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Political Correctness and Freedom of Expression

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Political Correctness and Freedom of Expression POLITICAL CORRECTNESS AND FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTERS IN POLITICS of RHODES UNIVERSITY Supervisor: Dr Antony Fluxman By: Geoffrey Embling January 2017 Abstract A brief history of political correctness is discussed along with various definitions of it, ranging from political correctness being a benign attempt to prevent offense and avert discrimination to stronger views equating it with Communist censorship or branding it as "cultural Marxism". The aim of the research is to discover what political correctness is, how it relates to freedom of expression and what wider implications and effects it has on society. The moral foundations of rights and free speech in particular are introduced in order to set a framework to determine what authority people and governments have to censor others' expression. Different philosophical views on the limits of free speech are discussed, and arguments for and against hate speech are analysed and related to political correctness. The thesis looks at political correctness on university campuses, which involves speech codes, anti­ discrimination legislation and changing the Western canon to a more multicultural syllabus. The recent South African university protests involving issues such as white privilege, university fees and rape are discussed and related to political correctness. The thesis examines the role of political correctness in the censorship of humour, it discusses the historical role of satire in challenging dogmatism and it looks at the psychology behind intolerance. Political correctness appeals to tolerance, which is sometimes elevated at the expense of truth. Truth and tolerance are therefore weighed up, along with their altered definitions in today's relativistic society. The last part of the thesis looks at South Africa's unique brand of political correctness, along with Black Economic Empowerment, colonialism and white guilt, and the research concludes that political correctness is a distinct form of censorship which has developed in modern democracies. The new forms of justice and morality seen in political correctness are distortions of left-wing liberalism, which appeal to different values to those of traditional liberalism. 1 2 Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr Antony Fluxman for his sensible judgment and for keeping me from wandering far off track, and I would like to thank my parents for their encouragement. 3 4 Table of Contents Chapter 1 Different Interpretations of Political Correctness - pg. 7 The Fellow Travellers and the New Left Feminism and Political Correctness Multiculturalism and Egalitarianism Political Correctness and Cultural Marxism Political Correctness and Religion What is Political Correctness? Chapter 2 The Moral Foundations for Rights and Freedom of Expression - pg. 19 Natural Law and the Enlightenment Way of Thinking The Workmanship Ideal The Social Contract and Natural Rights The Social Contract and Constitutional Law Practical Legal Reasons for Forming a Social Contract Negative Rights Positive Rights Occam's Razor and Rights Secularising the Principles of Natural Law Utilitarianism and its Effects on Rights John Stuart Mill and the Rights-Utility Synthesis The Harm Principle Scientific Argument and Free Speech The Competition of Ideas Democratic Decision-Making and Social Disapprobation When Should Free Speech Be Restricted? The Era of Political Correctness Chapter 3 Hate Speech in Modern Democracies - pg. 40 Downplaying Speech to Just Another "Good" Altered Definitions of Harm The Anti-Absolutist Argument The Offense Principle Censoring Speech May Also Cause Harm The Not Speech Argument The Globalisation Argument The Snowball and Indirect Harm Arguments The Incitement Argument The Disproportionate Impact Argument The Morals and Symbols Argument The Positive Law and Majoritarian Arguments The Newly Proposed Hate Speech Laws in South Africa Chapter 4 Political Correctness in Universities - pg. 51 The University Curriculum Rights vs. Responsibility Relevant Voices to Represent Groups Political Correctness at Publishing Houses The Metonymic Principle - Substituting a Part for the Whole 5 Another Possible Reason for a Multiculturalist Syllabus Speech Codes on Campuses Privatisation (Property Rights) and Speech Offensive Speech and the Golden Rule An Atmosphere of Fear in Universities A Recent Wave of Political Correctness in the United States Political Correctness and a New Type of Justice The Rhodes University Rape Protests Blackstone's Ratio Turned Upside Down Free Speech and the "Punching Up, Punching Down" Debate Straining Out the "Gnats" - Eschewing Controversial Guest Speakers The Future of Universities Chapter 5 Humour, Satire and Political Correctness - pg. 73 Political Correctness and Its Impact on Humour The Danish Cartoons How Humour Helps to Integrate Minority Groups into Society If One Group Has Special Protection Then Other Groups Demand It Too Political Correctness Can Backfire on Minorities How Politically Correct Debates Can Benefit Liberalism How Free Expression Strengthens Religion Difficult Decisions Arising from Globalisation Tolerance Has Changed Its Meaning Chapter 6 Truth, Tolerance and Psychology - pg. 81 The Paradox of Being Intolerant of Intolerance The History of Tolerance Cultural Relativism and Political Correctness The Attraction of Political Correctness and Revolutionary Politics Disapproval of the Establishment and Status Quo Religious Radicalism and Intolerance The Emotional Frustration of Keeping Silent Why Fundamentalists Are Prone to Mockery Political Correctness - a New Religion Chapter 7 South Africa - A Perfect Petri-dish for Political Correctness - pg. 92 ANC Hegemony How Institutions Use Political Correctness Politically Correctness as a Counterbalancing Moral Code Middle Class Opinion-formers and Policy-makers The Ad-Hominem Attack Political Correctness on the Job Front Affirmative Action and Black Economic Empowerment The Irony of BEE Collectivism and Political Correctness Some Minorities Are "More Equal" Than Others A Debate About White Privilege in 1825 Autres Temps, Autres Moeurs - Other Times, Other Customs White Guilt and Political Correctness What Is Modern-Day Political Correctness? Bibliography - pg. 111 6 Chapter 1 Different Interpretations of Political Correctness Peter Coleman, an Australian writer and former parliamentarian, edited a book called Double Take in 1996 which contained contributions from journalists, editors, poets and artists who were all concerned about the decline of Western liberalism from the 1960's onwards. Coleman says that the various authors didn't plan to write specifically about political correctness but after they had finished their contributions it became clear that the ultimate target was political correctness (Coleman, 2000: 5). 'Double Take' was well received after it was published but a persistent complaint about the book was that many people didn't know what was meant by political correctness, which is understandable as the term has different meanings in different countries and often has different meanings within the same country (Coleman, 2000:5). An individual who hasn't thought too deeply about political correctness may think that its sole purpose is to prevent offense, and he or she might find some of its euphemisms mildly amusing such as melanin enriched (for black people), vertically challenged (for short people), cerebrally, intellectually or educationally challenged (for unintelligent people), differently abled (for disabled people) and aesthetically challenged (for unattractive people). Political correctness has changed the elderly into senior citizens, prostitutes into sex workers, homosexuals into gays, and pupils and teachers are deemed to be inegalitarian terms which smack of hierarchy and have been changed into learners, and facilitators or educators (Johnson, 2000: 34). This process of name changing is in order to take sensitivities into account and it constitutes a re-evaluation and reversal of the past which has come to be seen as morally wrong (Johnson, 2000: 34). There is no shortage of satirical jokes, epithets and cartoons directed towards political correctness, an example being James Finn Garner's book called Politically Correct Bedtime Stories: Modern Tales for Our Life and Times (1994). Garner's book satirizes the censorship of children's stories by altering well-known stories to show how a parent might avoid prejudice and make the stories more ethical. Those who look deeper into political correctness recognise that it is an attempt to correct discrimination and past injustice and they see affirmative action, speech codes in universities, changing academic syllabi and furthering laws against hate speech as an outworking of political correctness in order to make life fairer for all. Conservatives and traditional (classical) liberals tend to take a less benign view towards political correctness and some view it as an insidious plan to undermine Western culture. Strong conservatives such as the American commentator Paul Weyrich claim that political correctness is a form of 'Cultural Marxism', which is Marxism without the 7 economics, aimed at enforcing the 'correct values' by means of changing cultural institutions such as universities from within (Coleman, 2000: 6). Marilyn Friedman (1995), an American philosopher and feminist, describes political correctness as comprising a host of social attitudes and reforms which are intended to rectify wrongs of the past,
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