THE INFLUENCE OF DAMS ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIAN ECONOMY

1VICTOR. ABHIELE. OKOSUN, 2AKONGBOWA .BRAMWELL. AMADASU

1General Studies Department, College of Education, Ekiadolor, Benin City, . 2Department of Public Administration, Benson Idahosa University Benin City, Nigeria. E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract— The kernel of this paper is on the influence of dams on growth and development of the Nigerian economy. Countries in “the third world”, less developed nations and advanced nations recognize the sin qua non role of dams in the overall development of their economies, most particularly in the rural and urban sectors. Thereby, efflorescing growth and development. A corollary to the former sentence gave impetus to Nigeria to embark upon the construction and maintenance of dams all over the nation. Nigeria spent a colossal sum of over 10 (ten) trillion dollars in the construction of dams. However, a microscopic view of Nigeria political landscape will reveal that the construction of dams is laced with a misgrill success and failures. This finds expression in the plethora of problems bedeviling the policy. These problems include the issue of corruption, inadequate funds etc. Consequently, the paper defines the concept of dams and development. The paper is explicated with the aid of holistic theory and system theory. The nexus or the interconnect between dams, growth and development is orchestrated. The socio-economic cum political pathologies benighting the construction and the maintenance of dams is discussed. Epitomizing, the paper opines that the government policy on the construction of dams and its maintenance in all ramifications, is a veritable pedestal for the development of Nigerian economy.

Keywords— Dams, Economy, Development, Construction.

I. INTRODUCTION witness expanded trade, coping with urbanization and the increase in population. It equally raises The issue of the influence of dams on the growth and productivity to a higher pedestal and lowers the cost development of Nigeria economy has occupied the of doing business (Anyanwu, 2013). front burner in the discourse amongst academics, Given the above background, the paper review the scholars of public administration. The consequence of germane issues pertaining to the influence of dams on the foregoing is that, it has drawn the intellectual and the growth and development of Nigeria economy. practical attention of Nigerians from various field of The paper is divided into sections beginning with an human endeavors such as political economy, introduction. The first section deals with the concepts geography, agricultural science etc. The raison d’être of development. It also include the theoretical for the latter sentence can be attributed to the singular framework. The paper shall be explicated with the aid fact that development studies view dams (a non- of system theory and holistic theory. The section consumable infrastructure) as a vehicle for the growth examines the nexus between dams and the and development of both the arid and semiarid region development of Nigeria economy. The socio, political of Nigeria. and economic pathologies bedeviling the construction However, an x ray of the political theater of Nigeria and maintenance of dam is also included in this part. will bring to limelight that the federal and state The third section deals with the need for a paradigm government has constructed various dams in Nigeria. shift in the federal government policy on dams. This The federal government alone has constructed over is with aim of galvanizing and stimulating the 100 dams out of 323 dams identified (Uyigue, 2014) development of Nigeria economy. some examples of the dams include Shiroro dams in , Zobe dam in Kastina state, the Kir dams II. CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION in e.t.c (Enplan group, 2005). DEVELOPMENT The government officials “who are clothed with offices”, expected that these dams constructed will Variegated definitions have been given by various improve the standard of living of the various host scholars on the concept development. In other words, communities, thereby drawing the inhabitants to the the concept has been defined differently according to vortex of national economy (Okosun and Urhoghide, the perspective which they view it. In this regard, 2013). However, an analysis of the impact of these there is not one definition of development. dams will reveal that it is mix grilled in the sense that According to Ile (2001), development refers to “the there are both negative and positive impacts of dams. change that is continuously taking place in man and According to the United States Environmental his physical, social, cultural and other environment. Protection Agency Office of Grant and Debarment A synthesis of the above definition will reveal that Ile (2009), infrastructures of different types such as dams was quite perspective to the issue at hand. This can be help in accelerating and synergizing growth and seen in the fact that he sees development in a given development of a nation. It enables the populace to society as containing indicators. These indicators are

Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5

4 The Influence of Dams on the Growth and Development of Nigerian Economy political, social, and cultural changes that occurs in a Concrete gravity dams rely on weight of the concrete environment. Thus to him, development posses the of which they are built to resist the forces (gravity etc attribute of ambience (Iyoha, 2008). What the latter to which they are subjected (Steve Free, 2004). sentence implies is that development must take place Concrete arch dams and buttress dams can be built in an environment of a given society, state or nation using a smaller amount of concrete that is required and it must be on a continuous basis. for a gravity dam and as a result it cheaper to build Todaro and Smith (2003) contend “that the concept (Steve Free, 2004). development arises when the question are ask what Fill or embanement dams: Earth dams are built of happens to poverty? What has been happening to homogenous impermeable earth materials so that the unemployment? What has been happening to impermeable membrane is the whole dam wall. inequality? If all three of these have declined from (Steve Free, 2004). high level, then beyond doubt this has been a period Earth or rock fill dams have a relatively narrow, of development for the country concerned. impermeable earth or clay core inside the dam, but A macroscopic view of the above definition will most of the dams are constructed of permeable rock bring to limelight that it is lucid and elastic. When the which by itself would be capable of retaining water definition is extrapolated, many fundamental (Steve, 2004). questions readily come to mind. These questions Concrete faced rock fill dams are constructed of include (a) what happened to the constructed dams in permeable rock fill, the impermeable membrane Nigeria? (b) Has the constructed dams impacted on being a concrete slabs on the upstream face of the the lives of the host communities inhabitants etc. The dam wall (Steve 2004). answers to these above questions will reveal whether In the literature on dams in Nigeria, the concrete arch Nigeria is witnessing development or not. dams buttress dams, earth or rock fill dams and concrete faced rock fill dams are the types that have III. DAMS AND TOPOLOGY ON DAMS been constructed by the federal government of Nigeria. They are located in different states of the The concept of dams has been address by various federation. scholars and authorities in their definitions. This is due to the perception of the scholars (Idemudia, V. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK HOLISTIC 1999). APPROACH According to Wong (2013), dams are defined as structures that regulate, store and divert water from Different scholars have written extensively on holistic rivers. Thus dams from the above definition are man approach to development. These scholars include made artificial blockades constructed across the Robert Chambers (1986), Barrow (1998) Gardiner water. (1991) etc. The authors of this paper shall adopt the The Wikipedia (2010) defined dams as a barrier holistic approach in its theoretical framework because constructed to hold water and raises its level forming of its heuristic advantage. a reservoir used to generate electricity or as a water According to Barrow (1998), “there is no clear supply. definition of the concept holistic, but that the An examination of the definition of dams by Wong approach seek to understand chaotic complexity by and Wikipedia will bring to limelight that the studying a complete system, rather than adopting the definitions are similar except the sematics are usual reduction approach. This approach help on the different, both definition agrees that dams are barrier need for a detail study of all component parts that constructed across river water. makes up a system rather than study a fraction of a system”. The whole gamut must be investigated IV. TOPOLOGY OF DAMS thoroughly. It is only through this medium, that the policy of dams and the construction of dams in According to Steve templates (2004), “dams can be Nigeria and other nations can be enhanced. (Fiser, grouped according to the type of material which they 1905). are constructed. As follows concrete dams are further In applying the holistic theory to the policy on dams, grouped according to how they achieve their strength the entire nation is taking as a unit, made up of and stability”. different states, local government. These various states and local government habitants have demands. a) Concrete gravity dams These demands such as the citizens need for pipe b) Concrete arch dams borne water supply for towns and villages, supply of c) Concrete buttress dams water for irrigation of crops to help the control of d) Fill Embamement Dams floods ravaging the country leads to authoritative e) Earth and rock fill dams allocation of values by the federal government. These f) Concrete faced rock fill dams. allocation of values are in forms of government A little explanation of the above will illuminate our policy. This policy include constructions of dams and minds. maintenance of dams. One essential aspect of the

Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5

5 The Influence of Dams on the Growth and Development of Nigerian Economy holistic theory as popularized used by Barrow, is that outside the environment (Issak, 1975). For instance, government officials must put effort to ensure that the the rural areas interact with the federal and states projected life span of the development activities such government interventionist agencies, federal and state as the constructed dams etc is adequately maintained. political actors. The interaction is a pre-requisite for There are some pitfalls in the application of the efficient and effective development of the national, holistic theory to developmental. These bottlenecks political, economic and social system. have been identified by Barrow (1998) include all of Consequently, a set of rules and development policy the following. that govern the interrelationship between the rural/urban areas and the national system are put in 1. Administrative organogram which explain place by the federal government. These set of rules the allocation of work and responsibilities. also lead to the formulation of developmental policies The organisational structure of a parastatal, and programme to flow between the subsystems. For agency etc is the foundation on which the analyst/policy makers, political decision makers etc construction of dams are built (Oyibo 1997). needs to understand the various subsystems and their In Nigeria, the policy thrust of the federal developmental needs. The system theory is government on dams is embedded in its practically applied below. interventionist agencies, the River Basin The urban/rural and national system structural Development Authorities (RBDA). The framework includes political actors and the existing administrative structure of the bureaucrats at the apex, the interventionist agency RBDAs may impinged on the holistic and the host communities. By definition and in line approach. The reason can be found in the with this paper, urban/rural development (behavioural fact that the RBDAs are organised sectorally pattern among development actors of a hierarchically and tend to be stratified (Barrrow, 1999). structured level in national development framework include the following vital areas or level of 2. Area of specialisation of employees in an interactions. organisation can equally impinged on River a. Between policy makers and interventionist Basin Development Authorities. Most of the agencies staff of the institutions handling the b. Between policy makers and the host construction and maintenance of dams are communities specialists in different fields. Some are c. Between the interventionist agencies and the hydrologists, civil engineers, communities. environmentalist etc. By the nature of their Within this framework, urban/rural development training, they are skilful in one particular initiatives, policy/programmes implementation, discipline. This may serve as an impediment evaluation and control or impact analysis both at the in that the staff may be discouraged from national and state level with particular reference to pulling in their best so as not to be labelled Nigeria seek to answer four main questions namely: generalists (King, 1992). 1. What are the patterns of interaction that are The System theory manifested between and among national The system theory is a concept of great significance development polices and programmes with to development within the context of regard to urban/rural development? periphery/metropolis relationship. The system approach to urban/rural development presupposes 2. What are the main objectives of rural/urban that transformation of urban/rural development as development? whole is always influenced by a vast number of interactions within its environment or outside its 3. What is the nature of these interaction environment boundaries. among the subsystems? An underdeveloped region such as the urban/rural setting in Nigeria does not exist in a vacuum. It is 4. How are these interactions managed and can mutually dependent on its environment. It is a part of be managed for the realisation of national the larger system such as the financial system, developmental aspiration? political system and the society as a whole. In addition, most systems are subdivided into a 5. How will the policy on the construction of number of distinct subsystems (Ancoff, 1970). Each dams and its maintenance galvanise of the subsystem performs largely identifiable task. development of both the urban and rural Such economic political and local subsystem in a sector in Nigeria. national entity e.g Nigeria is known as urban areas or The national development and programmes rural areas, federal states and local government. A coupled with integrated rural development framework common feature in the operation of all such provides a comprehensive framework for identifying, subsystems is their interaction with themselves or strategizing, building institutions, behavioural and

Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5

6 The Influence of Dams on the Growth and Development of Nigerian Economy managerial dimension of national development. It has been hue and cry among the citizenry, the potential of resolving controversies and cleavages particularly the media, specialist that more which tend to bedevil interaction among various dams be constructed in the country so as to actors. However consensus tend to prevail over check effectively the reoccurrence of floods cleavages (Oronsaye, 1997). (Adams, 2013)

VI. THE INTERCONNECT BETWEEN DAMS 4. A major contribution of dams to Nigeria AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT developmental aspiration is in the arena of irrigation works. The numerous dams built The federal government Nigeria people oriented in Nigeria by federal government provide policy on the construction the dams in various states water for irrigation of crops. This is of the federal had it genesis with the construction of particularly the case of the dams in the arid the gigantic Kainji dams project. Since then, other and dams and area in the northern part of dams have been constructed. The number of dams in Nigeria. The aridity of the region occasioned the country that is recently identified in the literature by scanty rainfall hampers cultivation of are 322 dam (Etiosa, 2013). These dams have crops. Thus, the dams provide answer to impacted on the development of the Nigerian these problem of aridity, water from the economic in variegated ways. The contribution of dams through the use of aqua-ducts and dams will be discussed below. channels is made available for the irrigation of crops. In this breath agricultural activities 1. The various dams that are built across is boosted and sustained (Idaehaba, 1999) Nigeria are a major source of supply of e.g the Tiga dams and the in piped borne water to the town and villages. has helped to irrigate over The inhabitants of these towns and villages 8,000 and 17,800 hectares of land located in the nooks and crannies of the respectively (Enplan group, 2007). country now have access to treated water for both at domestic use and industry use 5. Dams help to store waste from industries or (Richard and Steve, 2004). Example of such companies such as mining companies. dam is the Shiroro dam in Niger state. However, this function of dam has not been fully activated in Nigeria. If this were to be 2. One of the fundamental reasons for the in vogue, one would have expected that the construction of dams by countries all over industrial wastes coming from various the world is to provide electricity. The hydro companies located in Isolo and Ikorodu power stations such as the Kainji dams in areas of Lagos state would have been Nigeria is a major source of electricity to channels to a dam in order to contain the Nigeria and the niegbouring state of Niger. wastes, The provision of constant power supply (electricity) galvanises development of the Socio- Economic and Political Pathologies country economic geometrically. The Mitigating Against Government Policy and manufacturing industries located in major Construction Of Dams towns and cities such as Lagos, Port There are plethora of socio-economic and political Harcourt and Kaduna etc are in a better pathologies militating against the federal government position to produce goods. The macro of Nigeria policy on the construction and the economy of the nation is greatly enhanced maintenance of dams. These pathologies are through adequate supply of electricity, interwoven. The pathologies refers to the various federal development of Nigeria (2014). constraints bedevilling the federal and states However the supply of electricity to Nigeria government drive in the construction of dams in the by the federal government has nosedived country. The social-economic and political recently. pathologies include inadequate funds, on the part of the federal government, inadequate legal framework, 3. The construction of various dams in the corruption, economic quagmire of the nation, states of the federation has help in the environmental changes and social disruption. For the control of flood in the country. The purpose of brevity and clearer understanding, the perennial issue of flooding in Nigeria has to authors of the paper shall pause to discuss each of the a large extent been checked by the dams. pathologies. With the dam keeping empty their storage 1. Inadequate funds capacity during normal river condition so One of the fundamental pathology affecting that the space is available to store excess the construction of dams and it’s water inflow under flood condition (Steve maintenance is the issue of inadequate fund. free 2004). Recently in Nigeria, there has The federal government of Nigeria, to a

Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5

7 The Influence of Dams on the Growth and Development of Nigerian Economy large extent is the main source of fund for 4. Economic downturn of Nigeria the construction of dams, but the funds The economic downturn of Nigeria is a isgrossly inadequate. The aftermath of the major drawback on her implementation of foregoing, is that lack of funds has hampered policy and programmes on dams. With the the construction of dams to the extent that Structural Adjustment Programmes put in some of the dams that are being constructed place by the decadent and corrupt General is moving at a snail speed. (Okosun and Babangida administration in 1986. The Urhoghide, 2012). The question of Nigeria economy accelerated a precipe of a inadequate funds has hampered the effective cliff. It nosedived. The devaluation of the maintenance of these projects that have been Naira since 1986 to the present day has built. For instance, the River Basin attendant consequences on the construction Development Authorities budgetary and maintenance of dams. According to the allocations are not release on time. when the Central Bank (2015), the current exchange funds are finally released by the federal rate of dollar to naira is 196 to 1 dollar. This government, it comes in drove (Okosun and is even more in the black market. No doubt, Urhoghide, 2012). the naira devaluation led not only to hyperinflation, but also led to tremendous 2. Inadequate legal framework increase in the cost of construction of dams A potent pathology which act as a cog in the wheel of importations of gas turbines, spare parts etc government policy on the construction of dam is at a treble cost (Iyoha 2009). inadequate legal framework. The World Bank (1995) contented “that a legal framework is the law and CONCLUSION regulation, the processes through which they operate and the institution that apply them”. An application of From the foregoing, it is crystal clear that Nigeria the above definition to Nigeria will reveal that it is places a high premium on the rapid development of lacking in the country.This can be seen in fact that the her economy. This is through the formulation and regard to the construction of dams, there is little implementation of policy and programmes on the communication by the federal government officials construction and maintenance of dams. A cursory with the host communities, for instance when farm look at the nook and crannies of Nigeria will reveal lands are compulsory acquired by the federal that the dams constructed have impacted on the government from the local communities, the standard of living on the citizenry. This found inhabitants are not properly informed about their rights expression in supply of piped borne water, generation and how to seek compensation (World Bank 1999). of electricity, supply of water for irrigation and This has resulted to hostility between the local agricultural activities and the control of floods etc. inhabitants and interventionist agencies; example is the However, it must be stated that despite these laudable Bakolori, community crises between 1979-1980 in contribution of dams to Nigeria developmental Sokoto State e.t.c. aspiration, the policy on dam is plagued by avalanche of pathologies. These pathologies have and will 3. Corruption continue to mitigate against the federal government One of the potent pathology bedevilling government drive on the construction of dams. Nevertheless, policy and programmes on dams is the issue of dams remain one of the major plank on which the corruption. Corruption is a major albatross standing development of Nigeria economy hinges. on the way of development of Nigeria in recent times. Corruption has been fingered and reported in REFERENCES countless government agencies and parastatals such as the eleven River Basins Development Authorities [1] Adanu, R, (2013), “The needs for more dams available at (RBDA), (Okochese, 2015). To buttress the latter vanguard news. http;vanguarddngr.com/2013/12/needs.dams-Nigeria sentence, Transparency International (2014) in its retrieved 2015 -08-10 th report rated Nigeria the 38 most corrupt nations out [2] Ancoff, R. (1970), “A note on system science” Interface of 176 countries in the World sampled. 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Proceedings of Academics World 8th International Conference, Dubai, UAE, 13th November 2015, ISBN: 978-93-85832-47-5

8 The Influence of Dams on the Growth and Development of Nigerian Economy [6] Etiosa, U (2015), “Dams and livelihood; the Problems of [14] Okosun, V.A and Urhoghide, P (2013), “Issues and insight parasitic diseases in Communities hosting Dam in Nigeria into Limbo State of Infrastructures in Nigeria: The Need from (https:www.mysciencework.com/register). for a Paradigm Shift”, International Journal of [7] Egonwan, J.A (2000) Public Policy Analysis, Concept Development Studies vol. 17 No. 6 May. And Application, Benin, Resin Publishers. [15] Oyibo, E.E (1997),Organisation Theories And Its [8] Idachaba, F.S. (1985), Rural infrastructures in Nigeria, Application, Benin City, Osasu Publishers. Ibadan, University of Ibadan press. [16] Todaro, M.P and Smith, S.C (2003) Economic [9] Ile, N.M (2001), Entrepreneurship development: The development. Delhi, Pearson Educational Publishers. Nigerian Perspective, Umuahia, Distinctive Press. Vanguard newspaper, December 12, 2013 [10] Issak, Alan (1975), Scope And Methods Of Political [17] Wikipedia The Free Encyclopaedia (2013), list of dams Science. An Introduction To Method Political Inquiry, and reservoirs in Nigeria from Dorsey press. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/listofdamsandandreservioursi [11] Iyoha, F.E. (2008), Local Government And The Elusive nnigeria, retrieved on 13th August, 2015. Rural Development In Nigeria. Constraints On Local [18] Woodward, R. (2004), Types of dams, Steve free web Authorities Capacity And The Promise Of Development templates from optusnet.au/r engineering geologist Participatory Development, 31st inaugural lecture Ambrose retrieved August 16, 2015. Alli University Ekpoma, Ekpoma, AmbroseAlli University [19] Wong, Evelyn (2013), “Damning the Dams”. A Study Of Publishing House. Cost Benefit Analysis In Large Dams Through The Lens [12] King, A. (1992), “The holistic Path to a Global Society” Of India’s Sandarsarovar Project.” Scripps senior theses International Social Science Journal. paper 169 from http://scholarship/claremont/edu/scrip [13] Okokhere, F, (2005), “Corruption in Nigeria: Forbidden retrieved 17th August, 2015. Act, National Treasure” International Journal Of Good Governance And Development vol. 4, No. 1, January

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