Page semi-protected John F. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "JFK", "John Kennedy", and "Jack Kennedy" redirect here. For other uses, see JFK (disambiguation), John Kennedy (disambiguation), and Jack Kennedy (disambiguati on). John F. Kennedy John F. Kennedy, White House color photo portrait.jpg 35th President of the In office January 20, 1961 November 22, 1963 Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson Preceded by Dwight D. Eisenhower Succeeded by Lyndon B. Johnson United States Senator from Massachusetts In office January 3, 1953 December 22, 1960 Preceded by Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. Succeeded by Benjamin A. Smith II Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 11th district In office January 3, 1947 January 3, 1953 Preceded by James Michael Curley Succeeded by Tip O'Neill Personal details Born John Fitzgerald Kennedy May 29, 1917 Brookline, Massachusetts, U.S. Died November 22, 1963 (aged 46) Dallas, Texas, U.S. Resting place Arlington National Cemetery Political party Democratic Spouse(s) Jacqueline Bouvier (19531963; his death) Relations See Children 4, including Caroline Bouvier, John Jr., and Patrick Bouvier Parents Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy Alma mater Harvard University (S.B.) Profession Politician Religion Roman Catholic Signature Cursive signature in ink Military service Allegiance United States of America Service/branch Years of service 19411945 Rank US-O3 insignia.svg Lieutenant Unit Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 Battles/wars World War II Solomon Islands campaign Awards Navy and Marine Corps Medal ribbon.svg Navy & Marine Corps Medal Purple Heart BAR.svg Purple Heart American Defense Service ribbon.svg American Defense Service American Campaign Medal ribbon.svg American Campaign Asiatic-Pacific Campaign ribbon.svg Asiatic-Pacific Campaign (3 bronze service stars) World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg World War II Victory[1] John F. Kennedy, White House photo portrait, looking up.jpg This article is part of a series about John F. Kennedy U.S. Navy Service in WWII Family Career in the U.S. Congress Marriage to Jacqueline Bouvier President of the United States Campaign for the Presidency 1960 Inauguration Speech Presidency Foreign Policy Doctrine "A Strategy of Peace" Bay of Pigs Civil Rights Address Partial Nuclear Test Ban T reaty Clean Air "We choose to go to the Moon" Space programs Mercury Gemini Apollo Assassination and legacy November 22, 1963 State Funeral Eternal Flame Memorials Library Legacy John F Kennedy Signature 2.svg President of the United States v t e John Fitzgerald Kennedy (May 29, 1917 November 22, 1963), commonly known as Jack Kennedy or by his initials JFK, was an American politician who served as the 35 th President of the United States from January 1961 until his assassination in N ovember 1963. Notable events that occurred during his presidency included the Ba y of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, Polic e Week, the establishment of the Peace Corps, the Space Race, the building of th e Berlin Wall, the African-American Civil Rights Movement, and the increased U.S . involvement in the War. After military service as commander of Motor Torpedo Boats PT-109 and PT-59 duri ng World War II in the South Pacific, Kennedy represented Massachusetts's 11th c ongressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 as a Democrat. Thereafter, he served in the U.S. Senate from that state from 1953 u ntil 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President and Republican candidate Richard Nixo n in the 1960 U.S. Presidential Election. At age 43, he was the youngest man to have been elected to the office,[2][a] the second-youngest president (after Theo dore Roosevelt, who was 42 when he became president after the assassination of W illiam McKinley). Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president.[3] To date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president an d the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize.[4] Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas on November 22, 1963. Lee Harvey Oswal d was arrested that afternoon and charged with the crime that night. Jack Ruby s hot and killed Oswald two days later, before Oswald could be prosecuted. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassi n. The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations (HSCA) agreed with the conclusion that Oswald fired the shots that killed the president, but also concluded that Kennedy was probably assassinated as the result of a conspiracy.[ 5] Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedy's private life has come to light . Details of Kennedy's health problems with which he struggled have become bette r known, especially since the 1990s. Although initially kept secret from the gen eral public, reports of Kennedy being unfaithful in marriage have garnered much press. Kennedy ranks highly in historians' polls of U.S. presidents, although a slight gap exists between his public reputation and his standing among academics ,[6] with the public generally more commendatory. Contents [hide] 1 Early life and education 2 Military service (194145) 3 Congressional career 3.1 U.S. House of Representatives (19471953) 3.2 U.S. Senate (19531960) 4 1960 presidential election 5 Presidency (19611963) 5.1 Foreign policy 5.1.1 Cuba and the 5.1.2 Cuban Missile Crisis 5.1.3 Latin America and communism 5.1.4 Peace Corps 5.1.5 Southeast Asia 5.1.6 American University speech 5.1.7 West Berlin speech 5.1.8 Israel 5.1.9 Iraq 5.1.10 Ireland 5.1.11 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty 5.2 Domestic policy 5.2.1 Economy 5.2.2 Federal and military death penalty 5.2.3 Civil rights 5.2.4 Civil liberties 5.2.5 Immigration 5.2.6 Native American relations 5.3 Space policy 5.3.1 Cap over the Wall speech at Brooks AFB 5.3.2 Excerpt from "Cap Over the Wall" speech, 21 November 1963 6 Assassination 6.1 Funeral 7 Administration, Cabinet, and judicial appointments 196163 7.1 Judicial appointments 7.1.1 Supreme Court 7.1.2 Other courts 8 Image, social life, and family 8.1 Children 8.2 "Camelot Era" 8.3 Health 8.4 Personal tragedies 8.5 Extramarital relationships 9 Ancestry 10 Legacy 10.1 Eponyms 10.2 Memorials 11 Coat of arms 12 Media 13 See also 14 Notes 15 References 16 Bibliography 17 Further reading 17.1 Primary sources 17.2 Historiography and memory 18 External links Early life and education John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street in Brookline, Massachusetts, on May 29, 1917,[7] to businessman/politician Joseph Patrick "Joe" Kennedy, Sr. (18881969) and philanthropist/socialite Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald-Kennedy (189019 95). His father was the oldest son of businessman/politician Patrick Joseph "P. J." Kennedy (18581929) and Mary Augusta Hickey-Kennedy (18571923). His mother was the daughter of Boston Mayor John Francis "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald (18631950) and Mary Josephine "Josie" Hannon-Fitzgerald (18651964). All four of his grandparents were the children of immigrants from Ireland.[1] His brothers were Joseph Patrick "Joe" Kennedy, Jr. (19151944), Robert Francis "B obby" Kennedy (19251968), and Edward Moore "Ted" Kennedy (19322009). Joseph Jr. wa s killed in action during World War II. Robert was JFK's attorney general and th en a senator; Ted was a long serving senator from 1962 until his death in 2009. His sisters were Rose Marie "Rosemary" Kennedy (19182005), Kathleen Agnes "Kick" Kennedy (19201948), Eunice Mary Kennedy (19212009), Patricia Helen "Pat" Kennedy ( 19242006), and Jean Ann Kennedy (born 1928). Kennedy lived in Brookline for 10 years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room Georgian-style mansio n at 5040 Independence Avenue (across the street from Wave Hill) in the Hudson H ill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx, City. Kennedy attended the River Campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th-7th grad e. Two years later, they moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the suburb of Bronxville, New York, where Kennedy was a member of Scout Troop 2.[1] The Ke nnedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannisport, Massachusetts and Chris tmas and Easter holidays at their winter home in Palm Beach, Florida. In Septemb er 1930, Kennedynow 13 years oldattended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Con necticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdr ew from Canterbury and recuperated at home.[8]

The Kennedy family at Hyannisport in 1931 with Jack at top left in white shirt. Ted was born the following year. In September 1931, Kennedy was sent to the The Choate School in Wallingford, Con necticut for 9th through 12th grade. His older brother had already been at Choat e for two years as a football player and leading student. He spent his first yea rs at Choate in his older brother's shadow, and compensated for this with rebell ious behavior which attracted a coterie. Their most notorious stunt was to explo de a toilet seat with a powerful firecracker. In the ensuing chapel assembly, th e strict headmaster George St. John brandished the toilet seat and spoke of cert ain "muckers" who would "spit in our sea". The defiant Kennedy took the cue and named his group The Muckers Club, which included roommate and friend Kirk LeMoyn e "Lem" Billings.[9] During his Choate years, Kennedy was beset by health problems that culminated in 1934 with his emergency hospitalization at Yale New Haven Hospital where doctor s thought he might have leukemia.[10] In June 1934, he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota, the ultimate diagnosis there was colitis.[10] Ke nnedy graduated from Choate in June of the following year. For the school yearbo ok, of which he had been business manager, Kennedy was voted the "most likely to succeed".[9] In September 1935, he made his first trip abroad with his parents and his sister Kathleen to London with the intent of studying under Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE) as his older brother had done. Ill-health forced his return to America in October of that year, when he enrolled late and spent six w eeks at Princeton University. He was then hospitalized for observation at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. He convalesced further at the Kennedy winter ho me in Palm Beach, then spent the spring of 1936 working as a ranch hand on the 4 0,000 acres (160 km2) "Jay Six" cattle ranch outside Benson, Arizona.[11] It is reported that ranchman Jack Speiden worked both brothers "very hard". In September 1936, Kennedy enrolled at Harvard College, where he produced that y ear's annual "Freshman Smoker", called by a reviewer "an elaborate entertainment , which included in its cast outstanding personalities of the radio, screen and sports world".[12] He tried out for the football, golf, and swimming teams and e arned a spot on the varsity swimming team.[13] In July 1937, Kennedy sailed to F rancebringing his convertibleand spent ten weeks driving through Europe with Billi ngs.[14] In June 1938, Kennedy sailed overseas with his father and older brother to work at the American embassy in London where his father was President Frankl in D. Roosevelt's U.S. Ambassador to the Court of St. James's.[15] In 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans, and the Middle Ea st in preparation for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He then went to Czechosl ovakia and Germany before returning to London on September 1, 1939; that was the day Germany invaded Poland. Two days later, the family was in the House of Comm ons for speeches endorsing the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. K ennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for Ame rican survivors of the SS Athenia before flying back to the U.S. from Foynes, Ir eland to Port Washington, New York on his first transatlantic flight. As an upperclassman at Harvard, Kennedy became a more serious student and develo ped an interest in political philosophy. In his junior year, he made the Dean's List.[16] In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, "Appeasement in Munich", about British participation in the Munich Agreement. The thesis became a bestseller un der the title Why England Slept.[17] He graduated from Harvard College with a Ba chelor of Science cum laude in international affairs that year. Kennedy enrolled in and audited classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business that fall.[1 8] In early 1941, he helped his father write a memoir of his three years as an A merican ambassador and then traveled throughout South America.[19] On September 12, 1953, Kennedy married Jacqueline Bouvier at St. Mary's Church i n Newport, Rhode Island after a one-year courtship.[20] Military service (194145) Main article: Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 Lieutenant (junior grade) John F. Kennedy (standing at right) with his PT-109 cr ew, 1943. In September 1941, after medical disqualification by the Army for his chronic lo wer back problems, Kennedy joined the U.S. Navy, with the influence of the direc tor of the Office of Naval Intelligence, former naval attaché to Joseph Kennedy.[2 1] Kennedy was an ensign serving in the office of the Secretary of the Navy when the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred. He attended the Naval Reserve Officer Trai ning Corps and then voluntarily entered the Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center in Melville, Rhode Island. His first command was PT-101, which he briefl y commanded from December 7, 1942 until February 23, 1943. He led three Huckins PT boatsPT-98, PT-99, and PT-101, which were being relocated from MTBRON 4 in Mel ville, Rhode Island, back to Jacksonville, Florida and the new MTBRON 14 (formed February 17, 1943). During the transit South, he was briefly hospitalized after diving in the cold water to unfoul a propeller. Thereafter, he was assigned dut y in Panama and later in the Pacific theater, where Kennedy earned the rank of l ieutenant, eventually commanding two more patrol torpedo (PT) boats.[22]

Kennedy on his navy patrol boat, the PT-109. On August 2, 1943, Kennedy's boat, the PT-109, along with the PT-162 and the PT- 169, was performing nighttime patrols near New Georgia in the Solomon Islands,[2 3] when PT-109 was rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri.[24] Kennedy gathere d his surviving crew members together in the water around the wreckage, to vote on whether to "fight or surrender". Kennedy stated, "There's nothing in the book about a situation like this. A lot of you men have families and some of you hav e children. What do you want to do? I have nothing to lose." Shunning surrender, the men swam towards a small island.[25] Kennedy, despite re-injury to his back in the collision, towed a badly burned cr ewman through the water with a life jacket strap clenched between his teeth.[26] He towed the wounded man to the island, and later to a second island, from wher e his crew was subsequently rescued.[27] For these actions, Kennedy received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal with the following citation: For extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 fol lowing the collision and sinking of that vessel in the Pacific War Theater on Au gust 12, 1943. Unmindful of personal danger, Lieutenant (then Lieutenant, Junior Grade) Kennedy unhesitatingly braved the difficulties and hazards of darkness to direct rescue operations, swimming many hours to secure aid and food after he h ad succeeded in getting his crew ashore. His outstanding courage, endurance and leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and were in keeping with t he highest traditions of the United States Naval Service. In October 1943, Kennedy took command of a PT boat converted into a gunboat, PT- 59, which took part in a Marine rescue on Choiseul Island that November.[28] Ken nedy then left the PT-59 and returned to the United States in early January 1944 . After receiving treatment for his back injury, he was released from active dut y in late 1944.[29] Beginning in January 1945, Kennedy spent three more months recovering from his b ack injury at Castle Hot Springs, a resort and temporary military hospital in Ar izona.[30][31] Kennedy was honorably discharged just prior to Japan's surrender in 1945. Kennedy's other decorations in World War II included the Purple Heart, American Defense Service Medal, American Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaig n Medal with three bronze service stars, and the World War II Victory Medal.[1] When later asked how he became a war hero, Kennedy joked: "It was easy. They cut my PT boat in half."[32] In April 1945, Kennedy's father, who was a friend of William Randolph Hearst, ar ranged a position for his son as a special correspondent for Hearst Newspapers; the assignment kept Kennedy's name in the public eye and "expose[d] him to journ alism as a possible career."[33] He worked as a correspondent that May, covering the Potsdam Conference and other events.[34] Congressional career U.S. House of Representatives (19471953) While Kennedy was still serving, his older brother, Joe Jr. was killed in action over the English Channel during World War II. Because his eldest brother had be en the family's political standard-bearer and tapped by his father to seek the P residency, his death changed that course and the task now fell to Kennedy.[35] In 1946, U.S. Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in the strong ly Democratic 11th Congressional district in Massachusettsat the urging of Kenned y's fatherto become mayor of Boston. Kennedy ran for the seat, beating his Republ ican opponent by a large margin in November 1946.[36] He served as a congressman for six years. U.S. Senate (19531960) Kennedy lying on a gurney following spinal surgery, accompanied by his wife, Dec ember 1954. In the 1952 U.S. Senate election, Kennedy defeated incumbent Republican Henry Ca bot Lodge II for the U.S. Senate seat. The following year, he married Jacqueline Bouvier.[37] Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the next two years. Often absen t from the Senate, he was at times critically ill and received Catholic last rit es. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book a bout U.S. Senators who risked their careers for their personal beliefs, for whic h he won the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957.[38] Rumors that this work was co-written by his close adviser and speechwriter, , were confirmed in Sorensen's 2008 autobiography.[39] At the 1956 Democratic National Convention, Presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson let the convention select the Vice Presential nominee. Kennedy finished second in the balloting, losing to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. Kennedy receive d national exposure from that episode; his father thought it just as well that K ennedy lost, due to the potential political debility of his Catholicism and the strength of the Eisenhower ticket. One of the matters demanding Kennedy's attention in the Senate was President Eis enhower's bill for the Civil Rights Act of 1957.[40] Kennedy cast a procedural v ote on this, which was considered by some as an appeasement of Southern Democrat ic opponents of the bill.[40] Kennedy did vote for Title III of the act, which w ould have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Majority Leader Lyndo n B. Johnson agreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure.[41] Kenned y also voted for Title IV, termed the "Jury Trial Amendment". Many civil rights advocates at the time criticized that vote as one which would weaken the act.[42 ] A final compromise bill, which Kennedy supported, was passed in September 1957 .[43]

Jack Paar interviews Senator Kennedy on The Tonight Show (1959). In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the Senate, defeating his Re publican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin. It was du ring his re-election campaign that Kennedy's press secretary at this time, Rober t E. Thompson, put together a film entitled The U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy Sto ry, which exhibited a day in the life of the Senator and showcased his family li fe as well as the inner-workings of his office. It was the most comprehensive fi lm produced about Kennedy up to that time.[44] While Kennedy's father was a strong supporter of Senator Joseph McCarthy, McCart hy was also a friend of the Kennedy family. As well, Bobby Kennedy worked for Mc Carthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated Kennedy sister Patricia. In 1954, the Senate voted to censure McCarthy and Kennedy drafted a speech supporting the cen sure. The speech, however, was not delivered, because of Kennedy's hospitalizati on at the time. The speech had the potential of putting Kennedy in the position of participating procedurally by "pairing" his vote against that of another sena tor. Although Kennedy never indicated how he would have voted, the episode damag ed Kennedy's support among members of the liberal community, including Eleanor R oosevelt, in the 1956 and 1960 elections.[45] 1960 presidential election Main article: United States presidential election, 1960 John F. Kennedy and participate in the first televised presidentia l debate in Washington, D.C. in 1960. On January 2, 1960, Kennedy initiated his campaign for president in the Democrat ic primary election, where he faced challenges from Senator Hubert Humphrey of M innesota and Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon. Kennedy defeated Humphrey in Wiscons in and West Virginia, Morse in Maryland and Oregon, as well as token opposition (often write-in candidates) in New Hampshire, Indiana, and Nebraska. Kennedy visited a coal mine in West Virginia. Most miners and others in that pre dominantly conservative, Protestant state were quite wary of Kennedy's Roman Cat holicism. His victory in West Virginia confirmed his broad popular appeal. At the Democratic Convention, he gave his well-known "New Frontier" speech, sayi ng: "For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all wonand we st and today on the edge of a New Frontier..... But the New Frontier of which I spe ak is not a set of promisesit is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I inten d to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them."[46] With Humphrey and Morse eliminated, Kennedy's main opponent at the Los Angeles c onvention was Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Kennedy overcame this formal c hallenge as well as informal ones from Adlai Stevenson (the Democratic nominee i n 1952 and 1956), Stuart Symington, and several favorite sons, and on July 13 th e Democratic convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate. Kennedy asked Johnso n to be his vice presidential candidate, despite opposition from many liberal de legates and Kennedy's own staff, including his brother Bobby.[47]

The Kennedys campaigning in Appleton, Wisconsin, March 1960. Kennedy needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the eco nomy moving again, Kennedy's Roman Catholicism, Cuba, and whether the Soviet spa ce and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that hi s being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic ca ndidate for president. I am the Democratic Party candidate for president who als o happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters and t he Church does not speak for me."[48] Kennedy questioned rhetorically whether on e-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because t hey were Catholic, and once stated that, "No one asked me my religion [serving t he Navy] in the South Pacific."[49]

Outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower meets with President-elect John F. Kenne dy on December 6, 1960 During the campaign, Kennedy sought a meeting with Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, at his office on Brooklyn. Kennedy was turned down as the rabbi was already mee ting a group of simple men and women that evening.[50][51] In September and October, Kennedy appeared with Republican candidate Richard Nix on, then vice president, in the first televised U.S. presidential debates in U.S . history. During these programs, Nixon, with a sore injured leg and his "five o 'clock shadow", was perspiring and looked tense and uncomfortable, while Kennedy , choosing to avail himself of makeup services, appeared relaxed, leading the hu ge television audience to favor Kennedy as the winner. Radio listeners either th ought Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw.[52] The debates are now con sidered a milestone in American political historythe point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in politics.[38] Kennedy's campaign gained momentum after the first debate, and he pulled slightl y ahead of Nixon in most polls. On November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the 20th century. In the national popular vote Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the Electoral College he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to wi n).[53] Fourteen electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy becaus e of his support for the civil rights movement; they voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, as did an elector from Oklahoma.[53] Kennedy was the youngest man elected president, succeeding Eisenhower, who was then the oldest (Ronald Re agan surpassed Eisenhower as the oldest president in 1981).[54] Presidency (19611963) Wikisource has original text related to this article: John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address See also: Timeline of the presidency of John F. Kennedy This section's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikip edia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (April 2 015) John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th president at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active cit izens, famously saying, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself".[55]

John F. Kennedy takes the oath of office administered by Chief Justice Earl Warr en on January 20, 1961, at the Capitol He added: "All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administ ration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." In c losing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whethe r you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."[55]

John F. Kennedy speaking at Rice University on September 12, 1962 The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration would chart a n historically significant course in both domestic policy and foreign affairs. T he contrast between this optimistic vision and the pressures of managing daily p olitical realities at home and abroad would be one of the main tensions running through the early years of his administration.[56] Kennedy brought to the White House a contrast in organization compared to the de cision-making structure of former-general Eisenhower; and he wasted no time in d ismantling Eisenhower's methods.[57] Kennedy preferred the organizational struct ure of a wheel, with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and w illing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an envir onment. He selected a mixture of experienced and inexperienced people to serve i n his cabinet. "We can learn our jobs together", he stated.[58] Much to the chagrin of his economic advisors who wanted him to reduce taxes, Ken nedy quickly agreed to a balanced budget pledge. This was needed in exchange for votes to expand the membership of the House Rules Committee in order to give th e Democrats a majority in setting the legislative agenda.[59] The president focu sed on immediate and specific issues facing the administration, and quickly voic ed his impatience with pondering of deeper meanings. Deputy national security ad visor Walt Whitman Rostow once began a diatribe about the growth of communism, a nd Kennedy abruptly cut him off, asking, "What do you want me to do about that t oday?"[60] Kennedy approved Defense secretary Robert McNamara's controversial decision to a ward the contract for the F-111 TFX (Tactical Fighter Experimental) fighter-bomb er to General Dynamics (the choice of the civilian Defense department) over Boei ng (the choice of the military).[61] At the request of Senator Henry Jackson, Se nator John McClellan held 46 days of mostly closed-door hearings before the Perm anent Subcommittee on Investigations investigating the TFX contract from Februar yNovember 1963.[62] Foreign policy Main article: Foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration Foreign trips of John F. Kennedy during his presidency President Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy contests in the early stage of the Cold W ar. In 1961, Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Soviet Premier Nikita K hrushchev. The president started off on the wrong foot by reacting aggressively to a routine Khrushchev speech on confrontation in early 1961. The spee ch was intended for domestic audiences in the Soviet Union, but Kennedy interpre ted it as a personal challenge. His mistake helped raise tensions going into the of June 1961.[63] On the way to the summit, Kennedy stopped in Paris to meet Charles de Gaulle, wh o advised Kennedy to ignore Khrushchev's abrasive style. The French president fe ared the United States' presumed influence in Europe. Nevertheless, de Gaulle wa s quite impressed with the young president and his family. Kennedy picked up on this in his speech in Paris, saying that he would be remembered as "the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris."[64]

Kennedy with Kwame Nkrumah, the first head of an independent Ghana, March 1961 On June 4, 1961, the president met with Khrushchev in Vienna and left the meetin gs angry and disappointed that he had allowed the Premier to bully him, despite the warnings he had received. Khrushchev, for his part, was impressed with the p resident's intelligence, but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khrushchev on the most sensitive issue before them, a propose d treaty between Moscow and East Berlin. He made it clear that any such treaty w hich interfered with U.S access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an ac t of war.[65]

Persian Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Kennedy, and U.S. Defense Secretary Robert M cNamara in the White House Cabinet Room on April 13, 1962. Shortly after the president returned home, the U.S.S.R. announced its intention to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-party occupation rights in either sector of the city. Kennedy, depressed and angry, assumed that his onl y option was to prepare the country for nuclear war, which he personally thought had a one-in-five chance of occurring.[66] In the weeks immediately after the Vienna summit, more than 20,000 people fled f rom East Berlin to the western sector in reaction to statements from the USSR. K ennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup alongside NATO allies.[67] In a July 19 61 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion to the defense bu dget, along with over 200,000 additional troops, stating that an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approv al rating.[68] The following month, the Soviet Union and East Berlin began blocking any further passage of East Berliners into West Berlin and erected barbed wire fences acros s the city, which were quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall. Kennedy's initial re action was to ignore this, as long as free access from West to East Berlin conti nued. This course was altered when it was learned that the West Berliners had lo st confidence in the defense of their position by the United States. Kennedy sen t Vice President Johnson, along with a host of military personnel, in convoy thr ough West Germany, including Soviet-armed checkpoints, to demonstrate the contin ued commitment of the U.S. to West Berlin.[69] Kennedy gave a speech at Saint Anselm College on May 5, 1960, regarding America' s conduct in the emerging Cold War. The address detailed how American foreign po licy should be conducted towards African nations, noting a hint of support for m odern African nationalism by saying that "For we, too, founded a new nation on r evolt from colonial rule".[70] Cuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion Main article: Bay of Pigs Invasion President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson take a leisurely stroll on the Whit e House grounds The prior Eisenhower administration had created a plan to overthrow the Fidel Ca stro regime in Cuba. The plan, led by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with help from the U.S. military, was for an invasion of Cuba by a counter-revolutio nary insurgency composed of U.S.-trained anti-Castro Cuban exiles[71][72] led by CIA paramilitary officers. The intention was to invade Cuba and instigate an up rising among the Cuban people in hopes of removing Castro from power.[73] On April 17, 1961, Kennedy ordered what became known as the "Bay of Pigs Invasio n": 1,500 U.S.-trained Cubans, called "Brigade 2506", landed on the island. No U .S. air support was provided. Allen Dulles, director of the CIA, later stated th at they thought the president would authorize any action required for success on ce the troops were on the ground.[74] By April 19, 1961, the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exil es, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 milli on worth of food and medicine.[75] The incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe another invasion would occur.[76] According to biographer Richard Reeves, Kennedy primarily focused on the politic al repercussions of the plan rather than military considerations. When it failed , he was convinced that the plan was a setup to make him look bad.[77] He took r esponsibility for the failure, saying, "We got a big kick in the leg and we dese rved it. But maybe we'll learn something from it."[78] In late 1961, the White House formed the "Special Group (Augmented)", headed by Robert Kennedy and including Edward Lansdale, Secretary Robert McNamara, and oth ers. The group's objectiveto overthrow Castro via espionage, sabotage, and other covert tacticswas never pursued.[79] Cuban Missile Crisis Main article: Cuban Missile Crisis On October 14, 1962, CIA U-2 spy planes took photographs of intermediate-range b allistic missile sites being built in Cuba by the Soviets. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16; a consensus was reached that the missiles were offens ive in nature and thus posed an immediate nuclear threat.[80]

Meeting with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev in Vienna in 1961. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclea r war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would be faced with the increased threat from close-range nuclear weapons. The U.S. would also appear t o the world as less committed to the defense of the hemisphere. On a personal le vel, Kennedy needed to show resolve in reaction to Khrushchev, especially after the Vienna summit.[81] Address on the Buildup of Arms in Cuba MENU0:00 Kennedy addressing the nation on October 22, 1962, about the buildup of arms on Cuba Problems playing this file? See media help. More than a third of the members of the National Security Council (NSC) favored an unannounced air assault on the missile sites, but for some of them this conju red up an image of "Pearl Harbor in reverse".[82] There was also some reaction f rom the international community (asked in confidence), that the assault plan was an overreaction in light of U.S. missiles that had been placed in by Eis enhower. There could also be no assurance that the assault would be 100% effecti ve.[83] In concurrence with a majority-vote of the NSC, Kennedy decided on a nav al quarantine. On October 22 he dispatched a message to Khrushchev and announced the decision on TV.[84] The U.S. Navy would stop and inspect all Soviet ships arriving off Cuba, beginni ng October 24. The Organization of American States gave unanimous support to the removal of the missiles. The president exchanged two sets of letters with Khrus hchev, to no avail.[85] United Nations (UN) Secretary General U Thant requested that both parties reverse their decisions and enter a cooling-off period. Khrush chev said yes, but Kennedy said no.[86] One Soviet-flagged ship was stopped and boarded. On October 28 Khrushchev agreed to dismantle the missile sites, subject to UN inspections.[87] The U.S. publicl y promised never to invade Cuba and privately agreed to remove its missiles in T urkey, which were by then obsolete and had been supplanted by submarines equippe d with UGM-27 Polaris missiles.[88] This crisis brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since. In the end, "the humanity" of the two men prevailed.[89] The crisis impro ved the image of American willpower and the president's credibility. Kennedy's a pproval rating increased from 66% to 77% immediately thereafter.[90] Latin America and communism Main article: Kennedy and Latin America President John F. Kennedy with Chilean President Jorge Alessandri, on an officia l visit in December 1962. Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent r evolution inevitable,"[91] Kennedy sought to contain the perceived threat of com munism in Latin America by establishing the , which sent ai d to some countries and sought greater human rights standards in the region.[92] He worked closely with Governor of Puerto Rico Luis Muñoz Marín for the development of the Alliance of Progress, and began working towards the autonomy of the Comm onwealth of Puerto Rico. When the president took office, the Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, had begun formulating plans for the assassination of Castro in Cuba and Rafael T rujillo in the Dominican Republic. Kennedy privately instructed the CIA that any such planning must include plausible deniability by the U.S. His public positio n was in opposition.[93] In June 1961 the Dominican Republic's leader was assass inated; in the days following the event, Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles led a cautious reaction by the nation. Robert Kennedy, who saw an opportunity fo r the U.S., called Bowles "a gutless bastard" to his face.[94] Peace Corps Physical text copy of the Executive Order establishing the Peace Corps Executive Order 10924 Establishment of the Peace Corps MENU0:00 John F. Kennedy's announcement of the establishment of the Peace Corps Problems playing this file? See media help. As one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy asked Congress to create the Peac e Corps. His brother-in-law, , was the first director.[95] Throug h this program, Americans volunteer to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, health care, and construction. The organization grew to 5,000 members by March 1963 and 10,000 the following year.[96] Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined the Peace Corps, serving in 139 countries.[97][98] Southeast Asia Main articles: 1963 South Vietnamese coup, Arrest and assassination of , Reaction to the 1963 South Vietnamese coup, , , Thíc h Qu?ng Ð?c, Xá L?i Pagoda raids, Krulak Mendenhall mission and McNamara Taylor miss ion When briefing Kennedy, Eisenhower emphasized that the communist threat in Southe ast Asia required priority; Eisenhower considered to be "the cork in the bo ttle" in regards to the regional threat. In March 1961, Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a "free" Laos to a "neutral" Laos, indicating privatel y that Vietnam, and not Laos, should be deemed America's tripwire for communism' s spread in the area.[99] In May 1961 he dispatched Lyndon Johnson to meet with 's President Ngo Dinh Diem. Johnson assured Diem more aid in molding a fighting force that co uld resist the communists.[100] Kennedy announced a change of policy from suppor t to partnership with Diem in defeat of communism in South Vietnam.[101] Kennedy initially followed Eisenhower's lead, using limited military action to f ight the communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh.[102] He continued policies that pr ovided political, economic, and military support to the South Vietnamese governm ent.[102] Late in 1961, the Viet Cong began assuming a predominant presence, ini tially seizing the provincial capital of Phuoc Vinh.[103] Kennedy increased the number of helicopters, military advisors, and undeclared U.S. Special Forces in the area, but he was reluctant to order a full-scale deployment of troops.[104][ 105] In late 1961, President Kennedy sent , then director of the State D epartment's Bureau of Intelligence and Research, to assess the situation in Viet nam. There, Hilsman met Sir Robert Thompson, head of the British Advisory Missio n to South Vietnam and the concept of the Strategic Hamlet Program was formed. I t was approved by Kennedy and South Vietnam President Ngo Dinh Diem. It was impl emented in early 1962 and involved some forced relocation, village internment, a nd segregation of rural South Vietnamese into new communities where the peasantr y would be isolated from Communist insurgents. It was hoped these new communitie s would provide security for the peasants and strengthen the tie between them an d the central government. By November 1963 the program waned and officially ende d in 1964.[106] In early 1962, Kennedy formally authorized escalated involvement when he signed the "National Security Action Memorandum Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberatio n)".[107] Secretary of State voiced strong support for U.S. involvemen t.[108] "Operation Ranch Hand", a large-scale aerial defoliation effort, began o n the roadsides of South Vietnam.[109][b]

Kennedy with future Australian Prime Minister Harold Holt in the Oval Office in 1963. In April 1963, Kennedy assessed the situation in Vietnam: "We don't have a praye r of staying in Vietnam. Those people hate us. They are going to throw our asses out of there at any point. But I can't give up that territory to the communists and get the American people to re-elect me".[110] Kennedy faced a crisis in Vie tnam by July; despite increased U.S. support, the South Vietnamese military was only marginally effective against pro-communist Viet Cong forces. On August 21, just as the new U.S. Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. arrived, Di em and his brother Ngo Dinh Nhu ordered South Vietnam forces, funded and trained by the CIA, to quell Buddhist demonstrations. The crackdowns heightened expecta tions of a coup d'état to remove Diem with (or perhaps by) his brother, Nhu.[111] Lodge was instructed to try to get Diem and Nhu to step down and leave the count ry. Diem would not listen to Lodge.[112] Cable 243 (DEPTEL 243), dated , followed, declaring Washington would no longer tolerate Nhu's actions, and Lodge was ordered to pressure Diem to remove Nhu. If Diem refused, the Americans would explore alternative leadership.[113] Lodge stated that the only workable option was to get the South Vietnamese gener als to overthrow Diem and Nhu, as originally planned.[114] At week's end, Kennedy learned from Lodge that the Diem government might, due to France's assistance to Nhu, be dealing secretly with the communistsand might ask the Americans to leave; orders were sent to Saigon and throughout Washington to "destroy all coup cables".[115] At the same time, the first formal anti- sentiment was expressed by U.S. clergy from the Ministers' Vietnam Committe e.[116] A White House meeting in September was indicative of the very different ongoing appraisals; the president was given updated assessments after personal inspectio ns on the ground by the Department of Defense (General Victor Krulak) and the St ate Department (). Krulak said that the military fight against the communists was progressing and being won, while Mendenhall stated that the c ountry was civilly being lost to any U.S. influence. Kennedy reacted, saying, "D id you two gentlemen visit the same country?" The president was unaware that the two men were at such odds that they had not spoken to each other on the return flight.[117] In , the president appointed Defense Secretary McNamara and General Maxwell D. Taylor to a Vietnam mission in another effort to synchronize the info rmation and formulation of policy. The objective of the McNamara Taylor mission "emphasized the importance of getting to the bottom of the differences in report ing from U.S. representatives in Vietnam".[118] In meetings with McNamara, Taylo r, and Lodge, Diem again refused to agree to governing measures insisted upon by the U.S., helping to dispel McNamara's previous optimism about Diem.[119] Taylor and McNamara were also enlightened by Vietnam's vice president, Nguyen Ng oc Tho (choice of many to succeed Diem should a coup occur), who in detailed ter ms obliterated Taylor's information that the military was succeeding in the coun tryside.[120] At Kennedy's insistence, the mission report contained a recommende d schedule for troop withdrawals: 1,000 by year's end and complete withdrawal in 1965, something the NSC considered a strategic fantasy.[121] The final report d eclared that the military was making progress, that the increasingly unpopular D iem-led government was not vulnerable to a coup, and that an assassination of Di em or Nhu was a possibility.[122] In late October, intelligence wires again reported that a coup against the Diem government was afoot. The source, Vietnamese General Duong Van Minh (also known as "Big Minh"), wanted to know the U.S. position. Kennedy instructed Lodge to of fer covert assistance to the coup, excluding assassination, and to ensure deniab ility by the U.S.[123] Later that month, as the coup became imminent, Kennedy or dered all cables to be routed through him. A policy of "control and cut out" was initiated to insure presidential control of U.S. responses, while cutting him o ut of the paper trail.[124] On November 1, 1963, South Vietnamese generals, led by "Big Minh", overthrew the Diem government, arresting and then killing Diem and Nhu. Kennedy was shocked b y the deaths. He found out afterwards that Minh had asked the CIA field office t o secure safe-passage out of the country for Diem and Nhu, but was told that 24 hours were needed to procure a plane. Minh responded that he could not hold them that long.[125] News of the coup initially led to renewed confidenceboth in America and in South Vietnamthat the war might be won.[126] McGeorge Bundy drafted a National Security Action Memo to present to Kennedy upon his return from Dallas. It reiterated th e resolve to fight communism in Vietnam, with increasing military and economic a id and expansion of operations into Laos and Cambodia. Before leaving for Dallas , Kennedy told that "after the first of the year ... [he wante d] an in depth study of every possible option, including how to get out of there ... to review this whole thing from the bottom to the top". When asked what he thought the president meant, Forrestal said, "it was devil's advocate stuff."[12 7] Historians disagree on whether Vietnam would have escalated had Kennedy survived and been re-elected in 1964.[128] Fueling the debate are statements made by Sec retary of Defense McNamara in the film "The Fog of War" that Kennedy was strongl y considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election.[129] The film also contains a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson stating that Kennedy was planning t o withdraw, a position that Johnson disagreed with.[130] Kennedy had signed Nati onal Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 263, dated October 11, which ordered the withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of the year.[131][132] Such an action would have been a policy reversal, but Kennedy was moving in a less hawk ish direction since his acclaimed speech about world peace at American Universit y on June 10, 1963.[133] When Robert Kennedy was asked in 1964 what his brother would have done if the So uth Vietnamese had been on the brink of defeat, he replied, "We'd face that when we came to it."[134] At the time of Kennedy's death, no final policy decision h ad been made as to Vietnam.[135] U.S. involvement in the region escalated until Lyndon Johnson, his successor, directly deployed regular U.S. military forces fo r fighting the Vietnam War.[136][137] After Kennedy's assassination, President J ohnson passed NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963. It reversed Kennedy's decision to w ithdraw 1,000 troops, and reaffirmed the policy of assistance to the South Vietn amese.[138][139] American University speech Kennedy delivers the commencement speech at American University, June 10, 1963 Wikisource has original text related to this article: A Strategy of Peace World Peace Speech MENU0:00 Speech from American University by John F. Kennedy, June 10, 1963 (duration 26:4 7) Problems playing this file? See media help. On June 10, 1963, Kennedy delivered at the high point of his rhetorical powers[1 40] the commencement address at American University in Washington, D.C. Also kno wn as "Strategy of Peace", Kennedy not only outlined a plan to curb nuclear arms , but also "laid out a hopeful, yet realistic route for world peace at a time wh en the U.S. and Soviet Union faced the potential for an escalating nuclear arms race."[141] The President wished "to discuss a topic on which too often ignoranc e abounds and the truth is too rarely perceivedyet it is the most important topic on earth: world peace ... I speak of peace because of the new face of war...in an age when a singular nuclear weapon contains ten times the explosive force del ivered by all the allied forces in the Second World War ... an age when the dead ly poisons produced by a nuclear exchange would be carried by wind and air and s oil and seed to the far corners of the globe and to generations yet unborn ... I speak of peace, therefore, as the necessary rational end of rational men ... wo rld peace, like community peace, does not require that each man love his neighbo rit requires only that they live together in mutual tolerance ... our problems ar e man-madetherefore they can be solved by man. And man can be as big as he wants. "[142] The president also made two announcementsthat the Soviets had expressed a desire to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty and that the U.S had postponed pla nned atmospheric tests.[143] West Berlin speech (I am a Berliner) speech File:Ich bin ein Berliner Speech (June 26, 1963) John Fitzgerald Kennedy trimmed .theora.ogv Ich bin ein Berliner speech from the Rathaus Schöneberg by John F. Kennedy, June 2 6, 1963 (duration 9:01) Ich bin ein Berliner (I am a Berliner) speech (audio) MENU0:00 Audio-only version (duration 9:22) In 1963, Germany was enduring a time of particular vulnerability due to Soviet a ggression to the east, de Gaulle's French nationalism to the west, and the impen ding retirement of West German Chancellor Adenauer.[144]

Kennedy delivering his speech in West Berlin Wikisource has original text related to this article: JFK's Ich bin ein Berliner speech On June 26, President Kennedy gave a public speech in West Berlin reiterating th e American commitment to Germany and criticizing communism. He was met with an e cstatic response from a massive audience.[145] Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures o f communism: "Freedom has many difficulties, and democracy is not perfect. But w e have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in, to prevent them from le aving us." The speech is known for its famous phrase "Ich bin ein Berliner" ("I am a citizen of Berlin"). A million people were on the street for the speech.[14 5] He remarked to Ted Sorensen afterwards: "We'll never have another day like th is one, as long as we live."[146] Israel In 1960, Kennedy stated: "Israel will endure and flourish. It is the child of ho pe and the home of the brave. It can neither be broken by adversity nor demorali zed by success. It carries the shield of democracy and it honors the sword of fr eedom".[147] Subsequently as president, Kennedy initiated the creation of security ties with Israel, and he is credited as the founder of the US-Israeli military alliance (w hich would be continued under subsequent presidents). Kennedy ended the arms emb argo that the Eisenhower and Truman administrations had enforced on Israel. Desc ribing the protection of Israel as a moral and national commitment, he was the f irst to introduce the concept of a 'special relationship' (as he described it to Golda Meir) between the US and Israel.[148]

Kennedy (right) with Israeli Foreign Minister Golda Meir, December 27, 1962. Kennedy extended the first informal security guarantees to Israel in 1962 and, b eginning in 1963, was the first US president to allow the sale to Israel of adva nced US weaponry (the MIM-23 Hawk), as well as to provide diplomatic support for Israeli policies which were opposed by Arab neighbours; such as its water proje ct on the Jordan River.[149] As result of this newly created security alliance, Kennedy also encountered tens ions with the Israeli government regarding the production of nuclear materials i n Dimona, which he believed could instigate a nuclear arms-race in the Middle Ea st. After the existence of a nuclear plant was initially denied by the Israeli g overnment, David Ben-Gurion stated in a speech to the Israeli Knesset on Decembe r 21, 1960, that the purpose of the nuclear plant at Beersheba was for "research in problems of arid zones and desert flora and fauna".[150] When Ben-Gurion met with Kennedy in New York, he claimed that Dimona was being developed to provide nuclear power for desalinization and other peaceful purposes "for the time bein g".[150] When Kennedy wrote that he was skeptical, and stated in a May 1963 letter to Ben -Gurion that American support to Israel could be in jeopardy if reliable informa tion on the Israeli nuclear program was not forthcoming, Ben-Gurion repeated pre vious reassurances that Dimona was being developed for peaceful purposes. The Is raeli government resisted American pressure to open its nuclear facilities to In ternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspections. In 1962, the US and Israeli governments had agreed to an annual inspection regime. A science attaché at the e mbassy in Tel Aviv concluded that parts of the Dimona facility had been shut dow n temporarily to mislead American scientists when they visited.[151] According to Seymour Hersh, the Israelis set up false control rooms to show the Americans. Israeli lobbyist Abe Feinberg stated, "It was part of my job to tip t hem off that Kennedy was insisting on [an inspection]."[151] Hersh contends the inspections were conducted in such a way that it "guaranteed that the whole proc edure would be little more than a whitewash, as the president and his senior adv isors had to understand: the American inspection team would have to schedule its visits well in advance, and with the full acquiescence of Israel.".[152] Marc T rachtenberg argued: "Although well aware of what the Israelis were doing, Kenned y chose to take this as satisfactory evidence of Israeli compliance with America 's non-proliferation policy."[153] The American who led the inspection team stat ed that the essential goal of the inspections was to find "ways to not reach the point of taking action against Israel's nuclear weapons program".[154] Rodger Davies, the director of the State Department's Office of Near Eastern Aff airs, concluded in March 1965 that Israel was developing nuclear weapons. He rep orted that Israel's target date for achieving nuclear capability was 196869.[155] On May 1, 1968, Undersecretary of State Nicholas Katzenbach told President John son that Dimona was producing enough plutonium to produce two bombs a year. The State Department argued that if Israel wanted arms, it should accept internation al supervision of its nuclear program.[151] Dimona was never placed under IAEA s afeguards. Attempts to write Israeli adherence to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) into contracts for the supply of U.S. weapons continued throughout 1968.[156] Iraq Main article: Ramadan Revolution In 1963, the Kennedy administration backed the coup against the government of Ir aq headed by Abd al-Karim Qasim, who five years earlier had deposed the Western- allied Iraqi monarchy.[157] On February 8, 1963, Kennedy received a memo stating : "We will make informal friendly noises as soon as we can find out whom to talk with, and ought to recognize as soon as we're sure these guys are firmly in the saddle. CIA had excellent reports on the plotting, but I doubt either they or U K should claim much credit for it."[158] The CIA had planned to remove Qasim in the past, but those efforts did not come to fruition.[159] The new government, led by President Abdul Salam Arif and dominated by the Ba'at h Party (along with a coalition of Nasserists and Iraqi nationalists), used list spossibly provided by the CIAof suspected communists and other leftists to systema tically murder unknown numbers of Iraq's educated elite.[160][161] After a power struggle with the Ba'athist Prime Minister, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, Arif purged t he Ba'ath Party from the government.[162] Former CIA officer James Chritchfield disputed the notion that the CIA offered "active support" to the coup plotters, arguing that while "well-informed" on the first coup, it was "surprised" by the power struggles that followed.[163] Ireland John F. Kennedy visiting the John Barry Memorial at Crescent Quay in Wexford, Ir eland. President Kennedy in motorcade in Patrick Street, Cork, in Ireland on June 28, 1 963. During his four-day visit to his ancestral home of Ireland in June 1963,[164] Ke nnedy accepted a grant of armorial bearings from the Chief Herald of Ireland and received honorary degrees from the National University of Ireland and Trinity C ollege, Dublin.[165] He visited the cottage at Dunganstown, near New Ross, Count y Wexford where his ancestors had lived before emigrating to America.[166] He also became the first foreign leader to address the Houses of the Oireachtas (the Irish parliament).[167] On December 22, 2006, the Irish Department of Justi ce released declassified police documents indicating that security was heightene d as Kennedy was the subject of three death threats during this visit.[168] Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Main article: Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapo ns proliferation, Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty, originally conceived in Adlai Stevenson's 1956 presidential campaign.[16 9] In their Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached a n informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the Soviet Union began tes ting nuclear weapons that September. The United States responded by conducting t ests five days later.[170] Shortly thereafter, new U.S. satellites began deliver ing images which made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U. S. in the arms race.[171] Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the U.S.S.R. perceived themselves to be at parit y.[172] In July 1963, Kennedy sent W. Averell Harriman to Moscow to negotiate a treaty w ith the Soviets.[173] The introductory sessions included Khrushchev, who later d elegated Soviet representation to Andrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the Soviets to allow inspections that would verify compliance.[174] Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate ratified this and Kennedy signed it into law in October 1963. France was quick t o declare that it was free to continue developing and testing its nuclear defens es.[175] Domestic policy President Kennedy in Fort Worth, Texas on Friday morning, November 22, 1963. Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, economic aid to rur al regions, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also prom ised an end to racial discrimination.[176] In his 1963 State of the Union address, he proposed substantial tax reform and a reduction in income tax rates from the current range of 2090% to a range of 1465% ; he proposed a reduction in the corporate tax rates from 52 to 47%. Kennedy add ed that the top rate should be set at 70% if certain deductions were not elimina ted for high income earners.[176] Congress did not act until 1964, after his dea th, when the top individual rate was lowered to 70%, and the top corporate rate was set at 48% (see Revenue Act of 1964).[177] To the Economic Club of New York, he spoke in 1963 of "... the paradoxical truth that tax rates are too high and revenues too low; and the soundest way to raise revenue in the long term is to lower rates now."[178] Congress passed few of Ke nnedy's major programs during his lifetime, but did vote them through in 196465 u nder his successor Johnson.[179] Economy Kennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to ke ep interest rates down and encourage growth of the economy.[180] He presided ove r the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his fir st budget in 1961 led to the country's first non-war, non-recession deficit.[181 ] The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in o ne when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably during his presidency. Despite low inflation and interest rates, GDP had grown by an average of only 2.2% per a nnum during the Eisenhower presidency (scarcely more than population growth at t he time), and had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in offic e.[182] The economy turned around and prospered during the Kennedy administration. GDP e xpanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963,[182] while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment eased.[183] Industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales rose by 40%.[184] This rate of growth in GD P and industry continued until around 1969, and has yet to be repeated for such a sustained period of time.[182] Bobby Kennedy stated, "We're going for broke..... their expense accounts, where they've been and what they've been doing..... the FBI is to interview them all.. ... we can't lose this."[185] Robert took the position that the steel executives had illegally colluded to fix prices. The administration's actions influenced U.S. Steel to rescind the price increase.[186] The Wall Street Journal wrote that the administration had acted "by naked power, by threats, by agents of the state security police."[187] Yale law professor Charles Reich opined in The New Republic that the administration h ad violated civil liberties by calling a grand jury to indict U.S. Steel for col lusion so quickly.[187] A New York Times editorial praised Kennedy's actions and said that the steel ind ustry's price increase "imperils the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation."[188] Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of B udget reported the price increase would have resulted in a net gain for GDP as w ell as a net budget surplus.[189] The stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election, dropped 10% shortly after the administration's action on the steel industry.[190] Federal and military death penalty As president, Kennedy oversaw the last federal execution prior to Furman v. Geor gia, a 1972 case that led to a moratorium on federal executions.[191] Victor Feg uer was sentenced to death by a federal court in Iowa and was executed on March 15, 1963.[192] Kennedy commuted a death sentence imposed by a military court on seaman Jimmie Henderson on February 12, 1962, changing the penalty to life in pr ison.[193] On March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law HR5143 (PL87-423), abolishing the man datory death penalty for first degree murder in the District of Columbia, the on ly remaining jurisdiction in the United States with such a penalty.[194] The dea th penalty has not been applied in the District of Columbia since 1957, and has now been abolished.[195] Civil rights The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of the 1960s. Jim Crow segregation was the established law in the Deep South.[196] The Supreme Court of the United States had ruled in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in public schools wa s unconstitutional. Many schools, especially in southern states, did not obey th e Supreme Court's decision. The Court also prohibited segregation at other publi c facilities (such as buses, restaurants, theaters, courtrooms, bathrooms, and b eaches) but it continued nonetheless.[197] Kennedy verbally supported racial integration and civil rights; during the 1960 campaign he telephoned , wife of the Reverend Martin Luther Ki ng, Jr., who had been jailed while trying to integrate a department store lunch counter. Robert Kennedy called Georgia governor Ernest Vandiver and obtained Kin g's release from prison, which drew additional black support to his brother's ca ndidacy.[197] In his first State of the Union Address in January 1961, President Kennedy said "The denial of constitutional rights to some of our fellow Americans on account of race - at the ballot box and elsewhere - disturbs the national conscience, an d subjects us to the charge of world opinion that our democracy is not equal to the high promise of our heritage."[198] Kennedy believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would anger many Southern whites and make it more difficult to pass civil rights laws in Congress, which was dominated by conservative Souther n Democrats, and he distanced himself from it.[199] Kennedy also was more concerned with other issues early in his presidency, such as the Cold War, Bay of Pigs fiasco and the situation in Southeast Asia. As arti culated by brother Robert, the administration's early priority was to "keep the president out of this civil rights mess". Many civil rights leaders viewed Kenne dy as lukewarm, especially concerning the Freedom Riders, who organized an integ rated public transportation effort in the south, and who were repeatedly met wit h violence by whites, including law enforcement officers, both federal and state . Kennedy assigned federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders as an alternat ive to using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents. Robert Kennedy, speakin g for the president, urged the Freedom Riders to "get off the buses and leave th e matter to peaceful settlement in the courts."[200] On March 6, 1961, Kennedy signed which required government contractors to "take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed and that employees are treated during employment without regard to their race, c reed, color, or national origin."[201] It established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. Displeased with the pace of Kennedy's addressin g the issue of segregation, Martin Luther King, Jr. and his associates produced a document in 1962 calling on the president to follow in the footsteps of Abraha m Lincoln and use an Executive Order to deliver a blow for Civil Rights as a kin d of Second Emancipation Proclamation - Kennedy did not execute the order.[202] In September 1962, James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi, but was prevented from entering. Attorney General Robert Kennedy responded by sendi ng 400 federal marshals, while President Kennedy reluctantly sent 3,000 troops a fter the situation on campus turned violent.[203] The Ole Miss riot of 1962 left two dead and dozens injured, but Meredith did finally enroll in his first class . The instigating subculture at the Old Miss riot and at many other racially ign ited events, was the Ku Klux Klan.[204] On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signed Exe cutive Order 11063, prohibiting racial discrimination in federally supported hou sing or "related facilities".[205] In early 1963, Kennedy related to Martin Luther King, Jr., about the prospects f or civil rights legislation: "If we get into a long fight over this in Congress, it will bottleneck everything else, and we will still get no bill."[206] Civil rights clashes were on the rise that year.[207] Brother Robert and Ted Sorenson pressed Kennedy to take more initiative on the legislative front.[208]

President Kennedy's Civil Rights Address, June 11, 1963. On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor George Wall ace blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two African America n students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from attending. Wallace moved aside on ly after being confronted by Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and the Alabama National Guard, which had just been federalized by order of the preside nt. That evening Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national televi sion and radio, launching his initiative for civil rights legislationto provide e qual access to public schools and other facilities, and greater protection of vo ting rights.[209][210] His proposals became part of the . The day ended with th e murder of a NAACP leader, Medgar Evers, in front of his home in Mississippi.[2 11] As the president had predicted, the day after his TV speech, and in reaction to it, House Majority leader Carl Albert called to advise him that his two-year signature effort in Congress to combat poverty in Appalachia (Area Redevelopmen t Administration) had been defeated, primarily by the votes of Southern Democrat s and Republicans.[212] Earlier, Kennedy had signed the executive order creating the Presidential Commis sion on the Status of Women on December 14, 1961.[213] Former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. The Commission statistics revealed that women wer e also experiencing discrimination; their final report documenting legal and cul tural barriers was issued in October 1963.[214] Further, on June 10, 1963, Kenne dy signed the , a federal law amending the Fair Labor Stand ards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex.[215]

Kennedy meets with leaders of the March on Washington in the Oval Office, August 28, 1963. Over a hundred thousand, predominantly African Americans, gathered in Washington for the civil rights March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 196 3. Kennedy feared the March would have a negative effect on the prospects for th e civil rights bills in Congress, and declined an invitation to speak. He turned over some of the details of the government's involvement to the Dept. of Justic e, which channelled hundreds of thousands of dollars to the six sponsors of the March, including the N.A.A.C.P. and Martin Luther King's Southern Christian Lead ership Conference (SCLC).[216] To ensure a peaceful demonstration, the organizers and the president personally edited speeches which were inflammatory and agreed the March would be held on a Wednesday and would be over at 4:00 pm. Thousands of troops were placed on stand by. Kennedy watched King's speech on TV and was very impressed. The March was co nsidered a "triumph of managed protest", and not one arrest relating to the demo nstration occurred. Afterwards, the March leaders accepted an invitation to the White House to meet with Kennedy and photos were taken. Kennedy felt the March w as a victory for him as well and bolstered the chances for his civil rights bill .[216] Nevertheless, the struggle was far from over. Three weeks later, a bomb exploded on Sunday, September 15 at the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham; by the end of the day, four African American children had died in the explosion and tw o other children shot to death in the aftermath.[217] Due to this resurgent viol ence, the civil rights legislation underwent some drastic amendments that critic ally endangered any prospects for passage of the bill, to the outrage of the pre sident. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House and by the f ollowing day the original bill, without the additions, had enough votes to get i t out of the House committee.[218] Civil liberties In 1963, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who hated civil-rights leader Martin Luth er King, Jr. and viewed him as an upstart troublemaker,[219] presented the Kenne dy Administration with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advi sers were communists. Concerned that the allegations, if made public, would dera il the Administration's civil rights initiatives, Robert Kennedy and the preside nt both warned King to discontinue the suspect associations. After the associati ons continued, Robert Kennedy felt compelled to issue a written directive author izing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leader ship Conference, King's civil rights organization.[220] Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's ph ones "on a trial basis, for a month or so",[221] Hoover extended the clearance s o his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life the y deemed worthy.[222] The wiretapping continued through June 1966 and was reveal ed in 1968.[223] Immigration John F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American immigration policy th at later was to become the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, sponsored by Kennedy's brother Senator Edward Kennedy. It dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration fr om Latin America and Asia. The policy change also shifted the emphasis in the se lection of immigrants in favor of family reunification.[224] Kennedy wanted to d ismantle the selection of immigrants based on country of origin and saw this as an extension of his civil rights policies.[225] Native American relations Further information: Kinzua Dam § Native Americans and Seneca nation § Kinzua Dam Construction of the Kinzua Dam flooded 10,000 acres (4,047 ha) of Seneca nation land that they had occupied under the Treaty of 1794, and forced 600 Seneca to r elocate to Salamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by the American Civil Libertie s Union to intervene and halt the project, but he declined, citing a critical ne ed for flood control. He expressed concern about the plight of the Seneca, and d irected government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assis tance to help mitigate their displacement.[226][227] Space policy Further information: Space Race and Space policy of the United States Kennedy proposing a program to land men on the Moon to Congress in May 1961. The Apollo program was conceived early in 1960, during the Eisenhower administra tion, as a follow-up to Project Mercury. While NASA went ahead with planning for Apollo, funding for the program was far from certain, given Eisenhower's ambiva lent attitude to manned spaceflight.[228] In Kennedy's January 1961 State of the Union address, Kennedy had suggested international cooperation in space. Khrush chev declined, as the Soviets did not wish to reveal the status of their rocketr y and space capabilities.[229] As a senator, Kennedy had been opposed to the space program and wanted to termin ate it. Early in his presidency he was poised to dismantle it, but postponed any decision out of deference to his vice president, whom he had appointed as chair man of the U.S. Space Council,[230] and who had been a strong supporter of the U S space program,[231] working for the creation of NASA in the Senate. Kennedy's advisors speculated that a Moon flight would be prohibitively expensive,[232] an d he was considering plans to dismantle the Apollo program due to its cost.[233] On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to fly in space, reinforcing American fears about being left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union.[234] Kennedy now became eager for the U.S. to take the lead in the Space Race for reasons of strategy and prestige. He first announced the goal of landing a man on the Moon in the speech to a Joint Session of Congress on May 25, 1961, stating: "First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, b efore this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none wil l be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."[235] Full text Wikisource has inf ormation on "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs" File:President Kennedy speech on the space effort at Rice University, September 12, 1962.ogg Kennedy speaks at Rice University, September 12, 1962 (duration 17:47) Full text Wikisource has information on "We choose to go to the moon" Kennedy made a speech at Rice University on September 12, 1962, in which he said : "No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay be hind in this race for space. ... We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."[236] Full text Wikisource has information on "We choose to go to the moon" On November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with NASA administrator James E. Webb and other officials, Kennedy explained that the Moon shot was important for rea sons of international prestige, and that the expense was justified.[237] Johnson assured him that lessons learned from the space program had military value as w ell. Costs for the Apollo program were expected to reach $40 billion.[238] In a September 1963 speech before the United Nations, Kennedy urged cooperation between the Soviets and Americans in space, specifically recommending that Apoll o be switched to "a joint expedition to the moon".[239] Khrushchev again decline d, and the Soviets did not commit to a manned Moon mission until 1964.[240] On J uly 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death, landed the first manned spacecraft on the Moon. Cap over the Wall speech at Brooks AFB On 21 November 1963, Colonel John E. Pickering and Lt. Gen. George E. Schafer co -wrote the technical portions of John F. Kennedys Cap over the Wall speech. Kennedy visited Brooks Air Force Base to dedicate the Aerospace Medical Center. This wa s President Kennedys last official act as President before Dallas.[241][242] Excerpt from "Cap Over the Wall" speech, 21 November 1963 An excerpt form the 'Cap Over the Wall' speech, with the closing 2 paragraphs fr om John F. Kennedy: Frank OConnor, the Irish writer, tells in one of his books how, as a boy, he and his friends would make their way across the countryside; and when they came to a n orchard wall that seemed too high to climb, too doubtful to try, too difficult to permit their journey to continue, they took off their caps and tossed them o ver the wall - - and then they had no choice but to follow them. My friends, this nation has tossed its cap over the wall of space - - and we hav e no choice but to follow it. Whatever the difficulties, they must be overcome. Whatever the hazards, they must be guarded against. With the vital help of this Aerospace Medical Center, with the help of all who labor in this space endeavor, with the help and support of all Americans, we will climb this wall with both s afety and speed - - and we shall then explore all the wonders and treasures that lie on the other side.[242][243] (The end) Assassination and the Connallys in the presidential limousine moments before the assassination in Dallas. Main article: Assassination of John F. Kennedy President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 pm Central Standar d Time on Friday November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Do n Yarborough (no relation) and conservative John Connally.[244] Traveling in a p residential motorcade through downtown Dallas, he was shot once in the throat,[2 45] and once in the head.[245] Kennedy was taken to Parkland Hospital for emergency medical treatment, but pron ounced dead at 1:00 pm. Only 46, President Kennedy died younger than any other U .S. president to date. Lee Harvey Oswald, an employee of the Texas School Book D epository from which the shots were suspected to have been fired, was arrested f or the murder of a local police officer, and was subsequently charged with the a ssassination of Kennedy. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a patsy,[246 ][247] but was killed by Jack Ruby on November 24, before he could be tried. Rub y was then arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully ap pealed his conviction and death sentence but became ill and died of cancer on Ja nuary 3, 1967, while the date for his new trial was being set. President Johnson created the Warren Commissionchaired by Chief Justice Earl Warr ento investigate the assassination, which concluded that Oswald was the lone assa ssin. The results of this investigation are disputed by many.[248] The assassina tion proved to be an important moment in U.S. history because of its impact on t he nation and the ensuing political repercussions. A 2004 Fox News poll found th at 66% of Americans thought there had been a conspiracy to kill President Kenned y, while 74% thought there had been a cover-up.[249] A Gallup Poll in mid-Novemb er 2013, showed 61% believed in a conspiracy, and only 30% thought Oswald did it alone.[250] In 1979, the U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations conclude d that it believed "that Kennedy was probably assassinated as a result of a cons piracy. The committee was unable to identify the other gunmen or the extent of t he conspiracy."[251] Funeral Main article: State funeral of John F. Kennedy President Kennedy's family leaving his funeral at the U.S. Capitol Building A Requiem Mass was held for Kennedy at the Cathedral of St. Matthew the Apostle on November 25, 1963. Afterwards, Kennedy's body was buried in a small plot, (20 by 30 ft.), in Arlington National Cemetery. Over a period of three years (196466 ), an estimated 16 million people had visited his grave. On March 14, 1967, Kenn edy's body was moved to a permanent burial plot and memorial at the cemetery. Th e funeral was officiated by Father John J. Cavanaugh.[252] It was from this memo rial that the graves of both Bobby and Ted were modeled. The honor guard at Kennedy's graveside was the 37th Cadet Class of the Irish Arm y. Kennedy was greatly impressed by the Irish Cadets on his last official visit to Ireland, so much so that Jackie Kennedy requested the Irish Army to be the ho nor guard at her husband's funeral.[253] Kennedy's wife, Jacqueline and their two deceased minor children were buried wit h him later. His brother, Senator Robert Kennedy, was buried nearby in June 1968 . In August 2009, his brother, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, was also buried near h is two brothers. John F. Kennedy's grave is lit with an "Eternal Flame". Kennedy and William Howard Taft are the only two U.S. presidents buried at Arlington.[2 54][255] According to the JFK Library, "I Have a Rendezvous with Death", by Alan Seeger "was one of John F. Kennedy's favorite poems and he often asked his wife to recite it".[256] Administration, Cabinet, and judicial appointments 196163 The Kennedy Cabinet Office Name Term President John F. Kennedy 19611963 Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson 19611963 Secretary of State Dean Rusk 19611963 Secretary of Treasury C. Douglas Dillon 19611963 Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara 19611963 Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy 19611963 Postmaster General J. Edward Day 19611963 John A. Gronouski 1963 Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall 19611963 Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman 19611963 Secretary of Commerce Luther H. Hodges 19611963 Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg 19611962 W. Willard Wirtz 19621963 Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare Abraham A. Ribicoff 19611962 Anthony J. Celebrezze 19621963 The official White House portrait of John F. Kennedy, by Aaron Shikler. Judicial appointments Supreme Court Main article: John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates Further information: List of nominations to the Supreme Court of the United Stat es Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United Stat es: Byron White 1962 Arthur Goldberg 1962 Other courts Main article: List of federal judges appointed by John F. Kennedy In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments, Kennedy appointed 21 judges t o the United States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to the United States distr ict courts. Image, social life, and family Further information: Kennedy family The Kennedy family in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in 1963. Kennedy met his future wife, Jacqueline Lee "Jackie" Bouvier (19291994), when he was a congressman. Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a d inner party.[257] They were married a year after he was elected senator, on Sept ember 12, 1953.[258] The Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a president, three senators, and multiple other Representatives, both on the federal and state level. Family pat riarch, Joe Kennedy, was a prominent American businessman and political figure, serving in multiple roles, including Ambassador to the United Kingdom, from 1938 to 1940. In October 1951, during his third term as Massachusetts's 11th district congress man, the then 34-year-old Kennedy embarked on a seven-week trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel with his then 25-year-old brother Bobby (who had just gradu ated from law school four months earlier) and his then 27-year-old sister Pat. B ecause they were several years apart in age, the brothers had previously seen li ttle of each other. This 25,000-mile (40,000 km) trip was the first extended tim e they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends.[259] Bobby was campaign manager for Kennedy's successful 1952 Senate campaign and lat er, his successful 1960 presidential campaign. The two brothers worked closely t ogether from 1957 to 1959 on the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor and Management Field, when Robert was its chief counsel. During Ken nedy's presidency, Robert served in his cabinet as Attorney General and was his closest advisor.[259] Kennedy was a life member of the National Rifle Association.[260][261] Kennedy c ame in third (behind Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mother Teresa) in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century.[262][263] Children Caroline Bouvier Kennedy was born in 1957 and is the only surviving member of JF K's immediate family. John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Jr., nicknamed "John-John" by the press as a child, was born in late November 1960, 17 days after his father was elected. John Jr., died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed en route to Martha's Vineyard.[264] "Camelot Era" The Kennedy brothers: Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Senator , a nd President John F. Kennedy in 1963 Kennedy and his wife were younger in comparison to the presidents and first ladi es who preceded them, and both were popular in the media culture in ways more co mmon to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Altho ugh Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for telev ision, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcast live and made good use of the medium.[265] In 1961 the Radio-Television News Directors As sociation presented Kennedy with its highest honor, the Paul White Award, in rec ognition of his open relationship with the media.[266] Mrs. Kennedy brought new art and furniture to the White House, and directed its restoration. They invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to round s of White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. On the Whi te House lawn, the Kennedys established a swimming pool and tree house, while Ca roline attended a preschool along with 10 other children inside the home. The president was closely tied to popular culture, emphasized by songs such as " Twisting at the White House". Vaughn Meader's First Family comedy album which pa rodied the president, the first lady, their family, and the administration sold about four million copies. On May 19, 1962, Marilyn Monroe sang "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" at a large party in Madison Square Garden, celebrating Kennedy's upcoming forty-fifth birthday. The charisma of Kennedy and his family led to th e figurative designation of "Camelot" for his administration, credited by his wi fe, who coined the term for the first time in print during a post-assassination interview with Theodore White, to his affection for the then contemporary Broadw ay musical of the same name.[267][268] Health In 2002 Robert Dallek wrote an extensive history of Kennedy's health. Dallek was able to consult a collection of Kennedy-associated papers from the years 1955-1 963 including x-rays and prescription records from the files of White House phys ician Dr. Janet Travell. According to Travell's records, during his Presidential years Kennedy suffered from: high fevers, stomach, colon, and prostate issues, abscesses, high cholesterol, and adrenal problems. Travell kept a "Medicine Admi nistration Record," cataloguing Kennedy's medications: "injected and ingested co rticosteroids for his adrenal insufficiency; procaine shots and ultrasound treat ments and hot packs for his back; Lomotil, Metamucil, paregoric, phenobarbital, testosterone, and trasentine to control his diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, and weight loss; penicillin and other antibiotics for his urinary-tract infections a nd an abscess; and Tuinal to help him sleep."[10] Years after Kennedy's death, it was revealed that in September 1947, while Kenne dy was 30 and in his first term in Congress, he was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davi s at The London Clinic with Addison's disease, a rare endocrine disorder. In 196 6 Dr. Travell revealed that Kennedy also had hypothyroidism. The presence of two endocrine diseases raises the possibility that Kennedy had autoimmune polyendoc rine syndrome type 2 (APS 2).[269] Kennedy also suffered from chronic and severe back pain, for which he had surger y and was written up in the American Medical Association's Archives of Surgery. Kennedy's condition may have had diplomatic repercussions, as he appears to have been taking a combination of drugs to treat severe back pain during the 1961 Vi enna Summit with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev. The combination included horm ones, animal organ cells, steroids, vitamins, enzymes, and amphetamines, and pos sible potential side effects included hyperactivity, hypertension, impaired judg ment, nervousness, and mood swings.[270] Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by no fewer than three doctors, one of whom, Max Jacobson, was unknown to the ot her two, as his mode of treatment was controversial[271] and used for the most s evere bouts of back pain.[272] There were disagreements among his doctors, into late 1961, over the proper bala nce of medication and exercise, with the president preferring the former as he w as short on time and desired immediate relief.[172] During that timeframe the pr esident's physician, George Burkley, did set up some gym equipment in the White House basement where Kennedy did stretching exercises for his back three times a week.[273] Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclo sed during Kennedy's lifetime.[274] Personal tragedies Main article: Kennedy curse The Kennedys on their wedding day, surrounded by relatives The First Family in 1962 Kennedy experienced many personal, family tragedies. The oldest Kennedy sibling, Joe Jr., was killed in action over the English Channel in 1944 during World War II at the age of 29. Kennedy's younger sister Rose Marie "Rosemary" Kennedy was born in 1918 with intellectual disabilities and underwent a pre-frontal lobotom y at age 23, leaving her permanently incapacitated. His next youngest sister, Ka thleen "Kick" Kennedy Cavendish, died in France as the result of a plane crash i n 1948. Jacqueline Kennedy wife suffered a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956. A son, , died shortly after birth in . Extramarital relationships Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, Marilyn Monroe, President Kennedy (back to c amera) in 1962. As a young single man in the 1940s, Kennedy had affairs with Danish journalist I nga Arvad,[275] and actress Gene Tierney.[276] Later in life, Kennedy reportedly had affairs with a number of women, including Marilyn Monroe,[277] Gunilla von Post,[278] Judith Campbell,[279] Mary Pinchot Meyer,[280] Marlene Dietrich,[281] Mimi Alford,[282] and his wife's press secretary Pamela Turnure.[283] The extent of a relationship with Monroe will never be known, although it has be en reported they spent a weekend together in March 1962 while Kennedy was stayin g at Bing Crosby's house.[284] Furthermore, the White House switchboard noted ca lls from her during 1962.[285] J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI director, received repor ts as to Kennedy's indiscretions.[286] Kennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team and his supp orters.[287] According to Reeves, this included "the logistics of Kennedy's liai sons.....[which] required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energet ic service demanded by successful politicians".[288] Kennedy believed that his f riendly relationship with members of the press would help protect him from revel ations about his sex life.[289] Ancestry The Kennedy family originally came from Dunganstown, County Wexford, Ireland.[29 0] In 1848, Patrick Kennedy (18231858) left his farm and boarded a ship in New Ro ss bound for Liverpool on his way to Boston.[291] Kennedy departed at the height of Ireland's Great Famine. It was in Boston he met the woman he was to marry, B ridget Murphy (c.18241888).[292] Kennedy's paternal great-grandfather came to Boston and took a job as a migrant worker. He died several years later from cholera.[293] They had three daughters and two sons (the elder son died young from cholera). He left behind a widow and four children to carry on, the youngest child being Joseph Kennedy, Sr.'s fathe r, Patrick Joseph "P. J." Kennedy. Legacy Television became the primary source by which people were kept informed of event s surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination. In fact, television started to co me of age before the assassination. On September 2, 1963, Kennedy helped inaugur ate network television's first half hour nightly evening newscast according to a n interview with CBS Evening News anchor Walter Cronkite.[294]

Kennedy on a U.S. postage stamp, issue of 1967 Newspapers were kept as souvenirs rather than sources of updated information. In this sense it was the first major "TV news event" of its kind, the TV coverage uniting the nation, interpreting what went on and creating memories of this spac e in time. All three major U.S. television networks suspended their regular sche dules and switched to all-news coverage from November 22 through November 25, 19 63, being on the air for 70 hours, making it the longest uninterrupted news even t on American TV until 9/11.[295] Kennedy's state funeral procession and the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. The state funera l was the first of three in a span of 12 months. The other two were for General Douglas MacArthur and President Herbert Clark Hoover. All three have two things in common: the commanding general of the Military District of Washington during those funerals was Army Major General Philip C. Wehle and the riderless horse wa s Black Jack, who also served in that role during Lyndon B. Johnson's funeral. The assassination had an effect on many people, not only in the U.S. but around the world. Many vividly remember where they were when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated, as with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on D ecember 7, 1941, before it and the September 11 attacks after it. UN Ambassador Adlai Stevenson said of the assassination: "all of us..... will bear the grief o f his death until the day of ours." Many people have also spoken of the shocking news, compounded by the pall of uncertainty about the identity of the assassin( s), the possible instigators and the causes of the killing as an end to innocenc e, and in retrospect it has been coalesced with other changes of the tumultuous decade of the 1960s, especially the Vietnam War. The US Special Forces had a special bond with Kennedy. "It was President Kennedy who was responsible for the rebuilding of the Special Forces and giving us back our Green Beret," said Forrest Lindley, a writer for the US military newspaper Stars and Stripes who served with Special Forces in Vietnam.[c] This bond was sh own at Kennedy's funeral. At the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of Kenned y's death, General Michael D. Healy, the last commander of Special Forces in Vie tnam, spoke at Arlington Cemetery. Later, a wreath in the form of the Green Bere t would be placed on the grave, continuing a tradition that began the day of his funeral when a sergeant in charge of a detail of Special Forces men guarding th e grave placed his beret on the coffin. Kennedy was the first of six presidents to have served in the U.S. Navy,[296] an d one of the enduring legacies of his administration was the creation in 1961 of another special forces command, the Navy SEALs,[297] which Kennedy enthusiastic ally supported.[298] Ultimately, the death of President Kennedy and the ensuing confusion surrounding the facts of his assassination are of political and historical importance insof ar as they marked a turning point and decline in the faith of the American peopl e in the political establishmenta point made by commentators from Gore Vidal to A rthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. and implied by Oliver Stone in several of his films, s uch as his landmark 1991 JFK. Although President Kennedy opposed segregation and had shown support for the civ il rights of African Americans, he originally believed in a more measured approa ch to legislation given the political realities he faced in Congress, especially with the Southern Conservatives.[299] However, impelled by the civil rights dem onstrations of Martin Luther King, Kennedy in 1963 proposed legislative action. In a radio and TV address to the nation in June 1963a century after President Abr aham Lincoln had signed the Emancipation ProclamationKennedy became the first pre sident to call on all Americans to denounce racism as morally wrong. Kennedy's c ivil rights proposals led to the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[300] President Lyndon B. Johnson, Kennedy's successor, took up the mantle and pushed the landmark Civil Rights Act through a bitterly divided Congress by invoking th e slain president's memory.[301][302] President Johnson then signed the Act into law on July 2, 1964. This civil rights law ended what was known as the "Solid S outh" and certain provisions were modeled after the Civil Rights Act of 1875, si gned into law by President Ulysses S. Grant.[303] Kennedy's continuation of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower's policies of giving economic and military aid to South Vietnam left the door open for President Johnson's escalation of the conflict.[304] At the time of Kennedy 's death, no final policy decision had been made as to Vietnam, leading historia ns, cabinet members and writers to continue to disagree on whether the Vietnam c onflict would have escalated to the point it did had he survived.[305][135] His agreement to the NSAM 263[131] action of withdrawing 1,000 troops by the end of 1963, and his earlier 1963 speech at American University,[133] suggested he was ready to end the Vietnam War. The Vietnam War contributed greatly to a decade of national difficulties, amid violent disappointment on the political landscape. Many of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered ico nic; and despite his relatively short term in office and lack of major legislati ve changes coming to fruition during his term, Americans regularly vote him as o ne of the best presidents, in the same league as Abraham Lincoln, George Washing ton, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington. He was posthumously awarded the Pacem in Terris Award. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of goodwill to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in terris is Latin for 'Peace on Earth'. President Kennedy is the only president to have predeceased both his mother and father. He is also the only president to have predeceased a grandparent. His mat ernal grandmother, Mary Josephine "Josie" Hannon, died in August 1964, several m onths after his assassination. Throughout the English-speaking world, the given name Kennedy has sometimes been used in honor of President Kennedy, as well his brother Robert.[306] Eponyms John F. Kennedy International Airport, American facility (renamed from Idlewild in ) in New York City's Queens County; nation's busiest internation al gateway John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport American facility in Ashland County, Wisconsin, near city of Ashland [307] John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge American seven-lane transportation hub across Oh io River; completed in late 1963, the bridge links Kentucky and Indiana John F. Kennedy School of Government, American institution (renamed from Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration in 1966) John F. , U.S. government installation that manages and oper ates America's astronaut launch facilities in Titusville, near Cocoa Beach, FL John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and Schooltrains person nel for the United States Army Special Operations Command and Army Special Opera tion Forces at Fort Bragg outside Fayetteville, NC John F. Kennedy University, American private educational institution founded in California in 1964; locations in Pleasant Hill, Campbell, Berkeley, and Santa Cr uz USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67), U.S. Navy aircraft carrier ordered in April 1964, l aunched May 1967, decommissioned August 2007; nicknamed "Big John" John F. Kennedy High School is the name of many secondary schools USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79), U.S. Navy aircraft carrier that began construction in 2011, and is scheduled to be placed in commission in 2020 John F Kennedy (horse), Irish-trained thoroughbred racehorse foaled in 2012 Memorials Main article: Memorials to John F. Kennedy Coat of arms In 1961, Kennedy was presented with a grant of arms for all the descendants of P atrick Kennedy from the Chief Herald of Ireland. The design of the arms strongly alludes to symbols in the coats of arms of the O'Kennedys of Ormonde and the Fi tzGeralds of Desmond, from whom the family is believed to be descended. The cres t is an armored hand holding four arrows between two olive branches, elements ta ken from the coat of arms of the United States of America and also symbolic of K ennedy and his brothers. Kennedy received a signet ring engraved with his arms for his 44th birthday as a gift from his wife, and the arms were incorporated into the seal of the USS Joh n F. Kennedy. Following his assassination, Kennedy was honored by the Canadian g overnment by having a mountain, Mount Kennedy, named for him, which his brother, Robert Kennedy, climbed in 1965 to plant a banner of the arms at the summit.[30 8] Media Kennedy comments on the possible prevention of the Cold War MENU0:00 President Kennedy comments on the possible prevention of the Cold War Kennedy's message to Turkey MENU0:00 Kennedy's message to Turkish President Cemal Gursel and The Turkish People on th e Anniversary of the Death of Kemal Ataturk, November 10, 1963 (accompanying tex t) Announcement to go to the moon MENU0:00 Announcement by John F. Kennedy to go to the moon (duration 11:00) Problems playing these files? See media help. File:Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg Newsreel footage of the inauguration ceremony and speeches See also Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy Cultural depictions of John F. Kennedy Jesuit Ivy Kennedy tragedies LincolnKennedy coincidences urban legend Operation Northwoods Orville Nix, photographer of another film of the assassination "Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy" retort by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, 1988 VP debat e The John F. Kennedy Memorial Park (in Ireland) The Torch of Friendship Abraham Zapruder, photographer of the primary film of assassination, the Zaprude r film. General: History of the United States (19451964) List of assassinated American politicians List of assassinated US presidents List of Presidents of the United States List of Presidents of the United States, sortable by previous experience List of Presidents of the United States who died in office US Presidents on US postage stamps P vip.svgBiography portal Seal of the United States Department of the Navy.svgUn ited States Navy portal Notes Jump up ^ Theodore Roosevelt was nine months younger when he first assumed the p residency on September 14, 1901, but he was not elected to the presidency until 1904, when he was 46.Jewell 2005, p. 207. Jump up ^ Two hundred thousand gallons of defoliant were shipped, in violation o f the Geneva Accords. By the end of 1962, American military personnel had increa sed from 2,600 to 11,500; 109 men were killed compared to 14 the previous year. During 1962, Viet Cong troops increased from 15,000 to 24,000. Depending on whic h assessment Kennedy accepted (Department of Defense or State) there had been ze ro or modest progress in countering the increase in communist aggression in retu rn for an expanded U.S. involvement. Reeves 1993, p. 283. Jump up ^ Kennedy reversed the Defense Department rulings that prohibited the Sp ecial Forces wearing of the Green Beret. Reeves 1993, p. 116. References ^ Jump up to: a b c d "John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information". John F. Kenne dy Presidential Library & Museum. Retrieved February 22, 2012. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 109. Jump up ^ Carroll, Wallace (January 21, 1961). "A Time of Change Facing Kennedy; Themes of Inaugural Note Future of Nation Under Challenge of New Era". . p. 9. Jump up ^ "FAQ". The Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia University. Retrieved February 23 , 2012. Jump up ^ "JFK Assassination Records: Report of the Select Committee on Assassin ations of the U.S. House of Representatives: Findings". United States National A rchives. 1979. Retrieved February 24, 2012. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 700. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 20. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 34. ^ Jump up to: a b Kenney 2000, p. 11. ^ Jump up to: a b c Dallek, Robert (December 2002). "The Medical Ordeals of JFK" . The Atlantic. Retrieved March 29, 2015. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 42. Jump up ^ "Memorial Hall Auditorium Filled to Capacity at Annual Freshman Smoker ". The Harvard Crimson. May 5, 1937. Retrieved February 18, 2012. Jump up ^ Donovan 2001, p. 7. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 49. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 54. Jump up ^ "Obama joins list of seven presidents with Harvard degrees". Harvard G azette. Harvard University. November 6, 2008. Retrieved February 24, 2012. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, pp. 6166. Jump up ^ Kenney 2000, p. 18. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 68. Jump up ^ David Shortell, Unseen photos of John and Jacqueline Kennedy's wedding auctioned CNN, October 2, 2014. Jump up ^ Ballard 2002, pp. 12, 36. Jump up ^ "Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, USN". Naval Historical Center. June 18, 2 002. Retrieved September 17, 2007. Jump up ^ Donovan 2001, pp. 99, 100. Jump up ^ Hove, Duane T. "Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II ". Retrieved September 17, 2007. Jump up ^ Donovan 2001, pp. 106107, 119. Jump up ^ Donovan 2001, p. 124. Jump up ^ Donovan 2001, pp. 125126, 141142, 162164. Jump up ^ Donovan 2001, pp. 172184. Jump up ^ "Record of John F. Kennedy's Naval Service". Naval History & Heritage Command. June 18, 2002. Retrieved June 8, 2012. Jump up ^ O'Brien 2005, pp. 179, 180. Jump up ^ "Peoria Open Space Master Plan: Chapter 4 - Historic and Cultural Reso urces" (PDF). Retrieved January 22, 2014. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 98. Jump up ^ O'Brien 2005, p. 180. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 104. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 118. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 122, 131. Jump up ^ Kenney 2000, p. 29. ^ Jump up to: a b Edward Smith, Dr. Jean (March 1967). "Kennedy and Defense The formative years". Air University Review. Retrieved September 18, 2007. Jump up ^ Tofel, Richard J. (May 9, 2008). "Wall Street Journal, May 9, 2008, p. W3, review of Counselor, by Ted Sorensen". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved M arch 28, 2010. ^ Jump up to: a b O'Brien 2005, p. 370. Jump up ^ O'Brien 2005, pp. 370, 371. Jump up ^ O'Brien 2005, p. 372. Jump up ^ O'Brien 2005, p. 374. Jump up ^ The U.S. Senator John F. Kennedy Story (film) Jump up ^ O'Brien 2005, pp. 27479, 39499. Jump up ^ Kennedy, John F. (July 15, 1960). "Address of Senator John F. Kennedy Accepting the Democratic Party Nomination for the Presidency of the United State s". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Retrieved February 22, 2012. Jump up ^ Caro, Robert A. (2012). The Passage of Power, pp. 121135. Alfred A. Kno pf, New York. ISBN 978-0-679-40507-8 Jump up ^ Kennedy, John F. (June 18, 2002). "Address to the Greater Houston Mini sterial Association". American Rhetoric. Retrieved September 17, 2007. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 15. Jump up ^ The New York Observer, "Rebbe to the city and Rebbe to the world". Edi torial, 07/08/14. Jump up ^ Alan Feuer, No One There, but This Place Is Far From Empty. The New Yo rk Times, 01/14/09. Jump up ^ Tyner Allen, Erika. "The Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960". mu seum.tv. Retrieved September 18, 2007. ^ Jump up to: a b Dudley & Shiraev 2008, p. 83. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 21. ^ Jump up to: a b Kennedy, John F. (January 20, 1961). "Inaugural Address". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Retrieved February 22, 2012. Jump up ^ Kempe 2011, p. 52. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 22. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 23, 25. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 56. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 66. Jump up ^ Art, Robert J. (1968). The TFX decision; McNamara and the military. Bo ston: Little, Brown. pp. ixxi. OCLC 294546. Jump up ^ Shapley, Deborah (1993). Promise and power: the life and times of Robe rt McNamara. Boston: Little, Brown. pp. 202223. ISBN 0-316-78280-7. Jump up ^ Kempe 2011, pp. 7678. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 145. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 161171. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 175. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 185. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 201. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 213. Jump up ^ "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Saint Anselm's College, Manches ter, New Hampshire, March 5, 1960". JFKlibrary.org. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. March 5, 1960. Retrieved March 28, 2010. Jump up ^ Schlesinger 2002, pp. 233, 238. Jump up ^ Gleijeses (1995), pp. 919 Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 6973. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 71, 673. Jump up ^ Schlesinger 2002, pp. 268294, 838839. Jump up ^ Jean Edward Smith, "Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions", The Nation , April 13, 1964. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 9597. Jump up ^ Schlesinger 2002, pp. 290, 295. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 264. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 345. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 245. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 387. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 388. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 389. 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Time Magazine. Ret rieved March 1, 2012. Jump up ^ Blight & Lang 2005, p. 276. ^ Jump up to: a b Bundy, McGeorge (October 11, 1963). "National Security Action Memorandum # 263". JFK Lancer. Retrieved February 19, 2012. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 680. ^ Jump up to: a b "1963 Commencement" June 10, 1963. Retrieved February 14, 2010 . Jump up ^ Steel, Ronald (May 25, 2003). "The World: New Chapter, Old Debate; Wou ld Kennedy Have Quit Vietnam?". New York Times. Retrieved January 27, 2012. ^ Jump up to: a b Matthews 2011, pp. 393, 394. Jump up ^ Karnow 1991, pp. 339, 343. Jump up ^ "Generations Divide Over Military Action in Iraq". Pew Research Center . October 2002. Archived from the original on February 2, 2008. Jump up ^ Bundy, McGeorge (November 26, 1963). "National Security Action Memoran dum Number 273". JFK Lancer. Retrieved February 19, 2012. Jump up ^ "NSAM 273: South Vietnam". Retrieved February 19, 2012. Jump up ^ Mufson, Steve (August 4, 2015). "Obama will echo Kennedys American Univ ersity nuclear speech from 1963". . Retrieved 6 August 2015. Jump up ^ Wang, Joy Y. (August 4, 2015). "Obama to follow in John F. Kennedys his toric footsteps". msnbc.com. msnbc.com. Retrieved 6 August 2015. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 513514. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 514. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 534. ^ Jump up to: a b Dallek 2003, p. 624. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 537. Jump up ^ John F. Kennedy: "Speech by Senator John F. Kennedy, Zionists of Ameri ca Convention, Statler Hilton Hotel, New York, NY," August 26, 1960 Jump up ^ Shannon, Vaughn P. (2003), Balancing Act: US Foreign Policy and the Ar ab-Israeli Conflict, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., p. 55 Jump up ^ Walt, Stephen M. (1987). The Origins of Alliances, Cornell University Press, pp. 95-96 ^ Jump up to: a b Salt 2008, p. 201. ^ Jump up to: a b c Salt 2008, p. 202. Jump up ^ Hersh, Samson Option, pp. 110-111 Jump up ^ Trachtenberg, Marc (February 8, 1999). "A Constructed Peace: The Makin g of the European Settlement, 19451963". Princeton University Press. p. 403, Appe ndix Eight (Chapter Nine, Note 134). Retrieved November 20, 2012. Jump up ^ Hersh, Samson Option, p. 112 Jump up ^ Salt 2008, p. 203. Jump up ^ Salt 2008, pp. 201205. Jump up ^ Coughlin, Con (2005). Saddam: His Rise and Fall. Harper Perennial. p. 39. ISBN 0-06-050543-5. Jump up ^ JFK Library, Memorandum for The President from Robert W. Komer, Februa ry 8, 1963 (JFK, NSF, Countries, Iraq, Box 117, "Iraq 1/63-2/63", document 18), p. 1. Jump up ^ Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (November 20, 1975), "C. Insti tutionalizing Assassination: the "Executive Action" capability," Alleged Assassi nation Plots involving Foreign Leaders, p. 181. Jump up ^ Batatu, Hanna. "CIA Lists Provide Basis for Iraqi Bloodbath". Global P olicy Forum. Excerpt from The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978. Jump up ^ Peter and Marion Sluglett, Iraq Since 1958, London, I.B. Taurus, 1990, p. 86. "Although individual leftists had been murdered intermittently over the previous years, the scale on which the killings and arrests took place in the sp ring and summer of 1963 indicates a closely coordinated campaign, and it is almo st certain that those who carried out the raid on suspects' homes were working f rom lists supplied to them. Precisely how these lists had been compiled is a mat ter of conjecture, but it is certain that some of the Ba'athist leaders were in touch with American intelligence networks, and it is also undeniable that a vari ety of different groups in Iraq and elsewhere in the Middle East had a strong ve sted interest in breaking what was probably the strongest and most popular Commu nist Party in the region." Jump up ^ Reich, Bernard. Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary, Greenwood Press, 1990. p. 241. ISBN 031 3262136. Jump up ^ Frontline. "James Chritchfield Interview." 1995. PBS. Jump up ^ "President John F. Kennedy on His Historic Trip to Ireland". Shapell M anuscript Collection. Shapell Manuscript Foundation. Jump up ^ Sorensen 1966, p. 656. Jump up ^ "1963: Warm welcome for JFK in Ireland". BBC. June 27, 1963. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ JFK is First Foreign Leader to Address Dáil Éireann (Text and video) RTÉ Archives, Jun e 28, 1963. Address Before the Irish Parliament in Dublin, June 28, 1963 (Text and audio) Ke nnedy Library and Museum, 1963-06-28. President Kennedy in Ireland (Text and video) RTÉ Archives. Retrieved: 2013-07-03. JFK Homecoming Memory Project Jump up ^ Cowell, Alan (December 29, 2006). "JFK faced 3 death threats during '6 3 visit to Ireland". Deseret News (Salt Lake City). New York Times News Service. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 552. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 227. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 229. ^ Jump up to: a b Reeves 1993, p. 243. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 542. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 548. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 550. ^ Jump up to: a b Jaikumar, Arjun (July 10, 2011). "On taxes, let's be Kennedy D emocrats. Or Eisenhower Republicans. Or Nixon Republicans.". Daily Kos. Retrieve d February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ Ippolito, Dennis (2004). Why Budgets Matter: Budget Policy and America n Politics. Penn State Press. pp. 173175. ISBN 0-271-02260-4. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 453. Jump up ^ Barnes 2007, p. 8. Jump up ^ Frum 2000, p. 293. Jump up ^ Frum 2000, p. 324. ^ Jump up to: a b c "BEA: Quarterly GDP figures by sector, 19531964". United Stat es Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis. Retrieved February 23, 2 012. Jump up ^ "Consumer and Gross Domestic Price Indices: 1913 to 2002" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. 2003. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ "Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1964" (PDF). U.S. Departme nt of Commerce. July 1964. Retrieved March 28, 2010. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 298. Jump up ^ "The Presidency: Smiting the Foe". TIME. April 20, 1962. ^ Jump up to: a b O'Brien 2005, p. 645. Jump up ^ "Inflation in Steel". New York Times. April 12, 1962. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 300. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 318320. Jump up ^ "Executions 1790 to 1963". Web.archive.org. April 13, 2003. Archived f rom the original on April 13, 2003. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ Goldberg, Carey (May 6, 2001). "Federal Executions Have Been Rare but May Increase". The New York Times. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ Riechmann, Deb (July 29, 2008). "Bush: Former Army cook's crimes warra nt execution". ABC News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on July 31 , 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ "Legislative Summary: District of Columbia". John F. Kennedy President ial Library. Retrieved June 8, 2015. Jump up ^ "Norton Letter to U.S. Attorney Says Death Penalty Trial That Begins T oday Part of Troubling and Futile Pattern". Office of Congresswoman Eleanor Holm es Norton. January 8, 2007. Retrieved February 23, 2012. Jump up ^ Grantham (1988), The Life and Death of the Solid South: A Political Hi story, p. 156 ^ Jump up to: a b Dallek 2003, pp. 292293. Jump up ^ "John F. Kennedy", Urs Swharz, Paul Hamlyn, 1964 Jump up ^ Bryant 2006, pp. 60, 66. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 123126. Jump up ^ wikisource Executive Order No. 10925 Jump up ^ "Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle". Stanford Un iversity. Jump up ^ Bryant 2006, p. 71. Jump up ^ Gitlin (2009), The Ku Klux Klan: A Guide to an American Subculture, p. 29 Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 580. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 467. Jump up ^ In the first week of June there were 160 incidents of violence. Reeves 1993, p. 515. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 515. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 521523. Jump up ^ Kennedy, John F. "Civil Rights Address". AmericanRhetoric.com. Retriev ed September 20, 2007. Jump up ^ Schlesinger 2002, p. 966. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 524. Jump up ^ "John F. Kennedy: Executive Order 10980". Retrieved January 25, 2011. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 433. Jump up ^ "The Equal Pay Act Turns 40". Archive.eeoc.gov. Retrieved March 26, 20 11. ^ Jump up to: a b Reeves 1993, pp. 580584. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 599600. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 628631. Jump up ^ "The FBI's War on King". American Public Radio. Jump up ^ Frum 2000, p. 41. Jump up ^ Herst 2007, p. 372. Jump up ^ Herst 2007, pp. 372374. Jump up ^ Garrow, David J. (July 8, 2002). "The FBI and Martin Luther King". The Atlantic Monthly. Jump up ^ Ludden, Jennifer. "Q&A: Sen. Kennedy on Immigration, Then & Now". NPR. Retrieved September 20, 2007. Jump up ^ "From Press Office: Senator John F. Kennedy, Immigration and Naturaliz ation Laws, Hyannis Inn Motel, Hyannis, MA". americanpresidency.org. August 6, 1 960. Retrieved September 20, 2007. Jump up ^ Bilharz 2002, p. 55. Jump up ^ Kennedy, John F. (August 11, 1961). "320Letter to the President of the Seneca Nation of Indians Concerning the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River". The American Presidency Project. Retrieved February 25, 2012. Jump up ^ Murray and Cox, Apollo, p. 60. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 502. Jump up ^ Kenney 2000, pp. 115116. Jump up ^ Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 138. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 392. Jump up ^ Sidey, Hugh (1964), John F. Kennedy, pp. 117118. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 393. Jump up ^ Kennedy, John F. (1961). "Apollo Expeditions to the Moon: Chapter 2". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved February 26, 2012. Jump up ^ Kennedy, John F. (September 12, 1962). "President John F. Kennedy: The Space Effort". Rice University. Retrieved February 25, 2012. Jump up ^ Selverstone, Marc. "JFK and the Space Race". White House TapesPresident ial Recordings Program, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. Retrieved February 26, 2012. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 652653. Jump up ^ Wikisource: Address to the United Nations General Assembly (1963) by J ohn F. Kennedy Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 654. Jump up ^ Brooks marks JFK's 40th anniversary visit. http://www.af.mil/DesktopMo dules/ArticleCS/Print.aspx?PortalId=1&ModuleId=850&Article=138100 ^ Jump up to: a b >Remarks at Aero-Space Medical Health Center dedication, San A ntonio, Texas, 21 November 1963. http://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Archives /JFKPOF-048-017.aspx Jump up ^ President John F. Kennedy's Remarks at Brooks Air Force Base. San Anto nio, TX - 21 November 1963. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6DTX9OiKi9U Jump up ^ Russ. "26, 2009#P12844 Life in Legacy". Lifeinlegacy.com. Retrieved Ma rch 28, 2010. ^ Jump up to: a b Parkland Hospital doctors attending to him reported Jump up ^ Lee Oswald claiming innocence (film), Youtube.com Jump up ^ Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 20, p. 366, Kantor Exhibit No. 3Handwr itten notes made by Seth Kantor concerning events surrounding the assassination Jump up ^ Gus Russo and Stephen Molton "Did Castro OK the Kennedy Assassination? ," American Heritage, Winter 2009. Jump up ^ Dana Blanton (June 18, 2004). "Poll: Most Believe 'Cover-Up' of JFK As sassination Facts". Fox News. Jump up ^ "Majority in U.S. Still Believe JFK Killed in a Conspiracy: Mafia, fed eral government top list of potential conspirators". Gallup, Inc. November 15, 2 013. Jump up ^ "Report of the Select Committee on Assassinations of the U.S. House of Representatives". U.S. House of Representatives. Retrieved 11 November 2013. Jump up ^ Bugliosi 2007, p. 211. Jump up ^ Bugliosi 2007, p. 312. Jump up ^ This Day in History 1967: JFK's body moved to permanent gravesite, His tory.com. Retrieved April 8, 2008. Jump up ^ "Broadcast Yourself". YouTube. Retrieved January 2, 2010. Jump up ^ "John F. Kennedy Fast Facts: Favorite Poems, 'I Have a Rendezvous with Death' (Seeger)" Jump up ^ Cover story, Time magazine, January 20, 1961 Jump up ^ Specious allegations in 1997 by UK journalist Terry O'Hanlon Golden, A ndrew (July 27, 1997). "JFK The Bigamist..... The Truth At Last; Kennedy was alr eady married when he got wed to Jackie.....". Sunday Mirror. Retrieved October 3 1, 2010. and by author Seymour Hersh Reingold, Joyce (March 26, 2008). "JFK 'Sec ret Marriage' A Story With Legs". Palm Beach Daily News. Retrieved October 31, 2 010. that Kennedy had married previously have been soundly disproven. Reeves sta tes that Ben Bradlee, then at Newsweek, inspected FBI files on it, and confirmed the falsehood. Reeves 1993, p. 348; for further refutation, see O'Brien 2005, p . 706. ^ Jump up to: a b Reeves 1993, p. 29. Jump up ^ Raymond, Emilie (2006). From my cold, dead hands: Charlton Heston and American politics. University Press of Kentucky. p. 246. ISBN 978-0-8131-2408-7. Jump up ^ "Books for Lawyers". American Bar Association Journal: 556. 1975. Jump up ^ The Gallup Poll 1999. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources Inc. 1 999. pp. 248249. Jump up ^ "Greatest of the Century". Gallup/CNN/USA Today Poll. December 2021, 19 99. Retrieved January 5, 2007. Jump up ^ "Kennedy Plane Found to Be Fully Functional". The Washington Post. Jul y 31, 1999. Retrieved January 2, 2010. Jump up ^ Rouse, Robert (March 15, 2006). "Happy Anniversary to the first schedu led presidential press conference93 years young!". American Chronicle. Jump up ^ "RTDNA's Kennedy connections". Radio Television Digital News Associati on, November 26, 2013. Retrieved May 27, 2014. Jump up ^ The Personal Papers of Theodore H. White (19151986): Series 11. Camelot Documents, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum quotation: The 1963 LIFE article represented the first use of the term Camelot in print and i s attributed with having played a major role in establishing and fixing this ima ge of the Kennedy Administration and period in the popular mind. Jump up ^ An Epilogue, in LIFE, Dec 6, 1963, pp.158-9 Jump up ^ Mandel, Lee R. (2009). "Endocrine and Autoimmune Aspects of the Health History of John F. Kennedy". Annals of Internal Medicine 151 (151(5)): 350354. d oi:10.1059/0003-4819-151-5-200909010-00011. PMID 19721023. Jump up ^ Kempe 2011, p. 213. Jump up ^ New York Sun September 20, 2005: "Dr. Feelgood" Retrieved July 11, 201 1 Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 42, 158-159. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 244. Jump up ^ Online NewsHour with Senior Correspondent Ray Suarez and physician Jef frey Kelman, "Pres. Kennedy's Health Secrets", The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer tran script, November 18, 2002 Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, pp. 83-85. Jump up ^ Osborne 2006, p. 195. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, pp. 315316. Jump up ^ Bone, James (February 17, 2010), "How JFK's Riviera romance led to yea rs of longing", The Times, London. Retrieved April 2, 2010. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 289. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 475. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 58. Jump up ^ Garrow, David J. (May 28, 2003). "Substance Over Sex In Kennedy Biogra phy". The New York Times. Retrieved January 20, 2013. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, pp. 475, 476. Jump up ^ Leaming 2006, pp. 379-380. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 581. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 376. Jump up ^ Barnes 2007, p. 116. Jump up ^ Reeves 1993, p. 291. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 478. Jump up ^ Roberts, Patrick (December 13, 2009). "Kennedy Ancestral Home in Irela nd to Be Landmarked". ABCNews.com. ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved Septemb er 30, 2010. Jump up ^ Maier2004, p. 25. Jump up ^ Maier2004, p. 30. Jump up ^ Maier2004, p. 33. Jump up ^ Cronkite, Walter (1996). A Reporter's Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-394-57879-1. Jump up ^ Carter, Bill (September 15, 2001). "Viewers Again Return To Traditiona l Networks". The New York Times. p. A14. Jump up ^ "Presidents Who Served in the U.S. Navy". Frequently Asked Questions. Naval History & Heritage Command. January 11, 2007. Retrieved May 12, 2011. Jump up ^ "Navy SEALs Were Launched in the JFK 'Man on the Moon' Speech". 11 Fac ts About Navy SEALs. Time Inc. Retrieved May 12, 2011. Jump up ^ Salinger, Pierre (1997). John F. Kennedy: Commander in Chief: A Profil e in Leadership. New York: Penguin Studio. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-670-86310-5. Retrie ved February 22, 2012. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, pp. 643, 648-649. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, pp. 594-606, 644. Jump up ^ Dallek 2003, p. 708. Jump up ^ "50 years after win, Kennedy's legacy endures". USA Today. September 2 6, 2010. Retrieved April 4, 2013. Jump up ^ Hanes, Jr. 2000, p. 205. Jump up ^ Page, Susan (October 4, 2011). "50 years after win, Kennedy's legacy e ndures". USA Today. Retrieved December 25, 2011. Jump up ^ Douthat, Ross (November 26, 2011). "The Enduring Cult of Kennedy". New York Times. Retrieved December 3, 2011. Jump up ^ Hanks, Patrick; Hardcastle, Kate; Hodges, Flavia (2006). A Dictionary of First Names. Oxford Paperback Reference (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-0-19-861060-1. Jump up ^ "Whats in an eponym? Celebrity airports - could there be a commercial b enefit in naming?". Centre for Aviation. Jump up ^ "John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th President of the United States". Americ an Heraldry Society. Retrieved October 27, 2009. Bibliography Alford, Mimi; Newman, Judith (2011). Once Upon A Secret: My Affair with Presiden t John F. Kennedy and its Aftermath. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-193175-9. Ballard, Robert D. (2002). Collision With History: The Search for John F. Kenned y's PT 109. Washington, DC: National Geographic. ISBN 978-0-7922-6876-5. Barnes, John (2007). John F. Kennedy on Leadership. Bilharz, Joy Ann (2002) [1998]. The Allegany Senecas and Kinzua Dam: Forced Relo cation Through Two Generations. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978- 0-8032-1282-4. Blight, James G.; Lang, Janet M. (2005). The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425- 4221-1. Bryant, Nick (Autumn 2006). "Black Man Who Was Crazy Enough to Apply to Ole Miss ". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (53). Bugliosi, Vincent (2007). Reclaiming History: The Assassination of President Joh n F. Kennedy. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04525-3. Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 19171963. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 978-0-316-17238-7. Donovan, Robert J. (2001) [1961]. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II (40th Anniver sary ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-137643-3. Dunnigan, James; Nofi, Albert (1999). Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War. S t. Martin's. ISBN 978-0-312-19857-2. Dudley, Robert L.; Shiraev, Eric (2008). Counting Every Vote: The Most Contentio us Elections in American History. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-59 797-224-6. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04196 -1. Gleijeses, Piero. "Ships in the Night: The CIA, the White House and the Bay of P igs". Journal of Latin American Studies, Feb. 1995, Vol. 27, no. 1, pp. 142 (via JSTOR) ISSN 0022-216X Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edgar: The Historic Face-Off Between the Kenn edys and J. Edgar Hoover That Transformed America. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-7867- 1982-2. Jewell, Elizabeth (2005). U.S. Presidents Factbook. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-72073-4. Kempe, Frederick (2011). Berlin 1961. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 978-0-3 99-15729-5. Kenney, Charles (2000). John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio. PublicAffai rs. ISBN 978-1-891620-36-2. Leaming, Barbara (2006). Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman. W. W. Norto n. ISBN 978-0-393051-61-2. Maier, Thomas (2004). The Kennedys: America's Emerald Kings. McNamara, Robert S. (2000). Argument Without End: In Search of Answers to the Vi etnam Tragedy. Matthews, Chris (2011). Jack Kennedy. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4516-3508-9. O'Brien, Michael (2005). John F. Kennedy: A Biography. Thomas Dunne. ISBN 978-0- 312-28129-8. Osborne, Robert (2006). Leading Ladies: The 50 Most Unforgettable Actresses of t he Studio Era. Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0811852487. Reeves, Richard (1993). President Kennedy: Profile of Power. New York: Simon & S chuster. ISBN 978-0-671-64879-4. Salt, Jeremey (2008). The Unmaking of the Middle East: A History of Western Diso rder in Arab lands. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520 -25551-7. Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (2002) [1965]. : John F. Kennedy in the White House. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-21927-8. Sorensen, Theodore (1966) [1965]. Kennedy (paperback). New York: Bantam. OCLC 27 46832. Tucker, Spencer (2011) [1998]. The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851099603. Walton Jr., Hanes; Smith, Robert C. (2000). American Politics and the African Am erican Quest for Universal Freedom. Addison, Wesley, Longman. ISBN 0-321-07038-0 . Further reading Brauer, Carl. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (1977) Burner, David. John F. Kennedy and a New Generation (1988) Casey, Shaun. The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960 (2009) Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. The Kennedys (1984) Cottrell, John. Assassination! The World Stood Still (1964) Douglass, James W. (2008). JFK and the Unspeakable: Why He Died and Why It Matte rs. Maryknoll, N.Y: Orbis Books. ISBN 978-1-57075-755-6. Fay, Paul B., Jr. The Pleasure of His Company (1966) Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam (2000) Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castr o and Kennedy, 19581964 (1997) Giglio, James. The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1991) Hamilton, Nigel. JFK: Reckless Youth (1992) Harper, Paul, and Krieg, Joann P. eds. John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited (1 988) Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attentio n to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962) Heath, Jim F. Decade of Disillusionment: The KennedyJohnson Years (1976) Hersh, Seymour. The Dark Side of Camelot (1997) Kunz, Diane B. The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations d uring the 1960s (1994) Lynch, Grayston L. Decision for Disaster Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs (2000) Manchester, William. : John F. Kennedy in Profile (1967) Manchester, William (1967). : November 20 25, 1963. New York: Harper & Row. LCCN 67010496. Newman, John M. JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (1992) Parmet, Herbert. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (1980) Parmet, Herbert. JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1983) Parmet, Herbert. "The Kennedy Myth". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Vo lume II. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) (1997) Piper, Michael Collins. Final Judgment (2004: sixth edition). American Free Pres s Reeves, Thomas. A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (1991); hosti le biography Sabato, Larry J. The Kennedy Half-Century: The Lasting Legacy of John F. Kennedy (forthcoming, 2013) Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. Robert Kennedy And His Times (2002) [1978] Selverstone, Marc J., ed. A Companion to John F. Kennedy (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014) Smith, Jean E. The Defense of Berlin (1963) Smith, Jean E. The Wall as Watershed (1966) Walsh, Kenneth T. : A History of the Presidents and Their Planes (2 003) Wyden, Peter, Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story (1979) Primary sources Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. In a Perilous Hour: The P ublic Address of John F. Kennedy (1995) Kennedy, Jacqueline. Jacqueline Kennedy: Historic Conversations on Life with Joh n F. Kennedy (2011). Hyperion Books. ISBN 1401324258. Historiography and memory Abramson, Jill. "Kennedy, the Elusive President", The New York Times Book Review October 22, 2013, notes that 40,000 books have been published about JFK Hellmann, John. The Kennedy Obsession: The American Myth of JFK (1997) Santa Cruz, Paul H. Making JFK Matter: Popular Memory and the 35th President (De nton: University of North Texas Press, 2015) xxiv, 363 pp. Selverstone, Marc J., ed. A Companion to John F. Kennedy (Wiley-Blackwell, 2014) , Topical essays by scholars focusing on the historiography External links Find more about John F. Kennedy at Wikipedia's sister projects Search Wiktionary Definitions from Wiktionary Search Commons Media from Commons Search Wikiquote Quotations from Wikiquote Search Wikisource Source texts from Wikisource Official John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic Site White House biography Media coverage John F. Kennedy collected news and commentary at The New York Times Appearances on C-SPAN John F. Kennedy at C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits Radio coverage of the assassination of President Kennedy as broadcast on WCCO-AM Radio (Minneapolis) and CBS Radio Other John F. Kennedy: A Resource Guide - the Library of Congress Extensive Essays on JFK with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and Fi rst Lady - Miller Center of Public Affairs Kennedy Administration from Office of the Historian, United States Government Pr inting Office, Washington, D.C. Works by or about John F. Kennedy at Internet Archive Works by John F. Kennedy at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Speaker Icon.svg John F. Kennedy discography at Discogs "John F. Kennedy". Find a Grave. Retrieved November 17, 2013. John F. Kennedy at DMOZ [show] v t e John F. Kennedy [show] Offices and distinctions [show] Articles related to John F. Kennedy Authority control WorldCat VIAF: 68910251 LCCN: n79055297 ISNI: 0000 0001 0911 7086 GND: 118561383 SELIBR: 66727 SUDOC: 027317390 BNF: cb121853903 (data) ULAN: 500262206 MusicBra inz: 2966f67a-ed7a-43e7-9a6a-a14aa592b246 NLA: 35266141 NDL: 00445469 NKC: jn200 00603341 US Congress: K000107 BNE: XX986535 Categories: John F. 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