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The Anticancer Agent Elesclomol Has Direct Effects on Mitochondrial Bioenergetic Function in Isolated Mammalian Mitochondria

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The Anticancer Agent Elesclomol Has Direct Effects on Mitochondrial Bioenergetic Function in Isolated Mammalian Mitochondria Article The Anticancer Agent Elesclomol Has Direct Effects on Mitochondrial Bioenergetic Function in Isolated Mammalian Mitochondria Josephine S. Modica-Napolitano 1,*, Leena P. Bharath2, Alison J. Hanlon 1 and Liam D. Hurley 1 1 Department of Biology, Merrimack College, North Andover, MA 01845, USA 2 Department of Health Sciences, Merrimack College, North Andover, MA 01845, USA * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 14 June 2019; Accepted: 22 July 2019; Published: 24 July 2019 Abstract: Elesclomol ((N-malonyl-bis(N'-methyl-N'-thiobenzoylhydrazide)); formerly STA-4783) is a mitochondria-targeted chemotherapeutic agent that has demonstrated efficacy in selective cancer cell killing in pre-clinical and clinical testing. The biologically active form of elesclomol is a deprotonated copper chelate (elesclomol:copper; E:C), which has been shown to enhance reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and induce a transcriptional gene profile characteristic of an oxidative stress response in vitro. Previous studies suggest that E:C interacts with the electron transport chain (ETC) to generate high levels of ROS within the organelle and ultimately induce cell death. The purpose of this study was to further explore the mechanism of cellular and mitochondrial toxicity of E:C by examining its direct effect on mitochondrial bioenergetic function. The results obtained indicate that E:C treatment in whole cells of non-tumorigenic origin at high concentrations (40 μM and higher) induces a rapid and substantial increase in mitochondrial superoxide levels and dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, similar higher concentrations of E:C act as a direct uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation and generalized inhibitor of electron transport activity in isolated, intact mitochondria, and induce a dose-dependent inhibition of mitochondrial NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase activity in freeze-thawed mitochondrial preparations. The results of this study are important in that they are the first to demonstrate a direct effect of the E:C chelate on bioenergetic function in isolated mammalian mitochondria, and suggest the possibility that the increase in ROS production and cytotoxicity induced by E:C may in part be due to uncoupling of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and/or inhibition of electron transport activity. These results also provide important information about the mechanisms of mitochondrial and cellular toxicity induced by E:C and will ultimately contribute to a better understanding of the therapeutic potential of elesclomol as an anticancer compound. Keywords: mitochondria; bioenergetics; elesclomol; anti-cancer 1. Introduction Elesclomol (N-malonyl-bis(N'-methyl-N'-thiobenzoylhydrazide)); formerly STA-4783; Figure 1) is a mitochondria-targeted chemotherapeutic agent that has exhibited antitumor activity against a broad range of cancer cell types in vitro, enhanced the potency of known chemotherapeutic agents in human tumor models in vivo, and displayed encouraging but limited therapeutic benefit as a single agent and in combination with other anti-cancer compounds in Phase I through Phase III clinical trials [1–6]. Biomolecules 2019, 9, 298 2 of 17 Figure 1. Chemical structure of elesclomol (MedChemExpress, https://www.medchemexpress.com/). Elesclomol has been shown to induce a rapid accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a gene transcription profile characteristic of an oxidative stress response in vitro [7]. Interestingly, the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine blocks elesclomol induced gene expression and cell death, suggesting that ROS generation may be the primary means of cancer cell killing by the drug [7]. The biologically active form of elesclomol is a deprotonated copper chelate [8]. Upon therapeutic administration, this chelate forms when elesclomol acquires Cu2+ in the bloodstream. However, in vitro studies investigating the mechanism of action of elesclomol have demonstrated that the addition of a pre-formed elesclomol:copper (E:C) complex is necessary to induce cytotoxicity [8]. In one such in vitro study, comparative growth assays using deletion mutants of a yeast model yield evidence that E:C works through a biologically coherent set of processes occurring in the mitochondrion [9]. The results suggest that E:C interacts with the electron transport chain (ETC), a major component of the process of oxidative phosphorylation, to generate high levels of ROS within the organelle and ultimately induce cell death. The authors concluded that E:C mediated cytotoxicity occurs via general disruption of the process of electron flow down the ETC, rather than by targeting any particular protein or enzyme function within the ETC. The purpose of this study was to further explore the mechanism of cellular and mitochondrial toxicity of E:C by examining its direct effect on mitochondrial bioenergetic function in whole cells of non-tumorigenic origin and in isolated mammalian mitochondria. The results obtained indicate that E:C treatment in whole cells induces a rapid and substantial increase in mitochondrial superoxide levels and dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, E:C acts as an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation and generalized inhibitor of electron transport activity in isolated, intact mitochondria, and induces a dose-dependent inhibition of mitochondrial NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase activity in freeze-thawed mitochondrial preparations. The results of this study are important in that they are the first to demonstrate a direct effect of the E:C chelate on bioenergetic function in isolated mammalian mitochondria, and suggest the possibility that the increase in ROS production and cytotoxicity induced by E:C may in part be due to uncoupling of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation or inhibition of electron transport activity, or both. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials Elesclomol was obtained from MedChemExpress (https://www.medchemexpress.com/) and made fresh daily at a concentration ranging from 1–10 mM in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The E:C complex was formed by mixing equimolar and equivolume additions of elesclomol and copper chloride (dissolved in H2O). MitoSOX Red mitochondrial superoxide indicator for live-cell imaging Biomolecules 2019, 9, 298 3 of 17 was obtained from Molecular Probes (Eugene, OR, USA); the mitochondrial superoxide scavenger MitoTEMPO was obtained from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA); the mitochondrial membrane potential probe TMRE (tetramethylrhodamine, ethyl ester) was obtained from Biotium (Fremont, CA, USA); and the live cell nuclear stain, NucBlue Live, and the cell viability stain, NucGreen Dead, were obtained from ThermoFisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). All solutions were used according to the manufacturer’s specifications. 2.2. Cell Cultures The CV-1 African green monkey kidney epithelial cells (ATCC® CCL-70™) were grown in Eagle's minimal essential medium (EMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. All cells were maintained at 37 °C in a 5% CO2 atmosphere. 2.3. Mitochondrial Superoxide Production in Whole Cells Mitochondrial superoxide production was assessed by measuring MitoSOX fluorescence using a Zeiss 800 confocal microscope (Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH, Jena, Germany). The CV-1 cells were seeded in glass bottom 35mm plates (MatTek) and grown to 90% confluency. To initiate an experiment, cells were incubated for 10 min with 5 μM MitoSOX in phenol red free EMEM, washed twice with sterile phosphate buffered saline, and replenished with phenol red free EMEM and 2 drops/mL media of NucBlue or NucGreen. Cells were then treated with either DMSO (control) or 70 μM E:C, and MitoSOX, NucBlue, and/or NucGreen fluorescence was monitored over a period of 1 h. To block mitochondrial superoxide accumulation, some cells underwent a 1-h pre-treatment with 5 μM of the free radical scavenger MitoTEMPO prior to addition of DMSO or E:C. 2.4. Mitochondrial Membrane Potential in Whole Cells Mitochondrial membrane potential was assessed by measuring TMRE fluorescence using a Zeiss 800 confocal microscope. The CV-1 cells were seeded in glass bottom 35 mm plates (MatTek) and grown to 90% confluency. To initiate an experiment, cells were washed twice with sterile phosphate buffered saline and incubated for 10 min with 100 nM TMRE in phenol red free EMEM and two drops/ml media of NucBlue or NucGreen. Cells were then treated with either DMSO (control) or 70 μM E:C, and TMRE and NucBlue and/or NucGreen fluorescence was monitored over a period of 1 h. As a positive control for uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation and dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential, cells were incubated for 10 min in the presence of the ionophore FCCP (carbonyl cyanide-4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylhydrazone; 100 μM). 2.5. Isolation of Mitochondria Mitochondria were isolated from bovine or rat liver by a process of differential centrifugation at 4 °C [10]. Briefly, 5–6 g of tissue were minced and homogenized in STE (250 mM sucrose, 1 mM Tris- HCI, and 1 mM EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, pH 7.4)), 20% w/v, and centrifuged at 600× g for 10 min. The supernatant was collected and then centrifuged for 10 min at 8000× g. The resulting mitochondrial pellet was re-suspended and washed twice by centrifugation for 10 min at 8000× g in STE, followed by an additional wash in ST (250 mM sucrose and 1 mM Tris-HC1 (pH 7.4)). The final pellet was re-suspended in ST and the protein concentration of the mitochondrial suspension was determined by the
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