcellus Shale gas drilling in Pennsylvania has had a huge ronment, and keeping an eye on them. He hasn’t wormed the impact on this as well. herd in several years because they seem to have developed a The biggest opportunity Hopkins foresees lies in the market. resistance that makes it unnecessary. He feeds the animals kelp, He says that if you can secure processing and have a good mar- salt, and a commercial mineral mix to keep them healthy. Simply keting plan in place, there has never been a better time to be a observing the animals is also a crucial component. For example, grass farmer or a direct-market farmer. Grass farmers have never if he suspects that an animal has worms, he will worm it using had better tools, including solar water pumps, more in-depth Basic H and diatomaceous earth for parasite control. knowledge of genetics, and new varieties of grasses. In addi- Pastures: the foundation of grass-fed production tion to the market, some of the best opportunities Hopkins has experienced have come from the relationships and friendships Hopkins practices intensive rotational grazing, and he focuses he has made by dealing directly with customers. on grazing and pasture management, with serious consideration given to the animals’ genetics because some breed-types of Visit John Hopkins’s Forks Farm Market online at cattle are better for grass-fed operations than others. Invasive www.forksfarmmarket.com. species such as knotweed and Japanese stilt grass are the big- gest pasture problem at Forks Farm. These species aff ect the pas- ture ecology by competing for resources with important forage species. Hopkins mows the invasive species and digs some out by hand to give the desirable species an opportunity to grow. In addition, Hopkins uses pigs to root up some of the invasive species and renovate pastures for the beef cattle. After the pigs leave a pasture, he overseeds the disturbed area with a pasture- seed mix and allows the cattle to trample it in. What results is a pasture for cattle the following year. Direct Marketing Forks Farm initially began selling to friends and local custom- ers. Hopkins began working with customers through buying clubs in 2007. Club customers in a particular region send their orders, which are packed and delivered to each buying club on a monthly basis. This enables Hopkins to know what to pack in advance, as opposed to going to farmers markets, where sales can vary greatly. Hopkins charges 25 cents per pound for pack- ing, which covers some fuel costs, and requires a $1,000 order per club per drop. As its markets have grown, Forks Farm has Grass-based cattle production is inherently resilient because of essentially become a year-round operation. Hopkins hosts an reliance on renewable pasture resources. Photo: USDA-NRCS www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 25 References Mathews, Kenneth H. Jr. and Rachel J. Johnson. 2010. Grain and Grass Beef Production Systems, in Live- Ball, D., C. Hoveland, and G. Lacefi eld. 2007. Southern stock, Dairy, & Poultry Outlook, June 18. Economic Forages. International Plant Nutrition Institute, Norcross, Research Service, USDA. www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ GA. http://ppi-store.stores.yahoo.net/soutfor.html LDP/2010/06Jun/ldpm192.pdf

Balsom, Toby and Graham Lynch. 2008. Monitoring pas- Mintel. 2009. and Drink Retailing Report, ture quality using brix measurements. Agri-Réseau, Quebec. November. www.mintel.com www.agrireseau.qc.ca/bovinsboucherie/documents/ Brix_Measurements%5B1%5D.pdf Murphy, Bill. 1995. Pasture Management to Sustain Agriculture. In: : Th e Science of Sustainable Bellows, B. 2001. Nutrient Cycling in Pastures. Agriculture, 2nd ed. Edited by Miguel A. Altieri. Westview NCAT/ATTRA, Butte, MT. Press, Boulder, CO. p. 321-347

Bender, M. 1998. Beef cattle fi nishing in summer/fall in Phillips, W.A., G.W. Horn, B.K. Northup and W.S. a strip cropping system. Research Damron. 2009. Challenges and opportunities for forage- Foundation, Santa Cruz, CA. based beef production systems. In: Farming with Grass: Achieving Sustainable Mixed Agricultural Landscapes. Dalrymple, R.L. No date. Stocker Cattle: A Rapid Receiving Edited by Alan J. Franzluebbers. Soil and Water and Controlled Stress Program. Th e Samuel Roberts Noble Conservation Society, Ankeny, IA. Foundation.www.noble.org/ag/forage/stressprogram/index.html Powell, Jeremy and Tom R. Troxel. No date. Stocker Dhuyvetter, John. 1995. Beef Cattle Frame Scores. North Cattle Management: Receiving Health Program. University Dakota State University Extension. www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/ of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service. www.uaex.edu/ ansci/beef/as1091w.htm Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-3065.pdf

Huston, J. E., F. M. Rouquette, Jr., W. C. Ellis, H. Lippke, Samples, Dave and Jeff McCutcheon. 2002. Grazing Corn and T. D. A. Forbes. 2002. Supplementation of Grazing Residue. Ohio State University. http://ohioline.osu.edu/ Beef Cattle. Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. anr-fact/0010.html

Gadzia, K. and N. Sayre. 2009. Rangeland Health and Sayre, N. 2001. Th e New Ranch Handbook: A Guide to Planned Grazing Field Guide, Fourth Edition. Earth Works Restoring Western . Th e Quivira Coalition, Institute, Th e Quivira Coalition and the Rio Puerco Santa Fe, NM. Management Committee. http://quiviracoalition.org/ Smith, Troy. 2006. Grass Gains: Grass feeding can off er Detailed/QC_Publications/Field_Guides/Rangeland_Health_ effi ciency, environmental and economic benefi ts. Angus and..._83.html Journal, February, p. 210-212. www.angusjournal.com/ Gerrish, Jim. 2007. Can Legume Nitrogen Do It Alone? articlePDF/Grassgains.pdf Beef Magazine. April. http://beefmagazine.com/pasture-range/ USDA. 2006a. National Organic Program Standards. jim-gerrish/legume_nitrogen Agricultural Marketing Service. www.ams.usda.gov/nop/ Grandin, Temple. Livestock Behaviour, Design of Facilities indexIE.htm. and Humane Slaughter. www.grandin.com USDA. 2006b. Watering Systems for Serious Graziers. Huntrods, Diane. 2009. Organic Beef Profi le. AgMRC, Missouri NRCS. www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov/news/pubs_ download/out/Watering%20Systemslow.pdf Iowa State University. Originally published in 2006 by Reginald Clause, Iowa State University. www.agmrc.org/ USDA. 2007. USDA Establishes Grass (Forage) Fed commodities__products/livestock/beef/organic_beef_profi le.cfm Marketing Claim Standard. AMS News Release No. 178-07, October 15. Jackson, K. No date. Choosing the Right Supplement. Land O’Lakes Feed. www.beefl inks.com/choosing_the_right_ USDA. 2010. Pasture Rule – FAQs. www.ams.usda.gov/NOP supplement.htm (select Pasture Rulemaking Information from the menu on the right side of the page) Kopp, Juanita. No date. Grass Fed Beef – An Argentinean Experience. Manitoba Agriculture, Food and Rural Initiatives. Williams, Allen. 2010. Personal communication. http://gov.mb.ca/agriculture/livestock/nutrition/bza40s17.html Th e Jacob Alliance, LLC.

Page 26 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Further Resources North Adams, MA 01247 413-346-2100 Animal Health www.storey.com/book_detail.php?isbn=9781580176057&cat= Alternative and Herbal Livestock Health Sourcebook. Animals By Tom Morris and Michael Keilty. Northeast Regional Th is book is a comprehensive work covering all aspects of Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program pasture-based beef production from a practical standpoint. www.cag.uconn.edu/plsc/plsc/ahlh%20sb-web.pdf Well-written and full of anecdotes on the reality of beef-cattle farming and ranching, it is a must for anyone considering Alternative Treatments for Ruminant Animals. raising and selling sustainably raised beef. 2004. By Paul Dettloff . Acres USA, Austin, TX. 1-800-355-5313 www.acresusa.com/books/closeup. asp?prodid=1236&catid=12&pcid=2 Beef Marketing Coops, Processors, A natural, sustainable approach to ruminant health. and Firms Each chapter discusses interrelated biological systems, Niche Meat Processor Assistance Network including digestive, reproductive, respiratory, circulatory, Arion Th iboumery and musculoskeletal. Iowa State University Merck Veterinary Manual, Ames, IA 50011 Merck Publishing Group, Merck & Co., Inc. 415-260-6890 P.O. Box 2000 RY84-15, www.nichemeatprocessing.org Rahway, NJ 07065 Rules and regulations; mobile slaughter/processing plants; 732-594-4600 niche meat processor case studies; business development; www.merckbooks.com/mvm/index.html workforce management; plant design and construction; www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp webinars; and videos. Th e online text version is an authoritative reference for Coleman Natural Foods animal health, disease, and management information. 1667 Cole Blvd Building 19, Suite 300 Beef Cattle Production Denver, CO 80216 Beef Cattle Resources 800-442-8666 Virtual Livestock Library, Oklahoma State University www.colemannatural.com http://pods.dasnr.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/View/ Collection-242 Dakota Beef, LLC Th e site off ers online publications on cattle management, 507 E. Highway 34 including health, reproduction, and marketing, among Howard, SD 57349 other topics. 605-772-5339 www.dakotabeefcompany.com Cow-Calf Corner http://cowcalfcorner.okstate.edu Laura’s Lean Beef Timely management tips of interest to cow-calf producers. 1517 Bull Lea Road, Suite 210 Lexington, KY 40511 Cow-Calf Management Guide and Cattle Producer’s 899-299-7707 Library www.laurasleanbeef.com University of Idaho Moscow, ID 83844-2330 Organic Valley Family of Farms, CROPP Cooperative 208-885-6345 507 W. Main St. www.avs.uidaho.edu/wbrc La Farge, WI 54639 Developed by the Western Beef Resource Committee. 888-809-9297 Produced by the Animal and Veterinary Science Department, www.farmers.coop College of Agricultural and Life Sciences of the University Organic dairy and beef cooperative. of Idaho. Collection of fact sheets in manual form. Ozark Pasture Beef Available in print, CD, or online. 15204 Cincinnati Rd Grass-Fed Cattle: How to Produce and Market Natural Fayetteville, AR 72704 Beef. 2006. By Julius Ruechel. Storey Publishing. 479-409-8772 210 MASS MoCA Way www.ozarkpasturebeef.com www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 27 Tallgrass Beef Company www.grandin.com/behaviour/principles/SteveCote.book.html Corporate Mailing Address: Livestock handling techniques to improve rangeland and Tallgrass Beef Company, LLC pastureland health. Stockmanship, published by NRCS and the 103 East Main Street, Suite 1 Butte Soil and Water Conservation District, is based on Cote’s Sedan, KS 67361 many years of experience studying low-stress livestock handling. 877-822-8283 Watering Systems for Serious Graziers. 2006. www.tallgrassbeef.com Grass-fed and grass-fi nished beef marketing fi rm. Missouri NRCS www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov/news/pubs_download/out/ Livestock Housing, Equipment, Watering%20Systemslow.pdf and Handling Marketing and Economics Beef Housing and Equipment Handbook. 1986. NRAES. Agricultural Marketing Resource Center www.nraes.org/nra_order.taf?_function=detail&pr_ www.agmrc.org id=144&_UserReference=72DF675E08F7E5D34B4212A7 National information service for value-added agriculture. NRAES Cooperative Extension Section on marketing of natural beef located at www.agmrc. P.O. Box 4557 org/commodities__products/livestock/beef/natural_beef.cfm. Ithaca, NY 14852-4557 Extensive resources in marketing and processing, including 607-255-7654 numerous case studies. Current recommendations for beef producers are summarized in this complete housing How to Direct Market Your Beef guide. Essential components for an effi cient operation, such USDA Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education as building design, operation size, and equipment are (SARE) program. discussed. Drawings, tables, and discussions to help improve, www.sare.org/publications/beef.htm expand, and modernize an operation are included. Topics SARE Outreach Publications include cow-calf, cattle-handling, and cattle-feeding facilities; PO Box 753 feed storage, processing, and handling; water and waterers; Waldorf, MD 20604-0753 manure management; farmstead planning; building 301-374-9696 construction, materials, ventilation, and insulation; Th is 2005 publication portrays how one couple used their fences; gates; and utilities. family’s ranch to launch a profi table grass-based beef operation Fencing Systems for Serious Graziers. 2005. focused on direct-market sales. From slaughtering to packaging, Missouri NRCS through labeling and advertising, Jan and Will Holder trans- www.mo.nrcs.usda.gov/news/pubs_download/out/MO%20 form their real-life experiences into a compelling narrative NRCS%20Electric%20Fencing_low.pdf rich with practical tips. Livestock Behaviour, Design of Facilities and Humane Th e Legal Guide for Direct Farm Marketing. Slaughter. By Temple Grandin, Ph.D. By Neil D. Hamilton. Grandin Livestock Handling System, Inc., Th e Agricultural Law Center, Drake University 2918 Silver Plume Drive, Unit C3 2507 University Avenue Fort Collins, CO 80526 Des Moines, IA 50311 970-229-0703 515-271-2065 www.grandin.com An up-to-date, well-written primer on all the legal Grandin is America’s foremost expert in livestock psychology considerations related to direct marketing of agricultural and handling-system design. Her website is full of resources to products. Underwritten by a USDA SARE grant, this assist producers in laying out and building livestock-handling publication includes a chapter on the marketing of meat. facilities with the animal in mind. Th e Beef Cattle Behaviour Th is publication is available for $20 through the Agricultural Handling and Facilities Design Book (2nd edition) also can Law Center. Please include your name, address, and phone be ordered from the website. number. Someone will contact you to fi nalize billing information. Volume discounts may apply. Stockmanship: Improving rangeland health through appropriate livestock handling. By Steve Cote. P.O. Box 819, 125 So. Water St. Periodicals Arco, ID 83213 Beef Magazine 208-527-8557 http://beefmagazine.com Also available online at: 7900 International Drive, Suite 300

Page 28 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production Minneapolis, MN 55425 One of the nation’s premier publications on the art and 952-851-9329 science of grass farming. A free sample copy is available. Publishes 12 monthly issues for cow-calf operators, stocker-growers, cattle feeders, veterinarians, nutritionists, Rangeland Management and allied industries. Foraging Behavior: Managing to Survive in a World of Graze Change; Behavioral Principles for Human, Animal, P.O. Box 48 Vegetation, and Ecosystem Management. By Fred Provenza, Belleville, WI 53508 Ph.D., Utah State University. 608-455-3311 www.behave.net/products/booklet.html www.grazeonline.com/index.html Highlights, with the use of case studies, some simple strategies A monthly publication dedicated to promoting the that use knowledge of behavior to improve the effi ciency and practice of intensively managed grazing. profi tability of grassland agriculture; the quality of life for managers and their animals; and the integrity of the environ- Hay and Forage Grower ment. Th e scientifi c research and real-life situations presented 7900 International Drive, Suite 300 in this booklet provide insight into why animals act as they Minneapolis, MN 55425 do, and how understanding their behavior can improve 952-851-9329 operations in any part of the country. http://hayandforage.com Th is magazine covers a wide range of forage-related topics, Grazing Management: An Ecological Perspective. from stand establishment to harvesting and marketing. It By Rodney K Heitschmidt and Jerry W. Stuth. 1991. includes information on alfalfa as well as all other forage Timber Press, Portland, OR. crops for use as hay, silage, or rotational grazing. Available online at http://cnrit.tamu.edu/rlem/textbook/ textbook-fr.html In Practice Th is book was written to help resource managers broaden Holistic Management International their perspective relative to the management of grazing 1010 Tijeras Ave. NW animals and to heighten their awareness of the role they Albuquerque, NM 87102 play in maintaining the integrity of ecological systems 505-842-5252 (from the foreword). www.holisticmanagement.org Bi-monthly publication of Holistic Management Holistic Management International International. 1010 Tijeras Ave. NW Albuquerque, NM 87102 Rangelands 505-842-5252 Online version available at: www.holisticmanagement.org www.srmjournals.org HMI is a goal-oriented decision-making system for ecological Society for Range Management management of resources, people, and capital. 10030 W. 27th Avenue Wheat Ridge, CO 80215 Intermountain Planting Guide A publication of the Society for Range Management. It features Th e USDA Agricultural Research Service, Utah State scientifi cally based information in a user-friendly format. University, (USU) Logan, UT. Order from USU Extension Publications, 435-797-2251 Th e Forage Leader Also available online at http://extension.usu.edu/htm/ American Forage and Grassland Council publications P.O. Box 94 Guidelines on the establishment and management of dryland Georgetown, TX 78627 and irrigated pastures in the Intermountain West, including 800-944-2342 planting tables for various range sites. www.afgc.org A quarterly magazine published by the American Forage Ranch Management Consultants, Inc. and Grassland Council. 953 Linden Ave Fairfi eld, CA 94533 Th e Stockman Grass Farmer 707-429-2292 P.O. Box 2300 www.ranchmanagement.com/index.html Ridgeland, MS 39158-9911 RMC provides high-quality education and support programs 601-853-1861; 800-748-9808 for the livestock industry. Th e Ranching For Profi t School http://stockmangrassfarmer.net and Executive Link programs provide the knowledge and www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 29 support farmers and ranchers need to improve their land, Th is publication provides information about forage quality their lives and their bottom line. and forage testing that can be used to increase animal performance and producer profi ts. Rangelands West Western Rangelands Partnership, Agriculture Network Management-Intensive Grazing: Th e Grassroots of Information Center, University of Arizona. Grassfarming. By Jim Gerrish, Green Park Publishing. http://rangelandswest.org Th is book can be obtained through Th e Stockman Web-based educational tools and information to assist Grassfarmer’s Bookshelf at 800-748-9808 or online at resource managers to improve rangelands and maintain www.stockmangrassfarmer.net/Bookshelf.html sustainability. Th e industry standard for growing and managing pastures for sustained livestock production. Quivira Coalition 1413 Second Street, Suite 1 Missouri Grazing Manual. By James R. Gerrish, College Santa Fe, NM 87505 of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources; and Craig 505-820-2544 A. Roberts, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural www.quiviracoalition.org/index.html Resources. Order from University of Missouri Extension Publications on ecological resource management, including publications, 573-882-7216. range management, grazing, road construction, monitoring, http://muextension.missouri.edu/explore/manuals/m00157.htm and managing resources at the urban-rural interface. Th is manual is designed to acquaint readers with the principles on which successful grazing management is based. Temperate and Humid It brings together a group of researchers, educators and Pasture Management producers with broad experience in land management and forage/livestock systems to provide a comprehensive Grazing Systems Planning Guide. By Kevin Blanchet, guide to understanding and managing grassland ecosystems. University of Minnesota Extension Service; Howard Moechnig, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Southern Forages. 4th Edition. 2007. By Donald Ball, Minnesota Board of Water & Soil Resources; and Carl S. Hoveland, and Garry D. Lacefi eld. Jodi DeJong-Hughes, University of Minnesota Extension International Plant Nutrition Institute, Norcross, GA. Service. University of Minnesota Extension Service Available for $35 from: Distribution Center International Plant Nutrition Institute. 405 Coff ey Hall, 1420 Eckles Avenue Suite 110 St. Paul, MN 55108-6068 655 Engineering Drive Th e guide can be viewed or downloaded at www.extension. Norcross, GA 30092 umn.edu/distribution/livestocksystems/DI7606.html (770) 447-0335 Delineates the components of a grazing system by taking the http://ppi-store.stores.yahoo.net/soutfor.html farmer through the grazing-management planning process. Th is is a classic of forage-management literature. It provides information on fertility, haying and silage systems, establishment, Extending Grazing and Reducing Stored Feed Needs. 2008. weed control, grazing management, and the selection of By Don Ball, Ed Ballard, Mark Kennedy, Garry Lacefi eld, forage species. It also features great tables and charts to help and Dan Undersander. A Grazing Lands Conservation the reader synthesize and understand the concepts. Initiative publication. www.agry.purdue.edu/Ext/forages/pdf/ TAMU Overton Research Center – Forages. ExtendingGrazing-Auburn.pdf Texas A&M University. A must for producers who need to reduce feed inputs by using http://overton.tamu.edu grazing to meet the needs of livestock. Th e publication details Although a site addressing principally East Texas pastures, various techniques such as using species of diff ering growth hab- the information researched, developed, and presented by the its and season in tandem to lengthen the grazing season. It also researchers and specialists at Overton has a wide applicability, addresses species selection, stockpiling, manipulating stocking especially for southern humid forage systems. Information is rate, crop rotations, and using stored forages more effi ciently. available on legume production, variety trials, grazing systems, and supplementation on pasture. Understanding Forage Quality. 2001. By D. M. Ball, M. Collins, G. D. Lacefi eld, N. P. Martin, D.A. Mertens, K. E. Olson, D. H. Putnam, D. J. Undersander, and Range and Pasture Monitoring M. Wh. Wolf. American Farm Bureau Federation Publica- Grazing Lands Technical Publications, USDA NRCS tion 1-01, Park Ridge, IL Grazing Lands Technology Institute www.aces.edu/dept/forages/hay/ForageQuality.pdf www.glti.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/publications/index.html

Page 30 ATTRA Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production • Guide to Pasture Condition Scoring. Developed by Web Soil Survey (WSS) provides soil data and information GLTI in May 2001, the guide is used to inform land- produced by the National Cooperative Soil Survey. It is owners as well as professionals about the 10 indicators of operated by the USDA Natural Resources Conservation pasture condition and the six causative factors aff ecting Service (NRCS) and provides access to the largest natural plant vigor, with a procedure to assess each indicator. resource information system in the world. NRCS has soil maps and data available online for more than 95 percent of • Pasture Condition Score Sheet. A tool to record the the nation’s counties and anticipates having 100 percent in condition of the indicators and evaluate the pasture. the near future. Th e site is updated and maintained online Th is goes with the Guide to Pasture Condition Scoring. as the single authoritative source of soil survey information. • Monitoring Manual for Grassland, Shrubland and Database for Inventory, Monitoring and Assessment, Savanna Ecosystems. Developed with the ARS Jornada USDA, ARS, Jornada Experimental Range Experimenal Range, this manual describes how to monitor http://usda-ars.nmsu.edu/monit_assess/db_main.php three rangeland attributes: soil and site stability, water- Th e Rangeland Database and Field Data Entry System is shed function and biotic integrity. Nearly everything a Microsoft Access database that can be easily used without we value about rangelands depends on these attributes. Access knowledge. Th e database was developed to increase Monitoring these three attributes is like monitoring the data entry speed and precision in both fi eld and offi ce. Data foundation of our rangeland ecosystems. Th e measure- can be rapidly entered in the fi eld with user-specifi ed choice ments used to monitor these attributes also can be used lists. Th e database can be easily customized to suit the user’s to generate indicators relevant to specifi c management needs. It has many applications including: monitoring, objectives, such as maintaining wildlife habitat, collecting quantitative data to support rangeland assessments, biodiversity conservation or producing forage. collecting qualitative data to assess range health, and documenting ecological site descriptions. • Interpreting Indicators for Rangeland Health, Version 4. Technical Reference 1734-6, dated 2005, is a booklet Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) Pasture developed through inter-agency coordination between Condition Score Sheet, USDA NRCS the BLM, NRCS, ARS, and USGS. It provides land www.agry.purdue.edu/forageday/2005/article/ specialists with the tools to do a preliminary evaluation PSC-Handout%20only.pdf of soil/site stability, hydrologic function, and integrity Easy to use single-page assessment that scores various of the biotic community on rangelands. attributes, such as percent cover, plant diversity, residue, plant vigor, and soil compaction, among others. • Sampling Vegetation Attributes. Developed by an interagency group, this reference material will help Wyoming Range Monitoring Manual, University of you determine what kind of sampling technique to Wyoming Cooperative Extension use and how to set up and run monitoring studies. http://ces.uwyo.edu/PUBS/B1065.pdf Guidebook for selecting the appropriate methodology for USDA NRCS Web Soil Survey Database gathering rangeland monitoring information, tracking http://websoilsurvey.nrcs.usda.gov/app/HomePage.htm management, and interpreting of results.

www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 31 Organic and Grass-f inished Beef Cattle Production By Lee Rinehart, CGP NCAT Agriculture Specialist Published February 2011 © NCAT Rich Myers, Editor Amy Smith, Production This publication is available on the Web at: www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/cattleprod.html or www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/cattleprod.pdf IP305 Slot 300 Version 030211

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