Open Geosciences 2020; 12: 1725–1735 TRANSFORMATION OF TRADITIONAL CULTURAL LANDSCAPES - Koper 2019 Daniela Ribeiro*, Nika Razpotnik Visković, and AndražČarni Landscape dynamics at borderlands: analysing land use changes from Southern Slovenia https://doi.org/10.1515/geo-2020-0212 received January 31, 2020; accepted November 10, 2020 1 Introduction Abstract: This study presents the results of an in-depth Landscapes represent the place where land and people study on landscape changes over the last two centuries in come together, addressing the spatial dimensions of cul- the region of Bela krajina, south-eastern Slovenia. Since ture and meanings of land [1]. Cultural landscapes are – this region is situated along the Slovenian Croatian multifunctional landscapes, which simultaneously pro- fi - border, immigration and emigration are permanent x vide and support productivity, habitat, regulatory, social, tures in the region. Due to historical reasons, population and economic functions [2,3]. The extent of integration structure and land use changes occurred. With regard to between environmental (ecological) and socio-economic - these processes, two case studies were selected: settle functions of the landscape depends on the patterns and š č š č ments of Adle i i and Bojanci. Adle i i is a village mainly intensities of land use. Land use is the main object of inhabited by farmers of catholic religion. Bojanci was colo- human impact [4]. nized by Orthodox Uskoki, i.e. refugees from Ottoman Cultural landscapes are continuously changing [5]. Empire who become Habsburg soldiers who lived a mili- The extensification of land use and consequent land aban- tary life and had different attitude towards land cultiva- donment is considered a major trend of change affecting tion. Landscapes in these two settlements have its own remote rural areas with poor accessibility and less favour- distinctive patterns contrasting to each other in the land able conditions both social and economic. Remote rural use, showing historically distinctive cultural landscapes. areas are usually affected by decreasing population and The study aimed to interpret the development of cultural agriculture becomes less productive, or in the less favour- landscapes in these settlements by analysing the land use able conditions for agriculture, marginalization of land use changes and identifying the factors that influenced it. Even and land abandonment is predicted to increase [6].Rural though these sites have different management regimes, depopulation leads to a loss of traditional farming knowl- they are both affected by difficult karst terrain and isola- edge. The loss of traditional land management practices tion. The results confirmed the land abandonment and leads to ecosystem change, which successively is likely to overgrowth of agricultural land in both case studies, how- lead to the loss of important biological or cultural values ever, at different rates. [7]. Most European landscape systems have been devel- Keywords: land use changes, cultural landscapes, rural oped almost entirely by the presence of human activities, areas, depopulation, land abandonment, Adlešiči, Bojanci, and traditional practices and management of these sys- Bela krajina tems have shaped the European landscapes [8]. Slovenian cultural landscapes recognized as valuable are probably the main element of national identity [9]. The wide range of cultural landscapes in Slovenia as a result of their geo- graphical and cultural diversity has their place in social * Corresponding author: Daniela Ribeiro, Research Centre of the [ ] č [ ] Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Anton Melik Geographical conception of space 9,10 .Kuan 10 has showed that Institute, Ljubljana, Slovenia, e-mail: [email protected] Slovenian national identity is defined by symbolic places Nika Razpotnik Visković: Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy and special landscape types. Specific landscapes emerge of Sciences and Arts, Anton Melik Geographical Institute, Ljubljana, as representative of the whole, appearing as symbolic - - Slovenia, e mail: nika.razpotnik@zrc sazu.si places or as conceptualized landscape types composed žČ Andra arni: Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of [ ] Sciences and Arts, Jovan Hadži Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, of various and distinct landscape features 10 . Slovenia, e-mail: [email protected] Moreover, as locals and non-locals decide what is ORCID: Daniela Ribeiro 0000-0003-0511-3293 meaningful for them and how to manage the landscape [11], Open Access. © 2020 Daniela Ribeiro et al., published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 1726 Daniela Ribeiro et al. landscape management is dependent on local inhabi- tants and their cultural context. Marcucci [12] claimed that “The history of each landscape is unique – it is also complicated.” The creation of the current landscape, as we see it now, is dependent on the values and activities that people had and continue to have in their environ- ment. Today’s landscapes are in part the product of his- torical cultural values [12]. The aim of this research is to interpret the develop- ment of two cultural landscapes by analysing the land use changes and identifying the factors which influ- enced it. As landscape can be seen as spatial variations in vegetation cover, and it is possible to determine its diver- Figure 1: Geographical location of the study region (Bela krajina), its sity based on land use patterns [13], we analysed the three municipalities (Črnomelj, Metlika and Semič), and the selected case studies (settlements of Adlešiči and Bojanci). spatial processes and patterns across temporal and spa- tial scales to unveil the landscape changes. Structural changes in land use are diagnostic of the restructuring According to Plut [15,16], the uneven regional develop- occurring at the economic and social levels. Spatial and ment of Bela krajina is a reflection of the relatively scarce temporal analyses were undertaken on two case studies natural resources, karst terrain, remoteness regarding major (settlements of Adlešiči and Bojanci) which were selected roads, underdeveloped infrastructure, belated industrializa- for an in-depth study of landscape changes over the last tion, dispersed settlements, and low education levels. 200 years based on historical sources. Bela krajina was selected as the study region because We hypothesized that the landscape changes over it represents a geographically marginal Slovenian karst time might be different in Adlešiči and Bojanci, as result landscape and of its cultural diversity. Karst landscapes of different cultural realities (such as traditions and in Slovenia cover over 44% of the countryʼs area and are ethnicity) and socio-economic influences (such as migra- characterized by stony surfaces with dolines, collapse tion). Weber et al. [14] suggest that migration and ethni- dolines, solution valleys, poljes, corrosion plains, and city are two main components that shape the cultural dry and blind valleys [17]. Karst landscapes are recogniz- orientation system, which influences decision-making able important features at a national level, cultural and concerning land use, inducing new practices. Although symbolic landscape identity, and natural characteristics these case studies have different management regimes with distinctive features limiting and directing human (Adlešiči is still being cultivated and Bojanci is mainly activities. As Bela krajina is located along part of the covered by forests), they are both affected by difficult national border and mainly due to the border itself, immi- karst terrain and geographical isolation. These case stu- gration and emigration have been the permanent fixtures dies show historically distinctive cultural landscapes in the region [18; Figure 2]. The region has been settled by formed by a long-term interaction between natural con- various ethnic groups that have contributed to its ethnic ditions and human influence. and cultural diversity. The arrival of the Ottoman Empire in Europe at the end of fourteenth century demographically influenced the settlements in Bela krajina [19]. Consequently, the 2 Materials and methods Habsburg Monarchy began to organize defences, estab- lish a military frontier, and settle a war-capable popula- fl 2.1 Study region and case studies tion. Uskoks, refugees from the Ottomans that ed from the conquered or even unconquered areas of the present- day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, began settling Bela krajina (White Carniola) is located in the south- in Bela krajina to protect the Habsburg Monarchy from eastern part of Slovenia (Figure 1), along the Slovenian– Ottomans invasions [19]. Croatian border, covering 595 km2. The region is charac- In the second half of the nineteenth century, the terized by a weak economy, unfavourable demographic Ottoman threat ceased and the military frontier became structure (ageing population) and well-preserved nature. obsolete. Landscape dynamics at borderlands analysing land use changes from Southern Slovenia 1727 Figure 2: Demographic fluctuation in Adlešiči and Bojanci settlements. Inhabitants of Bela krajina were, besides political distinctive patterns of its landscapes (land use and changes, also affected by the agrarian reforms. appearance), as a result of their historically distinctive It is difficult to determine only one main factor for character. mass emigration from the region. But the most decisive Adlešiči is a settlement of Slovenian